CONTENTS

Chapter No.
Chapter 1

Topic
BASIC ASPECTS OF PROTECTION

1.0

Principles of Relays

1.1

Some

1.2

Relaying

1.3

Functions of Protective Relaying

1.4

The Requirements of Protective Relaying

1.5

Classification of Relays

1.6

Operating Principles of different types of

1.7

Relays

1.8

Testing and Maintenance of Protective Relays

Terms

Associated

with

Protective

Test Equipment
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
Chapter 3

Static Relying Concepts

PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Introduction
Characteristic Curve
MOTOR PROTECTION

3.1

Overload Protection

3.2

Single

3.3

Protection

3.4

Short Circuit Protection

3.5

Stalling Protection (Lock Rotor Protection)

3.6

Differential Protection

3.7

Earth Protection

Chapter 4

Phasing

Protection

or

Unbalance

Undervoltage Protection
TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS

4.1

Transformer Protections

4.2

Protection against Internal Faults

4.3

Principles of Protection System

4.4

Gas Detection

4.5

Over Heating Protection

4.6

Over Current & Earth Leakage Protection

4.7

Percentage Bias Differential Protection

4.8

Over Voltage Protection

4.9

Over Fluxing Protection

4.10

Over Differential Protection

Page No.

CHAPTER 5

GENERATOR PROTECTION

5.1

Introduction

5.2

Stator Earth Faults

5.3

Rotor Earth Fault Protection

5.4

Generator Interturn Fault Protection

5.5

Generator Negative Phase Sequence Current

5.6

Protection

5.7

Generator Loss of Excitation Protection

5.8

Generator Minimum Impedance Protection

5.9

Generator Differential Protection

5.10

Generator Overall Differential Protection

5.11

Generator Reverse Power Protection

5.12

Generator Over Frequency Protection

5.13

Generator Under Frequency protection

5.14

Generator Thermal Overload Protection

Chapter 6

Generator Overvoltage Protection

BUS
ZONE-PROTECTION
AND

LOCAL

BREAKER
6.1

BACKUP PROTECTION

6.2

Introduction

6.3

Bus Bar Protection Requirements

6.4

Types of Busbar Protection

6.5

Low Impedance Scheme (Biased)

Chapter 7

Local Breaker Back-up (LBB) Protection

DISTRIBUTION FEEDER PROTECTION

7.1

Introduction

7.2

Unit Protection

7.3
Chapter 8

IDMT Overcurrent & Earth Fault Protection

LINE PROTECTION (DISTANCE SCHEMES)

8.1

Introduction

8.2

Measuring Characteristics

8.3

Zones of Protection

8.4

Phase

8.5

Characteristic

8.6

Additional features of Distance Relays

Chapter 9

Sequence

Comparator

for

Carrier Aided Schemes

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

9.1

Introduction

9.2

Current Transformers

9.3

Voltages Transformers

MHO

Chapter 10

DIGITAL RELAYING

10.1

Introduction

10.2

PC Based Schemes for Testing Protective Relays

10.3

Testing of a Distance Relay

CHAPTER 1

BASIC ASPECTS OF PROTECTION

1.0

Principles of Relays
Every electrical equipment is designed to work under specified normal
conditions. In case of short circuits, earth faults etc., an excessive current
will flow through the windings of the connected equipment and cause
abnormal temperature rise, which will damage the winding. In a power
station, non-availability of an auxiliary, at times, may cause total shut
down of the unit, which will result in heavy loss of revenue.
So, in modern power system, to minimise damage to equipment two
alternatives are open to the designer, one is to design the system so that
the faults cannot occur and other is to accept the possibility of faults and
take steps to guard against the effect f these faults. Although it is possible
to eliminate faults to a larger degree, by careful system design, careful
insulation coordination, efficient operation and maintenance, it is obviously
not possible to ensure cent percent reliability and therefore possibility of
faults must be accepted; and the equipment are to be protected against
the faults. To protect the equipment, it is necessary to detect the fault
condition, so that the equipment can be isolated from the fault without any
damage. This function is performed by a relay. In other words, protective
relays are devices that detect abnormal conditions in electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities, which are different under
normal and faulty conditions. The basic quantities which may change
during faulty conditions are voltage, current, frequency, phase angle etc.
Having detected the fault relay operates to complete the trip circuit which
results in the opening of the circuit breaker thereby isolating the
equipment from the fault. The basic relay circuit can be seen in Fig. No.
1.1

FIG. 1.1
1.1

Some Terms Associated with Protective Relaying

Circuit Breaker:

It is an On-load switch, used to make or break an

electrical circuit when it is carrying current.

Current Transformer: These are used for measuring protection purpose
since it is not possible to measure very high currents directly, it will be

stepped down means of a current transformer to about 5A or 1A and the

secondary current will be measured and monitored.
Voltage Transformer: These are also used for measuring purpose and
protective relaying purpose. Since it is not practicable to measure and
monitor high and extra high voltages they are stepped down to 110V and
the secondary voltage is measured and monitored.
Relay time: It is the interval between the occurrence of the fault and
closure of relay contact.
Pick Up: The operation of relay is called relay pick up. Pick up value or the
level is the value of operating quantity at which the relay operates.
Back up Protection: A protective system intended to supplement the
main protection in case the latter should be ineffective, or to deal with
faults in those parts of the power system that are not readily included in
the operating zones of the main protection.
Protected Zone: It is the portion of a power system protected by a given
protective system.
Protective Gear: These are the apparatus, including protective relays,
current/voltage transformers and ancillary equipment for use in a
protective system.
Protective Relay: A relay is designed to initiate disconnection of a part of
an electrical installation or to operate a warning signal, in case of a fault or
other abnormal condition in the installation. A protective r3elay may
include more than one unit electrical relay and accessories.
Rating: It is the nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in
the designation of a relay. The nominal value usually corresponds to the
CT & VT secondary rating.
Resetting Value: It is value of the characteristic quantity at which the
relay returns to its initial position.

Unrestricted Protection: It is a protection system which has no clearly

defined zone of operation and which achieves selective operation only by
time grading.
Basic Symbols: The equipments they represent are as given below:
Sr.
No.
1.

2.

Symbol

Equipment

Function

Circuit

Switching

Breaker

abnormal conditions, interrupt the

Isolator

fault currents.
Disconnecting a part of the system
from

3.

Earth switch

live

5.

6.

parts

normal

under

no

and

lad

conditions.
Discharging the voltage on the
lines

4.

during

to

the

earth

after

Lighting

disconnection.
Diverting the high voltage surges

Arrestor

to earth.

Current

Stepping down the current for

Transformer

measurement,

Voltage

control.
Stopping down the voltage for the

Transformer

purpose

protection,

of

and

protection,

measurement and control.

1.2

Functions of protective Relaying

To sound an alarm, so that the operator may take some corrective action
and/ or to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker so as to disconnect a
component during an abnormal fault condition such as overload, under
voltage, temperature rise etc.

To disconnect the faulty parts as quickly as possible so as to minimise the

damage to the faulty art. Ex: If a generator is disconnected immediately
after a winding fault only a few coils need replacement. If the fault is
sustained, it may be beyond repairable condition.

To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from the
healthy part, causing least disturbance to the healthy system.

To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible to improve the system

stability and service continuity.

1.3

The requirements of protective relaying

Speed: Protective relaying should disconnect a faulty element as quickly

as possible, in order to improve power system stability, decrease the
amount of damage and to increase the possibility of development of one
type of fault into other type. Modern high speed protective relaying has an
operating time of about 1 cycle.

Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to determine the

point at which the fault occurred and select the nearest of the circuit
breakers, tripping of which leads to clearing of fault with minimum or no
damage to the system.

Sensitivity: It is capability of the relaying to operate reliably under the

actual minimum fault condition. It is desirable to have the protection as
sensitive as possible in order that it shall operate for low value of actuating
quantity.

Reliability: Protective relaying should function correctly at all times under

any kind of fault and abnormal conditions of the power system for which it
has been designed. It should also not operate on healthy conditions of
system.

Simplicity: The relay should be as simple in construction as possible. As a

rule, the simple the protective scheme, less the number of relays, and
contacts it contains, the greater will be the reliability.

Economy: Cost of the protective system will increase directly with the
degree of protection required. Depending on the situation a designer
should strike a balance between with the degree of protection required
and economy.

1.4

Classification of Relays

1.4.1 Depending upon their principle of operation they are classified as:
Electromagnetic attraction type relays: These relays operate by the
virtue of a plunger being drawn into a solenoid or an armature being
attracted towards the poles of an electromagnet.
Induction type Relays: In his type of relay, a metal disc or cup is allowed
to rotate or move between two electro-magnets. The fields produced by
the two magnets are displaced in space and phase. The torque is
developed by interaction of the flux of one of the magnets and the eddy
current induced into the disc/up by the other.
Thermal Relay: They operate due to the action of heat generated by the
passage of current through the relay element. The strip consists of two
metals having different coefficients of expansions and firmly fixed together
throughout the length so that different rates of thermal expansion of two
layers of metal cause the strip to bend when current is passed through it.
Static Relays: It employs discrete electronic components like diodes,
transistors, zenners, resistors/capacitors or Integrated circuits and use
electronic measuring circuits like level detectors, comparators, integraters
etc. to obtain the required operating characteristics.
Moving Coil Relays: In this relay a coil is free to rotate in magnetic field
of a permanent magnet. The actuating current flows through the

FIG. 1.3

coil. The torque is produced by the interaction between the field of the
permanent magnet and the field of the coil.
1.4.2 Relays can be classified depending upon their application also.

Over voltage, over current and over over power relays, in which operation
takes place when the voltage, current or power rises above a specified
value.

Under voltage, under current under frequencies low power relays, in which
operation takes place when the voltage, current frequency or power fall
below a specified value.

Directional or reverse power relays: In which operation occurs when the

direction of the applied power changes.

Distance Relays: In this type, the relay operates when the ratio of the
voltage and current change beyond a specified limit.

Differential Relays: Operation takes place at some specific phase or

magnitude difference between two or more electrical quantities.

1.4.3 Relays can also be classified according to their time of operation

Instantaneous Relay: In which operation takes place after negligibly

small interval of time from the incidence of the current or other quantity
causing operation.

Definite time lag Relay: This operates after a set time lag, during which
the threshold quantity of the parameter is maintained.

Inverse time lag Relay: This operates after a set time Lab, during which
the operating quantity of the parameter is maintained above its operating
threshold.

1.5

Operating Principles of different types of Relays:

1.5.1 Introduction over current and earth fault relays:

These are quite commonly used relays. Schematic diagram of induction
disc type relay is shown in Fig. No. 1.2
The output of the current transformer is fed to a winding (1) on the center
limb of the E-shaped core, the second winding (2) on the limb
FIG. 1.4
FIG. 1.5
is connected to two windings on the poles of the E and U shaped cores.
The magnetic flux across he air gap induce currents in the disc, which in
conjunction with the flux produced by the lower magnet, produces a
rotational torque. A magnet (3), is used to control the speed of the disc.
The time of operation of the relay varies inversely with the current fed into
it by the current transformer of the protected circuit. The permanent
magnet used for breaking has a tendency to attract iron filings, which can

prevent operation. So care has to be taken while manufacturing this type

of relays. Time-current characteristics induction type relays has been given
in Fig. 1.3.

1.5.2 Balanced Beam Relays:

It consists of a horizontal beam pivoted centrally, with one armature
attached to either side. There are two coils one on each side. The current
in one coil gives operating torque. The beam is given a slight mechanical
bias by means of a spring so that under normal conditions trip contacts will
not make and the beam remains in horizontal position. When the operating
torque increases then the beam tilts and closes the trip contacts. In
current balance system both coils are energised by current derived from
CTs. In impedance relays, one coil is energized by current and other by
voltage. In these relays the force is proportional to the square of the
current, so it is very difficult to design the relay. This type of relay is fast
and instantaneous. In modern relays electromagnets are used in place of
coils (See Fig. 1.4.).
1.5.3 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relays:
There are two general types of moving coil relays. One type is similar to
that of a moving coil indicating instrument, employing a coil rotating
between the poles of a permanent magnet. The other is, employing a coil
moving at right angles to the plane of the poles of a permanent magnet.
Only direct current measurement is possible with both the types.
FIG. 1.6
FIG. 1.7
The action of a rotating coil type is shown in the Fig. 1.5. A light
rectangular coil is pivoted so that its sides lie in the gap between the two
poles of a permanent magnet and a soft iron core. The passage of current
through the coil produces a deflecting torque by the reaction between the
permanent magnetic field and the field of the coil (See Fig. 1.5)
The moving contact is carried on an arm which is attached to the moving
coil assembly. A phosper bronze spiral spring provides the resetting
torque. Increasing the contact gap and thus increasing the tension of the
spring permits variation in the quantity required to close the contacts.

Time current characteristic of a typical moving coil permanent magnetic

relays is shown in Fig. 1.6.

1.5.4 Attracted armature relays:

It is required to clear the faults in power system as early as possible.
Hence, high-speed relay operation is essential. Attracted armature relays
heave a coil or an electromagnet energised by a coil. The coil is energised
by the operating quantity which may be proportional to circuit current or
voltage. A plunger or a rotating vane is subjected to the action of magnetic
field produced by the operating quantity. It is basically single actuating
quantity relay.
Attracted armature relays respond to both AC and DC quantities. They are
very fast in operation. Their operating time will not vary much with the
amount of current. Operating time of the relay is as low as 10-15 m
seconds and resetting time is as low as 30 m sec can be obtained in these
relays. These relays are non-directional and are simple type of relays.
Examples of attracted armature type relays are given in Fig. 1.7.
1.5.5 Time Lag Relays:
These are commonly used in protection schemes as a means of time
discrimination. They are also frequently used in control, delayed autoreclosing and alarm scheme to allow time for the required sequence of
operations to take place, and to measure the duration of the initial
condition to ensure that it is not merely transient.
Various methods are used to obtain a time lag between the initiation of the
relay and the operation of its contact mechanism. These includes gearing,
permanent magnet damping, friction, thermal means or R.C. circuits. In
some cases the time lag in operation of the contacts is achieved by a
separate mechanism released by a voltage operated elements. The
release mechanism may be an attracted armature or solenoid and plunger.
The operating time of such relay is independent of the voltage applied to
the relay coil. One of the simplest forms of time lag relay is provided by a
mercury switch in which the flow of mercury is impeded by a constriction
in the mercury bulb. The switch is tilted by a simple attracted armature
mechanism. The time setting of such a relay is fixed by the design of the
tube. Another method of obtaining short time delays is to delay operation

of a normally instantaneous relay by means of a device which delays the

build up or decay of the flux in the operating magnet. The device consists
of a copper ring (slug) around the magnet and can produce delay on
pickup as well as delay on reset.

1.6

Testing and Maintenance of Protective Relays:

Unlike other equipment, the protective relays remain without any
operation until a fault develops. However, for a reliable service and to
ensure that the relay is always vigilant, proper maintenance is a must.
Lack of proper maintenance may lead to failure to operate.
It is possible for dirt and dust created by operating conditions in the plant
to get accumulated around the moving parts of the relay and prevent it
from operating. To avoid this, relays are to be cleaned periodically.
In general, overload relays sense over load by means f thermal element.
Loose electrical connections can cause extra heat and may result in false
operation of the relay. To avoid this, all the relay connections are to be
tightened every now and then.
To confirm that the relay operation at the particular setting under
particular conditions for which the relay is meant for operating, we should
perform number of tests on the relays. Quality control is given foremost
consideration in manufacturing of relay. Tests can be grouped into
following five classes:
1. Acceptance test
2. Commissioning test
3. Maintenance tests
4. Repair tests
5. Manufacturers tests

1.6.1 Acceptance test

Acceptance tests are generally performed in presence of the customer in
the laboratory or by the customer himself. These tests fall into two
categories:
1.

Type tests such as High frequency disturbance, Impulse voltage test,

Fast transient test etc. on new relays. These tests are carried out to

prove the design and are not recommended for normal production
relays.
2.

Routine Tests like operating value check, operating characteristic on

Relays which were used earlier and of proven design, requiring only
minimum necessary checks.

After receiving the relays package, it should be visually examined for the
damage in the transit. The following precautions are to be taken while
removing the relay

Care to be taken not to bend the light parts

Avoid handling contact surface

Operating movement (disc, armature etc.) is to be checked for free

movement after removing the packing pieces.

Do not take steel screw drivers near the permanent magnet.

1.6.2 Commissioning Tests:

These are the field tests to prove the performance of the relay circuit in
actual service. These are repeated till correct operations are obtained.
These are performed by simulated tests with the secondary circuits
energised from a portable test source; or simulated tests using primary
load current or operating tests with primary energised at reduced voltage.
The following steps are involved in commissioning tests.

Checking wiring on the basis of the circuit diagram

Checking C.T. polarity connections

Measuring insulation resistance of circuits.

Checking C.T. Ratios

Checking P.T. ratio, polarity and phasing

Conducting secondary injection test on relays.

Conducting primary injection test

Checking tripping and alarm circuits.

Stability check for balanced protections like differential/REF.

1.6.3 Maintenance Tests

Maintenance tests are done in field periodically. The performance of a
relay is ensured by better maintenance. Basic requirements of sensitivity,
selectivity, reliability and stability can be satisfied only if the maintenance
is proper.

The relay does not deteriorate by normal use; but other adverse conditions
cause the deterioration. Continuous vibrations can damage the pivots or
beatings. Insulation strength is reduced because of absorption of moisture;
polluted atmosphere affects the relay contacts, rotating systems etc.,
Relays room, therefore, be maintained dust proof. Insects may cause maloperation of the relay. Relay maintenance generally consists of:
a) Inspection of contacts
b) Foreign matter removal
c) Checking adjustments
d) Checking of breaker operation by manual contact
closing of relays.
e) Cleaning of cover etc.
1.6.4 Maintenance Schedule:
1. Continuous Supervision: Trip circuit supervision, pilot supervision,
relay, auxiliary voltage supervision, Battery supervision, CT circuit
supervision.
2. Relay flags are to be checked and resetted in every shift.
3. Carrier current protection testing is to be carried out once in a week.
4. Six monthly inspections: Tripping tests, insulation resistance tests, etc.
Secondary injection tests are to be carried out at least once in a year.
The following tests are to be performed during routine maintenance:
Inspection: Before the relay cover is removed, a visual check of he cover
is necessary. Excessive dust, dirt, metallic material deposited on the cover
should be removed. Removing such material will prevent it from entering
the relay when the cover is removed. Fogging of the cover glass should be
noted and removed when the cover has been removed. Such fogging is
due to volatile material being driven out of coils and insulating materials.
However, if the fogging is excessive, cause is to be investigated. Since
most of the relays are designed to operate at 40oC, a check of the ambient
temperature is advisable. The voltage and current carried by the relay are
to be checked with that of the name plate details.
1.6.5 Mechanical adjustments and Inspection:
The relay connections are to be tight, otherwise it may cause overheating
at the connections. It will cause relay vibrations also. All gaskets should be
free from foreign matter. If any foreign matter is found gaskets are to be
checked and replaced if required.

Contact gaps and pressure are to be measured and compared with the
previous readings. Large variation in these measurements will indicate
excessive wear, in which case worn contacts are to be replaced. Contacts
alignment is to be checked for proper operation.

1.6.6 Electrical Tests and Adjustments

Contact function: Manually close or open the contacts and observe that
they perform their required function.
Pick up: Gradually apply actuating quantity (current or voltage) to see
that pickup is within limits.
Drop out or reset: Reduce the actuating quantity (current or voltage)
until the relay drops out or fully resets. This test will indicate excess
friction.
Repair tests involve recalibration, and are performed after major repairs.
Manufacturers tests include development tests, type and routine tests.
1.7

Test Equipment

1.7.1 Primary current injection test sets:

Generally protective gear is fed from a current transformer on the
equipments to be protected and primary current injection testing checks
all parts of the protection system by injecting the test current through the
primary circuit. The primary injection tests can be carried out by means of
primary injection test sets. The sets are comprising current supply unit,
control unit and other accessories. The test set can give variable output
current. The output current can be varied by means of built-in auto
transformer. The primary injection test set is connected to AC single phase
supply. The output is connected to primary circuit of CT. the primary
current of CT can be varied by means of the test set. By using this test one
can find at what value of current the relay is picking up and dropping out.
1.7.2 Secondary current injection test set:
It checks the operation of the protective gear but does not check the
overall system including the current transformer. Since it is a rare
FIG. 1.8

occasion for a fault to occur in CT, the secondary test is sufficient for most
routine maintenance. The primary test is essential when commissioning a
new installation, as it checks the entire system. A simple test circuit is
given in Fig. 1.8.
1.7.3 Test Benches:
Test benches comprise calibrated variable current and voltage supplies
and timing devices. These benches can be conveniently used for testing
relays and obtaining their characteristics.
1.8

Static Relaying Concepts

1.8.1 Introduction
Static Relay is a relay in which the comparison or measurement of
electrical quantities is done by stationary network which gives a tripping
signal when the threshold value is crossed. In simple language static relay
is one in which there are no moving parts except in the output device. The
static relay includes electronic devices, the output circuits of which may be
electric, semiconductor or even electromagnetic. But the output device
does not perform relay measurement, it is essentially a tripping device.
Static relay employs electronic circuits for the purpose of relaying. The
entity voltage, current etc. is rectified and measured. When the output
device is triggered, the current flows in the trip circuit of the circuit
breaker.
With the inventions of semiconductors devices like diodes, transistors,
thyristors, zener diodes etc., there has been a tremendous leap in the field
of static relays. The development of integrated circuits has made an
impact in static relays. The static relays and static protection has grown
into a special branch.
1.8.2 Advantages of Static Relays:
The static relays compared to the electromagnetic relays have many
advantages and a few limitations.
1.8.3 Low Power Consumption
Static relays provide less burden on CTs and PTs as compared to
conventional relays. In other words, the power consumption in the
measuring circuits of static relays is generally much lower than that for the
electromechanical versions. The consumption of one milli-VA is quite
common

in

static

over

current

relay

whereas

as

equivalent

electromechanical relay can have consumption of about 2-3 VA. Reduced

consumption has the following merits.
a)

CTs and PTs of less ratings are sufficient

b)

The accuracy of CTs and PTs are increased

c)

Air gaped CTs can be used

d)

Problems arising out of CT saturation are avoided

e)

Overall reduction in cost

1.8.4 Operating time
The static relays do not have moving parts in their measuring circuits,
hence relay times of low values can be achieved. Such low relay times are
impossible with conventional electromagnetic relays.
By using special circuits the resetting times and the overshoot time can be
improved and also high value of drop off to pick up ratio can also be
achieved.
1.8.5 Compact
Static relays are compact. The use of integrated circuit have further
reduced their size. Complex protection schemes may be obtained by using
logic circuits or matrix. Static relays can be designed with good repeat
accuracies. Number of characteristics can be obtained in a single
execution, unlike in case of their Electro-mechanical counter parts.
Most of the components in static relays including the auxiliary relays in the
output stage are relatively immune to vibrations and shocks. The risk of
unwanted tripping is therefore less with static relays as compared to
electromagnetic relays. So, these can be applied in earthquake prone
areas, ships, vehicles, aeroplanes etc.
1.8.6 Transducers
Several non-electrical quantities can be converted into electrical quantities
and then fed to static relays. Amplifiers are used wherever necessary.
1.8.7 Limitations
Auxiliary voltage requirement:

This disadvantage is not of any

importance as auxiliary voltage can be obtained from station battery

supply and conveniently stepped down to suit load requirements.

Static relays are sensitive to voltage spikes or voltage transients. Special

measures are taken to overcome this difficulty. These include use of surge
supressors and filter circuits in relays, use of screened cables in input
circuits, use of galvanically isolated auxiliary power supplies like d.c./d.c.
converters, use of isolating transformers with grounded screens for
C.T./P.T. input circuits etc.
1.8.8 Temperature Dependence of Static Relays
The

characteristic

of

semiconductors

are

influenced

by

ambient

temperatures. For example, the amplification factor o a transistor, the

forward voltage drop of a diode etc., changes with temperature variation.
This was a serious limitation of static relays in the beginning. Accurate
measurement of relay should not be affected by temperature variation.
Relay should be accurate over a wide range of temperature.
(-20oC to +50oC) this difficulty is overcome by
a) Individual components in circuits are used in such a way that change in
characteristic of component does not affect the characteristic of the
complete relay.
b) Temperature compensation is provided by thermistor circuits. Extra
precaution for quality control of the components has to be taken. As
the failure rate is highest in early period of components life, artificial
ageing of the components is normally done by heat soaking.
FIG. 1.9
FIG. 1.10
1.8.9 Level Detectors
A relay operates when the measured quantity changes, either from its
normal value or in relation to another quantity. The operating quantity in
most protective relays is the current entering the protected circuit. The
relay may operate on current level against a standard bias or restrain, or it
may compare the current with another quantity of he circuit such as the
bus voltage or the current leaving the protected circuit (Fig. 1.9).
In a simple electromagnetic relay used as level detector, gravity or a
spring can provide the fixed bias or reference quantity, opposing the force
produced by the operating current in electromagnet. In static relays the
equivalent is a D.C. voltage bias.

E.g. In the semiconductor circuit (See Fig. 1.10) the transistor is reverse
biased in normal conditions. No current flows through the relay coil under
fault conditions capacitor will be charged to +ve potential at the base side.
If this potential exceeds that of the emitter, the B-E junction will be forward
biased and transistor will conduct there by tripping the relay. Thus the
comparison is made against the D.C. fixed bias.
1.8.10Comparators
In order to detect a fault or abnormal conditions of he power system,
electrical quantities or a group of electric quantities are compared in
magnitude or phase angle and the relay operates in response to an
abnormal relation of these quantities. The quantities to be compared are
fed into a comparators as two or more inputs; in complex relays each input
is the vectorial sum or difference of two currents or voltages of the
protected circuit, which may be shifted in phase or changed in magnitude
before being compared.
1.8.11Types of comparators;
Basically there are two types of comparators, viz.
FIG. 1.11
FIG. 1.12
FIG. 1.13
FIG. 1.14
a) Amplitude comparators, and
b) Phase comparator
The amplitude comparator compares the magnitudes of two inputs by
rectifying them and opposing them. If the inputs are A and B, the output of
the comparator is A-B and this is positive if A is greater than B i.e. if the
ratio of A/B is greater than one. Theoretically, the comparison should be
purely scalar, i.e. the phase relation of the inputs should have no effect on
the output, but this is usually so if at least one input is completely
smoothened as well as rectified.
The phase comparator achieves a similar operation with phase angle; its
output is positive if arg A-arg B is positive i.e. if arg A/B is less than

where is the angle determining the shape of the characteristic; = 90

for a circular characteristic.
Both types of comparators can be arranged either for direct comparison
(instantaneous) or to integrate their output over each half cycle.
Amplitude Comparators: Fig.1.11 shows how two currents can be
compared in magnitude only, using rectifiers and, in fig. 1.16 two voltages
are compared. In current comparator, the rectifiers providing a limiting
action so that the relay can be made more sensitive, the voltage across
the rectifier bridge remains substantially constant and hence the rectifiers
and the sensitive relay are protected at high currents. In voltage
comparator, the increase of resistance at low voltage makes the relay less
sensitive at low voltage and the rectifiers are not protected at high
currents.
1.8.12Circulating Current Comparator
Operation: Normally the restraining current flow in the winding of the
polarized relay in the blocking direction. If the restraining current is small
and operating current is zero the flow of resultant current will be as shown
in Fig. 1.12.
FIG. 1.15
FIG. 1.16
The voltage across the restraining coil is V, across the relay serves as a
bias in the forward direction of bridge 1. if the restraining current Ir is
further increased, the voltage drop the relay will rise to a value V t, the
threshold voltage of bridge 1 and I will then conduct, then the current
paths will be shown in Fig. 1.13. The current through the relay consists of
fairly flat topped half waves as shown in Fig. 1.14.
The reverse is true if Io flows alone: The voltage drop across relay will
now be V and this will bias the restraint rectifier in its forward direction.
When the voltage drop across the relay attains a value Vt, corresponding
to the threshold voltage of two rectifiers in the series, the surplus current
from bridge 1 is spilled through bridge 2. This corresponds to the case of i o
is greater than ir in the Fig. 1.14.

When both bridges are energised simultaneously the relay is responsive to

small differences between io and ir without requiring a sensitive output
relay. The composite characteristic (ideal) for the relay is shown in
Fig.1.15.
Opposed Voltage Comparator: In this voltage comparator the voltage
drop in the resistance connected externally in the bridge circuits is
compared. The current directions are shown in Fig. 1.16. If the two drops
are equal no current will flow through the relay coil and the relay will not
operate. If he two voltages are not equal then unequal currents will flow
through the resistances and a current will flow through the relay coil in a
direction determined by the largest voltage drop in the resistor. That is, if
the drop in the resistance of the operating bridge is more than that of the
restraining bridge then a current will flow in the operating direction
through the relay. The reverse is true if the drop across the restraining
resistance is more than the operating resistance.
Phase Comparators: There are two main types of static phase
comparators:
FIG. 1.17
FIG. 1.18

a) Those whose output is a D.C. voltage proportional to the vector product

of the two A.C. input quantities:
b) Those which give an output whose polarity depends upon the phase
relation of the inputs. The later are sometimes called coincidence type
and can be direct acting or integrating.
1.8.13Operating Principles of Static Time Current Relays:
Fig. 1.17 shows the block diagram of a static time current relay. The
auxiliary C.T. has taps on the primary for selecting the desire pickup and
current range. Its rectified output is supplied to a fault detector and an RC
timing circuit. When the voltage of the timing capacitor has reached the
value for triggering the level detector, tripping occurs.
Operation of a typical static time current relay: The current from the
main C.T. is first rectified and smoothed by capacitor Cs and then passed

through he tapped resistor Rs so that the voltage across it is proportional

to the secondary current. The spike filter RC protects the rectifier bridge
against transient over voltages in the incoming current signal, Fig. 1.18.
1.8.14Timing Circuit
The rectified voltage across the Rs charges the capacitor Ct through
resistor Rt. When the capacitor voltage exceeds the base emitter voltage
Vt the transistor T2 in the Fig. 1.20 becomes conductive, triggering
transistor T3 and operating the tripping relay.
Resetting circuit: In order that the relay shall have an instantaneous
reset, the capacitor Ct must be discharged as quickly as possible. This is
achieved by the detector as follows (Fig. 1.19).
The base of the transistor T1 is normally kept sufficiently positive relative
to emitter to keep it conductive and hence short circuiting the timing
capacitor Ct at YY in Fig. 1.20. When a fault occurs the over current
through the resistor Rs makes the base of T1 negative and cuts it off
leaving Ct free to be charged. When the fault is cleared the
FIG. 1.19
FIG. 1.20
current falls to zero and the negative bias on T1 disappears so that Ct is
again short circuited and discharged immediately.
A weakness of very fast instantaneous units is the tendency to over
sensitivity on off-set current waves. The instantaneous unit can be made
insensitive to the D.C. off set component by making the auxiliary C.T.
saturate jus above the pickup current value and connecting the capacitor
and a resistor across the rectified input to the level detector. This prevents
tripping until both halves of the current wave are above pickup valve. That
is, until the off set has gone, the short delay thus entailed is acceptable
with time current relaying.
-oOo-

CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION DISC TYPE IDMT
OVER CURRENT RELAYS
2.1

Introduction
Induction types are most widely used for protective relaying purposes
involving A.C. quantities. Torque is produced in these relays when
alternating flux reacts with eddy currents induced in a disc by another
alternating flux of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
These relays are used as over current or earth fault relay. In its simplest
form, such a relay consists of a metallic disc which is free to rotate
between the poles of two electromagnets (Fig. 2.1).
The spindle of this disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed
contacts when the disc rotates through an angle which is adjustable. By
adjusting this angle the travel of the moving contact can be adjusted so
that the relay can be given any desired time setting which is indicated by a
pointer on a time setting dial. The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1. These
figures do not represent the actual operating times but are multipliers to
be used to convert the time known from he relay name plate curve into the
actual operating time.
The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary winding. The
primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected
and is provided with tappings. These tappings are connected to a plug
setting bridge which is usually arranged to give seven selections of
tapping, the over current range being 50 per cent to 200 per cent in steps
of 25% and the earth fault 10% to 40% or 20% to 80% in steps of 5% &
10% respectively. These values are percentages of the current rating of
the relay. Thus a relay may have a current rating of 5A, indicating that it is
suitable for use on CT having secondary current rating of 5A but with a
setting of 50% the relay would start to operate at 2.5A. Similarly if set at
200% it would start to operate at 10A. Thus the relay can be set to pick-up
at any

FIG. 2.1: NON DIRECTIONAL INDUCTION RELAY

FIG.2.2: TIME CURRENT CHRACTERISTIC OF A NON DIRECTIONAL
INDUCTION DISC RELAY

Desired tapping and, therefore, current setting can be selected by

inserting a pin spring-loaded jaws of the bridge type soccer at the
appropriate tap value. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of
changing the setting while the relay is in service, the relay automatically
adopts a high setting, thus ensuring that the C.T. secondary is not open
circuited and that the relay remains operative for faults during the process
of changing the settings. The secondary winding surrounds the limbs of the
lower electromagnet as well. The torque exerted on the disc is due to the
interaction of eddy currents produced therein by means of the leakage flux
from the upper electromagnet and the flux from the lower electromagnet:
these two fluxed having a phase displacement between them.
2.2

Characteristic Curve
A set of typical time current characteristic curves of his type of relay is
shown in Fig. 2.2. The curve shows the relation between the operating
current in terms of current setting multiplier along the x-axis and operating
time in seconds along the y-axis. A current setting multiplier indicates the
number of times the relay current is in excess of the current setting. The
current setting multiplier is also referred to as plug setting multiplier
(P.S.M.). Thus
P.S.M=

Primary Current
Primary
Primary Current
Setting Current
Primary Setting Current

Primary Current
Primary Current Setting XC.T.Ratio
Where, as is usually he case, the rated current of the relay is equal to the
=

rated secondary current of C.T. From the figure the operating time, when
current setting multiplier is 10 and he time multiplier is set at 1, is 3
seconds. This is sometimes called the basic 3/10 curve.
It is evident that at the same current setting but the time multiplier set at
0.8, the time of operation is 2.4 seconds. Thus o get the actual tie of
operation against any particular time multiplier setting, multiply the time
of operation of the basic curve by the multiplier
FIG. 2.3

setting. Thus in this example the time of operation is 3 x 0.8 = 2.4 secs.
The time current characteristics of Fig. 2.2 are the inverse definite
minimum time (I.D.M.T.) type since the time of operation is approximately
inversely proportional to smaller values of current and tends to a definite
minimum time as the current increases above 10 times the setting current.
The D.M.T. characteristic is obtained by saturating the iron in the upper
magnet so that there is practically no increase in flux after current has
reached a certain value. This results in the flattening out of the current
time curve.
Example:

An I.D.M.T. over current relay has a current setting of 150%

and had a time multiplier setting of 0.5. The relay is connected in the
circuit through a C.T. having ratio 500:5 amps. Calculate the time of
operation of the relay if the circuit carries a fault current of 6000 A. the
relay characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.3.

Solution: Sec fault current 6000 x

500

= 60A

Actual Current in Relay

Setting Current

Plug Setting multiplier (P.S.M.) =

Time from graph against this multiplier of 8 = 3.15 sec.

Operating time = 3.15 x 0.5 = 1.575 sec.

-oOo-

60
5 x=1.5

=8

CHAPTER 3
MOTOR PROTECTION
Electrical Motor is an important component of an industry. Squirrel cage induction
motor is most widely used in power stations and industries. To protect the motor
from different faults condition various protection are provided, which are as listed
below.
3.1

Overload Protection
A motor may get overloaded during its operation because of excessive
mechanical load; (b) Single phase; (c) Bearing fault. An overloaded motor
draws overcurrent resulting in overheating of the winding insulation. A
reasonable degree of overload protection can be provided by Bi-metallic
thermal overload relay with setting, 15% for continuously rated motor and
40% for large motors. Modern Motor Protection Relays provide a I 2
sensitive Thermal overload protection having a range of exponential
current/time

characteristics

to

match

with

the

thermal

withstand

characteristic of motor.
3.2

Single Phasing Protection or Unbalance Protection

When one of the supply fuse of a 3 phase motor blows off or a terminal
connection comes out, single phasing at the motor may occur. In such
case, motor may continue to rotate, but the two healthy phases may draw
high current leading to thermal stress on the insulation.
Besides, the Negative Phase sequence (I2) component of the unbalanced
current, produces a reverse reaction field which cuts the Rotor iron and
winding at approximately double the speed, thereby inducing double
frequency eddy currents, causing over heating of the rotor.
I2 based single phasing protection having Inverse or definite time delay is
used to protect he motor against his eventuality. For small L.T. Motors,
single phasing preventor (unbalanced voltage V2 or current I2 based) is
used to detect single phasing and isolate the defaulting Motor.

3.3

Short Circuit Protection

A short circuit in the winding or at the terminals of a motor, results in
overcurrent and thus overheating/damage to the winding insulation.

An instantaneous high set over current relay with a setting sufficiently

above the starting/locked Rotor current is used for this protection.
For contactor controlled motors (usually L.T.Motors of small ratings), the
short circuit protection is provided by the backup fuse in view of the
limited break rating of the contactor.
3.4

Stalling Protection (Lock Rotor Protection)

A motor may stall during its operation because of excessive mechanical
load resulting in overloading of the motor. A definite time over current
relay, with a setting of 1.52
times the Motor rated current, is used to protect the Motor against stalling
condition. The time delay set, is usually above the Acceleration time and
below the stall withstand time.
For high inertia motors, having safe stall withstand time less than the
starting time, the stalling protection is required to be controlled by a speed
switch, mounted on the Motor shaft. During normal acceleration, the speed
switch opens to disable the stalling protection, whereas during a genuine
condition the speed switch remains closed, thereby enabling he stalling
protection and disconnects the defaulting Motor within the safe stall
withstand time.

3.5

Differential Protection
To protect the motor against internal faults, differential protection based
on circulating current principle provided for large critical motors. The
differential protection requires C.Ts of identical ratio and ratings (Class PS)
on both line and neutral side of the Motor for each phase (i.e. 6 C.Ts in
total). The differential relay is usually of high impedance type.

3.6

Earth Fault Protection

A motor may suffer an earth fault because of damage to the winding
insulation. Earth fault may occur in the connecting cable also. Usually two
types of earth fault protections are in vogue.
a) Residually connected earth fault protection with a setting of 10% or above.
No time delay is required except on contactor controlled motors where it is
necessary to prevent earth fault element over riding the fuse, for infeeds
above the break rating of the contactor. The relay is, however, required to

be used with a series stabilising resistor which impedes any unbalance

current produced due to unequal errors in he CTs during starting
transients.
b) C.B.C.T. operated earth fault relay with a setting of typically 1%, where
low earth faults are expected, requiring very high sensitivity.
3.7

Undervoltage Protection
A reduced supply to a motor will increase motor losses and overloading of
he winding. An IDMT or definite time under voltage relay operated off Bus
P.T. is used to protect the motor, the under voltage relay trips the motors
connected to the Bus on upstream supply failure and eliminates possibility
of co-incident starting of all motors together, when the supply is
subsequently restored. Thus, prevents stressing of the supply source.
Composite Motors Protection Relays (Conventional analog types) provide
following protection functions.

a)

Thermal overload (Alarm/Trip) ITH

b)

Short circuit (ISC)

c)

Single Phasing (I2)

d)

Earth Fault (Io)

e)

Stalling (IIt)
Numerical versions are now available which offer following additional
protection functions, besides those given above.

f)

Prolonged starting time

g)

Too many start

h)

Loss of load
The Numerical versions have data acquisition capabilities and provide
useful service Data (such as load currents, I2/Io content in load current,
thermal status etc.), historic data fault data on operation. These relays
have programmable settings, programmable output relays and continuous
self monitoring against any internal failures.

-oOo-

CHAPTER 4
TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS
4.1

Transformer protections are provided a) Against effects of faults in the system to which the transformer is
connected.
b) Against effects of faults arising in the transformer itself.

4.1.2 Protections against faults in the System

a) Short Circuits
b) High Voltage, high frequency disturbance
c) Pure Earth Faults.
4.1.3 System Short Circuits
A short circuit may occur across any to phases (phase to phase) or
between any one line and earth neutral (phase to earth). The effect is
excessive over current and electro-magnetic stresses proportional to
square of short circuit current. For these type of faults additional reactance
and additional bracing of the transformer winding and end leads is
resorted to. This reactance may be incorporated in the design itself or
separate series reactance with primary of transformer is provided.
4.1.4 High Voltage High frequency surges:
These surges may be due to arching grounds, switching operation surges
or atmospheric disturbances. These surges have very high amplitudes,
steep wave front currents and high frequencies. Because of this, the
breakdowns of the transformer turns adjacent to line terminals occurs
causing short circuit between the turns.
To take care of this, the transformer winding is to be designed to withstand
the impulse surge voltages as specified below and then protect it by surge
divertors.
System Voltage KV

Impulse voltage withstand level (Peak

(RMS)

value)
60 KV

7.2 KV
12.5 KV

75 KV

33 KV

170 KV

66 KV

250 KV

145 KV

550 KV

245 KV

900 KV

400 KV

1350 KV

Surge divertors are provided from each line to earth. These consist of
several spark gaps in series with a non-linear resistance. This spark gap
breakdown when surge reaches the divertor and disturbance is discharged
to earth through nonlinear resistance since at high voltage divertors
resistance is low. These surge divertors should have rapid response, nonlinear characteristics, high thermal capacity, high system flow current
interrupting capacity and consistent characteristics under all conditions.
4.1.5 System Earth Faults
a) When neutral of the system is earthed: - It represents short circuit
across the phase. Hence, same protection as for short circuit can be
provided.
b) When neutral is not earthed: - Surge divertor gears in front of
transformer is used.
4.2

Protection against Internal Faults

a) Electrical faults which cause serious immediate damage but are detectable
by unbalance of current or voltage.
i)

Phase to Earth Fault or phase to phase faults on HV and LV external

terminals

ii)

Phase to earth faults or phase to phase faults on HV & LV

winding.
iii)

Short circuit between turns on HV & LV winding (inter turn faults)

iv)

Earth faults on tertiary winding or short circuit between turn of

tertiary winding.

v)

Problem in tap changer gear.

b) Incipient faults:

These are initially minor but subsequently develops

itself resulting into damage to the transformer. These may be due to

i)

Poor electrical connection of conductors due to breakdown of

insulation of

laminations, core bolt faults, clampings, rings etc.

ii)

Coolant failure

iii)

Blocked oil flow causing local hot spot on winding.

iv)

Continuous uneven load sharing between transformers in parallel

causing

4.3

overheating due to circulating current.

Principles of Protection System

Principles used are
i)

Overheating

ii)

Over current

iii)

Un-restricted earth faults

iv)

Restricted earth-faults

v)

Percentage bias differential protection

vi)

Gas detection due to incipient faults

vii)

Over fluxing

viii)

Tank earth current detection

ix)

Over voltage

x)

Tap changer problems.

4.4

Gas Detection
a) Buchholz relay protection
b) Pressure relief valves/switches (for heavy internal faults)

4.4.1 Buchholz Protection

This is for two types of faults inside the transformer.
a) For incipient faults because of
i)

Core bolt insulation failure

ii)

Short circuit in laminations

iii) Local over heating because of clogging of oil

iv) Excess ingress of air in oil system
v) Loss of oil due to heavy leakage
vi) Uneven load sharing between two transformers in parallel causing
overheating due to circulating current.
These generate gases causing operation of upper float and energises
the alarm circuits.
b) For serious faults inside the transformer due to
i)

Short circuit between phases

ii) Winding earth faults

iii) Puncture on bushing
iv) Tap changer problems

These types of faults are of serious nature and operate both the floats
provided in the buchholz relay and trip out the transformer.
4.4.2 Principles of Buchholz Relay Operation (Fig. 4.1)
This relay is provided in the connecting pipe from transformer tank to
conservator. Two floats are provided inside the relay and are connected to
mercury switches. Normally the relay is full of oil and in case of gas
collection the floats due to their buyopancy rotate on their supports until
they engage their respective stops. Initially fault develops slowly and heat
is produced locally which begins to decompose solid or liquid insulating
material and thus produce inflammable gases. Gas bubbles are collected in
relay causing oil level to lower down. The upper float rotates as he oil level
in the relay goes down and when sufficient oil id displaced the mercury
switch contacts close and initiates alarm. For serious faults as described
above, gas generation is more violent and the oil displaced by gas bubbles
flows through connecting pipe to conservator. This abnormal flow of oil
causes deflection of both float and trip out the transformer. Recently the
dissolved gas analysis technique (gas chromatography) is in use for predetection of type of slowly developing faults inside the transformer which
helps to decide whether the transformer maintenance/internal inspection
is required to be
FIG. 4.1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BUCHHOLZ RELAY

carried out or otherwise, and thus helps to predict transformer damage in

future.
4.4.3 Dissolved Gas Analysis
The inflammable gases dissolved in the transformer oil are mainly
hydrocarbon gases (methane CH4, Ethane C2H6, Ethylene C2H4. Acetylene
C2H2, Propane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide). With the
help of dissolved gas analysis equipment the concentration of these gases
in PPM can be known and can be cross checked with the IS standard. Also
with the help of Rogers ratio method, the type of probable incipient fault
can be judged and corrective action can be taken in advance to prevent
failure of the transformer (Ref. Annex.1 &II).
4.5

Over Heating Protection

Protection is mainly required for continuous over load of the transformer.

a) Protection is based on measurement of winding temperature which is

measured by thermal image technique.
b) Thermal sensing element is placed in small pocket located near the top
transformer tank in the hot oil. A small heater fed fro a current
transformer (winding temp. C.T.) in the lower voltage terminal of one
phase, is also located in this pocket and produces a local temp. rise,
similar to that of main winding and proportional to copper losses,
above general temp. of oil.
c) Winding temperature high alarm/rip is provided through mercury
switches in the winding temp. indicators.
d) By thermo-meters, mercury switches heat sensing silicon resistance
are also used for sensing the temp. rise.
e) Thermisters are provided manly in the dry type transformers for
temperature sensing.
Temperature of 55o above ambient of 50oC is generally provided for
tripping.
4.6

Over Current & Earth leakage protection

4.6.1 Earth Leakage Protection

In case of transformer earthed through resistance or earthed through
impedance.
Resistance Grounding: The earth fault current in faulty winding in
resistance grounded transformer depends on voltage between neutral and
fault point and is inversely proportional to neutral resistance.
Iy =

10kv x p
Sq. root of 3.Rn

Where Iy is earth fault current; P= percentage of winding to be protected;

KV line to line voltage and Rn = Neutral Grounding resistance. Suitable
earth fault relay can be provided across C.T. in the neutral of the
transformer depending upon the minimum earth fault current to be
detected.
Impedance Grounding; Transformer neutral is connected to the primary
of neutral grounding transformer. The suitable resistance is connected in
parallel with the secondary of this neutral grounding transformer. The
earth fault relay (neutral displacement relay) is connected across this
resistance. The earth fault relay can be set at about 2.5 percent of
maximum neutral voltage. The relay is time delayed for transient free
operation.

4.6.2 Over current protection

i) HRC fuses are provided for small distribution transformer.
ii) Over current relays are used for power transformers, considering the
following:
a) IDMT relays should be chosen
b) Discrimination with circuit protection of secondary side should
be provided;
c) Instantaneous trip facility for high speed clearance of terminals
short circuit should be provided.
d) Setting depends on transformer reactance or percentage
impedance, faults MVA, type of relay used.
e) Setting of over current relays can be slightly higher than rated
full

load

current

(say

120

percent

of

FL)

with

proper

discrimination.
4.6.3 Combined over current and un-restricted E/F Protection
(Ref. Fig. 4.2)
a) Typical over current/earth fault protection is shown for a Delta/ start
transformer in Fig. 4.2.
b) IDMT O/C elements on delta and star side, primarily serve as back up
protection against downstream short circuits and are time co-ordinated
with downstream O/C protections.
c) The high set instantaneous O/C elements on Delta side (connected to
source) are provided to detect severe terminal short circuits and
quickly isolate the transformer. These are set over and above the
maximum short circuit current infeeds of the transformer for star side
faults.
d) The start side earth fault protection (IDMT) serves as a backup against
downstream earth faults and is required to be suitably time graded.
This can either be residually connected across the phase C.Ts or
operated off a C.T. in the Neutral Earth connection (standby earth fault
relay). The latter is considered to be advantageous since it can detect
star winding earth faults, beside providing backup for downstream
earth faults. Since the neutral C.T. ratio is not tied up with the load
current, a lower C.T. ratio consistent with the maximum E/F current
limited by NGR can be provided. This renders good sensitivity for the
standby E/F protection.
e) The E/F protection on delta side is inherently restricted to delta winding
earth faults and does not respond to earth faults on the star side, due

to zero sequence isolation provided by the delta connection. The delta

side E/F protection, therefore, assumes the form of REF
FIG. 4.2: COMBINED 0/C AND E/F PROTECTION CKT
FIG. 4.3: RESTRICTED E/F PROTECTION CKT
protection, enabling sensitive setting and instantaneous operation. The
relay is connected in high impedance mode with a series stabilizing
resistor, as shown.
4.6.4 Restricted Earth Fault Protection: (Ref. Fig. 4.3)
a)

REF protection is used to supplement the differential protection,

particularly here star neutral of the transformer is grounded through a
neutral rounding resistor to limit the earth fault current. REF protection
provides increased coverage to the star winding against earth faults.

b)

The REF protection operates on the principle of Kirchoffs law and

requires CTs of identical ratio and ratings as the phases and neutral
earth

connection.

The

relay

is

connected

across

the

parallel

combination of the CTs in High Impedance mode.

c)

For external earth fault, the associated CTs have dissimilar polarities
forming a series connection. Thus, the resulting current through the
relay is negligible. For internal fault, however, the CTs have similar
polarities, forming a parallel connection, thus adding up the current in
the relay branch. This ensures positive operation of the relay.

4.7

Percentage Bias Differential Protection

a) In this protection, operating current is a function of differential current.
b) The value of restraining current depends on 2nd and 5th harmonic
component of differential current during magnetic inrush and over
excited operation.
c) Bias current is a function of through current (external fault current) and
stabilizes the relays against heavy external fault.

4.7.1 Basic Consideration for differential protection

a) Transformer ratio: the current transformers should match to the rated
currents of the primary windings.

b) Transformer Connection: In delta star connected transformer, the

phase shift of 30oC between primary and secondary side current exist.
Also zero sequence current flowing on the star side will not produce the
reflected current in the delta on the other side. To eliminate zero
sequence component on star side the current transformer must be
connected in delta and the current transformer of delta side must be
connected in start.
c) For star / star transformer CTs on both sides should be connected in
delta.
d) In order that secondary currents from two groups of CTs may have the
same magnitude (i.e. primary side CTs and secondary side CTs). The
ratio of star connected CTs if 5 Amp, then those of delta connected
group may be 5 / Sq. Root of 3 = 2.89 Amps.
e) The operating current is a appropriate percentage of reflected through
fault current in the restraining (bias) coils and the ratio is termed as
percentage slope.
f)

Operating coil is provided with vectors sum of the currents in the

transformer windings and the bias coil sees the average scaler sum of
the reflected through fault current. Spill current required to operate the
relay is expressed as percentage of through current.

g) The relay is also provided with an unrestrained differential high set, to

protect against heavy faults which are enough to saturate the line
current transformers. The setting of this high set unit is kept above the
maximum in rush current magnitude. This will operate in typically one
cycle for heavy internal faults.
4.7.2 Operating Principles for Internal fault & external faults
During external fault condition (through fault) (Fig. 4.4):
Current in pilot wires would pass through whole of bias coils and only out
of balance current due to mis-match caused by OLTC and C.T. errors
FIG. 4.4
FIG. 4.5

Would flow through operating coil. Under this condition biasing effect predominates and prevents the relay operation.
During internal faults: (Fig. 4.5)
In this case, the reflected current flows through only one half of bias coil
and the operating coil and back to CT neutral connection. Here the
operating quantity pre-dominates resulting into operation of the relay.
4.8

Over Voltage Protection

a) Two stage protection is provided
b) The delayed trip is set at 110 percent of the rated voltage with two
second time delay (typical).
c) Instantaneous setting is kept at 115 120 percent of the rated voltage
d) During voltage fluctuations the AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) will
take care to avoid over voltage condition if fluctuations are within its
operating limits (for Generator step-up transformer).

4.9

Over Fluxing Protection

a) This protection is commonly used for Generator Transformers and
large inter connecting transformers in the Grid.
b) This condition arises during abnormal operating conditions i.e. heavy
voltage fluctuations at lower frequency conditions. This condition is
experienced by the transformer during heavy power swings, cascade
tripping of the generator sets and HT line in the Grid, interstate system
separation conditions and due to AVR malfunctioning during start-up or
shutting down in case of Generator Transformers.
c)

The power frequency over voltage cause both stress on insulation and
proportionate increase in the magnetizing flux inside the transformer
due to which the iron losses area increased and the core bolts get
maximum component of flux, thereby rapidly heating and damaging its
own insulation and coil insulation. Reduction in frequency during high
voltage fluctuation has the same effect.
FIG. NO. 4.6

d) Transformer should be isolated within one or two minutes or as

recommended by the manufacturer.

e) The core flux V/f where V impressed voltage and f frequency. He

index of over fluxing is, therefore, V/f. Over fluxing relays having
variable V/f setting and time delays are used for this protection.
4.10

Overall Differential Protection

a)

This is provided for complete protection of generator and generator

transformer and as such is a compound overall differential protection.

b)

In addition to normal differential protection of generator, overall biased

differential protection relay is connected to protect the unit as shown
in Fig. 4.6.

c)

20% pickup and 20% bias setting is provided. (The values are typical).

d)

This is a supplementary protection for individual differential protection

of the generator.

e)

Unit auxiliary transformers are provided with separate differential

protection
-oOo-

ANNEXURE I

PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
DISSOLVED
GASES IN THE OIL OF HEALTHY
TRANSFORMER
(TRANSFORMERS UNION AG)
Gas

Less than four

4-10 years in

More than 10

Hydrogen
Methane
Acetylene
Ethylene
Ethane
Carbon

Year in service
100/150 ppm
50/70 ppm
20/30 ppm
100/150 ppm
30/40 ppm
200/300 ppm

service
200/300 ppm
100/150 ppm
30/50 ppm
150/200 ppm
100/150 ppm
400/500 ppm

Years in service
200/300 ppm
200/300 ppm
100/150 ppm
200/300 ppm
800/1000 ppm
600/700 ppm

monoxide
Carbon

3000/3500 ppm

4000/5000 ppm

9000/12000

dioxide

ppm

ANNEXURE II
CODE FOR EXAMINING ANALYSIS OF GAS DISSOLVED IN
MINERAL OIL AS PER CBIP TECHNICAL REPORT 62.
Ratio of Characteristic gases
0.1

Case No.
0
1

Code of Range ratio

C2H2
CH4
C2H4
C2H4
C2H6
H2
0
1
0

0.1-1

1-3

0
0

0
1

0
0

Characteristic fault
No fault
Partial discharge

Typical Example
Normal ageing
Discharge in gas-filled cavities

of low energy

but not

resulting

density

signify-

impregnation, or super-saturation

Partial discharge of

cant
1

high energy density

Discharge of low

1-2

from

incomplete

or cavita-tion or high humidity.

As above, but leading to cracking

1-2

or perforation of solid insulation

Continuous
sparking
in
oil

energy

between

bad

connections

of

different potential. Breakdown of

4

Discharges of high

energy

oil between solid materials.

Discharges with power

flow

through. Arcing-breakdown of oil

between

winding

or

coils

or

between coils to earth. Selector

5

Thermal fault of low

temperature
6

(150oC)
Thermal fault of low
temperature range

breaking current.
General
insulated

conductor

overheating
0

Local overheating of the core due

to

concentrations

of

flux,

150o-300oC

increasing hot sot temperature

varying from small spots in core,

Thermal fault of

shorting links in core.

Overheating of copper due to

medium

eddy

currents,

bad

contacts/

temperature range

joints (pyrolitic carbon formation)

300o-700oC

upto core and tank circulating

current.

Thermal fault of

- do -

high temperature
150o-300oC

CHAPTER 5
GENERATOR PROTECTIONS
5.1

Introduction
Generation are designed to run at a high load factor for a large number of
years and permit certain incidences of abnormal working conditions. The
machine and its auxiliaries are supervised by monitoring devices to keep
the incidences of abnormal working conditions down to a minimum.
Despite of this monitoring, electrical and mechanical faults may occur, and
the generators must be provided with protective relays, which in case of a
fault, quickly initiate a disconnection of the machine from the system and,
if necessary, initiate a complete shut-down of the machine.
The following are the various types of protections provided for a 200/210
MW Generator.
1.

Stator ground (earth) fault protection

a) 95% stator ground fault protection
b) 100% stator ground fault protection

2.

Rotor earth fault protection

a) First rotor earth fault protection
b) Second rotor earth fault protection

3.

Generator Interturn fault protection

4.

Generator Negative phase sequence protection

5.

Generator Loss of excitation protection

6.

Generator Minimum Impedance (MHO backup) protection

7.

Generator Differential protection

8.

Generator Overall differential protection

9.

Generator Reverse power protection

10.

Generator Over frequency protection

11.

Generator Under frequency protection

12.

Generator Thermal overload protection

13.

Generator Over voltage protection

14.

Generator out of sep (Pole slipping) protection

FIG. 5.1
FIG. 5.2
FIG. 5.3

5.2

Stator Earth Faults:

In most countries, it is a common practice to ground the generator neutral
through a Grounding Transformer having a loading resistor across its
secondary. This method of earthing is called High Impedance earthing
where the earth fault current is limited to 510 Amps. Tuned reactor which
limit the ground fault current to less than 1.0A are also used.
The generator grounding resistor normally limits the neutral voltage
transmitted from the high voltage side of the unit transformer in case of a
ground fault on the H.V. side to maximum 2-3% of rated generator phase
voltage.
Short circuits between the stator winding in the slots and the stator core
are the most common electrical fault in Generators. Interturn faults, which
normally are difficult to detect, will quickly develop into a ground fault and
will be tripped by the stator ground fault protection.

5.2.1

95% Stator Ground fault Relay for Generator (Fig.5.1)

For generators with unit transformer and with high impedance grounding
of the neutral, a neutral voltage relay with harmonic immunity and
independent time delay is used. The relay is normally set to operate at 5%
of maximum neutral voltage with a time delay of 0.3 0.5 second. With
this voltage setting, it protects approximately 95% of he Stator winding.
It also covers the generator bus, the low voltage winding of the unit
transformer and the high voltage winding of the unit aux. Transformer.

Relay details: 64 A / B - Neutral Displacement Relay having IDMT or

definite time characteristic.
5.2.2 100% Stator Ground fault protection for Generator
Ground faults caused by mechanical damage may occur close to the
generator neutral. Today there is a distinct trend towards providing ground
fault protection for the entire stator winding (100% stator ground fault
protection).
The principle diagram of the relay is shown in Fig. 5.2. The 100% stator
ground fault scheme includes a 95% unit (1), which covers the stator
winding from 5% of the neutral and a 3rd harmonic voltage measuring unit
(2) which protects the rest of the stator winding.
For generators with 3rd harmonic voltage less than 1%, a filter is available
with a damping factor of more than 100.
When the generator is running and here is no ground fault near the
neutral, the third harmonic voltage unit (2) and the voltage check unit (4)
are both activated and the relay contact used in alarm/trip circuit is open.
If a round fault occurs close to the generator neutral, the third harmonic
voltage unit will reset, operating relay contact will close and alarm or
tripping is obtained.
The voltage check unit is included to prevent faulty operation of the relay
at generator standstill or during the machine running up or running down
period.
Generators which produce more than 1% third harmonic voltage under all
service conditions, can have the entire stator winding up to and including
the neutral point protected by the 100% stator ground fault relay.
5.3

Rotor Earth Fault Protection (64R1/64R2):

The field circuit of generator (i.e. rotor winding) is a isolated D.C. circuit
and not earthed anywhere. The field circuit can be exposed to abnormal
mechanical or thermal stresses due to vibrations, excessive currents or
choked cooling medium flow. This may result in a breakdown of the
insulation between the field winding and the rotor iron at one point where
the stress has been too high.

A single earth fault in the field winding or its associated circuits, therefore,
gives rise to a negligible fault current and does not represent any
immediate danger. If, however a second ground fault should occur, heavy
fault current and severe mechanical unbalance may quickly arise and lead
to serious damage. It is essential therefore that any occurrence of
insulation failure is discovered and that the machine is taken out of service
as soon as possible. Normally the machine is tripped instantly on
occurrence of second rotor earth fault. Three methods are available to
detect this type of faults (First Rotor earth fault protection) 64R1.
a) Potentiometer method
b) A.C. injection method
c) D.C. injection method
5.3.1

Potentiometer Method (Fig. 5.3)

In this scheme, a center tapped resistor is connected in parallel with the
main field winding as shown in Fig. 5.3. The center point of the resistor is
connected to earth through a voltage relay. An earth fault on the field
winding will produce a voltage across the relay. The maximum voltage
occurring for faults at the ends of the winding.
A blind spot exists at the center of the field winding, this point being at a
potential equal to that of the tapping point on the potentiometer. To avoid
a fault at this location remaining undetected, the tapping point on the
potentiometer is varied by a push button or switch. It is essential that
station instructions be issued to make certain that the blind spot is
checked at least once per shift. The scheme is simple in that no auxiliary
supply is needed. A relay with a setting 5% of the exciter voltage is
adequate. The potentiometer will dissipate about 60 volts.

5.3.2

A.C. Injection Method (Fig. 5.4)

This scheme is shown in Fig. 5.4. It comprises of an auxiliary supply
transformer, the secondary of which is connected between earth and one
side of he field circuit through an interposed capacitor and a relay coil.
The field circuit is subjected to an alternating potential at the same level
through out, so that an earth fault anywhere in the field system will give
rise to a current which is detected by the relay. The capacitor limits the
magnitude of the current and blocks the normal field voltage, preventing
the discharge of a large direct current through the transformer.
FIG. 5.4

FIG. 5.5
This scheme has an advantage over the potentiometer method in that
there is no blind spot in the supervision of the field system. It has the
disadvantage that some current will flow to earth continuously through the
capacitance of the field winding. This current may flow through the
machine bearings, causing erosion of the bearing surface. It is a common
practice to insulate the bearings and to provide an earthing brush for the
shaft, and if this is done the capacitance current would be harmless.
5.3.3 D.C. Injection Method (Fig. 5.5)
The capacitance current objection to the a.c. injection scheme is overcome
by rectifying the injection voltage as shown in Fig. 5.5. The d.c. out put of a
transformer rectifier power unit is arranged to bias the positive side of the
field circuit to a negative voltage relative to earth. The negative side of the
field system is at a greater negative voltage to earth, so an earth fault at
any point in the field winding will cause current to flow through the power
unit. The current is limited by including a high resistance in the circuit and
a sensitive relay is used to detect the current.
The fault current varies with fault position, but this is not detrimental
provided the relay can detect the minimum fault current and withstand the
maximum.
The relay must have enough resistance to limit the fault current to a
harmless value and be sufficiently sensitive to respond to a fault which at
the low injection voltage may have a fairly high resistance. The relay must
not be so sensitive as to operate with the normal insulation leakage
current, taking into account of the high voltage to earth at the negative
end of the winding and any over voltage due to field forcing and so on.
5.3.4 (a) Second Rotor Earth Fault Protection 64R2 (Fig. 5.5 a)
In this test system is replaced by a replica field system in the form of
potential divider, two 1K potentiometers in parallel with station D.C. is
used as shown in Figure 5.5 (a) with SW1 at 1 st rotor E/F position. Close
switch S1 check that 1st rotor E/F relay VAEM (64R1) operated.
FIG. 5.5 a

FIG. 5.5 b
Shift SW1 to Balance. Obtain balance on the mA meter (Galvanometers) by
coarse / fine adjustment of potentiometer. Shift SW1 on Test position,
check operation of relay 64R2 by closing switch S2 thus creating an
unbalance which simulates second E/F.
5.3.4 (b) Rotor Earth Fault (Fig. 5.5.b)
The Scheme to detect Rotor Earth Fault in case of Brushless excitation
system is shown in Fig. 5.5.(b). In this case, Rotor Earth Fault relay forms
the three arms of a bridge whose fourth arm is the field winding
capacitance o Rotor body. During Rotor earth fault, this capacitance gets
shorted and the bridge becomes unbalanced operating the relay. Main
exciter winding, rotating diodes and Generator field winding is protected
by this relay.

5.4

Generator Interturn Fault Protection (95A,B, C) (Fig. 5.6)

Interturn faults have commonly been disregarded on the basis that if they
occur they will quickly develop into earth faults. This is probably true if the
fault is in the slot portion but will take a little longer in the region of the
end connection. An approach of this kind is never attractive and may be
entirely unjustified. There is a possibility of the machine being very
seriously damaged before the fault evolves to a condition that can be
detected by the longitudinal system.
Modern medium size and large size turbo generators have the stator
winding designed with only one turn per phase per slot. For these machine
Interturn faults can only occur in case of double ground faults or as a result
of severe mechanical damage of the stator end winding. The latter is
considered rather unlikely to occur.
It is generally considered difficult to obtain a reliable protection against
short- circuiting of one turn if the stator winding has a large number of turn
per phase.
For generators with split neutrals, the conventional inter-turn fault
protective scheme comprises a time delayed low set over-current relay
which senses the current flowing in the connection between the neutrals of

the stator winding. The fault current can be extensively large in case of
Interturn fault, hence the time delay must be short,
FIG. 5.6
FIG. 5.7
0.2 to 0.4 sec and the over current relay must be set higher than the
maximum unbalanced current in case of external faults and the minimum
unbalanced current for single turn short circuit have to be obtained from
the manufacturer of the machine.
Due to the difficulties in obtaining a reliable and secure interturn
protection, it is in most cases omitted. It is assumed that the Interturn fault
will lead to a single phase ground fault at the faulty spot, and the machine
will then be ripped by the ground fault relay within 0.3 0.4 secs.
Relay is show for one phase only. Similar connections are for other two
phases. Time delay of 200 sec. is provided to avoid operation of relay in
system disturbance condition.
5.5

Generator Negative Phase sequence Current Protection (46) (FIG.

5.7)
When the generator is connected to a balanced load, the phase currents
are equal in magnitude and displaced electrically by 120o. The ampere turn
wave produced by the stator currents rotate synchronously with the rotor
and no eddy currents are induced in the rotor parts.
Unbalanced loading gives rise to a negative sequence component in the
stator current. The negative sequence current produces an additional
ampere turn wave which rotates backwards, hence it moves relatively to
the rotor at twice the synchronous seed. The double frequency eddy
currents induced in the rotor may cause excessive heating, primarily in the
surface of cylindrical rotors and in the damper winding of rotors with
salient poles.
The approximate heating effect on the rotor of a synchronous machine for
various

unbalanced

fault

determined by the product

2
I 2t =

K, where

or

severe

load

unbalance

conditions

is

I2

Negative sequence current expressed per unit of stator current

(PU)
t

K =

Time in seconds
a constant depending on the heating characteristic of the machine
(rotor) i.e. type of machine and the method of cooling adopted for
rotor.

The capability of machine to withstand continuously unbalanced currents

is expressed as negative sequence current in percent of rated stator
current. Typical values for generators are given in table.
Type of generator

Max. permitted

Max. permitted

2
I2.t

continuous I2

Indirectly cooled

30

10

Directly cooled

(5 10)

(5 8)

40

10

40

(%)

Cylindrical rotor

Salient pole rotor with

Damper winding
Without damper winding

Single phase and specially two phase short circuits give rise to large
negative sequence currents. The faults are however, cleared by other
relays in a tie much shorter than the operate time of the negative
sequence relay.
A two phase short circuit with fault current equal to 3.46 (2 Sq.rt of 3) time
rated generator current implies a negative sequence current component
equal to twice the rate current (2 p.u.). Hence a negative sequence relay
with the setting.
2
I2t = 10s would trip with a time delay of
10 = 2.5 sec.
22
Example on load dissymetries which give rise to negative sequence
currents in the generator are 1.

Unbalanced single phase loads-Traction loads and induction furnaces.

2. Transmission line dissymetries due to capacitors, non-transposed
phase wire or open conductors (C.B. pole failure)

An open conductor may give rise to a considerable negative sequence

current, as a maximum of more than 50% of rated machine current. The
combination of two or more of the above mentioned dissymetries case
give rise to harmful negative phase sequence current, even if each of them
gives rise to a relatively small unbalance. The Fig. 5.7 will illustrate the
C.T. and circuit.
5.6

Generator Loss of Excitation Protection (40G) (Fig. 5.8)

A complete loss of excitation may occur as a result of
a. Unintentional opening of the field breaker
b. An open circuit or a short circuit of the main field
c. A fault in the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) with the result that the
field current is reduced to zero
When a generator with sufficient active load looses the field supply, it goes
out of synchronization and starts to run a synchronously at a speed higher
than the system, absorbing reactive power (VAR) for its excitation from the
system, operates as an induction generator.
The maximum active power that can be generated without loss of
synchronism when the generator losses its excitation depends on the
difference between the direct axis and quadrature axis synchronous
reactance. For generators with salient poles, the difference is normally
sufficiently large to keep the machine running synchronously; even with an
active load of 15=25% of rated load.
For cylindrical turbo generators, the direct ad quadrature axis reactance
are practically equal, and the machine falls out of synchronism even with a
very small active load. The slip speed increases with the active load.
The stator end regions and parts of the rotor will be overheated, if the
machine is permitted to run for a long time at higher slip seeds. The relay
used to detect field failure is an offset MHO Relay with 90 o lead MTA (40G).
on field failure, the terminal impedance locus moves within the Relay
characteristics, causing operation. The relay is used with an external or
built-in time delay for its transient free operation.
FIG. 5.8
FIG. 5.9

5.6.1 Out of Step Protection of Generator

A generator may lose synchronism with the power system, without failure
of the excitation system. Because of a severe system fault disturbance or
operation at a high load with a leading power factor and hence a relatively
weak field. In this condition, which is quite different from the failure of field
system,. The machine is subject to violent oscillations of torque, with vide
variations in current, power and power factor. Synchronism can be
regained if the load is sufficiently reduced but if this does not occur within
a few seconds it is necessary to isolate the generator and then
resynchronize.
The impedance of the generator measured at the stator terminals changes
mostly when synchronism is lost by the machine. The terminal voltage will
begin to decrease and the current to increase, resulting in a decrease of
impedance and also a change in power factor.
A pole slipping protection comprising of two ohm relays is used to detect
out of step operation. The relay monitors the load impedance at the
machine terminals and operates when the terminal impedance locus
sequentially crosses both ohm relay characteristics which corresponds to
one pole slip between the defaulting machine and the system.
5.7

Generator Minimum Impedance (MHO Back) Protection

(21G1, G2, G3):
The generator minimum impedance protection (or Impedance back-up
protection) is primarily provided to protect the Generator against
uncleared external short circuits on the lines emanating from the station
bus bars. The relay has an impedance or offset MHO characteristic and is
set to cover he impedance of the longest line. The Generator transformer
being delta/star, introduces a 30o phase shift on the HV side. To ensure
correct impedance measurement of the lines, the machine voltage fed to
the relay (via Generator V.Ts), is phase corrected by using Interposing
voltage transformers (delta/star) connected in the same vector group as
that of the Gen. Transformer.
The relay operation is delayed by using external or built-in timer so as to
discriminate with line back-up protections.
Over current type of back-up protection is also used for Generator. This is
usually of voltage restraint or voltage controlled type where the voltage

input from the Generator V.T. is used to sensitise the over current
protection on fault. This ensures [positive operation even though the
sustained fault current is less than the full load current of the machine due
to the effect of armature reaction. The over current backup is also set with
adequate time delay to coordinate with down stream backup protections.
5.8

Generator Differential Protection (87A,B,C) (fig. 5.10)

5.8.1 Principle of Operation

Current transformers at each end of the protected zone are interconnected
by an auxiliary pilot circuit as shown in Fig. 5.10. Current transmitted
through the one causes secondary current to circulate round the pilot
circuit without producing any current in the relay. A fault within the
protected zone will cause secondary currents of opposite relative phase as
compared with the thorough fault condition. The summated value of these
currents will flow in the relay, thus energizes the relay. The relay voltage
setting is decided from the secondary load drop buy the following formula.
Vmax = I11 (RCT + RL) where
I11 = Secondary subtransient short circuit current.
RL

= resistance of pilot wire between current transformer (CT) and relay.

RCT = resistance of the secondary winding of the saturated current

transformer.
The relay operating voltage is set higher than Vmax. The minimum
operating current depends mainly on the current setting of the relay, the
magnetizing characteristics current of the associated CTs and CT Ratio.
For internal faults, the fault current equal to or above the minimum
operating value of the relay, the voltage across the relay goes upto the
FIG. 5.10
Full saturation voltage of the CTs and the relay operates in 10-15 msec.
Non-linear Resistor (metrosils) across the differential relay limits the
voltage to a safe level. The primary operating current is normally between
1-5% of rated generator current. The relay requires separate CT cores.
The differential relay is usually high impedance relay. The current
transformers on the generator neutral and the line side shall have identical
turns ratio and similar magnetizing characteristics. Hence under normal

service

conditions

and

external

faults,

with

unsaturated

current

transformers, the voltage across the relay is negligible.

Biased

differential

relays

are

also

used

for

generator

differential

protection. The operating principle is same as that for the biased

differential protection of transformers. However, a moderate bias (10 to
20%) is adequate for Generator since the mismatch is primarily due to CT
errors, unlike in case of transformers where OLTC produces maximum
mismatch on end taps. Besides, inrush immunity is not required incase of
Generator, unlike in case of transformers.
5.9

Generator Overall differential Protection (87GT) (Fig. 5.1)

This protection is used to protect the complete bus of generator, generator
transformer and high voltage bus side of unit auxiliary transformer. The
special features of the relay are
1) Through current restraint for external faults
2) Magnetizing inrush restraint
3)

Over

excitation

restraint

to

counteract

operation

at

abnormal

magnetizing currents caused by high voltage/low frequency.

The magnetizing restraint is required to keep the relay stable when a
nearby fault on an adjacent feeder is cleared.
During the time of fault, the terminal voltage of the main transformer is
practically zero and after fault clearance i.e. when the circuit breaker of he
faulty feeder opens, the transformer terminal voltage quickly rises. This
may cause severe recovery inrush currents. The
FIG. 5.11
FIG. 5.12
inrush restraint is also required when the unit transformer is energized
from the HV bus.
The over excitation restraint is important since there is a possibility of over
voltage when load is suddenly disconnected in which the differential relay
may trip the generator and the voltage remains high until the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) brought it back to the normal value.

The relay has an unrestrained differential high set unit. The unrestrained
operation must be set higher than the maximum inrush current of the
transformer. It gives fast tripping (10-20m sec.) The CT and relay
connections are shown in Fig. 5.11.
5.10

Generator Reverse Power Protection (32) (Fig. 5.12)

This is basically the protection provided for the prime mover i.e. turbine. If
the driving torque becomes less such as closure of main steam valves in
case of steam turbo generator, the generator starts to work as a
synchronous compensator, taking the necessary active power from the
network. The reduction of steam flow reduces the cooling effect on the
turbine blades and overheating may occur. The work done by the
entrapped steam in the turbine is then zero. As generator is not designed
to run as a motor it should be immediately tripped when the steam flow to
the turbine is stopped and to avoid damage to the turbine blades.
The generator currents remain balanced when the machine is working as a
motor. For large turbo-generator, where the reverse power may be
substantially less than 1%, reverse power protection is obtained by a
minimum power relay, which normally is set to trip the machine when the
active power out put is less than 1% of rated value.
The relay contains directional current relay which measures the product IX
cos , where

is the angle between the polarizing voltage and the

current to the relay. The scale range used is 5-20mA for 1A and 30-120 mA
for 5A rated CT secondary currents. Time delay of 2 seconds is provided.
The detail connections of CT and relay are shown in Fig. 5.12.
5.11

Generator Over Frequency Protection

5.12

Generator Under Frequency Protection (14A/14T/81)

The Generators are designed to give rated output at rated terminal voltage
ad rated frequency. Hence an operation above certain limit i.e. +5% and
5% of rated frequency is avoided to protect various apparatus in a network
and also the generator and turbine. Operation at low frequency must be
limited, in order to avoid damage to generators, generator transformers
and turbines, (over fluxing may occur if frequency is less than rated).
In practice, prolonged generator operation at low frequency can only occur
when a machine with its local load is separated from the rest of the
network. The necessity of under frequency protection has to be evaluated

from knowledge of the network and characteristics of the turbine

regulator. A time delay of about 2 seconds is introduced in the tripping
circuit to avoid transient tripping.
5.13

Generator Thermal Overload Protection (51A/51B) (Fig. 5.13)

A generator operating on a large system under continuous supervision is
not in much danger of accidental overloading. The power that can be
generated is limited by the steam production and hence can not rise unnoticed or maintained for any appreciable period above the programmed
level. Overloads in terms of current or MVA as distinct from megawatts are
possible. Depending on the voltage regulator setting and type of control
relative to the rest of the system, a given generator may take a
disproportionate share of the MVAR load on the system. Overloads upto
1.4 times the rated current are not normally detected by the impedance or
overcurrent protection. Sustained overloads within this range are usually
supervised by temperature monitors (RTD/or thermocouples).
As an additional check of the stator winding temperature, an accurate
thermal overload relay may be used. With static relay it is possible to
obtain the short relay time constants required for adequate thermal
protection. The current overload relay are not expected to give exact
measurement of the winding temperature under all conditions.
FIG. 5.13
FIG. 5.14

5.14

Generator Overvoltage Protection (I/II (59A/59B) (Fig. 5.14)

During the starting up of a generator, prior to synchronization, he
Generator terminal voltage is obtained by the proper operation of the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR). After synchronization, the terminal
voltage of the machine will be dictated by its own AVR and also by the
voltage level of the system and the AVRS of nearby machines. It is not
possible for one machine to cause any appreciable rise in the terminal
voltage as long as it is connected to the system. Increasing the field
excitation, owing to a fault in the AVR, merely increases the reactive MVAR
output, which ay ultimately lead to tripping o the impedance relay or the
V/Hz. Relay. Maximum excitation limit prevents the rotor field current and
he reactive output power from exceeding the design limits.
This protection is used for the insulation level of the generator stator
windings. Severe over voltage will occur, if the generator circuit breaker is

tripped while the machine is running at fu load and rated power factor, the
subsequent increase in terminal voltage will normally be limited by a quick
acting AVR. However, if the AVR faulty or at this particular time switched
over to manual control, over voltage will occur. This voltage rise will be
further increased if simultaneous over speeding should occur, owing to a
slow acting turbine governor.
Modern unit transformers with high magnetic qualities have a relatively
sharp and well defined saturation level, with a knee point voltage between
1.2 and 1.25 times the rated voltage (Un). A suitable setting of the over
voltage relay is, therefore, between 1.15 and 1.2 times Un and with a
definite delay of 1 to 3 sec.
An instantaneous high set voltage relay can be included to trip the
generator quickly in case of excessive over voltage following a sudden loss
of load and generator over speeding.

GENERATOR PROTECTIONS AT A GLANCE

Protection

Cause

Effect
Insulation damage

Relay
Voltage Relay

Setting

Stator Earth

Short circuit in slots between

2-5% of normal

Fault

core & winding.

neutral voltage

Interturn short circuit Mech. or

t.d. 0.3 0.5 sec.

thermal damage to corona

Rotor Earth

preventive paint
Abnormal mech. or thermal

Fault

stresses due to vibrations,

Interturn fault

Overcurrent, overheating.
Interturn Short Circuit

Negative Phase

Unbalance loading

Sequence
Gen. Loss of
Exen.

1. Unintentional Opening of
field breaker.
2. An o/c or s/c in field. Winding

- do -

- do -

1-5% of voltage
injected.

-do -

Double Primary

0.5 to 1.5A

Excessive rotor

CT &O/C relay
O/C Relay

200 ms. to 1 sec.

5-10% of full load current

heating

(I2 based)

or as recommended by

Induction Generator

Impedance

manufacturer.
Dim = 0.5xXd pu

Asynchronous

Relay/Offset MHO

t.d. 2 sec.

Operation

Relay

Offset=0.75 Xdpu

3. Fault in AVR

Overheating of rotor
and stator end zone

Gen. Min.

Phase to phase short circuit in

impedance

stator winding on Gen. Bus

Load imp.

LV side for GTR

1/0.7=1.4 times rated

HV side of UAT and uncleared

current at rated voltage

Generator

MHO Relay

faults on the evacuation lines.

Internal fault

Differential Relay

Differential

70% of rated Gen.

1-1.5 msec.
1-5% of rated Gen.Current
10-15 msec.

Protection
Reverse Power

Failure of prime mover

Motoring damage to

Directional power

0.5% of rated power.

Protection
Low Forward

turbine blades
Over speeding

relay

t.d. 2 sec.

Upon an electrical tripping

Power
Over Frequency

prime mover fails to trip

Sudden loss of load.

Overspeed

Frequency Relay

Under

C.B. Opens with turbine ON

Increase in load

(Mech. Device)
Over fluxing (V/f)

Frequency
Over fluxing

Malfunctioning of AVR.

Aux. Speed falls

Overheating of stator

Frequency

Load throw-off with Excitation.

iron and transformer

Dependent

On manual, under frequency

iron parts

Voltage relay

Over Loading

operation
Overloading in-terms of current or

Temp. rise in stator

Static thermal

Set=Amb. Temp. +

Protection

MVA, Failure of coolant flow or

winding

over load relay

Temp. rise given on name

Over Voltage

temp.
Sudden loss of load at full load

Insulation damage

Voltage Relay

plate
110%-2 sec. t.d.

Protection

and rated p.f. and AVR fails or

- do -

- do -

- do +5%
t.d. 2 sec.
-5%
t.d. 2 sec.
V = 1 to 1.3
F
T = 3-5 sec.

115% - 120% Instt.

changeover to manual and

Local Breaker
Backup

generator Overspeed
GCB fails to trip

External sources

LBB Protection in

5-8%. In Set at 5%

feeding fault

conjunction with

t.d. 0-20 sec.

Bus Bar
protection

CHAPTER 6
BUS ZONE PROTECTION AND LOCAL
BREAKER
BACKUP PROTECTION
6.1

Introduction
With ever increasing short circuit levels and growing complexities of the
supply system, Busbar protection is becoming increasingly relevant even
at medium voltage level in Industrial Distribution system. Besides, major
Industrial installations with high contract demand and growth potential,
often get utility supply at Extra High Voltage (EHV) level i.e. 132 KV and
above where high speed bus bar protection is considered essential from
the point of view of system stability.
Local breaker backup protection (against stuck breaker condition) though
more prevalent in utility systems can be applied in industrial distribution
system at an advantage. This protection gets well with Bus Bar protection
as it can share common tripping logic with bus bar protection.

6.2

Bus Bar Protection - Requirements

6.2.1 Stability
It should be stable under maximum through fault condition with fault level
approaching switchgear breaking capacity.
6.2.2 High Speed Operation
Typical operating time range between 10-30 msecs. Fast clearance
enables maintaining system stability, besides limiting equipment damage
and also enables localised isolation of the faulted Busbar avoiding wide
spread disruption in the system.
6.2.3 Selectivity
It should be selective in isolating the faulted busbar, particularly in case of
multi-bus installations.
6.2.4

The protection should operate positively for internal fault, despite long
intervening quiescent periods, the bus faults being fewer and far apart.

6.2.5 Sensitivity

The protection should be adequately sensitive to clear low in feed faults,

particularly during minimum generating conditions.
6.2.6 Suitable for use with moderate C.T. ratings
This is necessary since the CTs have to handle high fault currents, worst
case being faults approaching switchgear breaking capacity.
6.2.6 Configurable to different Busbar arrangements
The busbar arrangement may undergo changes such as sectionalisation
and additional circuits may be connected in future. The protection should
be extendable to such configuration changes.
6.3

Types of Bus Bar Protection

The most commonly used bus bar protection system are:
1) System Protection covering Busbar
2) Differential protection

6.3.1 System Protections Covering Busbar

These are primarily local or remote backup protection such as over
current/earth fault relay on feeders/transformers or distance protection
provided on lines.
The distance protection for example, provides backup protection to
remote busbars in time delayed zone 2 or backup to local busbars in time
delayed zone 3 with a small reverse reach. The IDMT overcurrent. Earth
fault relays also provide similar backup protection to the connected circuits
against bus faults. However, these cannot be considered as primary
protection for busbar, being time delayed and non-selective.
6.3.2 Differential Protection
The differential protection is the primary protection for bus bar against
both phase and earth faults. Practical bus differential schemes have all the
ingredient as spelled out under 6.2 above.
6.3.2.1

Operating Principle of Differential Protection

The protection uses a circulating current arrangement, with CTs of

identical ratio and ratings on all incoming and outgoing circuits having heir
secondaries connected in parallel (phase by phase) to form a replica of the
primary bus bar arrangement. The differential relay is connected across
the CT secondary bus wires.

For external faults, the summated inflow from healthy circuits is equal to
the outflowing current from faulted circuit and thus the currents are
balanced, with no differential current through the relay. For internal fault,
however, all CTs see inflow of current into the bus. The secondary
currents, therefore, add up into the relay branch. Typical current
distribution for external and internal fault is shown in Fig. 6.3.2.1.
The above illustration, considers ideal current transformers with no errors
which is too simplistic an assumption. In practice, CTs have errors and may
experience unequal saturation due to remnant flux in the core and
dissimilarities in their magnetizing characteristics, particularly if the fault
current is asymmetrical having a slowly decaying d.c. component. This
may produce transient unbalance, causing operation of the high speed
differential

relay.

The

practical

differential

protection

for

busbars,

circumvent this problem either by making the relay branch high

impedance or providing a through current bias, thereby, automatically
increasing he pickup threshold of the differential relay, above the expected
unbalance current, on through faults. Two types of bus bar protection
schemes are in vogue:
1. High Impedance
2. Low Impedance (Biased)
6.3.2.2
1.

High Impedance Scheme (Fig. 6.3.2.2)

The relay branch is made high impedance either by using a voltage
operated high impedance relay or by connecting an external series
resistor (stabilizing resistor) in case of current operated differential
relay.
FIG. 6.3.2.1: CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
FIG. 6.3.2.2: TYPICAL C.T. CONNECTION
FIG.6.3.2.3 : C.T. SUPERVISION

2.

This type of protection requires special class PS CTs (with low turns
ratio errors) of identical ratio and ratings on al circuits. Exclusive CT
cores are required for high impedance schemes which cannot share
common CT cores with other protections.

3.

High impedance schemes are primarily fundamental frequency

turned, over current or over voltage relays and hence simple in
design and execution.

6.3.2.3

Supervision

The differential protection has a fail safe design. Consequently, the relay
becomes potentially unstable for any open circuit or cross connection in
the CT secondary of he associated feeders. The maloperation of the Busbar
protection can be prevented on load under the above condition by setting
the pick up threshold of the differential element over and above the
maximum loaded circuit current. However, the relay may still maloperate
on a through fault, if the CT secondary open circuit goes undetected. A
maloperation of busbar protection could be catastrophic, particularly in
interconnected system and hence continuous supervision of CT secondary
is required as an additional safeguard.
The supervision relay is an AC voltage relay, connected across the
differential relay branch, having a sensitive setting range (usually 2 14
volts) and a fixed time delay to prevent transient operation on internal
faults. The relay is connected to sound an alarm and short CT secondary
Bus wires, on operation. Typical circuit arrangement for CT supervision
relay is shown in Fig. 6.3.2.3.
6.3.2.4

Check Feature

Since stability is a very critical parameter of busbar protection, additional

check feature is usually provided in high impedance schemes to enhance
security against possible maloperation.
The check feature is operated off a separate CT core on all incoming and
outgoing circuits connected to the bus and is a virtual duplication of the
main differential system. The contacts of the main and check
FIG. 6.3.2.4 (a): TWO ZONE CHECK FEATURE
differential relay are connected in series so that tripping is conditioned by
simultaneous operation of both for an internal fault the check zone
provides a two fold advantage.
1.

It enhances security in Multi-Bus Installations where CT switching

becomes inevitable for zonal discrimination.

2.

It enables sensitive setting to be adopted on differential relay without

the risk of maloperation with CT open circuiting under maximum load
condition.

A typical 2 zone scheme for sectionalized busbars with check feature is

illustrated in Fig. 6.3.2.4.

6.3.2.5

C.T. Switching

In case of multi bus arrangement (2 Bus/3 Bus arrangement), CT

secondaries of incoming/outgoing circuits are required to be switched to
form a secondary replica of the primary Bus arrangement to achieve zonal
discrimination. This is done either by using the bus isolator Auxiliary
contacts of individual circuits or by using separate contact multiplication
relay of Electrical reset type as shown in the Fig. 6.3.2.5.
6.4

LOW IMPEDANCE SCHEME (BIASED)

Typical CT connection for the scheme is shown in Fig. 6.4.0. Low
impedance Bus differential relay is primarily a biased differential relay
where the through current bias (restraint) increases the pickup threshold
of differential relay on external fault to ensure stability. The low impedance
relay is more tolerant to CT mismatch and can share common CT core with
other protections. Practical low impedance schemes provide CT saturation
detectors to enhance stability.

6.5

LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP (LBB) PROTECTION

6.5.1 Introduction
In EHV substations, reliability of fault detection is enhanced by providing
duplicated protections (either Main 1/Main 2 or Main and Backup
Protection). At the upper end of the EHV levels, the D.C. sources for
protection are also duplicated for better redundancy.
FIG. 6.3.2.5(a): TYPICAL C.T. SWITCHIG ARRANGEMENT
FIG. 6.4.0: LOW IMPEDANCE SCHEME
(BIASED)
Besides, the control breakers are provided with duplicated trip coils. All
these measures, undoubtedly improve the reliability of fault detection and

isolation. However, the possibility of mechanical failures of the switchgear

or interrupter flash overs can not be covered by these means for obvious
reasons. A failure of the breaker may therefore, result inspite of correct
operation of the protection and envergisation of trip coils. This situation
can be corrected by providing local breaker backup (LBB) or breaker fail
protection.
6.5.2 Operating Principle
LBB protection comes into operation, only if, the breaker fails to trip,
following energisation of its trip coi8l, through the circuit trip relays. The
main ingredient of LBB protection, is a current check relay initiated by the
circuit trip relays and a follower timer. The current check relay, on
initiation, check the presence of the current in the faulted circuit and if it
persists beyond a preset time, proceeds to trip all other circuits connected
to the Busbar to which the stuck breaker is connected, thereby, ensuring
local isolation. Tripping of remote breaker is also initiated through a
separate carrier channel, in case of line breakers to arrest infeeds from
remote end. A typical simplified LBB scheme is shown in Fig. 6.5.2 to
illustrate its operating principle.
The circuit protections (M1/M2/BU) on operation initiate CB tripping and
simultaneously trigger LBB current check relay by extending DC. The LBB
protection, therefore, gets initiated on operation of the circuit protection
and hence does not require any time co-ordination with the circuit
protections. Besides a much sensitive setting can be provided in the
current check relay, independent of the circuit loadings. Typical setting
range for the current check relay and follower timer and recommended
settings are give below.
Application

Current check relay

Range
Recommend

Follower Timer
Range
Recommend

ed
Generator
Circuit
All other
circuits
(TFRs/Lines/Bu
s Couplers etc.

ed

5 80%

Setting
5%

0.1 1 secs.

Setting
0.2 secs

20 320%

20%

0.1 1 secs.

0.2 secs.

FIG. 6.5.2(a): TYPICAL LBB SCHEM AC/DC CIRCUITS

FIG. 6.5.2(b):
FIG. 6.5.3: COMBAINED BUS BAR PROTECTION/LBB
A more sensitive setting is generally adopted for Generator application, in
view of the fact that a stuck breaker situation for certain abnormal
conditions like motoring, may involve very low current infeeds.
6.5.3 Combined Tripping Logic for LBB/Bus Bar Protection
Where Busbar protection is contemplated, the LBB scheme can share
common trip logic/tripping relays with Busbar protection. A typical
combined Busbar protection/ LBB scheme is shown in Fig. 6.5.3 of 2 Bus
Installation.
6.5.4 Setting Criteria for LBB Timer
The LBB time delay is primarily influenced by the tripping time of the
breaker and the reset time of the current check relay on correct tripping of
the breaker. Besides, adequate safety margin is also to be allowed. The
timing criteria is explained on a time scale below.

TLLB = TCB + TDO + TM - TPU

Where

TLLB - LBB Follower timer setting

TCB - Breaker Tripping time
TDO - Drop off time of current check relay
TPU - Pick up time of current check relay
TM - Safety Margin

Usually a time delay of 200 msecs. Is adopted which allows sufficient time
co-ordination with remote back up protection.

- oOo -

7.
7.1

DISTRIBUTION FEEDER PROTECTION

Introduction
Industrial Power Distribution systems make extensive use of cable feeders
for example, between captive generation Bus or Grid Supply Bus, to load
centers/Power control centers. These feeders are often radial or some
times form part of a ring main systems. While IDMT over current/earth
fault protection is mostly used for radial distribution feeders particularly in
the tail end unit type protections, such as pilot wire protection are also
sometimes used on critical feeders.
The unit protections are highly selective, sensitive and fast in operation,
but do not have any back up capabilities. The IDMT protection on the
contrary, are simple and economical but slower in operation to necessitate
time coordination between adjacent sections for selective trippings. IDMT
relays, however, provide excellent backup protection to the down stream
system.

7.2

Unit Protection
The principle of unit systems was first established by Merz and Price. This
fundamental differential system have formed the bases of may highly
developed protective arrangements for feeders and many other plant
equipments. Two forms of different schemes are available.
a) Circulating Current System
b) Balanced voltage system

7.2.1 Circulating Current System

In this arrangement current transformers of identical ratio and ratings are
provided at each end of the protected zone and are interconnected by
secondary pilots as shown in Fig. 7.2.1(a).
For external faults, the two end CTs see equal inflow and outflow
producing a circulating current between the C.T. secondary and pilots,
with no differential current through the relay. For an in-zone fault,
however, the secondary currents have a additive polarity and, hence the
summated current flows through the relay, causing operation.
FIG. 7.2.1(a): CIRCULATING CURREN SYSTEM

FIG.7.2.2 (a): BALANCED VOLTAGE SYSTEM

FIG. 7.2.3(a): TYPICAL SUMMATION C.T.
In practice, unequal saturation of the CTs can cause increased spill current
through the relay on external faults, producing instability. The problem is
normally overcome by making the relay branch high impedance by
adding series stabilizing resistor.
7.2.2 Balanced Voltage System
In balance voltage system, the CT secondary outputs are opposed for
through fault so that no current flows in the series connected relay. An inzone fault however, produce a circulating current causing operation. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.2.2.(a).
In the above arrangement, external fault would ineffect cause a CT open
circuit condition as no secondary current would flow. To avoid excessive
saturation of the core, the core is provided with non-magnetic gaps to
absorb the maximum primary m.m.f. The secondary winding therefore
would produce an e.m.f. and can be regarded a voltage source.
The inherent CT errors and pilot capacitance would produce substantial
spill current through the relay on through fault, causing instability. The
problem is overcome by providing a through current bias (restraint) which
increases the differential pickup approximately proportional to the through
fault current, thereby ensuring stability.
7.2.3 Summation Arrangement
In 3 phase systems, independent protection can be provided for each
phase, using phase comparison of the two end currents. This would
however, require a minimum 4 core pilot adding up to the cost. An
alternative is to combine the separate phase currents into a single
quantity for comparison over a pair of pilots. This is achieved by using
summation current transformers.
A typical summation C.T. is shown in Fig. 7.2.3 (a)
The interphase section of the summation winding (i.e. A-B & B-C) usually
have equal number of turns and the neutral end winding (C-N) having
greater number of turns.
The above summation arrangement would produce output for both
balanced as well as unbalanced faults. Moreover, the relay offers different

sensitivities for different types of faults depending upon the phases

involved. In the summation arrangement illustrated, the associated relay
will have highest sensitivity for A-C and A-N faults.
7.2.4 Supervision of Pilots
The pilot circuits are subjected to various hazards which can cause open
circuit or short circuit of the pilot cores. While overhead pilots are
vulnerable to storms, buried pilots may be damaged during excavation.
The pilot failure may lead to either mal-operation or non-operation of the
protection and hence continuous supervision of the healthiness of he pilots
become necessary.
This is achieved by injecting a small d.c. current though the pilot from one
end and monitoring its presence at the other end by energizing an
auxiliary relay. The auxiliary relay resets in the event of any discrepancy
in the pilots and sounds an alarm. A small time delay is introduced to
prevent transient operation due to primary system faults, causing
momentary dip in the auxiliary supply.
Overcurrent check feature may also be incorporated to prevent tripping on
load in the event of a pilot open circuit condition as it may lead to
instability.

7.3

IDMT Overcurrent & Earth Fault Protection

While at the lower end of the distribution system (particularly at low
Voltage Levels), fuses or series connected trip coils operating on Switching
devices, are used for short circuit protection. IDMT over current/earth fault
relay find wide application at medium voltage levels.
As

the name

implies,

IDMT

relays

have

an

Inverse

time/current

characteristic (i.e. The operating time is inversely proportional to the

current) and a Definite Minimum Time (DMT) for high multiples of setting
current. The time/current characteristic is usually represented on a
logarithmic scale and gives the operating time at different multiples of
setting current for the maximum Time Multiplier Setting (TMS). The TMS
is continuously adjustable giving a range of time/current characteristic.
7.3.1 IDMT Characteristic Variations and their Applications
There are different variations of IDMT Characteristics. These are

i) Standard Inverse

t = 0.14/(10.02-1)

ii) Very inverse

t = 13.5/(I-1)
t = 80/(I2-1)

iii) Extremely Inverse

iv) Long inverse

t = 120/(I-1)

Where t = Relay operating time (seconds)

And

I = Current (as multiple of Plug setting)

Fig. 7.3.1(a) shows the above characteristic at the max. time multiplier
setting of I.O
While standard Inverse Characteristic covers majority of he applications,
very invese characteristic is particularly useful here there is a substantial
reduction in the fault current as the distance from the power source
increases. Extremely Inverse characteristic is particularly suitable in
grading with fuses (the operating time being inversely proportional to the
square of the current, the characteristic eminently matches with the fuse
characteristic). Long Inverse characteristic is primarily used for overload
protection or earth fault protection in resistance grounded systems.
The IDMT relays provide both time and current grading to achieve
discrimination between successive stages in the distribution system.
7.3.2 Grading Margin
The time interval (grading margin) between adjacent relay for selective
operation depends upon following factors.
i)

Circuit Breaker tripping time

ii)

Over shoot time of the relay

iii)

Relay timing errors

iv)

Safety Margin

The table below gives typical allowance to be made for the above factors.
FIG. 7.3.1(a).:IDMT CHARACTERISTICS
FIG.7.3.3.1 (a)

Timing Error (%)

Over Shoot (Sec)
Safety Margin (Sec)

EM Relay
7.5
0.05
0.1

Static Relay
5.0
0.03
0.05

A suitable grading margin can be calculated as follows:

T2 = (2ER/100) x t + TCB + To + TSM
Where t2 = time interval between adjacent relays
t = Relay nominal operating time
ER = % Timing error as given by manufacturer
TCB = Circuit Breaker tripping time (seconds)
Te = Relay over shoot (seconds)
TSM = Safety Margin (seconds)
Typically a grading margin of 0.3 o 0.4 second is considered adequate.
7.3.3.1

IDMT relays supplemented by High set Instantaneous over

current elements

Particularly on transformer feeders or long distribution feeders connected

to strong sources here there is a substantial reduction in the fault infeed
for faults beyond the protected section, high set instantaneous over
current element is often incorporated with the IDMT over current relay.
The high set element is set over and above the infeeds for fault beyond
the protected equipment/section such that it remains stable for such
faults, while at the same time, offers high speed clearance for close up
faults within the section.
A typical example for High set over current application is given in Fig.
7.3.3.1(a).
H.S. o/c setting at A = 1.3 x 3000
= 3900 Amp (primary)
= 6.5 Amp (secondary)
The relay thus remains stable for faults beyond station, B, but would
offer instantaneous clearance for close up faults in section A-B.
The initial fault current may be asymmetrical with slowly decaying d.c.
offset. To enable close setting above the steady sate through fault current,
the highest element should immune to the d.c offset. Such immunity is
defined in terms of transient over reach which should be low. Relays with
less than 5% transient over-reach are available.
The high set unit also improves overall grading as the IDMT relays are now
required to be time coordinated up to highest setting current and not upto
the maximum short circuit current close to relaying point.

7.3.3.2

Directional IDMT Relays

When fault current can flow in both direction at the relay location,
directional IDMT over current/earth fault can be used at an advantage to
ensure selective tripping. Usually a separate directional element is
provided which controls the operation of the IDMT over current relay. The
directional unit is basically a power measuring device in which the relative
direction or phase of the fault current is checked with reference to the
system voltage.
Typical CT/VT input connection and Vector diagram for directional over
current and earth fault relay is shown in Fig. 7.3.3.2 a/b and Fig. 7.3.3.2
c/d.
Referring to A phase element, the voltage coil flux lags the input volts Vac
by 45o, whereas the current coil flux is in phase with current IA. Since the
torque is function of v x 1 sin a, where v = voltage coil flux, 1 =
current coil flux and a = Angle between the two interacting fluxes,
maximum torque will be produced when a = 90o. The maximum torque
will, therefore be realized when IA lags

VA by 45o (IA). The operational

range of the directional element will be 45o lead to 135o lag as shown in he
vector diagram.

7.3.3.3

Typical Applications of Directional IDMT Relay

Following are the typical application of directional IDMT Relays.

1)

Parallel Feeders: Directional relays are used at the receiving end

of he parallel

feeders to ensure selective tripping as shown in Fig.

7.3.3.3.1 (a).
FIG. 7.3.3.2(a): Directional O/C relay Quadrature Connection
FIG. 7.3.3.2(b): VECTOR DIG. FOR 45O LEAD MTA FOR
QUADRATURE
CONNECTION FOR A PHASE RELAY.
FIG. 7.3.3.2(c): DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAY CONNECTION
FIG. 7.3.3.2(d): VECTOR DIG. FOR DIRECTIOAL E/F RELAY

FIG.7.3.3.3.1 (a): PARALLEL FEEDER PROTECTION.

FIG.7.3.3.3.2 (a)
Referring to the figure above, for a fault on CKT2, while the relay at
Receiving End (B) on CKT2, sees an infeed in its looking direction and
operates, the relay on CKT 1 sees a current flow inn the reverse direction
and restrains. By time coordinating the relays at, A and B, a selective
tripping can be obtained. Besides the directional relays at End B are non
responsive to downstream faults and hence do not require any time
coordination with downstream backup, thereby enabling a relatively faster
clearance.
2)

Ring Main System: Directional relays are used for Ring Mains. A

typical example is shown in Fig. 7.3.3.2 (a). While the source end station
(A), can have non-directional relays (in view of no possibility of infeed
reversal), the intermediate stations should have directional relays looking
into the feeders.
The time grading can be worked out by considering the rid open at one
side of the supply point, reducing it to radial system and grade from the
tail end. The same procedure can be repeated by opening the grid on the
other side, at the supply point.
Directional IDMT relays are also used on the feeders between Grid supply
and captive supply Bus for selective tripping and improved coordination.
-oOo-

CHAPTER 8
LINE PROTECTION (DISTANCE SCHEMES)
8.1

Introduction
Distance Protection is one of the most extensively used form of protection
for transmission and sub-transmission lines. Distance relay, primarily
measures the impedance of the line between the relaying point and fault
point and compares it with the setting impedance to ascertain whether the
fault is within the zone or outside. Practical distance relays have normally
3 zones of operation an instantaneous first zone and time delayed
backup zone 2 and 3.
When applied in conjunction with a signaling channel, it provides selective,
high speed protection for he line in question, and also a time delayed
backup to the adjoining lines through its second and third zone, thereby
combining the advantages of a unit as well as non-unit protection.
The heart of a distance protection is a comparator which carries out the
impedance measurement. Several impedance measuring characteristics
are available covering both short and long lines, which are discussed
below.

8.2

Measuring Characteristics
The various measuring characteristics and heir applications are described
below:

8.2.1 Impedance Characteristic (Fig. 8.2.1)

An impedance characteristic is represented by a circle with its center at
the origin on the R-X diagram, and its radius equal to its reach setting.
The characteristic is produced by using an amplitude comparator and does
not take into account the phase relationship between the voltage and
current.
The impedance characteristic is non-directional and is highly susceptible
to power swings and load encroachment because of its larger coverage on
FIG. 8.2.1: IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC

FIG. 8.2.2.1(a): SELF POLARISED MHO CHARACTERISTIC

FIG. 8.2.2.2(a): CROSS POL MHO CHARACTERISTIC
the R-X plane. This characteristic is normally used for fault detection or as
a time delayed backup zone.
8.2.2. MHO Characteristic (Or Directional Impedance Characteristic)
There are three principle variations of MHO characteristic.
a) Self Polarised MHO
b) Cross Polarised MHO
c) Offset MHO
8.2.2.1

Self Polarised MHO (Fig. 8.2.2.1.a)

The self Polarised Mho characteristic is a circle whose circumference

passes through the origin and diameter represents the setting impedance
or Replica Impedance (ZR) at an angle .
MHO Characteristic has an angle dependant reach (being maximum along
the setting Impedance angle) and is directional. It is less prone to power
swings/load encroachment due to its restricted coverage on the R-X plane,
particularly along the Resistive Axis.
8.2.2.2

Cross Polarised MHO (Fig. 8.2.2.2a)

The cross polarised Mho characteristic is produced by deriving the

polarizing

voltage

reference

from

healthy

phase(s).

While

the

characteristic is directional and has an angle dependant reach, it provides

increased tolerance to fault resistance since the characteristic expands
along the resistive axis for forward, unbalanced faults. This happens due to
the healthy phase polarization.
This characteristic is eminently suitable for short lines tied up to weak
sources where the fault arc resistance may be comparable to line
impedance. The degree of expansion depends upon the source to line
Impedance (ZS/ZL) ratio, being more at higher ZS/ZL ratio. The relay, thus
provides enhanced resistive coverage hen the source is weak or the source
impedance is high.
8.2.2.3

Offset MHO Characteristic

The offset MHO characteristic encloses the origin providing a small

coverage for faults behind the relaying point as shown in Fig. 8.2.2.2(a).

The relay is then said to be having a reverse offset. A forward offset, on

the contrary sets the characteristic away from the origin.
The offset MHO characteristic is used for zone 3 (when provided with
reverse offset) primarily as a back up against Busbar faults. Forward offset
is used for producing certain specially shaped characteristics as indicated
in Fig. 8 described later.
8.2.3 Reactance Characteristic (Fig. 8.2.3.a)
The reactance characteristic is represented by a line parallel to the
Resistive Axis while ZLL represents the line impedance, XR represents the
setting Reactance.
The reactance characteristic is ideally suitable for short lines because of
its high resistive coverage. The characteristic is however, non-directional
and requires to be monitored by some directional characteristic, as shown
by he dotted MHO circle in Fig.8.2.3a) when used for distance protection.
Besides the above standard characteristics, there are some shaped
characteristics to cover special applications. These are described below.
8.2.4 Lenticular Characteristic (Fig. 8.2.4a)
The characteristic is called lenticular because of its lens shape. While it
provides the required coverage along the line impedance angle, the
resistive coverage is restricted.
The characteristic is suitable for long over loaded lines and is often used
for Zone 3 where load encroachment problem may be encountered. The
lenticular characteristic invariably has a small reverse coverage.
8.2.5 Figure 8 Characteristic (Fig. 8.2.5a)
The characteristic is produced by two offset MHO circles, the lower one
having a small reverse offset where as the upper circle having a forward
offset. The composite characteristic looks like the figure of 8 and hence
the name. Here again the characteristic limits coverage along the resistive
axis.
FIG. 8.2.2.3(a): OFFSET MHO CHARACTERISTIC
FIG. 8.2.3(a): REACTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

FIG. 8.2.4(a): LENTIC CHARACTERISITC

FIG. 8.2.5(a): FIG.8: CHARACTERISTIC
FIG. 8.2.6(a): QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC
FIG. 8.3.0(a): TIME DISTANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A
3 ZONE DISTANCE SCHEME
The characteristic is thus less prone to load encroachment and hence
applied for long lines, evacuating bulk power.
8.2.6 Quadrilateral characteristic (Fig. 8.2.6a)
The characteristic is of the shape of a quadrilateral and fully directional.
Both the resistive and reactive reaches are independently adjustable.
The characteristic is, therefore, ideally suitable for very short lines,
requiring high fault resistance coverage.
8.3

Zones of Protection
Conventional distance relays have normally 3 zones of protection namely
an instantaneous zone 1 and time delayed zone 2/zone 3. Correct
coordination between distance relays on adjacent lines in a power system,
is achieved by judiciously selecting the reach and time settings of the
various zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3 zone scheme is
shown in Fig. 8.3.0(a).
Associated time delays Zt Inst, Z2-t2, Z3-t3.
The settings criteria for various zones is given below:
Zone 1

- 80 85% of the protected Section

Zone 2

- Protected section + 50% of shortest adjoining

Section or 120% of the protected section whichever
is greater.

Zone 3

- Protected section + Longest adjoining section.

The zone 1, being instantaneous, is set under-reaching with a margin of

about 15 20% to account for possible relay/CT/PT errors and inaccuracies
in the line impedance parameters. The zone 2 is primarily intended to
cover he last 15-20% of the protected section, and hence is set to over-

reach the remote busbars bars with similar margin, to account for possible
under-reaching due to relay/CT/PT errors. The Zone 2 covers up to 50% of
the shortest adjoining section and ensures that it does not overlap with
the zone 2 of adjoining section, thus avoiding coordination problem.
However, if the shortest adjoining section is too short, compared to the
protected section, the margin against possible under-reaching may not be
adequate. In such an eventuality, the zone 2 can be set to cover 120% of
the protected section.
Zone 3 protection is intended as a backup against uncleared external
faults and hence set to cover the longest adjoining line. The zone 3 setting
should, however, be checked against possible load encroachment,
particularly in case of long heavily loaded lines.
8.4

Phase Sequence comparator for MHO characteristic

The MHO characteristic as shown in Fig. 8.2.2.1(a) can be produced by
using a sequence comparator with inputs derived from the current and
voltages from the transmission line. The input for the measuring circuit for
a plain MHO characteristic are V (fault voltage) from the line V.T., and IZ,
from the replica impedance Z fed with line current I through the
current transformer. The above inputs referred to a single phase system
are shown in Fig. 8.4.0(a).
The voltage IZ is a replica of voltage which would be resented to the relay
for a fault at a location equivalent to its reach point. The reach of the relay
is set by adjusting the relative magnitudes of V and I.Z. and the
characteristic angle is set by adjusting the phase angle of the Replica
Impedance Z. The measuring circuit operated by deriving the signals VIZ and V -90 o and feeding these to the sequence comparator. If inputs VIZ lags V -90o, the fault lies inside the characteristic whereas if V-IZ leads
V -90o the comparator restrains since the fault is external. Signal V 90o is known as the polarizing signal which provides a reference for
comparing the lag or lead relationship of the other input V-IZ. The MHO
characteristic with the input signals is illustrated in Fig.8.4.0 (b).

8.4.1 Principle of comparator

The above inputs V-IZ and V -90o are sinusoidal quantities of power
frequency denomination. Since the sequence comparator compares only
the lag or lead relationship of the input signals, only phase angle
information and not amplitude of inputs is important. The inputs are,

FIG. 8.4.0(a)
FIG. 8.4.0(b): SEQUENCE COMPARATOR VOLTAGES
FOR MHO CHARACTERISTIC
Therefore, filtered to remove the unwanted frequency components and
then squared, so that they retain the phase angle information of the
original sinusoidal inputs.
To understand the operation of the comparator, the input square wave A
and B, which have either a high or low value can be regarded as logic
variables. If the high and low state of the input signals is represented as A
B and A B respectively, there are four possible combinations of their state
i.e. A B, A B, A B, and A B. if both signals have unity mark space ratio and
equal time periods, the four combinations will occur in a cyclic manner,
with only two possible variations.
If A leads B, the sequence would be A B, A B, A
B, the sequence would be A B, A B,

B and A B and if A lags

Band A B.

The comparator has a logic circuit which examines the input signals at
every change of state to see which of the two sequence are being followed
and determines whether the same is progressing in a tri or restraint
condition. The circuit can identify a trip or restraint condition from a single
change of state and from any starting point from the cycle. However, a
single change of state may be deceptive, if the input signals are laden
with noise, since noise signals may alter the zero crossings and reverse
the sequence momentarily. Greater security is therefore obtained, if
tripping is conditioned by a number of status changes corresponding to a
trip sequence. The comparator has a counter to determine the number of
status changes. Every acceptable change corresponding to a tri sequence
increments the counter while a change corresponding to restraint
condition decrements the counter to a minimum of zero. The criteria for
operation is usually a count of 3 or 4.
Referring to the figure 8.4.2(a) and (b), the noise signals introduces an
extra pair of zero crossing one adding to the total count and the other
subtracting. After each such interference, the counter is in the same
FIG. 8.4.1: RESTRAI LOGIC SEQUENCES

(a)

FOR COMPARATOR
FIG. 8.4.1: OPERATE LOGIC
(b) SEQUENCES FOR COMPARATOR
FIG. 8.4.2(a): BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY
FIG 8.4.2(b) : BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY

Position as before. The comparator, therefore, renders inherent noise

rejection.
8.4.2 Polarising input to the Comparator
The polarising input provides a reference for comparison for the other
input. It is, therefore, imperative that the polarising voltage is always
available irrespective of the location of the fault (close up) and the number
of phases involved.
This is achieved by supplementing the faulted phase input, with either the
healthy phase voltage or memory voltage. While healthy phase voltage
would maintain polarising reference for close up unbalanced faults,
memory polarization caters for symmetrical (3 phase) faults.
The healthy phase or memory polarization eventually produced resistive
expansion of the characteristic, thereby enhancing fault resistance
coverage. The memory signal is usually extended for a substantial length
of time to enable positive operation of the relay on close u three phase
faults.
8.5.0 Additional Features of Distance Relays
The practical distance protection has several standard/optional features,
these are:i)

Power Swing Blocking

ii)

V.T. Supervision and

iii)

Switch on to fault.

8.5.1 Power Swing Blocking

Power Swing characterized by cyclic changes in current, voltage and
power, are produced when the induced voltage of generators at different
locations in an interconnected system, slip relative to each other to adjust
to the changes in power transfers (in magnitude and direction) following
system faults. The tandem variations in voltage and current during a

swing, presents a changing impedance to a distance relay, with the

impedance locus moving away from the load area towards the relay
characteristic. The distance relay, is therefore, prone for operation
During a swing and is required to be blocked, to allow the power system,
to return to stable conditions, during recoverable swings.
The principle of power swing blocking is illustrated in Fig. 8.5.1(a).
Considering a Generator (represented by EG, XG) connected to a system
(represented by ES, XS) through a transmission line (Impedance ZL), when
the angle of displacement between EG & ES widens, the impedance moves
towards he relay characteristic. The impedance locus is a perpendicular
bisector of the total impedance line (i.e. XG + ZL + ZS) when EG = ES or
takes a curvilinear path when EG is either greater of less than ES and
shown in Fig. 8.5.1(b).
The detection of power swing is achieved by monitoring the rate of change
of impedance or conversely the time required for the impedance locus to
traverse the impedance gap between the PSB characteristic and the
outermost tripping zone i.e., zone 3. if the time measured is less than the
set time on timer T, it is considered as a power swing and blocking is
applied to the selected zones (Fig. 8.5.1c).
Since power swing is a balanced 3 phase phenomena there is no residual
current during a power swing. However, if a residual current is detected,
as would happen during earth faults, following a power swing, power swing
blocking is inhibited, using a neutral current level detector (NCD) as shown
in the logic diagram, (Fig. 8.5.1d). the blocking is effective as long as the
impedance locus stays within the PSB characteristic or until a set time
delay, as required.
8.5.2 Voltage Transformer Supervision
Distance relays are primarily voltage restraint relays and would tend to
operate in the event of loss of V.T. supply due to say a blown off
secondary fuse. The condition is therefore, required to be guarded against,
to prevent undesirable operation on load. The V.T. supervision logic used
in practical distance schemes is explained below (Ref. Fig. 8.5.2).
FIG. 8.5.1(a)

FIG. 8.5.1(b)
FIG.8.5.1(c ) IMPEDANCE DIAG
FIG.8.5.1: PSB LOGIC
FIG.8.5.2: VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER SUPERVISION

The VTs logic monitors either Zero Sequence of Negative sequence current
and voltage at the terminal of the relay. Discrimination between a primary
system fault and a blown off P.T. fuse or secondary wiring discrepancy is
obtained by blocking the distance protection only when zero or negative
sequence voltage is detected without the appearance of zero or negative
current, as shown in the logic diagram.
When MCBs are used for controlling the VT supply, an auxiliary contact of
the same is used to block the protection on operation of the MCB. This is
normally done by cutting off the scheme d.c. supply through a normally
open contact of the MCB.
8.5.3 Switch on to fault (SOFT) Feature
As explained before, the polarizing voltage signal is required for the
distance relay under all fault conditions for correct measurement and
directional measurement and directional discrimination. However, the
polarizing voltage signal may completely vanish for a close-up 3 phase
fault. The memory polarization where provided, will certainly help to
maintain the polarizing signal provided he relay has seen a prefault
voltage before. However, when a dead line is energized with its earthling
clamps left inadvertently in position, after a maintenance shutdown and if
the associated distance protection is fed from line voltage transformers,
the memory polarization also will not help for obvious reasons. To guard
against such eventuality, parallel switch-on to fault (SOFT) trip logic is
provided in all distance relays as standard feature, using voltage and
current level detectors, as illustrated in Fig.8.5.3 (a).
The SOFT logic is enabled only after the voltage and current level
detectors of all the 3 phases are in a de-energized status for a preset time
interval, signifying that the line is initially dead. When the line is energized

subsequently with a close-up 3 phase fault already existing the current

level detectors picking up simultaneously. The SOFT trip is thus activated
after a short time delay of about 20 msec. The time delay is provided to
swamp possible difference in the response time of the current
FIG. 8.5.3(a): SIMPLIFIED SOTF TRIP LOGIC
FIG. 8.6.0(a): 3 STEP DISTANCE CHARACTERISTIC
(c) SIMPLIFIED SOLID STATE LOGIC
And voltage level detector (the formal being faster) to permit healthy
switching. Besides, current/voltage level detector, any zone comparator
operation during the initial period of charging, activates SOFT trip,
bypassing time delays associated with the zone 2/zone 3 comparators.
8.6

Carrier Aided Schemes

The

distance

protection

covers

about

80-85%

of

the

line

in

its

instantaneous first zone, the faults in the last. 15-20% being referred to
the delayed zone 2. Thus for end section faults, the clearance is delayed
from

the

farthest

end.

This

situation

cannot

be

tolerated

in an

interconnected system for two reasons.

1.

A delayed clearance from one end may cause instability in the

system.

2.

When the lines are equipped with high speed auto reclosing, a nonsimultaneous tripping would defeat auto reclosing, since there is no
effective dead time to ensure de-energisation of the fault arc.

The practical distance relays are therefore, interlocked with a signalizing

channel transmit information about the system conditions from one end to
other end to accelerate tripping. The information transmitted can either be
arranged to initiate tripping (on internal fault) of the remote circuit breaker
on block tripping on external fault. The former arrangement is called as
transfer trip scheme where as latter is termed as blocking scheme.
A typical transfer trip (under-reach) scheme logic is illustrated in Fig. 8.6.0
(a & b).
Referring to Fig.8.6.0, for fault close to end B the relay at end B will trip in
zone 1 and simultaneously initiate an inter trip signal to end A. When the
signal is received at end A and if the over-reaching zone 2 measuring

element has also operated, end A will trip in Carrier Aided Trip mode,
resulting a near simultaneous clearance of the fault from both ends.
The different variations of carrier schemes are:

Permissive under-reach transfer trip (PUR)

Permissive over-reach transfer trip (POR)

Acceleration

Blocking

While inter-trip schemes (PUR, POR, Acceleration) are fast in operation,

blocking scheme has an international delay to allow for the blocking signal
to be received for an external fault. However, blocking scheme does not
suffer from signal attenuation since the signal is transmitted over a
healthy line unlike in case of a transfer trip scheme where the signal is
transmitted on a faulty line.
-000CHAPTER 9

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

9.1

Introduction
The magnitude of current and voltage in a power circuits are
usually too high to be handled by the secondary equipments like
measuring instruments and relays. The instrument transformers are
therefore, used as input devices which produce a scaled down
replica of the primary input quantities within the required accuracy,
for connecting the secondary equipments.
While the instrument transformers used for measurement purpose
handle steady state quantities close to the rated values, those used
for protection, handle fault quantities which are affected by d.c.
transients, harmonic distortions etc. the performance requirements
of the instrument transformers are therefore at variance depending
upon their applications.

9.2

Current Transformers

9.2.1 Equivalent Circuit and vector Diagram

a)

Ratio Error
It is defined as the difference in magnitude of the primary
and secondary current expressed as percentage of the
primary current.

Thus % Ratio Error =

b)

Knxls Ip

X 100

Ip

Phase Angle
This is the phase angle difference between the primary
current and the reversed secondary current vector.

c)

Composite Error
This is defined as the R.M.S value of the difference (Kn Is-Ip)
integrated over one cycle under steady state conditions
expressed as a percentage of RMS primary current. Thus,
FIG. 9.2.1

100
Composite error Eo -= Ip

I
T

: :

(Kn Is Ip)2 .dt

Where T = Duration of 1 cycle.

Ip, Is Instantaneous values of primary and sec. Currents.
Kn Rated transformation ratio
Ip Primary current 9RMS)
9.2.3 Magnetizing Characteristic of CT
The magnetizing characteristic of a C.T. is a plot between the secondary
applied voltage and the corresponding magnetizing current taken by the
C.T. as shown in Fig. 9.2.3.
The excitation curve can be divided into 4 regions. Ankle point, Linear
region, knee point and saturation. The knee point is defined as a point on
the excitation curve where a 10% increase in secondary EMF would cause
50% increase in the exciting current.
9.2.4 Effect of Secondary Open Circuiting
The primary current of a C.T. is independent of its secondary loading. With
the secondary shorted (directly or through the connected burden) the
counter flux produced by the secondary keeps the core flux below the
saturation level. However, if the secondary gets open circuited with the
primary carrying current, the entire primary m.m.f. (ampere turns) is spent

in magnetizing the core, producing high core flux. This results in increased
secondary E.M.F. with the voltage shooting up to very high value
depending upon the primary current level and the working/saturation flux
levels.
9.2.5 Classification of CTs
There are three basic types of CTs.
1)

Measuring CTs

2)

Protection CTs

3)

Protection CTs for special Applications.

FIG. 9.2.3: MAGNETISING CHARACTERISTIC

9.2.5.1

Measuring CTs (Governed by IS 2705- 1992 Part II)

Measuring CTs are specified in terns of

Accuracy class
VA Rating
ISF (Instrument Security Factor)
Typical Illustration : Class 1.0, VA-15, ISF-3
Standard Error Class 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 3 and 5
The errors are specified between 5-120% of rated current and 25-100% of
Rated burden connected. Higher errors permitted at lower currents.
Typical Illustration: Class 1.0 CT will have a ratio error of + 1% for 100120% of rated current, + 1.5% ratio error at 20% of rated current and +
3% ratio error at 5% of rated current.
9.2.5.2

Protective CTs (Governed by IS2705- 1992 Part III)

Protection CT ratings are specified in terms of class, accuracy limit

factory (ALF) and VA rating.
Typical Illustration: 5P10, 15 VA
Standard Error Class/AlF/VA ratings are as follows:Error Class 5P, 10P, 15P
ALF 5, 10, 15, 20, 30
VA rating 5, 10, 15, 30
Errors are specified at rated current and ALF times rated current with rated
burden connected.

Typical Illustration: 5P10/ 15VA CT will have a composite Error of +5%

at 10 times rated current and a ratio error of + 1% at rated current with
rated connected burden of 15VA.
For a given CT, VA and ALF are inversely related. For example, if
connected burden is less than rated, ALF would increase.
Co-relation between ALF/VA/Output Voltage and Knee Point
Voltage.
Output Voltage at ALF
ALF X VA
VALF = ALF X
IS
Voltage Developed by CT at ALF
ALF x VA
V (IS X RCT) X ALF +
IS

Knee Point Voltage

VK = 75 80% of VALF
When Is = CT secondary Rated Current
VA = Rated Burden (Volt Amps)
RCT = CT secondary Resistance
While selecting 5P/ 10P class CTs for IDMT over current/Earth fault relays,
following should be borne in mind.
i)

The CTs should have optimum ALF/VA Rating, so that they do not
saturate up to at leas 20 time current setting. This may be achieved
by selecting low burden relays or by selecting a ratio of appropriate
high value.

ii)

Overrated CTs having high VA rating and ALF, may produce high
secondary currents during severe faults

(in excess of 20 times

setting) that my cause thermal stressing of the relay current coils

and eventual failures.
9.2.5.3

Protection CTs for Special Applications

5P/ 10P class CTs are used for Non-balanced protections like IDMT
overcurrent, Earth fault relays. However, for balanced protection like
circulating current differential, where balance is required between the

associated CTs with close tolerance, the characteristic requirements

cannot be conveniently expressed in terms of 5P/ 10P class CTs.
For such applications, current transformers of class PS are used. These are
specified in terms ofi)

Knee point voltage (VK)

ii)

Magnetizing current (Im) usually at knee point voltage or a

parentage thereof

iii)

CT secondary resistance (RCt)

For class PS, CTs, the turns ratio errors are limited to 0.25% which helps in
maintaining balance between the protection systems during maximum
through fault condition.
Incidentally, 5P/ 10P class CTs are sometimes provided with deliberate
turns ratio correction to0 maintain accuracy specified limits at ALF and
hence are unsuitable for such special applications.
Typical Illustration of class PS CTs specifications
Ratio 100 / 1A
VK >u 100 Volts
Im < 30 Milliamps at VK / 2
RCT < 1.0 ohm
9.2.6 Core Balance CT (CBCT)
CBCT are used for sensitive earth protections where the required
sensitivity cannot be obtained using residual CT connections or by the use
of CT on neutral earth connection.
In case of residual connection, the phase CTs primary rating is based on
the full load rating of the circuit. Besides, the unbalance produced due to
unequal errors in the phase CTs prohibits the use of very sensitive setting
n the earth fault relays.
The CBCT on the contrary, are excited by the primary residual current
since the core encloses all the 3 phases and hence do not have a high
primary rating. Thus sensitivities down to 0.5 Amps primary or better can
be obtained. When used for 4 wire systems, the CBCT core encloses the
neutral, besides the phases. Thus high earth fault sensitivity can be
obtained irrespective of the single phase unbalance.

Typical CBCT arrangement is shown in Fig.9.2.6.

FIG. 9.2.6: CBCT
Following parameters are required to design a CBCT

Minimum Primary Earth fault current required to be detected

(e.g. IA, 2A etc)

Minimum Pickup setting of the sensitive earth fault relay

(e.g. 10 m Amps)

Ohmic burden of the relay at minimum pickup current.

To & Fro lead resistance between CBCT and Relay

Outer Diameter of the Cable (to determine CBCT Window size).

Typical Applications

Sensitive Earth fault protection of motors

Sensitive earth fault protection of non-effectively grounded systems

Sensitive earth fault protections of ungrounded system (based on

unbalanced capacitive current detection).

9.2.7 Typical CT Requirements for Various Protections

Some typical CT requirements are given below for general guidelines
A)

High impedance circulating current different schemes.

VK > 2 IF (RCT + 2RL) Volts
Where RCT = CT secondary winding resistance
2RL = Two way lead resistance of the farthest CT in the
parallel group
IF = Maximum through current up to which relay
should remain stable (referred to CT secondary)

For Transformers
IF

= Maximum through fault current limited by leakage impedance of

transformers.
For Busbar
IF

= Maximum through fault current limited to switchgear breaking

capacity.
For Generators
IF = Maximum through fault current limited by sub transient reactance
(Xd) of the generator.

For Motors
IF

= Maximum starting current (about 6 X full load current for D.O.L

Motors).
For Shunt Reactors
IF = Maximum charging current of the reactor.
For Short Feeders
IF = Maximum through fault current for fault at remote end busbar.
B)

Biased Differential Relay

VK > K I (RCT + 2RL)
Where I = Relay Rated current
K = Constant specified by the manufacturer usually based on
conjunctive tests. (The constant is usually chosen to ensure positive
operation of highest differential unit on severe internal fault with
extreme CT saturation).

C)

Distance protection
VK > (1 +

X
R ) ) IF (Zr +RCT + nRL)

Where

X
R

= Primary system reactance/resistance ratio

(To account for the d.c component of the fault current)

IF

= Maximum CT secondary current for fault at zone 1 reach

point.
Zr = Relay ohmic burden
RCT = CT secondary Resistance
nRl

Lead Resistance (one way for phase fault Since n = 1)

(two way

for earth fault since n = 2)

9.2.8 Choice of CT Secondary Rating

5A secondary
i)

Preferred where lead burden is insignificant (e.g. CTs used in Indoor

switchgear cubicles with closely located relays OR where primary
ratings are very high say 10,000/5A).

ii)

Comparatively low peak voltage when secondary gets open.

iii)

Fine turns ratio adjustment is not possible when primary ratings is

low particularly for Bar primary CTs (e.g. 25/5A).

IA Secondary

9.3

i)

Preferred when CTs are out door and lead burdens are high.

ii)

Comparatively high peak voltage when secondary is open.

iii)

Fine turns ratio adjustment possible.

Voltage Transformers

9.3.1 Equivalent circuit and Vector Diagram

The equivalent circuit and vector diagram of a voltage transformer are
Shown in Fig. 9.3.1(a), (b).
9.3.2 V.T. Errors
Ratio Error: Ratio error is defined as
% Ratio Error =

Kn.Vs-Vp
Vp

X 100

Where Kn = Nominal Ratio of V.T.

Phase Angle Error: ( )
Phase angle error is the phase difference between the reversed secondary
output voltage (-Vs) and the primary applied voltage (Vp).
9.3.3 Voltage Transformer Classification
There are 3 types of VTs
i)

Metering VTs

ii)

Protection VTs

iii)

Residual VTs
The VTs are usually specified in terms of
-

Voltage Ratio

Accuracy Class

Rated VA Burden

Rated Voltage factor

Typical Illustration
11KV /3 V, 110/ 3 V, class 1.0, VA 50
VF 1.2 continuous / 1.5 for 30 seconds.
FIG. 9.3.1
9.3.3.1

Metering VTs (Governed by IS3156 Part II-1992)

Control
0.1
0.2

% Ratio
Error
+0.1
+0.2

Phase Angle
Error (Minutes)
+5
+10

Reference Conditions
Voltage 80 120%
Burden 25 100%

0.5
1.0
3.0

9.3.3.2

+0.5
+1.0
+3.0

% Ratio
Error
+3%
+6%

3P
6P

Phase Angle
Error(Minutes)
+120
+240

Reference
Conditions
Voltage 5% to Voltage
Factor
times
rated
voltage
Burden 25 100%
P.F.0.8 Lag
Frequency -Rated

Protection VTs (Governed by IS3156 Part III-1992)

Clas
s

% Ratio
Error
5 PR
10

3.4

P.F. 0.8 Lag

Frequency - Rat

Protection VTs (Governed by IS3156 Part II-1992)

Class

9.3.3.3

+20
+40
Not Specified

+ 5%
+ 10%

Phase Angle
Error(Minutes
)
+ 200
--

Reference
Conditions
Voltage 5% to Voltage
Factor
times
rated
voltage
Burden 25 100%
Frequency Rated
P.F. 0.8 lab.

Rated voltage Factor (Is3156 Part 1-1992)

Sl.N
o.
1
2.

3.

System Earthling
Effectively Earthed

Rated Voltage
Factor
1.2
1.5

Rated
Time
Continuous
30 Seconds

1.2
1.9

Continuous
30 seconds

1.2
1.9

Continuous
8 Hours

Non-Effectively
earthed
system
(with Automatic Earth fault
tripping)
Isolated Neutral or Resonant
Earthed system (without
Automatic Earth fault tripping)

VTs used in no-effectively earthed systems have voltage factor since in the
event of an earth fault in one of the phases, the healthy phase voltage
may rise to phase to phase value (i.e. 3 times phase to neutral voltage)
as shown in Fig. 9.3.4.
FIG. 9.3.4
FIG. 9.3.5.3: STAR/OPEN DELTA CONNECTION
9.3.4 V.T. Connections

There are 3 types of connections

1.

V-V

2.

Star/Star

3.

Star/ Open delta

9.3.5.1

V-V Connection

This connections is generally used for measurement and for those

protections which do not require phase to neutral voltage input (2 V.Ts are
used). Primary of the V.Ts is connected in V. (i.e. one V.T. primary across
R-Y phases and the other across Y- B phases), with identical V. connection
for the secondary. In this connection zero sequence voltage cannot be
produced.
9.3.5.2

Star-Star connection

Either 3 separate single phase VTs or a single 3 phase, 3 limb VT is used.

Both primary and secondaries are connected in star with both star neutrals
solidity grounded. Each primary phase limb is thus connected between
phase to earth of the supply circuit ad replicated similar phase to earth
voltage on the secondary.
Star/Star connection enables both phase to phase as well as phase to
neutral distribution of the connected burdens.
9.3.5.3

Star/Open Delta Connection

The primary windings, are connected in star with star neutral solidly
grounded and the secondaries are connected in series to form an open
delta connection as shown in Fig. 9.5.3. This type of connection is called
residual connection and requires either 3x single phase VTs or a suitable 3
phase 5 limb VT.
The residual connection is used for polarizing directional earth fault relays
or for earth fault detection I non-effectively grounded or isolated neutral
system.

-000-

CHAPTER 10
DIGITAL RELAYING
10.0. Introduction
Protection scheme basically consists of protective relay and circuit breaker
(i.e. Switching Circuit). Out of these two, protection relay plays an
important role and therefore, it is known as brain behind the above
scheme. It is the relay which senses the fault, determines the location of
the fault and then sends tripping command to the proper Circuit Breaker
by closing its trip coil. There has been continuous development and
improvement in the theory, design ad operating principle of the protection
scheme. From electromechanical relay of induction type in the beginning
now we have digital relaying scheme using on-line microprocessor / mini
computer. The idea being to develop a relay having.
1. Less Burden : (If the burden of a C.T. is high, its magnetic core gets
saturated, result being secondary O/P is not linearly proportional to
primary quantity and relay may maloperate).
2. High Speed : (If the fault is cleared quickly, not only the transient
stability limit of the system is improved but also permanent damage to
the equipment is avoided. Risk of fire or risk to the personnel is
avoided).
Hence, during 1960 with the advent of digital computer, digital relaying
becomes a reality, by developing several algorithm to realize different
protection function using digital computer. But because of large size and
cost of the computer only software package to realize different protection
scheme

were

microprocessor

developed.
and

During

early

mini-computer,

1986,

digital

with

relaying

the
using

arrival
on

of
line

microprocessor/mini computers were developed. These relaying schemes

have several merits like

Lower Burden

Much faster in operation

No contact problem

Much less maintenance

Data Acquisition capabilities

Multi-protection functions using standard hardware

These relays do not operate due to external causes.

These schemes are highly flexible (by simple software programme,

relay setting and characteristic can be changed)

Possesses self-checking facilities.

Digital relaying scheme is being proposed for the entire components of

electric power system and apparatus viz. synchronous machines, bus-bar,
transformer, feeder, EHV/ UHV transmission lines (Fig. 10.1 (a).
10.1

Application along with basic circuit

a)

Differential Protection for Generator

In which current entering a phase winding is compared with current
leaving the same phase winding at the other end either in phase or
in magnitude.

I1 + I2
2

For tripping I1 I2) > S

To

realize

differential

protection

using

microprocessor/mini

computer, a sample and hold circuit is used where a definite

number of signal samples are chosen per cycle and fed to
microprocessor or mini computer which has a programme to detect
abnormal condition in the memory and issue a trip signal
(Ref.Fig.10.1 (b).
For differential protection, In the memory of microprocessor, with
the help of a software programme second harmonic content of the
sample current is obtained. The presence of second harmonic
content above a threshold value is an indication of an inrush
condition.
b)

Stator Earth Fault

Stator Earth Fault can be determined in the same way. With the
help of Current Transformers connected in each phase winding the
armature current is monitored. In the microprocessor, these
currents are transformed to the sequence currents and because of
the different component current, type of fault can be determined.
FIG. 10.1(a): AN EXAMPLE OF DEGITAL RELAYING OF
GENERATOR

FIG. 10.1(b): BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIG. 10.2: FLOW CHART

e.g.

If I1 = I2 =I0

G fault

If I1 = I2, I0 = 0

L.L.fault

If I1 = I2 + I0 =0

If only I1 > threshold & -> I2 =I0 = 0 3 phase fault

LLG fault

In conventional differential protection of a transformer having taps on the

windings, biasing is provided to take care of CT mismatch, CT errors under
dynamic conditions and at different tap position. Because of this biasing
relay remains insensitive for low level winding fault.
In digital differential scheme, (Flow Chart of the programme stored in the
memory of CPU) (Fig. 10.2), CT mismatch errors at each tap is precalculated and a correction factor is calculated to be applied to CT
secondary currents to get true line currents. These correction factors for all
the taps are stored in the digital relay memory and transformer tap
position is also monitored so that relay sensitivity remains same on all tap
position.
Id1

Power frequency component of differential current

It1

Power frequency component of the through current

I0

Pick up current

Bias

Relay operates, if Id1 > I0 and Id1 > B, It1 .

To restrain relay from operation in case of magnetizing in rush (when
primary is charged and secondary open circuit)

HRF (Harmonic Restraint

Factor) is calculated. If HRF is more than threshold, relay operation is

restrained. Where
HRF

(II

harmonic component + V Harmonic component)/

Fundamental frequency Component).

In case magnetizing inrush II and V Harmonic Content is more (16%). Thus,

digital differential relays has high speed and sensitivity for internal faults
and stability on heavy through fault and magnetizing inrush.
FIG. 10.3: SCHEMATIC OF PC BASED RELAY TEST BENCH
10.2

PC based schemes for testing protective relays

Digital relays an be tested with a personal computer. The benefits are:
1. Respective test sequences in less time
2. Signals simulation with any desired level of harmonic and d.c.
distortions

accurately

and

of

different

frequencies

than

supply

frequency.
3. Transient signals can be simulated easily.
4. Flexibility and ease of programming
5. Accurate and realistic testing of relays
The scheme is as shown in Fig. 10.3 A PC AT 386/486 computes, the
sample corresponding to the instantaneous values of the test signals
(Digital) which is supplied to Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) with
interrupt occurring at the end of inter sample interval. The number of
sample per cycle can be 12, 16, 24, 36, 60. The DAC output waveform is a
stepped waveform with stepped waves with number of steps = number of
sample selected per cycle. These waveforms are smoothened and
undesired harmonics are filtered out. Then waveforms are amplified by
power amplifiers to generate relay test signals with necessary test levels.
PC has Menu Driven Software; Viz.
a) Calibration Menu
b) Relay Selectio0n Menu
c) Type of test selection
Relay test programme is stored in CPU of PC and computer monitor the
relay trip status. After the test CPU generate relay characteristic plots.
10.3

Testing of a Distance Relay

a) Steady State Test
The main objective of the test is to obtain the trip characteristic of the
relay for different reach setting as well as for different types of faults like
phase to ground fault and phase to phase fault.

The relay reach is set to desired value. Test starts by simulating voltage
and current signals with phase difference equal to zero between V & I of
selected phases for which fault is to be simulated. The current signals of
the faulty phases and voltage signals of the healthy phases are maintained
at rated value. Then voltage signals of the selected faulty phases are
decreased in steps till relay operates. At this point, computer holds the
present value of fault voltage,
V current signals and phase difference
between them and Z =

I is calculated and signals are again

applied to the relay and operating time is determined. Testing is repeated

with different phase angles. All the values of R, X & are displayed on the
monitor and also stored in the data file.
b) Dynamic Test
The objective is to determine the accuracy of the relay under transient
fault conditions. Transient data sample (voltage and current) are obtained
from off-line analysis of power system model and stored in the memory
(e.g. 16 sample/cycle). These transient data signals are applied to the
relay and its accuracy is checked. Transient test data consists of voltage
and current of steady state prefault sample, fault transient and few cycles
of post fault steady state sample.
These PC based programmable relay test scheme is intended for off-line
testing of various protection equipments.

-000-

REFERENCES
1.

Modern Power Station Practice Vol.4

2.

Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Power System Protection.

3.

Protection System NTPC Publication

4.

Protective Relay Application Guide, GEC Alsthom

5.

GEC Alsthom/English Electric Relay Manuals

6.

Indian Standard Specification for CTs & PTs

7.

A course in Electrical Power, M.L Soni, P.M/ Gupta, U.S. Bhatnagar