CM 3 2012

BULETINUL
INSTITUTULUI
POLITEHNIC
DIN IAI
Tomul LVIII (LXII)

Fasc. 3
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
2012
Editura POLITEHNIUM
BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAI

PUBLISHED BY
GHEORGHE ASACHI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF IAI

Editorial Office: Bd. D. Mangeron 63, 700050, Iai, ROMANIA
Tel. 40-232-278683; Fax: 40-232-237666; e-mail: polytech@mail.tuiasi.ro
Editorial Board
President: Prof. dr. eng. Ion Giurma, Member of the Academy of Agricultural
Sciences and Forest, Rector of the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
Editor-in-Chief: Prof. dr. eng. Carmen Teodosiu, Vice-Rector of the
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
Honorary Editors of the Bulletin: Prof. dr. eng. Alfred Braier,
Prof. dr. eng. Hugo Rosman
Prof. dr. eng. Mihail Voicu, Corresponding Member of the Romanian Academy,
President of the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai
Editors in Chief of the MACHINE CONSTRUCTIONS Section
Prof. dr. eng. Radu Ibnescu, Assoc. prof. dr. eng. Aristotel Popescu
Honorary Editors: Prof. dr. eng. Gheorghe Nag, Prof. dr. eng. Cezar Oprian
Associated Editor: Assoc. prof. dr. eng. Eugen Axinte
Editorial Advisory Board

Prof.dr.eng. Nicuor Amariei, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Assoc.prof.dr.eng. Aristomenis Antoniadis, Technical
University of Crete, Greece
Prof.dr.eng. Virgil Atanasiu, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Petru Berce, Technical University of
Cluj-Napoca
Prof.dr.eng. Ion Bostan, Technical University of Chiinu,
Republic of Moldova
Prof.dr.eng. Walter Calles, Hochschule fr Technik und
Wirtschaft des Saarlandes, Saarbrcken, Germany
Prof.dr.eng. Doru Clrau, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Francisco Chinesta, cole Centrale de Nantes,
France
Assoc.prof.dr.eng. Conalves Coelho, University Nova of
Lisbon, Portugal
Prof.dr.eng. Juan Pablo Contreras Samper, University of
Cadiz, Spain
Assoc.prof.dr.eng. Mircea Cozmnc, Gheorghe Asachi
Technical University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Spiridon Creu, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Gheorghe Dumitracu, Gheorghe Asachi
Prof.dr.eng. Ctlin Fetecu, University Dunrea de Jos of
Galai
Prof.dr.eng. Mihai Gafianu, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Radu Gaiginschi, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Francisco Javier Santos Martin, University of
Valladolid, Spain
Prof. dr. Dirk Lefeber, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium
Prof.dr.eng. Dorel Leon, Gheorghe Asachi Technical

University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. James A. Liburdy, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon, SUA
Prof.dr.eng.dr. h.c. Peter Lorenz, Hochschule fr Technik
und Wirtschaft, Saarbrcken, Germany
Prof.dr.eng. Noura -Barbu Lupulescu, University
Transilvania of Braov
Prof.dr.eng. Fabio Miani, University of Udine, Italy
Prof.dr.eng. Mircea Mihailide, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Sevasti Mitsi, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Salonic, Greece
Prof.dr.eng. Vasile Neculiasa, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Fernando Jos Neto da Silva, University of
Aveiro, Portugal
Prof.dr.eng. Dumitru Olaru, Gheorghe Asachi Technical
University of Iai
Prof.dr.eng. Manuel San Juan Blanco, University of
Valladolid, Spain
Prof.dr.eng. Loredana Santo,University Tor Vergata,
Rome, Italy
Prof.dr.eng. Cristina Siligardi, University of Modena, Italy
Prof.dr.eng. Filipe Silva, University of Minho, Portugal
Prof.dr.eng. Laureniu Sltineanu, Gheorghe Asachi
Lecturer dr.eng. Birgit Kjrside Storm, Aalborg
Universitet Esbjerg, Denmark
Prof.dr.eng. Ezio Spessa, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
Prof.dr.eng.Roberto Teti, University Federico II, Naples, Italy
Prof.dr.eng. Alexei Toca, Technical University of Chiinu,
Republic of Moldova
Prof.dr.eng. Hans-Bernhard Woyand, Bergische University
Wuppertal, Germany

BULLETIN OF THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF IAI
Tomul LVIII (LXII), Fasc. 3
2012
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
SUMAR
Pag.
MOUSSA KARAMA (Frana), Comportarea barelor compozite laminate la
interfeele dintre straturi (engl., rez. rom.)..................................................
ISAAC NELSON (SUA), CONSTANTIN CIOCNEL (SUA) i HEIDI

FEIGENBAUM (SUA), Curbele de reorientare pentru un aliaj
Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5 (engl., rez. rom.)............................................................... 19
CIPRIAN ATNSOAEI, VIOREL GOAN i PAUL DORU
BRSNESCU, Compozite din cordierit armat cu oxid de zirconiu
(engl., rez. rom.).......................................................................................... 31
RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC, ANDREEA IRINA BARZIC i DANAORTANSA DOROHOI, Comportamentul de deformre n condiii de
forfecare a unor amestecuri de hidroxipropil celuloz/L-cistin (engl.,
rez. rom.)..................................................................................................... 41
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU i BOGDAN
LEIOIU, Studiu comparativ privind materialele compozite armate
bidirecional cu fibr de carbon, cu matrice termorigid i termoplastic
(engl., rez. rom.).......................................................................................... 47
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU i VIOREL
GOAN, Influena matricei asupra proprietilor ale materialelor
compozite armate unidirecional cu fibr de carbon i matrice
termoplastic (engl., rez. rom.)....................................................................
53
EDUARD GHEBAN, NORINA FORNA i BOGDAN LEIOIU, Consideraii asupra preciziei determinrii modulului de forfecare al unui acrilat de
uz stomatologic (engl., rez. rom.)................................................................
59
EDUARD GHEBAN, NORINA FORNA I BOGDAN LEIOIU, Consideraii asupra ncercrilor la traciune asupra unui material de uz
stomatologic (engl., rez. rom.).....................................................................
67
DAN ILINCIOIU i COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, Influena ipotezelor

simplificatoare asupra distribuiei tensiunilor la structurile metalice
hiperstatice (engl., rez. rom.).....................................................................
75
DAN ILINCIOIU i COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, O comparaie ntre cteva

soft-uri folosite pentru studiul tensiunilor mecanice n structuri metalice
(engl., rez. rom.)..
85
ADRIAN LIVIU PARASCHIV, MARIUS GABRIEL SURU i LEANDRUGHEORGHE BUJOREANU, Variaia proprietilor, datorit coninutului de nichel i a prelucrrii termomecanice, la feroaliajele Fe-Cr-Ni-Si
utilizate pentru pregtirea unor aliaje cu memoria formei pe baz de Fe
(engl., rez. rom.)..
93
MARIAN MARE, CRISTINA RACU, LILIANA BUHU i ADRIAN

BUHU, Proprieti mecanice ale unor materiale compozite
biodegradabile cu matrice polimeric (engl., rez. rom.).............................. 101
LEONID TARTAKOVSKY (Israel), VLADIMIR BAIBIKOV (Israel), MARCEL
GUTMAN (Israel), DORON POPESCU (Israel), MARC VEINBLAT
(Israel) i YORAM ZVIRIN (Israel), Compararea emisiilor poluante de la
autobuzele urbane i de la automobilele de pasageri din Israel (engl., rez.
rom.)............................................................................................................ 109
VICTOR BRATU, ALEXANDRU BOROIU i ION TABACU, Cercetri cu
privire la mbuntirea i modernizarea sistemului de transport public de
persoane n zona preurban din oraul Piteti. (I) Studiul factorilor
determinani pentru sistemul public (engl., rez. rom.)................................ 117
CLAUDIU BUTNARU, Influena recirculrii gazelor de evacuare asupra
arderii i emisiilor ntr-un motor HCCI (engl., rez. rom.)........................... 127
CLAUDIU BUTNARU, Influena turaiei i a consumului de combustibil
asupra gazelor de ardere (engl., rez. rom.).................................................. 135
VASILE CAUNII, Aspecte privind strategiile de control a compresorului
aerului condiionat (engl., rez. rom.)........................................................... 141
COSTIN DRAGOMIR, CONSTANTIN PAN, NICULAE NEGURESCU i
ALEXANDRU CERNAT, Investigaii teoretice i experimentale ale
motorului cu aprindere prin scnteie supraalimentat (engl., rez. rom.)....... 151
MARIUS ATANASIU, MIHAI MARIUS PRODAN i EMIL JUGUREANU,
Analiza comparativ ntre metoda produsului planar i metoda
geometriei plane pentru modelul matematic al compresorului spiral
(engl., rez. rom.).......................................................................................... 159
MIHAI ADAM, GEORGE OVIDIU RU i GHEORGHE DUMITRACU,
Cercetri experimentale privind stocarea energiei termice n materiale cu
schimbare de faz: aliaj eutectic Sn-Pb (engl., rez. rom.)... 167
MIHAI ADAM, RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC, GEORGE OVIDIU RU i
GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Evaluarea direct a conductivitii
termice pentru materiale utilizate n sisteme de stocare a cldurii prin
transformri de faz (engl., rez. rom.)......................................................... 173
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU, GHEORGHE DUMITRACU i FLORIN
GABRIEL FLOREAN, Modelarea curgerii ntr-un compresor centrifug
transonic. (I) Influena modelrii stratului limit al curgerii (engl., rez.
rom.)............................................................................................................ 179
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU, GHEORGHE DUMITRACU i FLORIN

GABRIEL FLOREAN, Analiza numeric a efectului Coriolis ntr-un
compresor centrifugal transsonic (engl., rez. rom.)..................................... 185
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM, IVANCU IONEL i GHEORGHE
DUMITRACU, Instalaie experimental pentru studiul transferului de
cldur cu schimbare de faz n termosifoane (engl., rez. rom.). 191
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM i GHEORGHE DUMITRACU,
Investigarea experimental a limitelor de fierbere i inundare, pentru
tuburi termice termosifon cu diferite diametre (engl., rez. rom.) ............... 197
DRAGO S. CRUDU i VASILE MERTICARU, Contribuii teoretice la
optimizarea dinamic a mecanismului de lucru a ncrctorului frontal
(engl., rez. rom.)................... ...................................................................... 205
DRAGO S. CRUDU i VASILE MERTICARU, Date experimentale de
referin pentru proiectarea mecanismului de lucru de la ncrctorul
frontal (engl., rez. rom.) ............................................................................. 219
CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU i SORINEL TOFAN, Studiul unui turn de rcire
umed n contra-curent. (I) Studiul funcionrii (engl., rez. rom.) .............. 233
SORINEL TOFAN i CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU, Studiul unui turn de rcire
umed n contra-curent. (II) Analiza exergetic (engl., rez. rom.)................ 239
ADRIAN I. SIMEDRU, Comparaia teoretico-experimental la funcionarea
cavitaional a turbinelor hidraulice axiale de la hidrocentrala Porile de
Fier (engl., rez. rom.)................................................................................... 245
BOGDAN CCIUL, VIOREL POPA i TNASE PANAIT, Studiu privind
temperatura optim a sursei calde care acioneaz un sistem prin
adsorbie solar de climatizare (engl., rez. rom.) ......................................... 253
GEORGIANA BOLAT i DANIEL SUTIMAN, Studiul termodinamic al
sistemelor binare formate din toluen+alcani la temperatura de 318.15 K
(engl., rez. rom.) ......................................................................................... 259
FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN, IONU PORUMBEL, GABRIEL
ALEXANDRU i GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Simularea numeric i
determinri experimentale ntr-un jet turbulent de gaze evacuate dintr-o
turbin cu gaze (engl., rez. rom.)................................................................. 265
FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN, ALEXANDRU GABRIEL i GHEORGHE
DUMITRACU, Determinri experimentale i simulri numerice n
curgeri turbulente izotermice (engl., rez. rom.)........................................... 271
DANIELA TASMA, TNASE PANAIT, KRISZTINA UZUNEANU i
CTLIN MOCANU, Evaluarea exergetic a gazeificrii rezidurilor din
agricultur (engl., rez. rom.)........................................................................ 277
DANIELA TASMA, TNASE PANAIT, KRISZTINA UZUNEANU i
CTLIN MOCANU, Influena coeficientului de exces de aer asupra
gazeificrii biomasei (engl., rez. rom.). ................................................. 285
OLIVIA GIUCA i IOAN NICOAR, Utilizarea planurilor de experimente

pentru verificarea stabilitii dimensionale a nanocristalelor (engl., rez.
rom.)............................................................................................................. 295
MARIUS CATAN i DANIELA TARNI, Modelul virtual tridimensional
al articulaiei genunchiului uman (engl., rez. rom.)..................................... 303
RALUCA SOFRONIA, ARJANA DAVIDESCU i GEORGE SAVII,
Interaciunea os-ferstru n cadrul unui simulator haptic (engl., rez.
rom.)............................................................................................................. 309
MARIAN STANCU, DANIEL DRAGOMIR-STANCIU i CONSTANTIN
LUCA, Instalaie de cogenerare de mic putere cu gazeificarea lemnului
(engl., rez. rom.).......................................................................................... 317

BULLETIN OF THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF IAI
Tomul LVIII (LXII), Fasc. 3
2012
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
Pp.
MOUSSA KARAMA (France), Behaviour of Laminated Composite Beam at
the Interfaces of Layers (English, Romanian summary).............................
ISAAC NELSON (USA), CONSTANTIN CIOCNEL (USA) and HEIDI
FEIGENBAUM (USA), Reorientation Curves for a Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5
Alloy (English, Romanian summary)..........................................................
CIPRIAN ATNSOAEI, VIOREL GOAN and PAUL-DORU
BRSNESCU, Particulate Cordierite - Zirconia Composites (English,
Romanian summary) ...................................................................................
RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC, ANDREEA IRINA BARZIC and DANAORTANSA DOROHOI, Deformation Behavior under Shear Field of
Some Hydroxypropyl Cellulose/L-Cystine Blends (English, Romanian
summary) ........................................................................
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU and BOGDAN
LEIOIU, Comparative Study of Cross-ply CFRP with Thermoplastic
and Thermoset Matrix (English, Romanian summary)...............................
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU and VIOREL
GOAN, Matrix Influence on the Mechanical Properties of
Unidirectional CFRTP (English, Romanian summary)..............
EDUARD GHEBAN, NORINA FORNA and BOGDAN LEIOIU, Some
Considerations on Shear Modulus Precision Determination of a Dentistry
Acrylate (English, Romanian summary).....
EDUARD GHEBAN, NORINA FORNA and BOGDAN LEIOIU,
Considerations on Tension Test, when Applied on a Dentistry Material
(English, Romanian summary)....................................................................
DAN ILINCIOIU and COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, The Influence of
Simplifying Assumptions Over the Stress Distribution for Hyperstatic
Metallic Structures (English, Romanian summary).....
DAN ILINCIOIU and COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, A Comparison Between
Some Software Used for Metallic Structures Stress Studies (English,
Romanian summary)....................................................................................
ADRIAN LIVIU PARASCHIV, MARIUS GABRIEL SURU and
LEANDRU-GHEORGHE BUJOREANU, Properties Variation, Due to
Nickel Content and Thermo-mechanical Processing, in Fe-Cr-Ni-Si
Master Alloys Used for the Preparation of Some Fe-Base Shape Memory
Alloys (English, Romanian summary)...........................
1
19
31
41
47
53
59
67
75
85
93
MARIAN MARE, CRISTINA RACU, LILIANA BUHU and ADRIAN

BUHU, Mechanical Properties of Some Biodegradable Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials, with Natural Yarn Fabrics Reinforcement
(English, Romanian summary)................................................................
LEONID TARTAKOVSKY (Israel), VLADIMIR BAIBIKOV (Israel),
MARCEL GUTMAN (Israel), DORON POPESCU (Israel), MARC
VEINBLAT (Israel) and YORAM ZVIRIN (Israel), Comparison of
Pollutants Emission by Urban Buses and Passenger Cars in Israel
VICTOR BRATU, ALEXANDRU BOROIU and ION TABACU, Researches
Regarding the Improvement and the Modernization of the Public
Passengers Transport in the Peripheral Area of Pitesti. (I) Study of
Determining Factors for the Public Transport System (English,
CLAUDIU BUTNARU, Impact of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) on
Combustion and Emissions in a HCCI Engine (English, Romanian
summary).....................................................................................................
CLAUDIU BUTNARU, Influence of Engine Speed and Fuel Consumption on
Exhaust Emissions (English, Romanian summary).....................................
VASILE CAUNII, Aspects Regarding the Control Strategies of Air
Conditioning Compressor (English, Romanian summary)..........................
COSTIN DRAGOMIR, CONSTANTIN PANA, NICULAE NEGURESCU
and ALEXANDRU CERNAT, Theoretical and Experimental
Investigations of the SI Engine Turbo Charging (English, Romanian
summary).....................................................................................................
MARIUS ATANASIU, MIHAI MARIUS PRODAN and EMIL
JUGUREANU, Comparative Analysis Between Planar Product Method
and Plan Geometry Method for Scroll Compressor Mathematical Model
MIHAI ADAM, GEORGE OVIDIU RU and GHEORGHE
DUMITRACU, Experimental Research on Thermal Energy Storage
Using Phase Change Material: Eutectic Sn-Pb Alloy (English, Romanian
summary).
MIHAI ADAM, RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC, GEORGE OVIDIU RU and
GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Thermal Conductivity Direct Assessment
of PCM Used in Heat Storage Systems (English, Romanian summary).....
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU, GHEORGHE DUMITRACU and FLORIN
GABRIEL FLOREAN, Modeling the Flow Through a Transonic
Centrifugal Compressor. (I) The Influence of the Wall Treatment Method
(English, Romanian summary)........................................................................
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU, GHEORGHE DUMITRACU and FLORIN
GABRIEL FLOREAN, Numerical Analysis of the Coriolis Effect in a
Transonic Centrifugal Compressor (Englih, Romanian summary).............
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM, IVANCU IONEL and
GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Experimental Setup for Testing the
Phase Change Heat Transfers in Heat Pipes (English, Romanian
summary).....................................................................................................
101
109
117
127
135
141
151
159
167
173
179
185
191
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM and GHEORGHE

DUMITRACU, Experimental Investigation of Boiling and Flooding
Limits, using Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphons with Different
Diameters (English, Romanian summary)...................................................
DRAGO S. CRUDU
and VASILE MERTICARU, Theoretical
Contributions to Dynamic Optimization of the Frontal Loader Working
Mechanism (English, Romanian summary)...............................................
DRAGO S. CRUDU and VASILE MERTICARU, Experimental Data
Reference to Design Working Mechanism for Frontal Loader (English,
CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU and SORINEL TOFAN, Study of a Counterflow Wet
Cooling Tower. (I) Simulation Model for Performance Analysis
SORINEL TOFAN and CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU, Study of a Counterflow Wet
Cooling Tower. (II) Exergy Analysis (English, Romanian summary)........
ADRIAN I. SIMEDRU, Theoretical and Experimental Comparison of the
Axial Hydraulic Turbines Working with Cavitation at Iron Gates I
Hydro-Power Plant (English, Romanian summary)....................................
BOGDAN CACIULA, VIOREL POPA, TANASE PANAIT, Study
Concerning Optimum Heat Source Temperature for a Solar Adsorption
System (English, Romanian summary).......................................................
GEORGIANA BOLAT and DANIEL SUTIMAN, Thermodinamic Study of
Toluene + an Alkane at 318.15 K (English, Romanian summary)..............
FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN, IONUT PORUMBEL, GABRIEL
ALEXANDRU and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Numerical
Simulation and Experimental Measurements in a Gas Turbine Turbulent
Exhaust Jet (English, Romanian summary).................................................
FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN, ALEXANDRU GABRIEL and
GHEORGHE DUMITRACU, Experimental Measurements and
Numerical Simulations in Isothermal Turbulent Flows (English,
DANIELA TASMA, TNASE PANAIT, KRISZTINA UZUNEANU and
CTLIN MOCANU, Exergetic Evaluation of Agricultural Residues
Gasification (English, Romanian summary)................................................
DANIELA TASMA , TNASE PANAIT, KRISZTINA UZUNEANU and
CTLIN MOCANU, Influence of Excess Air Ratio on Biomass
Gasification (English, Romanian summary)................................................
OLIVIA GIUCA and IOAN NICOAR, Experimental Plans Used for
Verification of Dimensional Stability Nanocrystals (English, Romanian
summary).....................................................................................................
MARIUS CATAN and DANIELA TARNI, The Three-Dimensional
Virtual Model of the Human Knee Joint (English, Romanian
summary).....................................................................................................
RALUCA SOFRONIA, ARJANA DAVIDESCU and GEORGE SAVII,
Physics-Based Bone Sawing Interaction for a Haptic Simulator (English,
197
205
219
233
239
245
253
259
265
271
277
285
295
303
309
MARIAN STANCU, DANIEL DRAGOMIR-STANCIU and CONSTANTIN

LUCA, Small Cogeneration System with Wood Gasifier (Englih,
Romanian summary).................................................................................... 317

Publicat de
Universitatea Tehnic Gheorghe Asachi din Iai,
Tomul LVIII (LXII), Fasc. 3, 2012
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
BEHAVIOUR OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE BEAM AT THE

INTERFACES OF LAYERS
BY
MOUSSA KARAMA
Universit de Toulouse,
France
Received: April 2012
Accepted for publication: June 2012
Abstract. One of the current problems connected with multiplayer

composite structures concerns the analysis of the distribution of the stresses
around peculiarities (free edge and loaded edge) and at the interfaces of each
layer. This work presents a new shear stress function in the form of the
exponential function, to predict the mechanical behaviour of multi-layered
laminated composite structures. As a case study, the mechanical behaviour of
laminated composite beam (90/0/0/90) is examined. The results are
compared with the model Sinus and 2D finite element method studied. Results
show that this new model is more precise than older ones as compared to the
results by the finite element analysis (Abaqus). To introduce continuity on the
interfaces of each layer, the kinematics defined by Ossadzow is used with new
exponential model. The equilibrium equations and natural boundary conditions
are derived by the principle of virtual power.
Key words: composite materials, shear function, laminated structure,
interface, refined model, finite element.
1. Introduction
One of the major challenges in computational structural mechanics is the
development of the advanced models and numerical techniques in order to
provide efficient tools exhibiting good interior and edge solutions. In this paper
we are introducing an exponential function as a shear stress function; the
e-mail: moussa.karama@enit.fr
Moussa Karama
exponential functions are found to be very much richer than trigonometric sine
and cosine functions in their development series. According to the definition of
the transverse shear stress function, the existing laminated composite beam is
divided into two broad categories; firstly, the global approximation models and
secondly the discrete layer approximation models. The equivalent single-layer
laminate theories are those in which a heterogeneous laminated plate is treated
as a statically equivalent, single layer having a complex constitutive behaviour,
reducing the 3-D continuum problem to 2-D problem.
The equivalent single layer models are:
i) the Kirchoff (1850) Love (1934) theory (or classical theory) in which
deformation due to transverse shear is neglected, implies that the normal to the
mid plane remains straight and normal at mid-surface after deformation. This
theory can be used for thin beams.
ii) the Reissner (1945)-Mindlin (1951) theory (or first order theory). That
the first order deformation theory extends the kinematics of the classical
laminated plate theory by including a gross transverse shear deformation in its
kinematic assumption, the transverse shear strain remain constant with respect
to the thickness coordinate, implies that the normal to the mid plane remains
straight but not normal to mid-surface after deformation due to shear effect. The
first order theory requires shear correction factors, which are difficult to
determine for arbitrary laminated composite plate.
iii) and the higher order models are based on the hypothesis of non-linear
stress variation through thickness (Reddy, 1984), (Touratier, 1991). These
models are able to represent the section warping in the deformed configuration.
These theories do not satisfy the continuity conditions of transverse shear
stress at layer interfaces. Although the discrete layer approximation theories are
accurate, but they are rather complex in solving problems because the order of
their governing equations depends on the number of layers.
Di Sciuva (1987, 1998) and then Touratier (1991, 1992) proposed
simplified discrete layer model with only five variational unknowns (two
membrane displacements, a transverse displacement and two rotations),
allowing the section to be represented wrapping in the deformed configuration
for the Touratier (1992) model. Nevertheless, in these two cases the
compatibility conditions, both layer interfaces and the boundaries, cannot be
satisfied. From Touratiers work, Beakou (1991) and Idlbi (1995) proposed,
respectively, shell and plate models which satisfy both the stress continuity at
interfaces and the zero stress conditions at the boundaries.
Finally, He (1994) introduced the Heaviside step function which enables
automatic satisfaction of the displacement continuity at interfaces between
different layers. The new discrete layer model comes from the work of Di
Sciuva (1993), He (1994) and Ossadzow et al. (1995), the displacement field is
Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012
U1 ( x1 , x3 , t ) = u10 ( x1 , t ) x3 w,1 ( x1 , t ) + h1 ( x3 )1 ( x1 , t ),
U 2 = 0,
U ( x , t ) = w( x , t ),
1
3 1
(1)
with transverse shear function
h1 ( x3 ) = g ( x3 ) +
N 1
(m)
1
m =1
x3 f ( x3 )
( m)
(m)
2 + 2 + ( x3 x3 ) H ( x3 x3 ) ,
where, H(x3 x3(m)), the Heaviside Step function is defined as:

1 for x3 x3( m ) ,
H ( x3 x3( m ) ) =
(m)
0 for x3 < x3 ,
and f(x3) is the shear refinement function, and g(x3) is the membrane refinement
function, and the I(m) are coefficients of the continuity;
New Multi-layered Laminated Composite Structures Model (KAM):
In this work a new multi-layered laminated composite structure model is
presented by using exponential function as
f ( z ) = ze 2( z / h )
(2)
g ( z ) = ze 2( z / h ) ,
for a multi-layered beam , of uniform thickness h and is referred to the coordinate system R=(0/x1 , x2 , x3 = z) with z being normal to the plate midsurface , is the frontier of . Then, the domain is such that:
R3 ,
h h h
h
= , ; z / M ( x1 , x2 , z ) , M o ( x1 , x2 ,0) , >> max( z ) ,
2
2 2 2
&& is set such that

where is the diameter of the and the closed domain
&& = / =
edge z = h /2 .
From the beginning our objective was so clear, to find out a transverse shear
stress function f(z), which gives the mechanical behaviour of the composite
laminated structures as much close as possible to the exact 3D solution (Pagano,
1970) or finite element analysis in 2D (stress, strain plane), and better
representation of the transverse shear stress in the thickness of the laminated
structure. Since different higher order polynomial and trigonometric function
already has been tried which are as follow:
Moussa Karama
Ambartsumain (1958), where

z h2 z 2
,
2 4
3
f ( z) =
Kaczkowski & Panc (1975) and Reissner (1975) where

f ( z) =
5 4z2
z 1
,
4 3h 2
Levinson (1980), Muthy (1981) and Reddy (1984) where

4z2
f ( z ) = z 1 2 ,
3h
and finally Touratier (1991), where

f ( z) =
h z
sin ,
So, we took a start with an exponential function, because an exponential

function has all even and odd power in its expansion unlike Sine function,
which have only odd power. So an exponential function is much richer than a
Sine function. If we take a look on the expansions of different transverse shear
stress functions as
Reddy (1984), where
4z2
z3
f ( z ) = z 1 2 = z 1.33 2 ,
h
3h
(3)
Touratier (1991), where

f ( z) =
sin
z9
z
z3
z5
z7
= z 1.645 2 + 0.812 4 0.191 6 + 0.0261 8 , (4)
h
h
h
h
h
Present model
2
f ( z ) = ze 2( z / h ) = z 2
z3
z5
z7
z9
+
2
1.333
+
0.666
.
h2
h4
h6
h8
(5)
As it is clear from expansions of the transverse shear stress functions, that

the coefficient of successive terms in Sine functions are decreasing more
rapidly than present exponential function which are the main responsible to
gives different mechanical behaviour of laminated structures. For the transverse
shear stress behaviour, it is very important that the first derivative of the
transverse shear stress function must give a parabolic response in the thickness
direction of the laminate and satisfy the boundary conditions.
2. Governing Equations
From the virtual power principle, the equations of motion and the natural
boundary conditions can be obtained. The calculations are made in small
perturbations. According to the principle of virtual power
P(*a ) = P(*i ) + P(*e ) .
(6)
But the virtual power of the acceleration quantities is
P(*a ) = U *T U&&d;
(7)
we suppose
h /2
Iw =
h /2
h /2
h /2
x32 dx3 ,
I u =
h /2
h1 ( x3 )dx3 ,
h /2
h /2
I =
x3dx3 ,
h /2
h /2
I w' =
I uw ' =
dx3 ,
h /2
h12 ( x3 )dx3 ,
I w ' =
h /2
x3 h1 ( x3 )dx3 .
h /2
(8)
So, the Eq. (6) becomes (see Appendix A for the mathematical detail)
L
P(*a )
( u ) o*
u1
+ ( w) w* + ( )1* dx1 + ( w) w* ,
(9)
with
&&,1 + I u&&1 ,
(u ) = I wu&&1o + I uw ' w
o
&& I w ' w
&&,11 I w '&&1,1 ,
( w) = I uw 'u&&1,1
+ Iww
&& + I && ,
( ) = I u&&o + I w
u 1
( w)
w ' ,1
&&,1 + I w '&&1.
= I uw 'u&&1o + I w ' w
Now the virtual power of internal work is
*T
P(*i ) = D : d,
(10)
but
D11
D = D 21
D31
D12
D 22
D32
D13
D23 ,
D33
11
= 21
31
12
22
32
13
23 ,
33
Moussa Karama
so, in two dimension

D : = D1111 + 2 D1313 .
Resulting stresses N , M and P are defined as
h /2
h /2
N11 =
M11 =
11dx3 ,
h /2
x311dx3 ,
h/ 2
h /2
P11 =
(11)
(12)
h /2
P13 =
h1 ( x3 )11dx3 ,
h /2
h1,3 ( x3 )13dx3 ,
h /2
so Eq. (10) becomes (see Appendix B for the mathematical detail),

L
P(*i ) = ( N11,1u1o* + M11,11w* + ( P11,1 P13 )1* )dx1 N11u1o* M11,1w* + M11w,1* P111* .
(13)
Now the virtual power of external loading is
(14)
P(*e ) = U *T f d + U *T F d
but
U
*T
U1*
U 3* ,
f1
f = f 2 ,
f 3
F1
F = F2 ,
F3
with
U1* = u1o* x3 w,1* + h1 ( x3 )1* ,
U 2* = 0,
U 3* = w* .
We define
h /2
ni =
mi =
h /2
fi dx3 ,
Fi dx3 ,
h /2
h /2
h /2
h /2
x3 fi dx3 ,
x3 Fi dx3 ,
(15)
h /2
h /2
h /2
Mi =
h /2
pi =
Ni =
h /2
h1 ( x3 ) fi dx3 ,
Pi =
h1 ( x3 ) Fi dx3 ,
h /2
so Eq. (14) becomes (see Appendix C for the mathematical detail),

L
P(*e ) = ( n1u1o * + ( n 3 + m 1,1 ) w * + p 11* )d x1 + N 1u1o * ( N 3 m 1 ) w * M 1 w,1* + P 11*

0
(16)
Now, by the Eqs. (5), (8), (13) and (16), governing equations and natural
boundary conditions for u1o* , w* , 1* ,
(u ) = N11,1 + n1 ,
( w) = M 11,11 + (n3 + m1,1 ),
(17)
( ) = P11,1 P13 + p1.

And natural boundary conditions for: u1o* ,w* ,1* ,w*,1 :
0 = N11 + N 1 ,
( w)
= M 11,1 + ( N 3 m1 ),
(18)
0 = P11 + P1 ,
0 = M 11 M 1.
The three-dimensional orthotropic constitutive law is
11 C11
C
22 12
33 C13
=
23 0
13 0

12 0
C12
C22
C23
0
0
0
C13
C23
C33
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C44
0
0
0
C55
0
11
22
33
. (19)
0 223
0 213
C66 212
0
0
0
The dimension x2 is supposed unitary, and the effects of the 33 are neglected,
so orthotropic law (19), becomes
11 C11'
0 11
=
,
13 0 C55 213
with
o*
11 = U 1,1 = u1,1
x3 w,11 + h11,1 ,
2 31 = h1,31 ,
'
C11
=
C11C 33 C132
.
C 33
Now, the generalized constitutive law
(20)
Moussa Karama
N11 A11
M
11 = B11
P11 K%

P13 0
B11
D11
T%
0
o*
K% 0 u1,1
%
T 0 w,11
.
S% 0 1,1
0 Y% 1
(21)
So, the governing Eqs. (17) become

o*
(u ) = A11u1,11
B11w,111 + K% 1,11 + n1 ,
o*
( w) = B11u1,111
D11w,1111 + T%1,111 + n3 + m1,1 ,
(22)
%
% o* Tw
%
%
( ) = Ku
1,11
,111 + S1,11 Y 1 + p1 .
And the natural boundary conditions (18) become

o*
0 = A11u1,1
B11w,11 K% 1,1 + N1 ,
o*
( w) = B11u1,11
+ D11w,111 T%1,11 + N 3 m1 ,
(23)
%
% o* + Tw
%
0 = Ku
1,1
,11 S1,1 + P1 ,
o*
0 = B11u1,1
D11w,11 + T%1,1 M 1.
Continuity coefficients :
To find out the value of the continuity coefficients, the conditions of the
continuity of the transverse shear stress between each interfaces of the layers
were used (Fig. 1)
(m)
( m +1)
13
( x3 = x3( m ) ) = 13
( x3 = x3( m ) ) .
(24)
Interface of layer (1) and layer (2)

(1)
(2)
13
( x3 = x3(1) ) = 13
( x3 = x3(1) )
1 f '( x3(1) )
1
+
( x1 ) g '( x3(1) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1(3) )
Q 55
=
2
2

1 f
2
= Q 55
+
( x1 ) g '( x3(1) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1( 3) )
2
2
'( x3(1) )

(2)
(3)
13
( x3 = x3(2) ) = 13
( x3 = x3(2) ).
Since, Q55 of the second and third layer are equal (Fig. 1), so,
(1)
+ 1 .
(25)
1
f '( x 3( 2 ) )
2
(1)
( x1 ) g '( x 3( 2 ) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1( 3 ) )
+
Q 55
+ 1 =
2
2
1
f
3
( x1 ) g '( x 3( 2 ) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1( 3 ) )
= Q 55
+
2
'( x 3( 2 ) )
2
(26)
(2)
(1)
+ 1 + 1 .
Now by Eqs. (25) and (26),

1(1) = 1(1) + 1(2) ,
(27)
1(2) = 0.
This shows that if the mechanical characteristics of the two consecutive layers
are the same (Fig. 1), the coefficient of the continuity will be zero ((2) = 0).
(3)
(4)
13
( x3 = x3(3) ) = 13
( x3 = x3(3) ) ,
1 f '( x3(3) )
3
(1)
(2)
( x1 ) g '( x3(3) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1(3) )
+
Q 55
+ 1 + 1 =
2
(28)
1 f '( x3(3) )
4
(1)
(2)
(3)
( x1 ) g '( x3(3) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1(3) )
= Q 55
+
+ 1 + 1 + 1 ,
we have,
f '( x3(1) = h / 4) = f '( x3(3) = h / 4),
g '( x3(1) = h / 4) = g '( x3(3) = h / 4).
So, by Eqs (26), (27) and (28), gives
1
f '( x 3( 3 ) )
1
+
Q 55
( x1 ) g '( x 3( 3 ) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1( 3 ) )
2
2
1
f '( x 3( 3 ) )
4
( x1 ) g '( x 3( 3 ) ) + ( 1(1) + 1( 2 ) + 1( 3 ) )
= Q 55
+
2
2
0 = 1(1) + 1(3)
1(1) = 1(3)
So, by Eq (27) and (29), Eq (25) becomes
(1)
(3)
+ 1 + 1 ,
(29)
10
Moussa Karama
1
2
Q55
( g '( x3(1) )) = Q55
( g '( x3(1) ) + 1(1) ),
1(1) =
1
2
(Q55
Q55
) g '( x3(1) )
2
Q55
and
1(3) =
(30)
2
1
(Q55
Q55
) g '( x3(1) )
.
2
Q55
(31)
3. Finite Element Analysis
Since no exact 3D solution exists for the considered case study, so

ABAQUS (finite element analysis software) is used to show the efficiency of
the present model. In this paper finite element results are taken as a reference
for the comparison of different models of laminated composite structures, done
by Abou Harb (1998). The 3D approximation of the behaviour is carried out by
element type CPS8 (quadrilateral element of eight nodes, 16 dof per element).
To validate the finite element results, firstly it is necessary to find out the
convergence of laminate meshing. So, for the given problem, in static and
dynamic, the convergence found to be at 1680 elements included 24 element in
thickness.
4. Some Evaluations of the Present Model
The static bending analysis is studied, so the virtual power of acceleration

quantities is cancelled. Three different bending analyses have been developed
for three different specific boundary conditions. For the simply supported
conditions, the unknown variables are deduced directly by the equation of
motions. For clamped conditions, kinematical boundary conditions are used
and, finally, in a free edge case, natural boundary conditions are employed. The
beam studied has a length of L = 6.35 m, a unitary width, and a thickness h =
=2.794 m in the thick case and h = 0.2794 m in the thin case. The beam
possesses four layers of the same thickness at 90/0/0/90. The material used
for the four layers is boron epoxy. The mechanical properties of the 0 layer are
as follows (Pagano, 1970):
E11 = 241.5 GPa,
E22 = E33 = 18.89 GPa,
G23 = 3.45 GPa,
G12 = G13 = 5.18 GPa,
23 = 0.25,
12 = 13 = 0.24,
and the density, = 2015 kg/m3. The continuity coefficients from the Eqs. (27),
(29) and (31)
1(1) = - 1(3) = 0.2210501411,
1(2) = 0.
11
Fig. 1 Description of the beam.
Problem 1: bending of a simply supported beam under distributed

sinusoidal load.
The surface and volume force components are cancelled except
h
n3 =
f dx
3
x
= q = qo sin 1 .
L
For the simply supported boundary conditions, the Levy solution is used, define
as
x
x
x
u1o = uo cos 1 , w = wo sin 1 , 1 = o cos 1 .
L
L
L
(32)
Now the governing Eqs (22), with P(a)* = 0 , becomes

o*
0 = A11u1,11
B11w,111 + K% 1,11 ,
x
o*
0 = B11u1,111
D11w,1111 + T%1,111 + qo sin 1 ,
L
o
*
%
%
0 = Ku
Tw
+ S% Y% .
1,11
,111
1,11
Now, by the Levy solution, the governing equations become:

% 2 cos x ,
0 = A11 2u cos x1 + B11 3 wo cos x1 K
1
o
% 3 sin x + q sin x ,
0 = B11 3uo x1 D11 4 wo sin x1 + T
1
1
o
o
% 2 cos x Y% cos x with, =
% 2u cos x + T
% 3 w cos x S
0 = K
1
1
1
1
o
o
o
o
L
and then in matrix form
(33)
12
Moussa Karama
2 A11
3
B11
2%
K
3 B11
4 D11
3T%
2 K% uo 0

3T% wo = qo ,

2 S% Y% o 0
(34)
and also, the displacement (1), becomes

U1 ( x1 , x3 ) = ( uo x3 wo + h1 ( x3 )o ) cos(x1 ),
U 2 = 0,
(35)
U 3 = wo sin(x1 ),
and now by Eq. (20), stresses expression
11 ( x1 , x3 ) = C11' (uo x3 wo + h1o )sin(x1 ),
(36)
and,
13 ( x1 , x3 ) = C55 h1,3o cos(x1 ),
(37)
and integration of the equilibrium equation 13,1 + 33,3 = 0 , enables us to

calculate the analytical value of 33
33 = C55 h1 ( x3 )o sin( x1 ).
(38)
The numerical results obtained (qo = -106 Pa) using the present model are
compared with those obtained by the finite element analysis7 and the Sine7
model by Touratier (Table 1).
Table 1
Bending of the simply supported thick beam under distributed sinusoidal load
Model
U3 (L/2)
U1 (0, h/2) 13 (L/4, 0) 11 (L/2, -h/4+) 33 (L/2, h/2)
(Interface)
(Interface)
m
m
Pa
Pa
Pa
Present -6.370110-4 2.119610-4 -940098.0
8112840.0
-1039990.0
4.4
8.3
6.6
3.5
3.9
Error (%)
7
-4
-4
Sine
-896865.0
8158932.0
-1047274.0
-6.279410 2.018010
2.9
12.7
10.8
4.1
4.6
Error (%)
Abaqus7 -6.100610-4 2.312510-4 -1006000.0
7835200.0
-1000900.0
For this problem, the present model present a better mechanical

behaviour better than Sine model compared to the finite element analysis results
except the transverse deflection (U3). Percentage error reduction is more
significant in case of transverse shear stress (13) at interfaces of layers. The
efficiency of this model is shown for (Figs. 2, 3 and 4), different stresses and
13
displacement plotted according to the length and thickness of the beam,

showing that the present model at every point on the beam, is closer to the
finite element results then to those of the Sine model. Here we can see also the
continuity of displacement and transverse shear stress between layer interfaces
of the present model.
Fig. 2 Variation of the stress 11 along the direction x1 for x3 = -h/2 for
Problem 1: Present (-*-), Sine7(-), Abaqus7(- - -).
Fig. 3 Variation of the transverse shear 13 through the thickness for x3 = 0 (Interface).
for Problem 1, Present (-*-), Sine7(-), Abaqus7(- - -).
Fig. 4 - Variation of the displacement U1 through the thickness for x1 = L/4 for
Problem 1, Present (-*-), Sine7(-), Abaqus7(- - -).
14
Moussa Karama
5. Conclusions
1. Shear stress continuity of displacement and transverse shear stresses at

interfaces of the layers and the boundary conditions for a laminated composite
are exactly satisfied by this present new multi-layered structure exponential
with the help of the Heaviside step function (Figs. 2-10).
2. For the new proposed model the results are compared with the existing
model (like Sine (1998)) model by Touratier (1991) and by the finite element
method by Abaqus (1998). Results show that the new proposed exponential
model present a better approximation than the Sine (1998) model as compared
to the finite element analysis, except for some results, (Table 1), especially
results are very much favourable on interface of the layers.
3. The new model is also simple in so far as any correction factor is used
in opposition to the higher order models. In the case of static analysis, (Figs. 24) presents the numerical results for the bending deformation under different
types of loading and boundary conditions on a thick beam, showing that the
present model is always trying to approaches to the finite element analysis by
Abaqus (1998). As a whole we can conclude the present exponential model is
more accurate than other existing analytical models for multi-layered structures
compared to finite element analysis.
Appendix A
(Virtual Power of the Acceleration Quantities)
We have,
&&,1 + h11 ,
U&&1 = u&&1o x3 w
&&,
U&&3 = w
and
U 3* = w* .
U1* = u1o* x3 w,1* + h11* ,
So Eq. (6) becomes,

P(*a ) =
(U U&& + U U&& )d .
*
1 1
*
3
By the integration by parts

P(*a ) = u1o*u&&1 + (u&&3 + x3u&&1,1 ) w* + h1 ( x3 )1*u&&1 d x3 w*u&&1d
and, now
)
+ h ( x ) ) w d,
o
&&,1 + h1 ( x3 )1 u1o* + w
&& + x3 (u&&1,1
&&,11 + h1 ( x3 )1,1 ) w* +
P(*a ) = u&&1o x3 w
x3 w
&&,1 + h1 ( x3 )1 1* d x3 u&&1o x3 w
&&,1
+ h1 ( x3 ) u&&1o x3 w

h/2
h/2
h / 2
&&,1 +
d x3 )u&&1o +
( x3 d x3 ) w
( h1 ( x3 )d x3 )1 u1o* +
0 h / 2
h/2
h/2
P(*a ) =
15
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
o
2
&&
&&
&&
+
( dx3 )u1,1
( x3 d x3 ) w,11 +
( x3 h1 ( x3 )d x3 )1,1 w* +
d x3 ) w +
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2

&&,1 +
+
( h1 ( x3 )d x3 )u&&1o +
( x3 h1 ( x3 )d x3 ) w
( h12 ( x3 )d x3 )1 1* d +

h/2
h/2
h/2

h/2
h/2
h / 2

&&,1 +
( x3 d x3 )u&&1o +
( x32 d x3 ) w
( x3 h1 ( x3 )d x3 )1 w*
+

h/2
h/2

h / 2
and now by relations (7),

L
P(*a ) =
( u ) o*
u1
+ ( w) w* + ( )1* dx1 + ( w) w*
Appendix B
(Virtual Power of the Internal Work)

By relation (11), virtual power of the internal work (10) become
o*
1

*
*
P(*i ) = u1,1
x3 w,11
+ h1 ( x3 )1,1
11 + 2 h1,3 ( x3 )1* 13 d,
2

P(*i )
(
= (
o*
11u1,1
*
*
x3 w,11
11 + h1 ( x3 )111,1
+ 13 h1,3 ( x3 )1* d.
Now, by integrating each term by parts:
P(*i ) = 11,1u1o* x311,11w* h1 ( x3 )11,11* + h1,3 ( x3 )131* d
11u1o* x311w,1* + x311,1w* + h1 ( x3 )111* d,
h /2
h /2
P(*i ) =
11,1dx3 u1o* +
x311,11dx3 w* +
h1 ( x3 )11,1dx3 1*
0 h /2
h /2
h /2
h /2
h /2
h /2

h /2
*
o*
h1,3 ( x3 )13dx3 1 dx1 + 11dx3 u1 +

x311dx3 w,1*

h /2

h /2
h /2
h /2
h /2

*
x311,1dx3 w
h1 ( x3 )11dx3 1* .

h /2
h /2

16
Moussa Karama
Now by relations (12),

L
(N
P(*i ) =
*
*
*
*
*
o*
o*
11,1u1 + M 11,11 w + ( P11,1 P13 )1 )dx1 N11u1 M 11,1 w + M 11 w,1 P111 .
Appendix C
(Virtual power of the External Loading)
By relations (15), virtual power of external loading (14), becomes:

P(*e )
P(*e ) =
(f U
1
*
1
U1*
+ (F u
f3
U1*
F1
*
U 3 F2 d
F3
+ f 3U 3* )d + ( F1U 1* + F3U 3* )d ,
P(*e ) =
f1
*
U 3 f 2 d +
( f1u1o* f1 x3 w,1* + h1 ( x3 ) f11* + f 3 w* )d +
o*
1 1
F1 x3 w,1* + h1 ( x3 ) F11* + F3 w* )d ,
h/2
h / 2
h/2

h/2
h1 ( x3 ) f1 dx3 1* d x1 +
f1d x3 u1o* +
f 3 dx3 +
x3 f1,1d x3 w* +
0 h / 2
h/2
h/2

h/2
P(*e ) =
h/2
h / 2
h/2
h/2
h/2

F1d x3 u1o* +
F3 d x3
x3 f1d x3 w* +
h1 ( x3 ) F1d x3 1*
x3 F1d x3 w,1* ,
+
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2

h / 2
and now by relation (15),

L
P(*e ) =
(n u
o*
1 1 + ( n3
+ m1,1 ) w* + p11* )dx1 + N 1u1o* ( N 3 m1 ) w* M 1w,1* + P11* .
REFERENCES
Ambartsumian S.A., On Theory of Bending Plates. Izv. Otd. Tech. Nauk., AN SSSR., 5,
69-77 (1958).
Beakou A., Homognisation et modlisation des coques composites multicouches.
Thesis ENSAM, Paris, 1991.
Di Sciuva M., A General Quadrilateral Multi-layered Plate Element with Continuous
Inter-laminar Stresses. Computers and Structures, 47(1), 91-105 (1993).
Di Sciuva, M., An Improved Shear Deformation Theory for Moderately Thick Multilayered Anisotropic Shells and Plates. J. Appl. Mech., ASME, 54, 589-596
(1987).
Gachon H., Sur le flambage des plaques: modle de calcul, modles exprimentaux.
Construction Mtallique, 4, 23-52 (1980).
17
He L.H., A Linear Theory of Laminated Shells Accounting for Continuity of

Displacements and Transverse Shear Stresses at Layer Interface. Int. J. Solids
Structures, 31(5), 613-627 (1994).
Idlbi A., Comparaison de thories de plaque et estimation de la qualit des solution
dans la zone bord. Thesis, ENSAM, Paris, 1995.
Kaczkowski Z., Plates. Statistical Calculations. Arkady, Warsaw, 1968.
Karama M., Abou H. et al., Bending, Buckling and Free Vibration of Laminated
Composite with Transverse Shear Stress Continuity Model. Composite Part B,
29B, 223-234 (1998).
Karama M., Touratier M. et al., An Evaluation of the Edge Solution for a Higher-order
Laminated Plate Theory. Composite Structures, 25, 495-502 (1993).
Kirchhoff G.J., Uber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung einer elastischen Schreitbe.
Reine Angew. Math, 40, 51-58 (1850).
Levinson M., An Accurate Simple Theory of the Statics and Dynamics of Elastic Plates.
Mech. Res. Common., 7, 343-350 (1980).
Love A.E.H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. 4th Ed., Cambridge
University Press, 1934.
Mindlin R.D., Influence of Rotary Inertia and Shear on Flexural Motions of Isotropic
Elastic Plates. J. Appl. Mech., ASME, 18, 31-38 (1951).
Murthy M.V.V., An Improved Transverse Shear Deformation Theory for Laminated
Anisotropic Plates. NASA Technical Paper, 1981.
Ossadzow C., Muller P. et al., Une thorie gnrale des coques composites multicouches. 2ime Colloque National en Calcul des Structures, 1, Hermes, 1995.
Pagano N. J., Exact Solution for Rectangular Bi-directional Composites and Sandwich
Plates. J. Composite Materials, 4, 20-34 (1970).
Palardy R.F., Palazotto A.N., Buckling and Vibration of the Composite Plates Using the
Levy Method. Composite Structures, 14, 61-85 (1990).
Panc V., Theories of Elastic Plates. Academia, Prague, 1975.
Reddy J.N., A Simple High-order Theory of Laminated Composite Plate. J. App. Mech.,
51, 745-752 (1984).
Reissner E., Reflection on the Theory of Elastic Plates. J. Appl. Mech., 38, 1453-1464
(1945).
Reissner E., On Transverse Bending of Plates, Including the effects of Transverse Shear
Deformation. Int. J. Solid Structure, 25, 495-502 (1975).
Touratier M., An Efficient Standard Plate Theory. Int. J. Eng. Sci., 29(8), 901-916
(1991).
Touratier M., A Generalization of Shear Deformation Theories for Axisymmetric Multilayered Shells. Int. J. Solids Structures, 29(11), 1379-139 (1992).
Widera G.E.O., Logan D.L., Refined Theories for Non-homogeneous Aniso-tropic
Cylindrical Shells. J. Eng. Mech. Division, EM6, 1053-1090 (1980).
COMPORTAREA BARELOR COMPOZITE LAMINATE LA INTERFEELE
DINTRE STRATURI
(Rezumat)
Una din problemele actuale legate de structurile compozite multi-strat se refer
la analiza distribuiei tensiunilor n zonele cu particulariti geometrice i la interfeele
18
Moussa Karama
dintre straturi. Pentru a prognoza comportamentul structurilor compozite multistrat, n

cadrul acestei lucrri am introdus o funcie exponenial determinat n raport cu
tensiunea de forfecare, avnd o acuratee mai mare fa de funciile trigonometrice sinus
i cosinus, relativ la dezvoltarea n serii. Ca studiu de caz se prezint comportamentul
mecanic al barei compozite laminate (900/00/00/900). Rezultatele sunt comparate cu
modelul Sinus i analiza bidimensional cu elemente finite. Datele arat c noul
model propus n cadrul acestei lucrri furnizeaz rezultate mai bune dect cele
anterioare. De asemenea, pentru definirea strii de tensiuni n compozitele multistrat,
noul model propus este mai simplu i mai precis dect vechile modele existente.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
REORIENTATION CURVES FOR A Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5 ALLOY

BY
ISAAC NELSON, CONSTANTIN CIOCNEL and HEIDI FEIGENBAUM

Northern Arizona University,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Abstract. This paper presents experimental results for variant reorientation

curves specific to a Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5 alloy. Reorientation curves show the stress
and magnetic field values when reorientation begins and ends for various load
conditions. The curves in this work have been generated based on material
response under three loading conditions: constant stress variable field, constant
field variable stress, and variable stress variable field. Reorientation curves
can give insight into the material behaviour and are key features of
phenomenological models for MSMAs. Previously, variant reorientation curves
have been generated only for the constant field variable stress loading case, and
models have been limited to predicting either constant field - variable stress or
constant stress variable field conditions, but not both. Thus, to this point, it has
not been clear if it is possible to develop one model that can predict the magnetomechanical behaviour of MSMAs subject to any possible stress field loading
conditions. The experimental results in this work suggest that a set of
reorientation curves covering the whole 2D magneto-mechanical loading
spectrum is achievable, which implies that the magneto-mechanical behaviour of
MSMAs can indeed be captured with a single model. Accordingly, the results of
this work will be useful in developing such a model.
Key words: NiMnGa alloy, variant reorientation, reorientation curves.
1. Introduction
NiMnGa is a relatively new magnetic shape memory alloy that exhibits
the shape memory effect in the presence of a magnetic field. The shape memory
effect is facilitated by the microstructure of the material that consists of three
Corresponding author: e-mail: Constantin.Ciocanel@nau.edu
20
Issac Nelson, Constantin Ciocnel and Heidi Feigenbaum
martensite variants, as shown in Fig. 1. The tetragonal martensite variants are

characterized by a magnetic easy axis that is aligned with the short side (side c
in Fig. 1) of the unit cell.
Upon the application of a magnetic field, the variants magnetization easy
axis tends to align in the direction of the applied field, causingup to 10%
macroscopic reorientation strain (Marioni et al., 2003). The magnitude of
thereorientation strain is contingentupon the chemistry of the alloy, the
materials training, the applied magnetic field and the compressive stress that is
experienced by the material; a compressive stress as small as 5MPa (Karaca et
al., 2005) can prevent variant reorientation under any magnitude magnetic field.
From an applications point of
view, this material is suitable for
11
actuation, sensing and power
harvesting applications, at a
minimum. In all of these
applications
the
stress
is
compressive and applied axially,
while the magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the stress, in the
transverse direction. For actuation
22
applications, a MSMA element
should be subject to a constant axial Fig 1. The three martensitic variants with
compressive stress and a variable magnetic easy axis parallel to the short axis
(adopted from Kiefer and Lagoudas, 2005).
transverse magnetic field. During
this type of loading, the variants will reorient to align with the magnetic field,
thus elongating the MSMA element and beginning the actuation process. The
limiting factor for actuation applications is the blocking stress specific to the
material. For sensing and power harvesting applications, a MSMA element
should be subject to constant transverse magnetic field and variable axial
compressive stress. During this type of loading, the variants will reorient to
align with the compressive stress, and as they do so the direction of the internal
magnetization changes, which can be sensed or harvested using a pick-up coil.
For a robust design of a MSMA based device, one has to be able to
predict the magneto-mechanical response of the material to various loading
conditions. Furthermore, new applications of MSMAs may be discovered
through a better understanding and more comprehensive modelling of the
magneto-mechanical behaviour of MSMAs.
Reorientation curves are one way to get a better understanding of the
magneto-mechanical behaviour of MSMAs, and reorientation functions are key
features of phenomenological models of MSMAs.
To illustrate what the reorientation curves are, consider the material
response to a constant field-variable load condition, as shown in Fig. 2. In this
case, at the beginning of the test, ideallythe materialis allin variant 2 (the
21
magnitude of the field causes all variants to reorient such that the easy axes
align with the external field, forcing variants 1 and 3 into variant 2). Upon the
application of the compressive stress, after some period of pure elastic
deformation, some material in variant 2 will start to reorient into a stress
preferred orientation, i.e. into variant 1. This point is called start 2 to 1 and is
identified as S(2,1) in Fig. 2. Reorientation then continues until all material is in
variant 1, i.e. the finish 2 to 1 point, identified as F(2,1) in Fig. 2. Once full
reorientation from variant 2 to variant 1 is completed, further increase of the
compressive load causes the material to deform only elastically. Should the
compressive stress then be decreased, the material will initially deform only
elastically, however, at some point the removal of the stress and the presence of
the magnetic field will cause some material in martensite variant 1 to begin
reorientation back into variant 2, this is called start 1 to 2 and is identified as
S(1,2) in Fig. 2. Finally, the point where reorientation from variant 1 to 2 ends
is called finish 1 to 2 and is identified as F(1,2) in the same figure.
Reorientation curves show these start and finish points for various magnitudes
of load and load paths on a stress vs. field graph.
Fig. 2 Variant reorientation points identified on the magnetomechanical response of the material experiencing a variable
compressive stress under a constant magnetic field.
Prior to this work, Couch et al. (2007) performed constant stress

variable field and constant field variable stress tests; data from the later was
used to generate reorientation curves. Both types of tests were performed on
a2mm x 3mm x 16mm specimens provided by Adaptamat Ltd., same
manufacturer that supplied the specimens used in this study. In all of their
experiments, the stress was compressive and applied axially, while the magnetic
field was applied perpendicular to the stress in the transverse direction. To
determine the reorientation curves, the stresses at which variant reorientation
22
occurred from the field preferred to the stress preferred orientation and back,
from the stress preferred to the field preferred orientation were recorded for
various constant field values. The reorientation curves from Couch et al. show
that the start and finish values of stress vary in a nonlinear way with applied
magnetic field. Such curves can be used for model development and calibration
when simple constant field variable stress loading conditions are being
simulated. However, to date no researchers have determined reorientation
curves for other loading conditions, such as constant stress variable load or
variable field variable load. As a result, the objective of work is to determine
these curves.
These types of reorientation curves will be used in future work to help
derive a model that captures the behaviour of MSMAs subject to general
loading conditions. Similar to yield functions in plasticity theory,
phenomenological models of MSMAs, such as those by Kiefer and Lagoudas
(2005, 2009) and Waldauer et al. (2011), rely on reorientation functions to
determine whether or not reorientation is occurring. Once the material reaches a
stress field state for reorientation to begin, the material must harden for
reorientation to continue until the finished point is reached. Accordingly,
reorientation functions play a vital role in the modelling of MSMAs and the
experimental work reported here can be used to motivate future models.
Moreover, robust and general constitutive model should be calibrated on
one set of data, and with that unique calibration the model to be able to predict
the magneto-mechanical response predictions under any loading condition.
However, as Waldauer et al. (2011) showed, current material models for
MSMAs, such as those by Kiefer and Lagoudas (2005, 2009) and Waldauer et
al. (2011), can only be used for loading similar to which the model was
calibrated. For example, to simulate variable field-constant stress loading, the
model must be calibrated with variable field constant stress experimental data.
Furthermore, Waldauer et al. demonstrated that the material parameters found
will be quite different if calibrated with variable field-constant stress data than
they will be if calibrated with variable stress- constant field data. So at this
point it is unclear if a single model that captures the magneto-mechanical
behaviour of MSMAs under any load is even feasible.
Accordingly, the goal of this paper is to establish experimentally a set of
reorientation curves that can be used to verify whether a single model for all
load cases is possible. And if so, the experimentally found reorientation curves
in this work can help researchers formulate a constitutive model that can predict
material response under any loading conditions. The following sections describe
the experimental setup and the experimental data analysis procedure used to
acquire and develop the variant reorientation curves.
23
2. Experimental Setup and Procedure

2.1. Experimental Setup
The experimental setup consisted of a bi-axial 8874 Instron hydraulic test

rig equipped with a 3470 GMW 45mm dipole electromagnet (Fig. 3). The
magnetic field generated by the electromagnet was applied normal to the
direction of the applied compressive stress and was monitored using an AC/DC
5170 Gaussmeter with a transverse Hall probe.The tested specimen wasa single
crystal NiMnGa specimen with dimensions 3mm 3mm 20mm, provided by
AdaptaMat Ltd.
MSMA
specimen
Magnetic
field probe
Electromagnet
Fig. 3 Experimental setup.
a
b
Fig. 4 a Load profile as applied using the 8874 test rig and a constant load
device; b Constant load device as installed on the Instron 8874 frame.
A power supply controls the current passing through the electromagnet

coils and allows for both, constant and variable magnetic fields to be applied on
24
the specimen. The compressive load is applied directly by the machine, in the
case of variable stress-constant field and variable stress-variable field
experiments, or using a device that applies a constant load on the specimen, for
the constant stress-variable field case. The need for the constant load device
comes from the fact that the stiffness of the specimen changes significantly
during tests and the 8874 system cannot keep the load truly constant on the
specimen, as it continuously tries to accommodate the change in stiffness. As a
result, the applied load from the test rig can vary significantly from the desired
constant load,as shown in Fig. 4 a. However, when the constant load device is
used there is almost no change in the applied load, as shown in Fig. 4 a.
2.2. Experimental Procedure
The constant loaddevice, shown in Fig. 4 b, is made of acetyl-butyl

styrene copolymer (ABS) and on one side it has a push rod similar to the
aluminium push rods used to perform the tests, while on the other side it has a
cylindrical bearing that facilitates the sliding up and down, along a guiding
rod, of the device as the specimen expands or compresses upon the application
of the magnetic field. The sliding occurs with minimal friction. The constant
load device was designed such that it allows the addition of various size weights
on it to simulate different stress levels on the tested specimen. As an example,
Fig. 4.b shows the constant load device with its own mass of 199 grams, and on
top of it another mass of 434 grams, simulating approximately 0.7MPa of stress
on the specimen. Additional weights have been manufactured to allow
application of stress in increments of 0.25MPa, between 0.25 and 1.75MPa.
Experiments have been performed in three loading modes: a) constant
field variable load, b) constant load variable field, and c) variable loadvariable field. In cases a) and c), the tests started with the specimen in variant 2
(fully elongated), while in case b), the tests started with the specimen in variant
1 (fully compressed). Also, in cases a) and b), the load and field have been
varied between zero and a maximum value, respectively. In case c), the field
was varied between a maximum value and a minimum value equal to 0.25 the
magnitude of the maximum value, while the load was varied between zero and a
desired maximum value. In all cases, the direction of the loading remained the
same as shown in Fig. 3.
3. Results
Fig. 5 illustrates the magneto-mechanical response of the material for
each loading case considered. The constant field tests were performed at fields
ranging between 0.6T and 0.95T in increments of 0.05T and with the
compressive stress varying between zero and a maximum of 6.67MPa. The
constant stress tests were performed under constant stresses applied in
increments of 0.25MPa, between 0.25MPa and 1.75MPa, and magnetic field
25
varying between 0 and 1T. The complex loading tests were performed with the
stress and field varying linearly between 0 and 2.5MPa, and between maximum
values for magnetic field of 0.65T, 0.75T, 0.85T, 0.95T and a quarter of this
magnitude, respectively. These tests started with the specimen fully elongated.
The data recorded during these tests has been used to determine the start
and finish reorientation stress-field values. It is important to note that for low
stress levels (between 0.25MPa and approximately 0.4MPa) in the constant
stress tests and field magnitudes above 0.75T only reorientation from variant 1
to 2 can be observed experimentally. This can be explained as follows. In the
constant stress case, the test is started with the specimen fully in variant 1 from
the constant stress applied. As the magnetic field is increased, the variants
reorient into variant 2. Then, as the magnetic field is removed, the stress is too
weak to be able to induce reorientation back to variant 1. Accordingly, from
these tests, only the first two start and finish reorientation stress-field pairs may
be obtained.
In order to produce reorientation curves, a clear criteria for selecting the
start and finish reorientation points is needed and previous work has not yet
established such criteria. In an effort to be consistent in the selection of the
stress and field reorientation values, the authors used a 0.05 strain offset from
the elastic region of the reorientation curve, as illustrated in Fig. 5. The start and
finish reorientation values have been collected from material response plots that
exhibited full reorientation, similar to those shown in Fig. 5. For the constant
field variable load case, Fig. 5 a, the material is initially in variant 2 and upon
the application of the increasing stress, the variants reorient into variant 1.
Therefore, the red line intersects the material response at the points of start
reorientation 2 to 1 (S(2,1)) and at finish reorientation 1 to 2 (F(1,2)). The green
line intersects the material response at the points of finish reorientation 2 to 1
(F(2,1)) and at start reorientation 1 to 2 (S(1,2)). For the constant stress
variable field case, the material is initially in variant 1 and upon application of
the increasing magnetic field, it reorients into variant 2. Fig. 5 b shows the
selection of the start and finish points for reorientation for this type of loading
using the same criteria of 0.05 strain offset from the elastic region.
For these two cases, where either field or stress is constant, the selection
of the stress-field values for the beginning and end reorientation points is fairly
straightforward once the off-set strain is defined. However, for the variable
stress variable field case, the approach in determining the start and finish
reorientation points is a little more involved. One could follow the same
procedure as done for the cases where one load is constant, however, now there
will be both field strain curves as well as stress strain curves to from which
key points may be gathered. If the off-set strain is used for both the field
strain plots as well as the stress strain plots there is the potential to select field
and stress values that are not happening simultaneously.
26

F(2,1)
F(1,2)
S(1,2)
S(2,1)
S(1,2)
S(2,1)
F(1,2)
F(2,1)
0.05
F(2,1)
S(2,1)
F(1,2)
S(2,1)
F(2,1)
S(1,2)
S(1,2)
F(1,2)
d
c
Fig. 5 a Constant field variable stress; b Constant stress variable field; c
& d Variable stress variable field. The dotted line is plotted parallel to the
elastic region during the loading unloading sequence, while the red and green
continuous lines are drawn parallel to the dotted line with an offset of 0.05strain.
Specifically, it could be seen that the strain value is different if the key
point is identified on the strain field curve as compared to if the key point is
identified on the stress strain curve. Thus, the following procedure is proposed
to identify the stress-field reorientation values with complex loads. First, one
picks the start-finish reorientation values for the stress at the 0.05 strain offset,
from the stress-strain plot (Fig. 5 c) and then, for that specific strain value reads
the corresponding magnetic field value for reorientation from the raw
experimental data file.
Using this procedure start and finish points for reorientation were found
for various magnitudes of load for constant stress variable field, constant field
variable stress and variable field variable stress loading. A summary of all
the results is shown in Fig. 6.
It must be noted that the experimental data plotted in Fig. 6 shows an
unexpectedly large scattering of the data. This may be due to the fact that the
specimen developed several cracks between the time the constant field tests
27
were performed and the time the other tests were performed (Fig. 7). These
cracks developed in the specimen during several tests performed in a dynamic
regime to assess the material suitability for power harvesting. As no other
specimen was available at the time of data collection, the cracked/chipped
specimen was used to perform the remaining tests necessary for this study. The
authors expect that once a new fully intact specimen is available it will be used
to gather similar type of data, and the scatter should be significantly reduced.
In addition, the method used for the magnetic field measurement may
have contributed to the scattering of the data. Specifically, the field was
measured using a Hall probe whose position along the specimen may have not
been the same when measurements were made for the various tests performed.
While the field distribution between the magnetic poles, along the specimen
height, is uniform in the absence of the MSMA specimen, as the variant
reorientation occurs within the MSMA there is a change in the direction of
internal magnetization, which can affect the external magnetic field. So if there
are variations along the length of the specimen of the variant volume fraction,
reading the field at slightly different locations along the specimen may lead to
slightly different measured field values at key points. This would lead to scatter
in the reorientation curves as seen in Fig. 6.
F(2,1)
S(2,1)
S(1,2)
F(1,2)
Fig. 6 Variant reorientation data for a Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5alloy.
28
To improve the reorientation plots shown in Fig. 6, additional

experiments need to be performed to provide data particularly in the regions
below 2MPa stress or 0.6T field. Data points in these regions are the most
difficult to acquire because when a low constant stress is combined with a
medium to low field, reorientation will occur only in one direction, from variant
1 to 2, as the stress will not be able to overcome the field to reorient the variants
back to variant 1. And similarly should for a low constant field with medium to
low compressive stress value.
chip
crack
Fig. 7 Tested specimen exhibiting cracks and chips after being loaded dynamically.
4. Conclusions
1. The results shown in Fig. 6 demonstrate that a single model for when
reorientation begins and ends which can capture all the three loading conditions
used in this work (variable stress constant field, variable field constant
stress, and variable field variable stress) is possible.
2. Lines have been drawn in Fig. 6 to show the approximate reorientation
curves given by the data. Despite the large scatter of the data, these lines show
that a single curve can capture relatively well each of the key reorientation
points (the start 1 to 2, start 2 to 1, finish 1 to 2 and finish 2 to 1) no matter
which type of loading the material was subject to (constant stress variable
field, constant field variable stress or variable stress variable field).
3. While this only shows that a single model to capture the three load
cases used here could be developed, these load cases are diverse enough to
suggest that a single model that can simulate any 2D load case is possible.
4. Reorientation functions that mimic the curves seen in Fig. 6 will be
important features of a phenomenological model that can capture any loading
case with a single calibration.
Acknowledgements. This material is based upon work supported by the
National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0923517 and Grant No. 1101108. The
authors would also like to thank AdaptaMat Ltd. for providing the MSMA samples.
29
REFERENCES
Couch R.N., Sirohi J., Chopra I., Development of a Quasi-static Model of NiMnGa
Magnetic Shape Memory Alloy. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 18, 611-622 (2007).
Karaca H.E., Karaman I., Basaran B., Chumlyakov Y.I., Maier H.J., Magnetic Field and
Stress Induced Martensite Reorientation in NiMnGa Ferromagnetic Shape
Memory Alloy Single Crystals. Acta Materialia, 54, 233245 (2006).
Kiefer B., Lagoudas D., Magnetic Field-induced Martensitic Variant Reorienta-tion in
Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys. Philosophical Magazine, 85, 42894329
(2005).
Kiefer B., Lagoudas D., Modeling the Coupled Strain and Magnetization Response of
Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys under Magnetomechanical Loading. Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 20, 143-170 (2009).
Marioni M., Bono D., Banful A., del Rosario M., Rodrigue E., Peterson B., Allen S.,
OHandley R., Pulsed Field Actuation of Ni-Mn-Ga Ferromagnetic Shape
Memory Alloy Single Crystal. Phys. IV France, 112, 10011004 (2003).
Waldauer A.B., Feigenbaum H.P., Ciocanel C.,, Improvements to the Kiefer and
Lagoudas Model for Prediction of the Magneto-Mechanical Behavior of
Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys. ASME 2011 Conference on Smart Materials,
Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems (SMASIS 2011), Scottsdale, AZ,
2011.
CURBE DE REORIENTARE PENTRU UN ALIAJ Ni50Mn28.5Ga21.5
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea prezint curbele de reorientare obinute experimental pentru un aliaj
magnetic cu memoria formei. Aceste curbe de reorientare caracterizeaz rspunsul
materialului la diferite tipuri de ncrcri i sunt necesare pentru simularea rspunsului
materialului cu modele de material fenomenologice. Rezultatele susin posibilitatea
crerii unui model fenomenologic care s foloseasc un singur set de curbe de
reorientare pentru obinerea parametrilor modelului, parametri cu care modelul poate
simula toate tipurile de ncrcri la care poate fi supus materialul.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
PARTICULATE CORDIERITE - ZIRCONIA COMPOSITES

BY
CIPRIAN ATNSOAEI, VIOREL GOAN

and PAUL DORU BRSNESCU
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics and Robotics
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The literature proposes many studies on improving the

mechanical properties of zirconia (ZrO2) reinforced cordierite. Strengthening
mechanisms operating in the system cordierite - zirconia are based on large
difference between thermal expansion of the two components and transformation
of zirconia from tetragonal to monoclinic state (transformation toughening). The
best results were obtained especially when transformation of zirconia in zircon
was avoided by using Yttria Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) combined with a high
heating rate or Rate-Controlled-Sintering (RCS).
Key words: cordierita, zirconia, zircon, composite materials.
1. Introduction
Cordierite is a ceramic with a very low thermal expansion (2 10-6/C),
good dielectric properties (~4 at 1 MHz), high chemical stability and a
relatively low cost price. These qualities are often valued in the manufacture of
structural ceramic components for use in aggressive environments (catalytic
converters, multilayer circuit boards, kiln furniture, thermal insulation parts,
diesel particulate filters, etc.). However, the poor mechanical properties limit
the usefulness of this material. It is widely accepted that the best way to
improve the mechanical properties of cordierite ceramics is to use fibers or
Corresponding author: e-mail: paulbarsanescu@yahoo.com
32
Ciprian Atnsoaei et al.
particulate reinforcements. The range of reinforcement materials used is quite

large: diamond (Hasselman et al., 1994), mullite (Ebadzadeh & Lee, 1998), SiC
(Wadsworth & Stevens, 1991), ZrO2 (Wadsworth et al., 1990), Si3N4 (Zamir et
al., 2010) etc. A quality composite requires careful control of each stage of
processing. This is even more important in the case of cordierite because its
sintering temperature range is very narrow (about 50C). In addition, zirconia
reinforced cordierite is prone to a particular problem: the tendency of zirconia to
react with the cordierite matrix, resulting in zircon - a compound with poor
mechanical properties.
The scientific literature gave pretty much attention to reinforcement of
cordierite with zirconia particles proposing several variants of technological
routes, each having results more or less significant. This paper aims at
highlighting the technological details that lead to obtain substantial
improvements of mechanical properties of zirconia toughened cordierite.
2. Toughening Mechanisms in Zirconia-Cordierite Composites
2.1. Transformation Toughening
In terms of crystalline structure, zirconia shows three states: monoclinic

(m zirconia), tetragonal (t zirconia) and cubic (c zirconia) (Xia & Langdon,
1994). The monoclinic structure can be kept up to 950C. The temperatures
between 9502370C correspond to tetragonal structure and beyond 2370C
usually we can find only the cubic structure. Regarding the transformation
toughening mechanism, the most important fact is zirconia transition from
tetragonal to monoclinic structure (t-m transformation), because it implies a
volume increase of about 4%. If zirconia is dispersed in a (ceramic) matrix with
a similar thermal expansion, t-m transformation will significantly change the
stress field within the ceramic body. Therefore, transformation toughening
alters the normal propagation of macrocracks by creating stress concentrators
into the ceramic body.
In the case of zirconia toughened cordierite, transformation toughening is
not always a very important mechanism influencing the composite performance
because the thermal expansion of cordierite is much lower than that of zirconia,
This allows reinforcing particle to have a volume increase greater than that
induced by the t-m transformation (Wadsworth et. al., 1990). Besides this, the
increase in volume due to t-m transformation is similar to volume shrinkage
after sintering, and thus the two phenomena are partially or totally cancelling
their effects. On the other hand, the combination of several factors (the use of
additives, particle size, homogeneity, etc.) can inhibit the t-m transformation.
As one can see, when we are talking about zirconia toughened cordierite,
the contribution of transformation toughening to mechanical performance is
hard to predict. In practice, the presence of the transformation toughening
mechanism can be evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), comparing the values
33
measured for m-zirconia, before and after polishing the surface studied (Jang,
1995).
2.2. Microcracking
The trajectory of a macrocrack can be deflected if it encounters areas

with different mechanical properties (obstacles, different stress fields, etc.). The
mechanism of microcracking involves the appearance of cracks in the ceramic
body. These microcracks occur in areas with high tensile stresses which attract
the microcrack and divert its trajectory (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Macrocrack deflected by

particles microcracks (Xia & Langdon, 1994).
Fig. 2 A crack front pinned by

(Xia & Langdon, 1994).
Increasing the length of macrocrack path can reduce its energy below the
limit at which propagation is possible.
In the zirconia-cordierite system, microcracks are induced by the large
difference of thermal expansion of the constituents. Of course, despite the fact
that it is not always very efficient, t-m transformation can be another
microcracks source.
2.3. Crack Pinning
Crack pinning mechanism consists in stopping the propagation of a

macrocrack when it meets a particle or a fiber which has the tensile strength
greater than the macrocrack tip stress (Fig. 2). In the zirconia-cordierite system,
the big difference between the mechanical properties of the constituents makes
the crack pinning mechanism to be very effective. However, the efficiency of
this mechanism is closely related to the quality of cohesion between matrix and
reinforcement material.
34
3. Effect of Starting Powders Preparation

3.1. Particle Size Effect (Milling and Mixing Effect)
Both theoretical and practical (Jang, 1995), is well known that

densification of powders can be significantly improved by reducing the size of
the starting powders. This is also true in zirconia-cordierite system, where
milling up to 24h or more can reduce the optimal sintering temperature below
1300C. The mechanical properties, especially fracture toughness, hardness and
flexural strength are also very sensitive to the size of the starting powders
(Oliveira & Fernandez, 2002).
The zirconia reinforcements in general try to make use of the effects of tm transformation. As mentioned above, tetragonal structure is not always
preserved when the sintered body is brought to room temperature. Jang (Jang,
1995) and others stated that tetragonal phase of zirconia is stable if the particles
sizes are below a critical value but, unfortunately, they have not presented any
values for those critical sizes.
Homogenous dispersion of constituent phases is a factor at least as
important as particle size, because particles agglomeration may reintroduce the
disadvantages met when coarser powders are used. In general, traditional means
of mixing the starting powders allow particles agglomerations. This requires
special de-agglomeration treatments (exposing to ultrasounds, adjustment of
pH, etc.). In contrast, in recent years, synthesis methods from liquid solutions
emerged. These techniques allow obtaining powders with nanometer grain size,
and molecular order dispersion (Lim & Jang, 1993).
In practice, the particle sizes adopted in zirconia-cordierite system can be found
between 10 m (for mixing in ball mills) and a few tens of nm (for synthesis
from liquid solutions).
3.2. Dopants
Commercial cordierite can be densified close to 100% at temperatures

above 1300C by doping with alkali oxides, usually K2O (Oliveira & Fernandez,
2002). In zirconia-cordierite system, is frequently observed that the addition of
zirconia can improve the sintering of cordierite, which, as we already
mentioned, has a very narrow sintering range. Most of the studies focused on
zirconia toughened cordierite do not use other kinds of sintering additives.
Statistically, it is found that an optimal amount of the zirconia addition lies in
the range 5-30 weight%.
3.3. Forming of the Green-body
The forming of the green body does not seem to have any particular
influence over the properties of the final ceramic product. Good results were
35
obtained both with high pressure (800MPa Travitzky & Claussen, 1989), and
also by pressureless sintering (Sun et. al., 2000).
In general , in order to avoid the problems caused by the density gradients
induced by the uniaxial pressing, the powders are consolidated by isostatic
pressing.
4. Sintering Effects over Physical, Chemical
and Mechanical Properties
The chemistry of cordierite-zirconia system makes the sintering step quite
delicate because of the tendency of the zirconia to react with the silica found in
the matrix. That reaction produces zircon (ZrSO4), a compound with poor
mechanical properties. As stated by Lim & Lang, (1993), zircon reduces the
amount of t-zirconia available for transformation toughening and consequently
degrades the mechanical properties of composite
The most common method to avoid formation of the zircon is to use
zirconia stabilized by about 3 mol% Y2O3 (Yttria Stabilised Zirconia - YSZ).
Gupta A et. al. (1994) found in their studies that use of YSZ always produces
less zircon than using m-zirconia. This seems to be due to reaction between
Y2O3 and matrix, which results in the Al2O3-SiO2-Y2O3 - a compound that acts
as a chemical barrier between the matrix and zirconia particles. Unfortunately,
this favours the partial destabilization of YSZ.
It was found that the large amounts of zircon occurred during sintering
schedules in which the heating rates were below 10K/min (Saha & Pramanik,
1995). In contrast, Nieszery et. al. (1987) proposed and tested heating at higher
speeds (1015K/min), achieving a significant reduction in the proportion of
zircon. Lim & Jang (1993) studied the kinetics of the reactions forming zircon
and cordierite and found that the speed of these reactions have an non-linear
temperature dependence. It can be noticed in fig. 3 and fig. 4 that at lower
temperatures the speed of zircon formation is higher than that of cordierite
forming and at higher temperatures we have an opposite situation. These facts
explain very well the reason for which the formation of zircon is favored by
high sintering temperatures and prolonged soaking time (Hirano & Inada,
1993).
Based on these observations, Nieszery et. al. (1987), proposed and tested
a Rate Controlled Sintering special customized for zirconia cordierite system:
high heating rates until a fractional density (FD) of 0.7, a slower heating rate
until 0.95FD and a constant decrease of heating rate until reaching sintering
temperature. Compared with a high constant heating rate, the RCS allow a
decrease of optimal sintering temperature by 60oC. As it is shown in Fig. 5 the
amount of zircon is also influenced by the amount of zirconia additions. One
can notice that the t-zirconia can occur even at lower amounts of zirconia, fact
that is useful in avoiding zircon formation.
36
Fig. 3 Kinetics of formation of

-cordierite and zircon in a zirconia
toughened cordierite sintered at
1200oC (Lim&Jang, 1993).
Fig. 4 Kinetics of formation of

-cordierite and zircon in a zirconia
toughened cordierite sintered at
1250oC (Lim&Jang, 1993).
Fig.5 XRD pattern of a cordierite sample reinforced different

amounts of zirconia (M is m-zirconia, T is t-zirconia, O is cordierite, Z is
zircon), (Lim & Jang, 1993).
37
With regard to electrical properties, even a small amount of zirconia

results in degrading of these properties, especially at high temperatures.
Thermal expansions of the zirconia toughened cordierite increase with the
amount of zirconia used. Still, it was observed that use of YSZ instead of mzirconia show a lower degradation of thermal expansion.
5. Experimental
We began a study focused on the development and characterization of
zirconia toughened cordierite composites. The chosen value for the addition was
15%wt zirconia. The starting powders were ball milled in distilled water for 1 h,
using zirconia balls. The mean particle sizes, measured by laser diffraction
were: 7 microns for cordierite and 1 micron for zirconia. After drying at 87oC
for 24h, the resulted powders were consolidated by uniaxial pressing. In order to
reduce the density gradients, the pressure used was limited to 40 MPa.
Sintering was done at 1375oC in an electric furnace. We first tried to use
addition of m-zirconia, but as found in the XRD result, the entire amount of
zirconia transformed to zircon. Consequently, we opted for using YSZ.
The porosity of the samples (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7) was measured by
Archimedess method. It was found that the composite material show the lowest
porosities (~ 0.2%).
Fig. 6 Samples made from

pure cordierite.
Fig. 7 Sampes made from

zirconia toughened cordierite.
Elastic properties were measured by means of mechanical resonance.

There was an increase of elasticity modulus from 100GPa (pure cordierite) to
about 130GPa (zirconia toughened cordierite).
The fracture toughness was evaluated by indentation fracture method,
using the Vickers indentation. It was observed that fracture toughness of the
38
composite was 30% the higher than that of the composite. In order to give a
more detailed explanation of these results, the microstructure needs further
investigations.
Anyway, the current results confirm the efficiency of the zirconia as a
sintering additive. The little improvement of the fracture toughness is probably
due to the short milling of the starting powders and the heating rate limits
imposed by the capabilities of the furnace used.
6. Conclusions
1. Mechanical properties of zirconia reinforced cordierite composites can
be greatly improved by reducing the particles sizes of the initial powders and
increasing the homogeneity of components.
2. The main mechanisms involved in strengthening the zirconia-cordierite
system are transformation toughening, microcracking and crack pinning.
3. The optimal results are obtained when the amount of zirconia lies in
the 5-30% weight range.
4. Below 1200C, cordierite formation is faster than that of the zircon.
Beyond 1250C, the speed of cordierite formation exceeds that of zircon. This
information can be useful in adjusting the sintering schedule so that one can get
a better control over the proportion of zircon formation.
5. Zircon formation reaction adversely affects performance of these
composite materials. In order to reduce the proportion of zircon in the final
product, one can: use YSZ instead of m-zirconia; use a heating rate of at least
10K/min, a short soaking period (preferably less than 1h) and a sintering
temperatures as low as possible; use a Rate Controlled Sintering schedule.
6. The addition of zirconia deteriorates the electrical properties and
increases the thermal expansion of the final product.
Acknowledgements. This paper was realized with the support of EURODOC
Doctoral scholarship as an investment in intelligence project, financed by the
European Social Found and Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Ebadzadeh T., Lee W.E., Processing-Microstructure-Property Relations in Mullitecordierite Composites. 18, 7, 837-848 (1998).
Gupta A. D., Sen P. S., Sinha M.K., Basu M.K., Effect of ZrO2 Addition on Strength
and Dilation Behaviour of Cordierite Ceramics. Journal of Materials, 38 (1994).
Hasselman D. P. H., Kimberly Y. D., Liu J., Gauckler L. J., Ownby P. D., Thermal
Conductivity of a Particulate-Diamond-Reinforced Cordierite Matrix Composite.
J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 77, 7, 1757-60 (1994).
Hirano M., Inada H., Preparation and Characterisation of Cordierite-Zirconia
Composites from Co-precipitated Powder. Journal of Materials Science, 28, 7478 (1993)
39
Jang H. M., Surface Precipitation Route for The Development of Cordierite-Zirconia

Composites. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 78, 3, 723-727 (1995).
Lim B. C., Jang H. M., Homogeneous Fabrication and Densification of CordieriteZirconia Composites by a Mixed Colloidal Processing Route. J. Am. Ceram.
Soc., 76|6|1, 182-90 (1993)
Nieszery K., WeiBkopf K. L., Petzow G., Pannhorst W., Sintering and Strengthening of
Cordierite with Different Amounts of Zirconia. HighTech. Ceramics (1987).
Oliveira F. A.C., Fernandez J.C., Mechanical and Thermal Behaviour of Cordieritezirconia Composites. Ceramics International, 28, 79-91 (2002).
Saha S. K., Pramanik P., Aqueous Sol-gel Synthesis of Cordierite and Cordieritezirconia Composite Powders. Journal of Materials Science, 30, 2855-2858
(1995).
Sun E., Choa Y., Sekino T., Niihara K., Fabrication and Mechanical Properties of
Cordierite/ZrO2 Composites by Pressureless Sintering. Journal of Ceramic
Processing Research, 1, 1, 9-11 (2000).
Travitzky N.A., Claussen N., Chemical Stability of Cordierite-ZrO2 Composite. Journal
of the European Ceramic Society, 5, 327-331 (1989).
Wadsworth I., Stevens R., Strengthening and Toughening of Cordierite by the Addition
of Silicon Carbide Whiskers, Platelets and Particles. Journal of Materials
Science, 26, 24, 6800-6808 (1991).
Wadsworth I., Wang J., Stevens R., Zirconia Toughened Cordierite. Journal of
Materials Science, 25, 3982-3989 (1990).
Xia K., Langdon T.G., Review The Toughening and Strengthening of Ceramic
Materials through Discontinuous Reinforcement. Journal of Materials Science,
29, 5219-5231 (1994).
Zamir S. S., Jafari M., Nourbakhsh A. A., Monshi A., Formation of in situ Si3N4
Composite Produced by Nano and Micro Silicon Particles. Journal of Materials
Science, 2, 3, 64-77 (2010).
COMPOZITE DIN CORDIERIT ARMAT CU OXID DE ZIRCONIU
(Rezumat)
Mecanismele de tonifiere care acioneaz n sistemul cordierit-oxid de zirconiu
au la baz diferena mare dintre coeficienii de dilatare termic ale celor dou faze i
transformarea din structura tetragonal a zirconiei n cea monoclinic. Cele mai bune
proprieti mecanice s-au obinut atunci cnd s-au folosit pulberi foarte fine i cu o
distribuie omogen. Una din cele mai delicate probleme ridicate de acest sistem este
tendina ridicat a oxidului de zirconiu de a fuziona cu silicea din matrice, dnd natere
la zircon un produs care ofer compozitului proprieti mecanice modeste. n practic,
de multe ori obinerea unor performane mecanice ridicate depinde doar de evitarea
formrii zirconului. Pentru evitarea formrii zirconului se opteaz pentru utilizarea
oxidului de zirconiu stabilizat cu Ytriu, deoarece Y reacioneaz cu compui din matrice
i creeaz o barier chimic n calea formrii zirconului. Se observ c viteza de
formare a zirconului are o dependen neliniar de temperatur, fapt care explic de ce
n cazul utilizrii vitezelor mari de nclzire, a duratelor scurte de sinterizare i a
temperaturilor mai joase de sinterizare, formarea zirconului este frecvent inhibat.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR UNDER SHEAR FIELD OF SOME

HYDROXYPROPYL CELLULOSE/L-CYSTINE BLENDS
BY
RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC1, ANDREEA IRINA BARZIC 2,3

and DANA-ORTANSA DOROHOI3
1
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi,

Faculty of Mechanics,
2
Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Iai,
3
Al.I. Cuza University, Iai,
Faculty of Physics
Abstract. Mechanical properties in solution of some blends prepared from

hydroxypropyl cellulose/L-cystine are investigated. The rheological functions,
namely shear viscosity, shear stress, elastic shear modulus, and viscous shear
modulus, and the parameters derived from them, such as flow activation energy,
and flow activation entropy reflect the influence of the studied structures
flexibility and working concentration.
Key words: shear deformation, polymer, blends, rheology.
1. Introduction
A successful alternative for the development of new polymeric materials
is blending of the already existing polymers, to obtain a balance among the
desired properties exhibited by the individual components (Wu et al., 2006).
For most applications the processing of the materials starts from the solution
phase and the mechanical response to the deformation factors must be
evaluated.
In this work, blends of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) in different ratios
with L-cystine (L-Cy) are prepared and the mechanical behaviour of their mixed
Corresponding author: e-mail: irina_cosutchi@yahoo.com
42
Rzvan Florin Barzic et al.
solutions in water was investigated by means of shear viscometry and

oscillatory shear tests. HPC is a derivative of cellulose with both water
solubility and organic solubility. It is used as a topical ophthalmic protectant
and lubricant. HPC is an ether of cellulose in which some of the hydroxyl
groups in the repeating glucose units have been hydroxypropylated forming OCH2CH(OH)CH3 groups using propylene oxide.
On the other hand, L-cystine is a dimeric amino acid formed by the
oxidation of two cysteine residues that covalently link to make a disulfide bond.
This organosulfur compound has the formula (SCH2CH(NH2)CO2H)2. Through
formation of disulfide bonds within and between protein molecules, cystine is a
significant determinant of the tertiary structure of most proteins.
Blending these two compounds leads to new bio-materials with pH
sensitivity property useful in designing drug delivery matrix with specific
target. Since in these applications the processing of the blends starts from
solution phase an evaluation of the deformation of the studied mixtures
subjected to shear field provide an insight on the interactions from the solution
system, which implicitly determine a specific film morphology (Cosutchi et al.,
2010). The aim of the present study is to exploit the complex range of properties
of HPC/L-cy blends, which derives from the structure-rheological relationship,
by investigating the origins of phase separation at different concentrations and
shear rates, as well as for estimating segments orientation or mobility subjected
to mechanical stress.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) (LF, Klucel) was purchased from

Aqualon Company, Hopewell, Virginia, USA. According to product
specifications, HPC LF has a molecular mass of approximately 100,000 g/mol
and moles of substitution of 3.4. L-cystine bio-ultra was achieved from Sigma
Aldrich, having an optical rotation [ ]D = 219o at a concentration of 1% in
1M HCl. A standard procedure for preparing the sample solutions was used.
First, both compounds (HPC and L-cy), under the form of powder, were
weighed and put into two jars (also weighed). An appropriate amount of water
was added to form the following concentrations: 4%, 8% and 12%. For L-Cy
solutions a small amount of NaOH was added for a better solubilisation in
water. The solutions of 8% were mixed at room to obtain different blending
ratios: 25/75, 50/50 and 75/25.
2.2. Characterization
The rheological properties of the concentrated mixed solutions were

determined on a rotational rheometer, manufactured by Anton Paar. The
43
measuring system presents cone-plate geometry. Shear viscosities were

registered over the 0.073000 s1 shear rate domain for surprising all possible
flow regimes, at several temperatures (2555C). According to the amplitude
sweep test at a frequency of 1 Hz, realized in the linear viscoelastic regime for
shear stresses between 0.5 and 10 Pa, a shear stress of 2 Pa was selected for all
samples. During oscillatory shear tests, frequency was varied in the range
between 0.0110 Hz.
3. Results and Discussion
The viscosity of polymers, such as HPC, is dependent on their chain

packing efficiency and intermolecular interactions, which, in turn, are
influenced by the rigidity, symmetry, and regularity of the molecular backbone.
Fig.1 shows the logarithmic plots of shear viscosity, , as a function of shear
rate, & , for HPC 4% solution in water at 25C. All analyzed HPC solutions at
different concentrations present a constant (Newtonian) viscosity and at & >100
s-1 a shear thinning domain. The decrease of the viscosity at high shear rates
occurs because of HPC flexibility allows better mobility under shearing and the
macromolecular chains suffer an orientation process under shearing.
On the other hand, L-cystine solutions exhibit a shear thinning region in
the 0.07-1 s1 shear rate range, followed by a Newtonian viscosity even when
the sample is subjected to a high shear field (Fig. 2). The resulted behavior is in
agreement with literature data (Jenekhe, 1983) which shows a non-Newtonian
flow for some conventional aromatic polymer solutions below 3 x 10-2 s-1, by
means of the cone and plate measuring system. The working polymer
concentrations were situated at the limit of the semidilute-concentrated domain
(Grigorescu & Kulicke, 2000).
Fig. 1 The dependence of viscosity on shear rate for HPC solution in water at room
temperature.
The polymer concentration dependencies on viscosity at a fixed shear rate

from Newtonian region (approx. 50 s-1) can be described by a power law
44
c1 0.6 , with x increasing as the concentration varies from 4% to 12%. This

dependence coincides with the theoretical prediction for semidiluteconcentrated polymer solutions in which entanglements between the
macromolecules exist (Grigorescu & Kulicke, 2000). After blending HPC/L-cy
solutions, the flow curves present a shape similar to that from Fig. 2, and only
after 100 s-1 the Newtonian region is followed by a thinning range.
Fig. 2 The dependence of viscosity on shear rate for L-cy solution in water/NaOH at
room temperature.
The interactions between the chain segments, which reflect existence of

polymer entanglements, can be described by the activation energy, Ea, evaluated
from
E
ln = ln 0 + a ,
(1)
RT
where 0 is the zero-shear-rate viscosity, R is the universal gas constant, and T
is the absolute temperature.
The studied solutions follow the Arrhenius expression from Eq (1) and
that the resulting activation energy is higher as the concentration increases.
According to the theory (Hirai & Eyring, 1958) a lower value of 0 is related to
a lower value of flow activation entropy, S , according to the proportionality
relationship 0 e S / R (Gupta & Yaseen, 1997). A higher value of S is
linked to a more rigid structure of the polymer chains, prior to the flow. Also, a
higher value of Ea implies a higher energy barrier for the movement of an
element of the fluid. In the case of studied polymer solutions, this barrier can be
related to the interaction between the chain segments and can be determined by
polymer entanglements. Fig. 3 shows that in the case of HPC/L-cy blends the Ea
values increase with HPC content in the blend.
The storage and loss moduli are plotted in Fig. 4 as a function of
frequency for 75 HPC/25 L-cy blend at room temperature. For all studied
solutions at low frequency, f, the storage modulus, G, and the loss modulus,
G, are proportional to f2 and f1, respectively, and G is always higher than G
45
in this frequency range, without any plateau appearing in G versus f curves,

which is a behavior characteristic to a viscoelastic fluid (Grigorescu & Kulicke,
2000). At higher values of f, G becomes higher than G and their crossover
increases with decreasing solution concentration or HPC content in the case of
the blends.
Fig. 3 Viscosity dependence on 1000/T for HPC/L-cy solutions and the values of Ea.
Fig. 4 Shear moduli dependence on frequency for 75 HPC/25 L-cy blend.
Modification in the flexibility of the samples and blend composition is

reflected in the G, G, and G = G values. Thus, the loss modulus presents
smaller values, the storage modulus presents higher values, while the
corresponding frequency to the crossover point, which delimits the viscous flow
from the elastic flow, has lower values with increasing the flexibility of the
studied samples. The obtained results indicate good film forming properties and
resistance to mechanical stress, characteristics suitable for matrix used in drug
delivery.
4. Conclusions
1. Blends of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) in different ratios with Lcystine (L-Cy) are prepared. The behaviour of their mixed solutions in water
subjected to shear indicates a combination of shear thinning and Newtonian
domains.
46
2. The decreasing solution concentration or HPC content determines a

lower energy barrier for the movement of an element of the polymer chain in
solution and also lower flow activation energy.
3. The storage and loss moduli exhibit the power law dependence on
frequency, where the exponents are characteristic to viscoelastic fluids.
Acknowledgements. This paper was realized with the support of POSDRU
CUANTUMDOC Doctoral Studies for European Performances in Research and
Innovation ID79407 project funded by the European Social Fund and Romanian
Government. The financial support of European Social Fund Cristofor I.
Simionescu Postdoctoral Fellowship Programme (ID POSDRU /89/1.5/S/55216),
Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 2013 is also
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Cosutchi A. I., Hulubei C., Stoica I., Ioan S., Morphological and Structural-rheological
Relation in Epiclon-based Polyimide/hydroxypropylcellulose Blend Systems. J.
Polym. Res., 17, 541550 (2010).
Grigorescu G., Kulicke W. M., Prediction of Viscoelastic Properties and Shear Stability
of Polymers in Solution. Adv. Polym. Sci., 152, 1-45 (2000).
Gupta K., Yaseen M., Viscosity-temperature Relation of Dilute Solution of Poly(vinyl
chloride) in Cyclohexanone and in its Blends with Xylene. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,
65, 2749-2760 (1997).
Hirai N., Eyring H., Bulk Viscosity of Liquids. J. Appl. Phys., 29, 810-816 (1958).
Jenekhe S. A., The Rheology and Spin Coating of Polyimide Solutions. Polym. Eng.
Sci., 23, 830-834 (1983).
Wu L., Luo X., Wang X., Influence of Processing Conditions on Dual-Phase
Continuous Blend System of Thermoplastic Polyurethane with EthylenePropylene-Diene Monomer Elastomer. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 102, 54725482
(2006).
COMPORTAMENTUL DE DEFORMARE N CONDIII DE FORFECARE A UNOR
AMESTECURI DE HIDROXIPROPIL CELULOZ/L-CISTIN
(Rezumat)
n aceast lucrare s-a studiat comportarea la forfecare n soluie a unor
amestecuri de hidroxipropil celuloz/L-cistin. Curbele de curgere sunt constituite dintro combinaie de domenii de subiere i Newtoniene, iar dependena viscozitii de
concentraie se supune unei legi exponeniale, n care exponentul are valori tipice
soluiilor n care exist interaciuni puternice. Enegia de activare a procesului de curgere
crete cu coninutul de polimer n amestec. Modulele reologice depind exponenial de
frecvena tensiunii sinusoidale aplicate, indicnd un comportament viscoelastic.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CROSS-PLY CFRP WITH

THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSET MATRIX
BY
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU

and BOGDAN LEIOIU
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Department of I.M.M.R.
Received: May 2012
Abstract. In the present paper it investigates the effect of matrix on

stiffness, strength and strain to failure in cross-ply carbon fiber reinforced plastic
(CFRP) composites, with thermoplastic and thermoset matrix. The study focuses
on tensile tests carried out along the fiber direction and full-field strain
measurements. No major differences of the Youngs modulus and strength were
observed between these two types of materials. A higher value of Poissons ratio
and strain to failure was observed for CFRP with thermoplastic matrix.
Key words: composite materials, thermoset and thermoplastic matrix,
tensile test.
1. Introduction
Composite materials reinforced with carbon fiber (CFRP) have become in
recent years the basic material used in many engineering areas where high
mechanical properties (i.e. stiffness, strength, etc.) and light weight is necessary
(Hollaway & Head, 2001), (Ramakrishna et al., 2001), (Diaz &Rubio, 2003).
More than two-thirds of the CFRP used in industry are based on epoxy matrix.
The main reasons why epoxy is the most used polymer matrix material are: high
strength, low viscosity and flow rates, excellent adhesion, excellent finishing
(polishing, painting, etc.).
48
Ionu Dumitracu et al.
In recent years, thermoplastic polymers have attracted a lot attention as

matrix material due to the benefit of omitting the curing process, to a less
hazardous chemical composition and to its better recyclability (Taketa et al.,
2010). Among the various options polymers, polypropylene (PP) has a very low
density and at the same time is cheap, which makes it preferred to used in the
automobile industry. Some differences between thermosets and thermoplastics
are listed below (Autar, 2006)
Thermoset
Low strains to failure
Cannot be reprocessed
Long cure cycles
Fair solvent resistance
Thermoplastics
High strains to failure
Can be reprocessed
Short cure cycles
Excellent solvent resistance
The objective of the present work is to compare the mechanical properties

obtained by the tensile test, performed on two types of CFRP (with thermoset
and thermoplastic matrix respectively), and to see the matrix influents of
mechanical and elastic properties of these materials
2. Materials and Test
2.1. Raw Materials
This study used two types of unidirectional CFRP prepregs:

a) unidirectional carbon fiber/epoxy composites (CF/Epoxy), with a
nominal ply thickness of 0.15 mm, produced by TohoTenax. The carbon fiber is
the type STS40 with a Youngs modulus of 240 GPa, a tensile strength of 4240
MPa, a strain-to-failure of about 1.75% and a real density of 1.77g/cm3
(according to the TohoTenax material datasheet).
b) unidirectional carbon fiber/polypropylene (CF/PP) with a nominal
ply thickness of 0.25 mm produced by Soficar (France). The carbon fiber is
T700 type, with a Youngs modulus of 230 GPa, tensile strength of 4900 MPa,
strain-to-failure of about 1.8% and areal density of 1.80g/cm3 (according to the
Soficar material datasheet).
2.2. Production of Composites
The CF/Epoxy composite plate with dimension of 30x30 cm were made

using Autoclave. The CF/PP were fabricated with the hot pressing machine
Zenith 2 (Pinette Emidecau Industries). The process conditions for the
composite production are shown in Table 1, respectively Table 2.
The cross-ply laminates were fabricated by hand layup with a sequence
[05/904]s resulting in a number of 9 layers for CF/Epoxy and [03/902]s resulting
in a number of 5 layers for CF/PP, with total specimens thickness around
1.3mm. In this notation, 0 corresponds to the loading direction, 90 corresponds
to the direction transverse to the loading direction, the numeric subscripts
Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVII (LXI), Fasc. 2, 2012
49
indicate the number of layers stacked in each direction and the subscript s
indicates that the lay-ups are symmetric about the mid-plane of the laminate.
The fiber volume fraction of composites is 71% for CF/Epoxy and 48%
for CF/PP and was determined by matrix digestion method, described in ASTM
D3171-99, using sulphuric acid/hydrogen peroxide.
Step
1
2
3
Heating
Rate
o
C/min
25
Table 1
The process conditions for production of CF/Epoxy
Vaccum
Time
Temperature
o
C
Bar
min
15
20
-0.697
90
60
-0.697
90
130
Table 2
The process conditions for production of CF/PP
Dwelling
Cooling
Rate
Pressure
Time
Temperature
o
o
C/min
C
Bar
min
165
3
10
4
-0.697
Demolding
Temperature
[oC]
50
2.3. Tensile Test
The tensile tests was performed according to the ASTM D3039 standard,
using an Instron 4505 tensile machine equipped with hydraulic grips and with a
load cell of 100 kN. Static tests were carried out at a rate of 1 mm/min. The
dimensions of samples were 260 mm length, 25 mm width and around 1.3 mm
thickness. Tabs made of glass fiber woven/epoxy prepregs stacked in 45
direction, with 2 mm thickness, were cut to size 40 mm length and 25 mm width
(without taper) and bonded to the sand-blasted surface of the samples, using
Araldite 2011TM epoxy glue.
The tests are assisted by full-field strain measurements, also called strain
mapping. A camera was used to take subsequent digital images of the central
region of the specimen, every l sec., during the test. Prior to the test, the
specimen is painted with a black and white speckle pattern. Digital image
correlation software Vic2D (LIMESS Messtechnik und Software GmbH) is
used to calculate the displacement field and then to calculate the average strain
on the surface of the specimen in its central part.
The mechanical properties obtained from the tensile test are the
Youngs modulus E, the tensile strength ult, Poissons ratio and the strain-tofailure ult. Four samples were loaded until failure, to measure strength and
50
strain to failure. Results are listed in Table 3 and Table 4. Measured data show
large scatter in these properties (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). The average strength is 1330
MPa for CF/Epoxy and 888 MPa for CF/PP. Failure strain is 1.57% for
CF/Epoxy and 1.71% for CF/PP.
The Youngs modulus is taken as a slope of the stressstrain curve
between 0.1% and 0.3% of strain. The Poissons ratio is determined by
calculating the longitudinal 11 and transverse 22 strains, using data from the
Limess system. The difference in the fiber volume fraction for these two types
of laminates makes data comparison difficult, as a proper normalization
approach is needed.
Fig. 1 Stress-strain curves of four CF/Epoxy samples.

Table 3
Strength and strain to failure for CF/Epoxy
Strength to failure
Cross-ply Epoxy
MPa
Sample 1
1267
Sample 2
1403
Sample 3
1343
Sample 4
1308
Average
1330
Stain to failure
%
1.40
1.56
1.64
1.69
1.57
Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVII (LXI), Fasc. 2, 2012
51
Fig. 2 Stress-strain curves of four samples CF/PP.
Cross-ply Epoxy
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Average
Table 4
Strength and strain to failure for CF/PP
Strength to failure
Stain to failure, %
MPa
895
1.63
836
1.80
904
1.76
917
1.65
888
1.71
The Youngs modulus and tensile strength are also normalized to Vf =

=60%. The normalization is also done for each individual specimen and the
average is taken over the number of specimens tested for the specific property.
The absolute values and relative differences in the mechanical properties are
summarized in Table 5.
Table 5
Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, tensile strength and strain to failure
E-modulus
Poisson
ult
Vf
%
GPa
ratio
MPa
ult
%
CF/Epoxy
Normalization
71
60
86
72
0.15
1330
1122
1.57
CF/PP
48
56
0.25
888
1.71
Normalization
60
70
1110
From data obtained is observed that no major differences are between the
Youngs modulus and ultimate strength in these two types of materials.
52
Poissons ratio and strain to failure for thermoplastic CFRP is more higher
compared with thermoset CFRP.
4. Conclusions
1. The type of matrix have no a significantly influence on the Youngs
modulus and ultimate strength, because these characteristics are much more
influenced by fiber properties.
2. A higher Poissons ratio and strain to failure is observed for CFRP
with thermoplastic matrix in comparison with thermoset matrix.
3. The thermoplastic matrix is more environmentally friendly (can be
reprocessed, require short cure cycles) and has an excellent solvent resistance.
Acknowledgements. This paper was realised with the support of EURODOC
Doctoral Scholarships for research performance at European level project, financed
by the European Social Found and Romanian Government.
The tests were performed at Katholieke University Leuven, MTM Department,
Belgium.
REFERENCES
Hollaway L.C., Head P.R., Applications in Advanced Polymer Composite
Constructions. In: Hollaway L.C., Head P.R. (Eds.) Advanced Polymer
Composites and Polymers in the Civil Infrastructure. Oxford: Elsevier Science
Ltd, 221-286, 2001.
Ramakrishnaa S., Mayerb J., Wintermantelc E., Leongd Kam W., Biomedical
Applications of Polymer-composite Materials: A Review. Composites Science
and Technology, 61, 9, 11891224 (2001).
Diaz J., Rubio L., Developments to Manufacture Structural Aeronautical Parts in
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastic Materials. J. of Mater. Processing
Technology, 20, 342346 (2003).
Taketa I., Ustarroz J., Gorbatikh L., Lomov S.V., Verpoest I., Interply Hybrid
Composites with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene and Self-reinforced
Polypropylene. Composites, Part A, 41, 927932 (2010).
Autar K., Mechanics of Composites Materials, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, New
York, 2006.
STUDIU COMPARATIV PRIVIND MATERIALELE COMPOZITE ARMATE
BIDIRECIONAL CU FIBR DE CARBON, CU MATRICE TERMORIGID I
TERMOPLASTIC
(Rezumat)
S-a investigat influena matricei asupra proprietilor mecanice (modulul Young,
rezistena la rupere, coeficientul Poisson i alungirea specific) a dou tipuri de
materiale compozite armate cu fibr de carbon, avnd matrice termorigid (epoxy) i
respectiv termoplastic (polipropilen). In urma testelor la traciune s-a observat c
matricea nu influeneaz semnificativ modulul Young i rezistena la rupere. Materialele
compozite avnd matrice termoplastic prezint valori mai mari ale coeficientului
Poisson i ale alungirii specifice la rupere.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
MATRIX INFLUENCE ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF UNIDIRECTIONAL CFRTP
BY
IONU DUMITRACU, PAUL-DORU BRSNESCU and VIOREL GOAN

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Department of I.M.M.R.
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The influence of matrix on the mechanical properties of

continuous carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTP) has been
studied. To type of thermoplastic matrix was used in this study: polyamide (PA6)
and polypropylene (PP). The tensile tests carried out along the fiber direction and
full-field strain measurements were used to measure the composite properties.
The results show that the polyamide has a greater influence on the Youngs
modulus and strength compared with polypropylene.
Key words: composites, carbon fibres, thermoplastic matrix, tensile test.
1. Introduction
In recent years, the use of carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic
composites in aerospace, automotive, marine, and civil infrastructure
applications has been constantly increasing. Thermoplastic polymers have
several advantages over thermosets: they can be reshaped by reheating, are
recyclable, are cost-effective, and possess superior impact properties
(Fangueiro, 2006), (Uddin, 2008). In composite materials the properties of
matrix is to binding the fibers together, protecting fibers from the environment,
shielding from damage due to handling and distributing the load to fibers
(Autar, 2006). In principle, the matrix have low mechanical properties
compared with reinforcement, but still have an influence on the mechanical
properties of the composite (Oya & Hamada,1997), (Argellesa et al.,2011). In
54
this paper, using tensile test and the same type of reinforcement, we want to
evaluate the influence of matrix over the mechanical and elastic properties.
2. Materials and test
2.1. Raw Materials
Two types of unidirectional CFRTP prepregs was used:

i) unidirectional carbon fiber/polyamide 6 (CF/PA6), namely
CarbostampTM UD tape, produced by Soficar (France), with a nominal ply
thickness of 0.15 mm;
ii) unidirectional carbon fiber/polypropylene (CF/PP), namely
CarbostampTM UD tape, produced by Soficar (France), with a nominal ply
thickness of 0.25 mm.
As the reference, a unidirectional carbon fibre/epoxy composites
(CF/Epoxy) type Q-1112 product by TohoTenax, with a nominal ply thickness
of 0.15 mm, were used. All the carbon fibres used were T700 (made of Toray),
with the following tensile properties: modulus of 230 GPa, strength to failure of
4900 MPa, density 1.80 g/cm3 and strain to failure of 2.0 %. The carbon fibres
of Epoxy prepreg is STS40 24K, modulus of 230 GPa, strength of 4240 MPa,
density 1.77 g/cm3 and strain to failure of 1.75 %.
2.2. Production of Composite
The composite laminates were fabricated by placing in a single

direction, [0o]s, the unidirectional prepregs resulting in a number of 8 layers for
CF/PA6 and CF/Epoxy, and 4 layers for CF/PP. The thickness of all specimens
was around 1.0 mm. The thermoplastic specimens were fabricated using a
mould with 15 mm width and the hot pressing machine Zenith 2 (Pinette
Emidecau Industries). The mould was used to avoid cutting the specimen from
plate material. The process conditions for the composite production are shown
in Table 1. The CF/Epoxy composite plate with dimension of 25x25 cm were
made using Autoclave.
Matrix digestion method described in ASTM D3171-99, using
sulphuric acid/hydrogen peroxide was used to calculate the fiber volume
fraction (Vf). The results were as follows: 40% for CF/PA6, 44% for CF/PP and
67% for CF/Epoxy.
Table 1
The process conditions for production of thermoplastic materials
Material Heating
Dweelling
Cooling Demolding
Rate
Rate
Pressure
Time
Temperature
Temperature
o
o
o
o
C/min
C/min
C
Bar
min
C
CF/PA6
25
240
3
10
4
120
CF/PP
25
165
3
10
7
50
Step
1
2
3
55
Table 2
The process conditions for production of CF/Epoxy
Vaccum
Time
Temp.
o
C
Bar
min
20
15
-0.697
90
60
-0.697
130
90
-0.697
2.3. Test
Four sample of each type of material with the dimensions 240 mm length,
15 mm width and thickness around 1.0 mm was tested to tensile using an
Instron 4505 tensile machine, equipped with hydraulic grips and with a load cell
of 100 kN. The tensile tests were performed according to the ASTM D3039
standard. Static tests were carried out at a rate of 1 mm/min. Tabs made of glass
fiber woven/epoxy prepregs stacked in 45 direction with 2 mm thickness were
cut in 40 mm length and 15 mm width (without taper) and bonded to the sandblasted surface of the samples with Araldite 2011TM epoxy glue.
The tests are assisted by full-field strain measurements, also called
strain mapping. Strain mapping is a system of measuring surface strain by
means of correlation of subsequent digital images taken of a sample during
loading. A camera is used to take subsequent digital images of the central region
of the specimen, every l sec. during the test. Prior to the test, the specimen is
painted with a black and white speckle pattern. Digital image correlation
software Vic2D (LIMESS Messtechnik und Software GmbH) is used to
calculate the displacement field and then to calculate the average strain on the
surface of the specimen in its central part.
Youngs modulus E, the tensile strength to failure ult, Poissons ratio
and the strain to-failure ult was obtained from the tensile test. Four samples
were loaded in the fiber direction, until failure, to measure strength and strain to
failure (Figs.1, 2 and 3). The results are listed in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Measured
data show not so large scatter in these properties for thermoplastic composites.
Youngs modulus (E) is defined as a slope of a stress-strain curve in the
linear part, from 0.1% and 0.3% of strain. The Poissons ratio is determined by
calculating the longitudinal 11 and transverse 22 strains, using data from the
Limess system. Because the fiber volume fraction of two materials is different,
a comparison data is impossible to do without a normalization of Youngs
modulus and strength to failure at Vf =60%. The results as summarized in
Table 6.
56
Fig. 1 Stress-strain curves of four CF/PA6 samples.
CF/PA6
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Average
Table 3
Strength and strain to failure for CF/PA6
Strength to failure
Stain to failure
MPa
%
2030
2.04
2198
2.06
2019
2.10
1978
2.18
2056
2.10
Fig. 2 Stress-strain curves of four CF/PP samples.
CF/PP
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Average
57
Table 4
Strength and strain to failure for CF/PP
Strength to failure
Stain to failure
MPa
%
1484
1.56
1561
1.59
1515
1.64
1583
1.73
1536
1.63
Fig. 3 Stress-strain curves of four CF/Epoxy samples
CF/PP
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Average
Table 5
Strength and strain to failure for CF/Epoxy
Strength to failure
Stain to failure
MPa
%
2015
1.36
2242
1.47
2180
1.51
2551
1.56
2239
1.47
After normalization (Table 6), we can observe that the CF/PA6 exhibited
the highest strength, Youngs modulus and strain to failure. Relatively lower
strength, Youngs modulus and ult have CF/PP, in comparison with CF/PA6.
The lower values of CF/PP are closer to CF/Epoxy, which means that these
matrices have as nearly same efficiency as epoxy resin.
58
Table 6
Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, strength to failure and strain to failure
E-modulus
Poisson
ult
Vf
ult
%
GPa
ratio
MPa
%
CF/PA6
40
100
0.31
2056
2.10
Normalization
60
150
3084
CF/PP
44
97
0.24
1536
1.63
Normalization
60
132
2095
CF/Epoxy
67
155
0.28
2239
1.47
Normalization
60
139
2005
4. Conclusions
1. Higher values of strength to failure, Youngs modulus and strain to
failure of CF/PA6 have been obtained because this matrix has a very good
adhesion with CF, while PP had fairly poor adhesion.
2. Consequently, thermoplastic composite, especially CF/PP had a
difficulty in achieving high mechanical properties in fiber directions (0) tensile
tests.
REFERENCES
Fangueiro R., Nunes J.P., Silva J., Development of GF/PP Towpreg Woven Fabrics for
Composites Reinforcements. Mat. Sc. Forum, V, 514-516, 1551-1555 (2006).
Uddin N., Abro A.M., Design and Manufacturing of Low Cost Thermoplastic
Composite Bridge Superstructures. Engineering Structures, 30, 13861395(2008).
Autar K., Mechanics of Composites Materials. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, New
York, 2006.
Oya N., Hamada H., Mechanical Properties and Failure Mechanisms of Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Thermoplastic Laminates. Composites Part A, 28, 823832 (1997).
Argellesa A., Viab J., Bonhommea J., Influence of the Matrix Constituent on Mode I
and Mode II Delamination Toughness in Fiber-reinforced Polymer Composites
under Cyclic Fatigue. Mechanics of Materials, 43, 62-67 (2011).
INFLUENA MATRICEI ASUPRA PROPRIETILOR MECANICE ALE
MATERIALELOR COMPOZITE ARMATE UNIDIRECIOANAL CU FIBR DE
CARBON I MATRICE TERMOPLASTIC
(Rezumat)
S-a studiat influena matricei asupra proprietilor mecanice ale materialelor
compozite armate cu fibr de carbon avnd matrice termoplastic folosind solicitarea la
traciune. Comparnd datele obtinute s-a evideniat c Poliamida are o influen bun
asupra proprietilor mecanice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON SHEAR MODULUS PRECISION

DETERMINATION OF A DENTISTRY ACRYLATE
BY
EDUARD GHEBAN 1, NORINA FORNA1, and BOGDAN LEIOIU2

1
"Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Iai,

Dentistry Medicine Faculty,
2
Technical University "Gheorghe Asachi" of Iai,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty

Abstract. The paper presents the Iosipescu specimens for shear modulus
determination, according to the ASTM Standard requirements. Special shear
strain gauges rosettes and special shear fixture are used for measuring the shear
strains. Aluminum tabs are applied on the loading sides of specimens, in order to
increase their stability during tests. The shear characteristics show modulus
variability, depending on the loading zone. The accuracy of deformation calculus
heavily depends on the elastic modulus of the studied material.
Key words: dentistry acrylate, Iosipescu shear test, shear modulus, shear
strain gauges.
1. Introduction
The material that is studied herein is obtained from Valplast flexible
acrylate and polyamide. Processing of dental acrylic rods, from which the
specimens were made, was conditioned by the relatively small size of the sink,
where dental prostheses materials are usually prepared. Casting of the samples
was performed at the dental technique laboratory of the clinical education base
of the Medical Dentistry Faculty from Iai, where a Polyapress injection device
was used (Gheban, 2008). The bars supplied were 100mm in length and had a
5mmx20mm rectangular cross section (Fig. 1).
Corresponding author: e-mail: eduard_gheban@yahoo.com
60
Eduard Gheban et al.
Fig. 1 Flexible acrylate samples and the injection sink.
Machining of the specimens in order to achieve the standard precision

and shape (Figure 2) was done at the Technical University of Iai (TUI), using a
special device (designed to process Iosipescu specimens).
Fig. 2 Shear test specimens dimensions recommended by ASTM 5379.
The shear modulus is defined as shear stress variation to the

corresponding shear strain variation ratio
G=
(1)
where the shear stress is the load P, to shear area section S0 ratio
=
P
P
,
=
S0 wh
(2)
and the shear strain is obtained from the extensional strains supplied by the
special rosette gauges (Fig. 3)
1,2 = 1 2 .
(3)
In Eq. 3 the indices 1 and 2 showed the principal strain and stress
directions in the shear section, directions oriented parallel to the sides of the
specimen notches (Iosipescu, 1962).
61
Fig. 3 Special strain gauges rosette N2A-06-C032A-500 used in tests.
The real shear strain was calculated on the basis of the shear strain
instrument (Vishay, 2011)
1,2real = (1real 2real ) =
1 0 K t
1 0 K t
1,2instr ,
(1instr 2instr ) =
1 + Kt
1 + Kt
(4)
where 0 is Poisson ratio of the material used by the gauges producer for testing
(0=0,285) and Kt = the gauge transverse sensitivity: Kt=(+1,80,2)%.
The supply voltage level of the bridge was 1V, to avoid the heating of the
material, which is a thermal insulator. The real values of the strains resulted
from the product of 4 factor (Ubr-def/Ubr=4V/1V) and the shear is strain read on
bridge instrument. The shear strains are presented in uncorrected and corrected
form (Table 1), and the relation between these strains is
correct =
1 0 K t
uncorr = 0.974803uncorr = 3.899215instr .
1 + Kt
(5)
In the fixture, the specimens are subjected to asymmetrically bending.

The compression on the contact surfaces, at large forces, can be a risk of loss of
stability (buckling). The aluminum tabs (Figure 4) were riveted and glued. The
specimens were mechanical processed after the glue polymerization to realize
flat contact surfaces with the fixture and a correct load transfer from fixture to
the specimen shear section.
Fig. 4 Shear specimen reinforced with aluminum tabs.
2. Experimental Results
The specimens in the fixture were loaded in shear by the marked masses
placed on the stand turntable. The shear section area was 11.2mmx1.6mm.
62
Table 1
Shear strains in a complete load-unload cycle, in uncorrected and corrected form
m
P
instr
uncorr
corr
kg
N
MPa
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.85
18.1485
1.012751
58
0.000232
0.000226
3.7
36.297
2.025502
221
0.000884
0.000862
5.45
53.4645
2.98351
402
0.001608
0.001567
7.21
70.7301
3.946992
579
0.002316
0.002258
8.98
88.0938
4.915949
834
0.003336
0.003252
10.75
105.4575 5.884905
1040
0.00416
0.004055
12.52
122.8212 6.853862
1273
0.005092
0.004964
14.3
140.283
7.828292
1481
0.005924
0.005775
16.05
157.4505
8.7863
1684
0.006736
0.006566
14.3
140.283
7.828292
1596
0.006384
0.006223
12.52
122.8212 6.853862
1398
0.005592
0.005451
10.75
105.4575 5.884905
1204
0.004816
0.004695
8.98
88.0938
4.915949
1009
0.004036
0.003934
7.21
70.7301
3.946992
817
0.003268
0.003186
5.45
53.4645
2.98351
609
0.002436
0.002375
3.7
36.297
2.025502
398
0.001592
0.001552
1.85
18.1485
1.012751
205
0.00082
0.000799
0
0
0
56
0.000224
0.000218
Fig. 5 The shear test stand.
In the following diagrams are shown the characteristic curves drawn on

the basis of the shear tests (uncorrected and corrected values). Every curve is
approximated by a trend line, whose equation is written in a linear form:
63
y = mx + n ,
(5)
where m is the slope of the straight line, i.e. the shear modulus, G,
dy y
=
=
=G .
dx x
m=
(6)
Loading shear characteristic

corrected shear strain
Load-unload shear characteristic;

10
9
8
7
7
6
5
4
3
[MPa]
[ Mpa]
10
9
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
y = 1253.1x + 0.3719
0,001
0,002
0,003
0,004
Fig. 6 Global material shear characteristic

in corrected strain values: GGC=1253MPa.
0,005
0,006
0,007
y = 1252x + 0,7273
Fig. 7 Increasing loading shear

characteristic in corrected strain values:
GILC=1252MPa.
Loading shear characteristic
uncorrected shear strain
Load-unload shear characteristic;

9
8
7
[MPa]
[ Mpa]
10
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
6
5
4
3
2
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
1
0
y = 1221,5x + 0,3719
0,002
0,004
Fig. 8 Global material shear

characteristic in uncorrected strain values:
GGU=1221.5MPa.
0,006
0,008
y = 1220,5x + 0,7273
Fig. 9 Increasing loading shear

characteristic in uncorrected strain values:
GILU=1220.5MPa.
The diagrams in Figs. 6-7 and 8-9, show a slight difference between the
global and the increasing loading characteristics.
The shear modulus calculated for the curves in Figs. 6 and 8 present a
variation of 1.07% from the corrected modulus.
64
Both the material characteristics in Figs. 7 and 9 (the increasing loading

ones) show a variable slope in a different zone, which is leading to different
strain growth to equal loading variations. This is a nonlinear behavior that
produces different effects depending on the load intensity. In the following are
presented some situations of material characteristics and the shear modulus is
calculated for each case.
2.1. Corrected Characteristics
Initial loading shear characteristic
Predominant loading shear characteristic

2,5
12
10
1,5
[MPa]
[MPa]
1
0,5
8
6
4
2
0
0
0,0002 0,0004 0,0006 0,0008
0,001
0,002
0,004
y = 2186x + 0,22
0,006
0,008
y = 1130,2x + 2,2498
a
b
Fig. 10 The shear modulus in corrected values:
a initial zone: GIC=2186MPa; b predominant zone: GPC=1130.2MPa.
2.2. Uncorrected Characteristics
Predominant loading shear characteristic
Initial loading shear characteristic

2,5
12
10
1,5
[MPa]
[MPa]
1
0,5
8
6
4
2
0
0
0,0002 0,0004 0,0006 0,0008
0,001
0,002
0,004
y = 2131x + 0,22
0,006
0,008
y = 1101,7x + 2,2498
a
b
Fig. 11 The shear modulus in uncorrected values:
a - initial zone: GIU=2131MPa; b predominant zone: GPU=1101.7MPa.
3. Conclusions
1. The experimental procedure for determining the shear modulus is using

the latest techniques. The high precision of experimental determinations is
ensured by the shear fixture and the test stand and also by specimen precision
dimensions and tolerances, corresponding to the ASTM Standard D 5379
requests.
65
2. In Fig. 10 one can see that between the initial zone (strains less 0.0009)
and the prominent zone of the stress-strain curve drawn using the corrected
values (strains between 0.001 and 0.006), the shear modulus shows a difference
of 93.41% from the prominent modulus, GPC. The same analysis, for the
diagrams drawn with the uncorrected values (Fig. 11), denotes that the shear
modulus presents a difference of 93.42% from the prominent modulus, GPU.
Table 2
Values of shear modulus in different conditions of determination
Corrected
Uncorrected
GGlobal, MPa
1253
1221.5
GIncreasing load, MPa
1252
1220.5
GPredominant, MPa
1130.2
1101.7
GInitial, MPa
2186
2131
3. In conclusion, the shear modulus value that must be used in calculus is

the prominent corrected modulus, GPC=1130.2MPa.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the staff of the Dental
Technique Laboratory of the Clinical Education Base, and to the colleagues from
Medical Dentistry Faculty from Iasi.
REFERENCES
Gheban E.-D., Evaluri biomecanice, biochimice, clinice asupra valplastului,
siliconului, flexiate-ului, metacrilatului de metil. PhD Thesis, Universitatea de
medicin i farmacie "Gr. T. Popa" Iai, 2008.
Iosipescu N., Recherches photolastiques sur un procd correct dessais au
cisaillement pur des matriaux (Photoelastic Researches on a Correct Procedure
for Pure Shearing Tests of Materials). tudes et Recherches de Mcanique
Applique, XIII, 2, Bucharest (1962).
Leioiu B., Mare M., Leioiu, E., Consideraii cu privire la aplicarea testului Iosipescu
pentru studiul proprietilor materialelor compozite. Conf. Na. de Mec.
Solidului, Ed. XXXI, Chiinu, 267-270 (2007).
*** Vishay Precision Group, Micro-Measurements, TN-509, Errors Due to Transverse
Sensitivity in Strain Gages, 2011, www.micro-measurements.com.
CONSIDERAII ASUPRA PRECIZIEI DETERMINRII MODULULUI DE
FORFECARE AL UNUI ACRILAT DE UZ STOMATOLOGIC
(Rezumat)
Se prezint ncercarea la forfecare pur pe o epruvet subire tip Iosipescu,
efectuat pentru determinarea modulului de forfecare al unui material de uz
66
stomatologic. Epruveta a ndeplinit condiiile formulate de ASTM D5379-2005.

Dimensiunile finale ale epruvetei au fost realizate prin prelucrarea mecanicde precizie
la Facultatea de Mecanic, Universitatea Tehnic din Iai (TUI). Placarea laturilor
epruvetei cu tabla de aluminiu a crescut stabilitatea epruvetei n dispozitivul de
forfecare. Deformaiile specifice de forfecare (lunecarea specific) au fost msurate cu o
rozet special de traductoare de deformaie. Curbele caracteristice obinute au pus n
eviden modulul de elasticitate transversal, G, ca pant a dreptelor de aproximare.
Valoarea corect a modulului de elasticitate G (caracteristic de material esenial n
proiectare i n modelarea matematic) este obinut prin trasarea dreptei de eproximare
a curbei caracteristice din zona predominant a curbei, ridicat n valorile corectate
ale deformaiei specifice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
CONSIDERATIONS ON TENSION TEST, WHEN APPLIED ON A

DENTISTRY MATERIAL
BY
1
EDUARD GHEBAN , NORINA FORNA1, and BOGDAN LEIOIU2

1
"Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iai,

Dentistry Medicine Faculty
2
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University of Iai,

Abstract. Some tension tests were applied on two elastic acrylate

specimens, in order to establish the elastic constants values, and to evaluate the
residual energy stored in the specimen. The specimens were instrumented with
strain gauges rosettes (in T configuration). The tests were made on a tensile
machine that loads at small forces, precisely measured. The strains were
corrected, for avoiding the gauges transverse sensitivity errors. Finally, it is
concluded that material constants depend on the history of the loading, especially
when the load is repeated at small intervals of time, and the load level is
significant.
Key words: elastic constants, tension tests, residual strain energy.
1. Introduction
The specimens were processed to obtain rectangular bars for tension tests,
having transverse square area dimensions as seen in Table 1 (b=length,
w=width), and approximately 100mm in length (Gheban, 2008). The specimens'
ends were plated with "sticlo-textolit" tabs, in order to easier gripping in the
testing machine (Fig. 1) and to ensure an uninfluenced study zone, far from
gripping end phenomena. Two specimens were prepared for the test
instrumented with strain gauges rosettes CEA-13-062WT-120, having the gauge
Corresponding author: e-mail: eduard_gheban@yahoo.com
68
factor kg=2.13 and the transverse sensitivity Kt=+1.4% (at 20C) (MicroMeasurements, 2011).
Fig. 1 The acrylate specimens for tension test, instrumented with strain transducers
rosettes and wired for strain measurement by the electronic bridge.
The tests were performed on a "Textenser", 500N maximum load

tension test machine, with high precision measurement and adjustable load
speed (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 "Textenser" test machine, specimens and electronic Wheatstone bridge.
69
The electronic bridge N2314/N2322 was used for strains measurements,

the half bridge configurations being supplied at 1V voltage, for avoiding
thermal modifications of the mechanical properties (Vishay, 2010).
Table 1
Specimens dimensions
Specimen
1
2
b, mm
18.5
18.5
w, mm
3.5
3.6
2. Experimental Data
2.1. Material Elastic Constants
On the first specimen were made four tests and on the second specimen three tests. All characteristics were calculated in corrected values of the strains,
in according with the Vishay TN-509 (Vishay, 2011).
0
3,5
-0,0002
-0,0004
-0,0006
-0,0008
(MPa)
2,5
1,5
-0,001
-0,0012
0,5
-0,0014
-0,0016
-0,5
0
0,001
0,002
0,003
0,004
0,005
0,001
0,002
0,003
y = 797,39x - 0,1687
0,004
-0,0018
0,005
y = -0,4054x - 1E-05
A
b
Fig. 3 Stress-strain curves for specimen 1, test 1: a E=797.39MPa; b =0.4054.
Table 2
Material constants calculated from experimental data
Specimen 1
Test
1
2
3
4
Average
E, MPa
797.39
862.34
665.1
569.87
723.675
1
2
3
Average
888.31
919.68
916.99
908.3267
0.4054
0.4542
0.4112
0.4513
0.430525
Specimen 2
0.4864
0.4588
0.4579
0.4677
G, MPa
283.68792
296.49979
235.65051
196.33088
253.04227
298.8126
315.218
314.49
309.5069
70
The values of material constants from Table 2 were calculated on the

basis of experimental data, and the diagrams were built in the same manner, as
shown in Fig. 3.
2.2. Residual Energy
To have an overview on the behaviour of the material, in Fig. 4 are

shown the stress-strain characteristics, -L, for both specimens after the first
test. The material characteristics curves show two aspects:
a) the relation stress - strains is nonlinear (material presents a nonlinear
behaviour);
b) between the loading branch and the discharging branch there is a
difference that accounts for the energy accumulated in the material during the
tension loading and which will be released after unloading, along period the
time (hysteretic behaviour is a common behaviour of polymeric materials).
3,5
1,8
1,6
(MPa)
(MPa)
2,5
2
1,5
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
1
0,5
0,2
0
0
0
0,001
0,002
0,003
0,004
0,005
0,0005
0,001
0,0015
0,002
0,0025
b
a
Fig. 4 Stress-strain curves (-L): a specimen 1, test 1; b specimen 2, test 1.
If the load level is low, the accumulated energy (a residual energy

proportional to the area between branches of curves) after a returned cycle is
given back slowly to environment till the specimen returns to its original
dimensions. The specimen has, in this case, similar elastic body behaviour,
although the loading branch is different from that of discharge.
If the load exceeds a certain level, the specimen will present a permanent
deformation, and the residual energy equivalent area will be greater.
The following calculations made on the base of data tests on two
specimens highlight the evolution of energy accumulated in the material after
successive tests.
Fig. 5 shows the calculation method, using finite differences.
The specific energy is the equivalent work that changes the stress and
strain state of the unit of volume, equal to the area under the characteristic curve
A = U1 =
A =
i
i + i +1
i =
2
i +1 + i
( i +1 i ) ,
2
71
(1)
where U1 is the energy per material unit volume, i, i+1 are stress
corresponding to strains i, i+1, respectively. When i, < i+1, the elementary
area is positive, and when i, > i+1, the elementary area is negative.
Fig. 5 The method for calculating the area between the test curve branches.
Using the method defined by Eq. (1), the specific residual energy
corresponding to characteristics curve -L was calculated. Table 2 contains the
calculated residual energy for both specimens after the tests.
Table 2
Residual specific energy
Specimen 1
Test
U1, J10-3
max, MPa
1
0,001439336
3,243
2
0,000471754
3,243
3
0,000103941
1,544
4
0,000168377
1,599
Specimen 2
1,802
1
0,000384
1,802
2
8,36E-05
1,802
3
0,000222
3. Conclusions
The elastic constants values present an evolution synthesized in the
following pictures:
72
1. Fig. 6 a shows a decrease in stiffness an (increase of flexibility,

respectively), and Fig 6 b shows an almost constant stiffness. That difference at
the first specimen can be explained by the stress grater level (max=3,243MPa,
in Table 2) in the first two tests, than the stress in the last two tests
(max=1,544...1,599MPa, in Table 2).
2. Fig. 6 c shows an evolution of the Poisson's ratio
=
T
,
L
(2)
for the first specimen.

Specimen 2
1000
1000
900
900
800
800
700
700
600
600
E [MPa]
G [MPa]
E [MPa]
G [MPa]
Specimen 1
500
400
500
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
Specimen 1
Specimen 2
0,49
0,46
0,485
0,45
0,48
0,44
0,475
0,43
0,47
0,42
0,465
2
test nr.
test nr.
0,46
0,41
0,455
0,4
0,45
0,39
0,445
0,38
0,44
3
test nr.
test nr.
c
d
Fig. 6 The calculated elastic constants: a first specimen E (blue), G (purple)
modules; b second specimen E (blue), G (purple) modules; c first specimen Poisson
ratio, ; d second specimen Poisson ratio, .
3. The increasing from the first to the second test (at the same load and
the same maximum strain Tmax) is explained by the decrease of longitudinal
strain L, and the increase from the third to the firth test is explained by the
greater increase ratio of transverse strain, T (19,8 %) than the L (12,3 %), at the
same load. The second specimen presents a more predictable behaviour:
Poisson's ratio decreases as an effect of a greater speed of transverse strains
decreasing than the longitudinal strains.
73
4. The specific residual energy variation, shown in Fig. 7, is explained by

the stress level of the specific energy U1 load of the first specimen in the first
two tests is decreasing (as is increasing E module).
Specimen 1
0,0016
U 1 [N m m /m m3 ]
0,0014
0,0012
0,001
0,0008
0,0006
0,0004
0,0002
0
1
Test number
Fig. 7 The specific energy U1 accumulated in specimen 1.

Specimen 2
0,00045
U 1 [N m m /m m3 ]
0,0004
0,00035
0,0003
0,00025
0,0002
0,00015
0,0001
0,00005
0
1
Test number
Fig. 8 The specific energy U1 accumulated in specimen 2.
5. In the second specimen the residual energy is decreased from first test
to the second, it increases from the second test to the third.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the staff of the Dental
Technique Laboratory of the Clinical Education Base, and to the colleagues from
Medical Dentistry Faculty from Iasi.
REFERENCES
Gheban E.D., Evaluari biomecanice, biochimice, clinice asupra valplastului,
siliconului, flexiate-ului, metacrilatului de metil. PhD Thesis, Universitatea de
Medicin i Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iai, 2008.
74
*** Micro-Measurements, General Purpose Strain Gages - Tee Rosette. Vishay

Precision Group, 2011 http://www.vishaypg.com/docs/11190/062wt.pdf
*** Micro-Measurements, Optimizing Strain Gage Excitation Levels. Vishay Precision
Group, Strain Gages and Instruments, Tech Note TN-502, 2010
*** Micro-Measurements, TN-509, Errors Due to Transverse Sensitivity in Strain
Gages. Vishay Precision Group, 2011, www.micro-measurements.com
CONSIDERAII ASUPRA NCERCRILOR LA TRACIUNE ASUPRA UNUI
MATERIAL DE UZ STOMATOLOGIC
(Rezumat)
Au fost executate i ncercate la traciune dou epruvete din acrilat elastic pentru
determinarea constantelor de elasticitate. Epruvetele au fost dotate cu rozete de
traductoare electrice rezistive (TER) n configuraie T, i au fost solicitate pe rnd,
epruveta nesolicitat folosind pentru compensarea termic a traductoarelor active.
Incercrile s-au efectuat pe o maina de ncercri Textenser, cu fore relativ mici, dar
foarte precis msurate. Deformaiile au fost corectate, pentru eliminarea erorilor
datorate sensibilitii transversale ale TER.
Au fost analizate variaiile constatelor de elasticitate (E, i G) i variaia
energiei reziduale pe parcursul ncercrilor. S-a constatat c se produce o cretere a
flexibilitii odat cu repetarea solicitrii, mai accentuat n direcie transversal. Tot la
repetarea solicitrii se produce i o crestere a energiei reziduale acumulat n direcie
transversal.
Lucrarea ofer valorile constantelor de elasticitate pentru acrilatul elastic de uz
stomatologic, utile n problemele de modelare matematic a aplicaiilor.

Publicat de
Universitatea Tehnic Gheorghe Asachi din Iai
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THE INFLUENCE OF SIMPLIFYING ASSUMPTIONS OVER

THE STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR HYPERSTATIC
METALLIC STRUCTURES
BY
DAN ILINCIOIU and COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU

University of Craiova,
Department of Automotive, Transports and Industrial Engineering
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The strength 2D and 3D analyses of metallic structures are

presented in many papers and books, where we can observe many procedures for
obtaining accurate results: the force method, Castigliano method, the three
moments equation used for solving continuous beams etc. The mathematical
models can be inserted in many software for direct mathematical calculus like
MATHCAD, MAPLE or MATLAB etc., where we can directly obtain the
bending or torque moments and stresses (normal and shear) distributions. The
paper presents an original method for strain and stress calculus, using some
simplifying assumptions adapted to the studied case, for three dimensional
metallic structures. We present also the stress distributions on all the gaps for the
considered case. The presented analytical model is inserted in mathematical
software for direct stress distribution calculus on all the considered gaps. We
compare the obtained results with a preceding analytical model, previously
presented by the same authors. We also highlight the errors that can be obtained if
some improper simplifying assumptions are used.
Key words: simplifying assumptions, stress, strain, hyperstatic structures.
1. Introduction
Many metallic structures, that are designed to sustain different loadings,
used in practical engineering are hyperstatic (the unknown parameters given by
the reaction forces and closed contours are higher than the equilibrium
Corresponding author: e-mail: miritoiucosmin@yahoo.com
76
Dan Ilincioiu and Cosmin Mihai Mirioiu
equations written for a three dimensional body). In this paper we present an own
method for strain and stress calculus, using some simplifying assumptions
adapted to the studied case, for three dimensional metallic structures. We
present also the stress distributions on all the gaps for the considered case. The
presented analytical model is inserted in mathematical software for direct stress
distribution calculus on all the considered gaps. We compare the obtained
results with a previous analytical model presented before by the authors. We
also highlight the errors that can be obtained if there are used improper
simplifying assumptions. The geometry and the loading scheme of the structure
are presented in Figs. 1 and 2.
FF
V1
F1F
V1
F
P2
V2
F2
V2
V3
F3
F3
V3
Fig. 1 The geometry and the loading scheme of the studied metallic structure:
1 longitudinal beams; 2 transversal beams.
g
a
1
2h
V1
b
FF
1
FP
2
V2
V3
f
F
Q3
V1
V2
V3
PF2
FF1
F
Q3
Fig. 2 The geometry and the loading scheme of the studied metallic structure horizontal plane view.
F
P
3
Fig. 3 The loading scheme of a longitudinal beam.
77
For the strength calculus we have used the next simplifying assumptions:
the structure is statically loaded, the beams material is S275JR, there are
considered only the bending and torque effects, the beams have a transversal
box with rectangular hollow section, because of the geometry and loadings
simetry, the two longitudinal beams will have the same stress distribution on all
the gaps and the transversal beams will not have any stresses (normal or shear).
Considering the above simplifying assumptions, the loading scheme of a
longitudinal beam is presented in Fig. 3.
The effect of force Q on 6-5 gap is reduced to a bending moment Qe and
a force Q that act in the simple support 5, according to the scheme in Fig. 4.
F
1
2
Qe
Fig. 4 The final loading scheme of the longitudinal beams.
2. The Bending Moments Equations

The next step consists in determining the bending moments equations on
1-3 and 3-5 gaps, considered as separate beams. The loading scheme of the
beam on 1-3 gap is presented in Fig. 4. The reaction forces are determined with:
V11 (a + b ) Fb = 0 V11 =
Fa
Fb
; V11 F + V13 = 0 V13 = F V11 =
. (1)
a+b
a+b
F
3
2
V11
V13
a
Fab
a+b
Fig. 5 - The loading scheme on 1-3 gaps.
The bending moments on each gap are determined with Eq. (2) (for 1-2
gap) and Eq. (3) (for 3-2 gap).
78
M 112
x = 0 M 11 = 0,
Fbx
=
Fab
;
a + b x = a M 12 =
a+b
(2)
M 132
x = 0 M 13 = 0,
Fax
=
Fab
.
a + b x = b M 12 =
a+b
(3)
The loading scheme of the beam on 1-3 gap is presented in Fig. 4. The
reaction forces are determined with
V23 (c + d ) Pd + Qe = 0 V23 =
Pd Qe
,
c+d
Pc + Qe + Q(c + d ) V25 (c + d ) = 0 V25 =
(4)
Pc + Q(c + d + e )
.
c+d
(5)
The bending moments on each gap are determined with Eq. (6) (for 3-4
gap) and Eq. (7) (for 5-4 gap).
M 234 =
M 254 =
x = 0 M 23 = 0,
Pdx Qex
Pcd Qec
;
c + d x = c M 24 =
c+d
Pc + Q ( e + c + d )
c+d
(6)
x = 0 M 25 = 0,
x Qe Qx
Pcd Qec
x = d M 24 = c + d .
(7)
After determining the moments equations on each gap, we write the three
moments equation for the case presented in Fig. 3:
Q
Qe
5
4
x
y
z
V23
V25
c
d
-Qe
Pcd Qec
c+d
Fig. 6 The loading scheme on 3-5 gaps.
79
M1(a+b)+2M3(a+b+c+d)+M5(c+d)+6R2s=0,
(8)
M1=0, M5= -Qe, R2s= 1+ 2+ 3+ 4 ,
(9)
where
1 =
2 Fa 2b Fab 2 b
+
+ a
6(a + b ) 2(a + b ) 3
a+b
Qe(c + d )
,
x0 =
Pc + Q(e + c + d ) Q(c + d )
Pc 2 d Qec 2 c
+d
2(c + d ) 3
,
2 =
c+d
4 =
x0
( Qe ) x0
6
c+d
3 ,
(10)
2(d x0 )
Pcd Qec d x0
+ x0
c+d
3
2
.
3 =
c+d
In Eq. (10), the i (i=1..4) represent the ratio between the static moment
of the surface diagram between the n-1 and n simple supports, considered in
relation with n-1 simple support (or the the ratio between the static moment of
the surface diagram between the n and n+1 simple supports, considered in
relation with n+1 simple support) and the bar length between n-1 and n simple
supports (or n and n+1 simple supports).
From (8), bending moment in the simple support 3 will be calculated with
M3 =
6 R2s M 5 (c + d )
.
2(a + b + c + d )
(11)
The bending moment diagrams from Fig. 6, summed, lead to the final
bending moment diagram of the considered beam. We can also directly compute
the reaction forces from the simple supports 1, 3 and 5 using (12).
Pcd Qec
Fab
Qd + Qe + M ' '+
+M'
M a
M d
c+d
M ' = 3 , M ' ' = 3 , V1 = a + b
,
, V5 =
a+b
d +c
a
d
V3 =
M ' '+
Pcd Qec
+ F (b + c ) V1 (a + b + c )
c+d
.
c
(12)
To demonstrate the calculus viability, this modeling will be used for a

particular case defined in this way:
80
a= 108 mm, b= 209 mm, c= 58 mm, d= 76mm, e= 58 mm, f= 110 mm,

h= 40 mm, F= 0,8 kN, P= 0,8kN, Q= 0,8 kN.
The inertia moments and the axial strength modulus are determined with
the methodology presented before by the authors in (Mirioiu et al., 2011).
Their values (in mm4 and mm3) are written in the following equations
F
1
2
Qe
d
-Qe
Fab
a+b
M3
Pcd Qec
c+d
Fig. 7 The bending moment diagrams obtained from calculus.
I v1 = 21570 , I h1 = 11130 , I p1 = 22090 , I v 2 = 2999 , I h 2 = 2999 ,

I p 2 = 4394 , Wv1 = 1438 , Wh1 = 1113 , W p1 = 2016 , Wv 2 = 399,822 , (13)
Wh 2 = 399,822 , W p 2 = 676 .
With (1), (4) and (5) we determine the V11, V13, V23 and V25 reaction force
values.
V11= 527.445, N; V13= 272.555, N; V23= 107.463, N; V25= 1493, N.
With (9) and (10) we determine the R2s and M3 parameters
R2s= 3.228106, M3= -1.458104.
In the end, using (12) we determine the reaction forces from the beam.
V1 = 466.938, N; V3 = 583.664, N; V5= 1349, N.
Using the reaction forces values, we can easily determine the stresses
curves on each gap (Fig. 7).
4. Conclusions
1. The next step will be to compare the present calculus model with
another one previously published by the authors in (Mirioiu et al., 2011), based
81
on the force method. We will have two variants of studying: variant 1- based on
the force method (presented before by the authors); variant 2- the analytical
model presented in this paper. The reaction forces obtained with the two models
are written in Table 1. The differences of results obtained with the two models
are presented in Table 2.
(MPa)
40
65v
12v
) 20
50
20
40
100 mm
20
40
mm
(MPa)
(MPa)
54v
20
(MPa)
34v
10
40
15
50
40
mm
20
(MPa)
20
23v
0
20
100 x
200
mm
Fig. 8 - The stress curves on each gap.
Reaction forces
V1, N
V2= X1, N
V3, N
V1, N
V3, N
V5, N
Table 1
Reaction forces
Variant 1- Force Method
445.193
656.85
1298
Variant 2 The analytical model
presented in this paper
466.938
583.664
1349
40
mm
82
Table 2
The differences between the reaction forces
Variant
Reaction force
Error (%)
2
V1
4.66
2
V3
11.14
2
V5
3.78
2. In order to determine the errors from the stresses, we shall calculate, on

each gap, the equivalent stress with (14). We will obtain their distribution in Fig.
8,
ijvec = ijv 2 + 3 ij 2 .
(14)
In (14) we have marked with the normal stress, the shear stress and i-j
the gaps where these stresses are.
The equivalent stress values for each variant are written in Table 3 and
the errors are written in Table 4.
From Table 2 we can extract the following conclusions:
i) The errors are small and the highest errors is obtained for the V3
reaction force.
ii) It is 11.14 %; this error is obtained because of the simplifying
assumptions used.
From Table 4 we can extract the following conclusions:
i) The errors are high and the highest error is 45.7%.
ii) Is obtained for the stress on the gap 4.
iii) This error is obtained because of the coarse simplifying assumptions
used.
Gap
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 3
The equivalent stress values
Variant
Equivalent Stress (MPa)
1
0
1
33.443
1
18.136
1
5.951
1
32.274
1
0
2
0
2
35.077
2
13.341
2
3.231
2
32.274
2
0
83
Table 4
The errors between the equivalent stresses
Variant
Gap
Error (%)
2
1
0
2
2
4.66
2
3
26.45
2
4
45.70
2
5
0
2
6
0
40
MPa
40
20
12vec
) 20
100 mm
50 x
MPa
65vec
20
40
mm
40
mm
MPa
15
10
54vec
) 20
MPa
40
34vec
5
0
50
20
MPa
40
)20
mm
23vec
100
x 200
mm
300
Fig. 8 The equivalent stress curves on each gap (variant 2).
3. The calculus model defined in this paper has big dimensions and can
be easily used if only it is inserted in a mathematical calculus software like
Matlab, Maple, Mathcad, Mathematica and so on. The authors have tried to
simplify the mathematical model in order to be easily understood by anyone
who wants to make strength calculus of hiperstatic structures. The calculus
relations were given parametrically in order to generalize the used method. The
84
model has a high generality degree and can only be used for the case presented
in chapter one. This strength analysis presented in this paper can serve, as a
guide, for solving some similar situations. A secondary purpose followed by the
authors is the demonstrative character, trying to define the approaching
procedure for this king of study.
4. The main conclusion of this study is that, if we use coarse simplifying
assumptions (like the ones presented in the introduction) we may obtain high
errors (in our case we have obtained an error of 45.7%).
Acknowledgements. The work was partially supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU/88/1.5/S/50783 (2009), co-financed by the European Social Fund Investing
in People, within the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development
2007-2013.
REFERENCES
Ilincioiu D., Une analyse classique de rsistance. Annals of the Univ. of Craiova,
Mechanical Series, 2, 12-22 (1995).
Ilincioiu D., Roca V., Un efect dinamic asupra structurii principale de rezisten a
unui camion. Annals of the Univ. of Craiova, Mechanical Series, 1, 1-6 (2001).
Ilincioiu D., Roca V., Analiza eforturilor din asiul unui autovehicul, Annals of the
Univ. of Craiova, Mechanical Series, 1, 7-15 (2001).
Ilincioiu D. et al., Analytical Research of Mechanical Stresses in a Truck Strength
Structure. 2nd International Congress on Automotive, Safety and Environment
SMAT 2008, 2008, pp. 75-80.
Ilincioiu D. et al., Rezistena Materialelor. II, Ed. Universitaria, Craiova, 2011.
Mirioiu C. et al., An Analytical Model for Strength Calculus of Hiperstatic Structures.
J. of Eng. Studies and Research, 17, 3, 48-55 (2011).
INFLUENA IPOTEZELOR SIMPLIFICATOARE ASUPRA DISTRIBUIEI
TENSIUNILOR LA STRUCTURILE METALICE HIPERSTATICE
(Rezumat)
Analizele structurilor metalice, plane i spaiale, sunt prezentate n multe lucrri
de specialitate (articole i monografii), unde pot fi gsite numeroase metode folosite
pentru obinerea unor rezultate de acuratee sporit. Sunt prezentate astfel metoda
eforturilor, metoda Castigliano, ecuaia celor trei momente pentru rezolvarea grinzilor
continue etc. Modelele matematice prezentate se pot insera n numeroase software-uri
pentru calcule matematice directe, precum MATHCAD, MAPLE sau MATLAB etc.,
unde putem obine direct diagramele de momente ncovoietoare i torsionale, precum i
distribuia tensiunilor.n aceast lucrare prezentm o metod proprie pentru obinerea
tensiunilor i deformaiilor, folosind ipoteze simplificatoare, la o structur metalic
tridimensional. Prezentm de asemenea distribuia tensiunilor pe fiecare interval n
parte. Modelul matematic este inserat ntr-un program de calcul automat. Rezultatele
calculate sunt apoi comparate cu cele obinute cu un model analitic, prezentat anterior
de autori, ntr-o alt lucrare. Sunt puse n eviden, de asemenea, diferenele care apar
ntre rezultatele la care conduc cele dou modele analitice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
A COMPARISON BETWEEN SOME SOFTWARES USED FOR

METALLIC STRUCTURES STRESS STUDIES
BY
DAN ILINCIOIU and COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU

Department of Automotive, Transports and Industrial Engineering
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The paper presents a comparison between some software used for
metallic structures stress studies. The finite element problem has appeared and
developed because of the necessity for having a powerful and fast method for
solving strains and stress complex problems, for structures that have a hard
analytical modeling. In this paper we will use two variants for studying: 1- Ansys;
2- Robot Millennium. We compare the obtained results with some obtained from
analytical models presented in previous proceedings and calculate the errors.
Key words: finite element analysis, element type, mesh, von Mises stress.
1. Introduction
In this paper we make a comparison between some software used for
metallic structures stress studies. The finite element problem has appeared and
developed because of the necessity for having a powerful and fast method for
solving strains and stress complex problems, for structures that have a hard
analytical modeling. It is used in many engineering branches like: mechanics,
aviation, civil engineering, nuclear engineering, marine engineering and so on.
This method can be applied for solving other problems like: heat
transfer, electromagnetism, dynamic analysis, fluid mechanics and so on.
We follow the next steps in the analysis: the metallic structure modeling
(where we insert the geometrical modeling, the main properties of the used
material, like Poisson ratio or Young modulus and so on); the usage of calculus
Corresponding author: e-mail: miritoiucosmin@yahoo.com
86
method; the element type and the mesh choosing; the boundary conditions
insertion; obtaining and interpretation of the results.
We compare the obtained results with some obtained from analytical
models presented in previous proceedings. We will use two variants for
studying:
Ansys: variant 1;
Robot Millennium: variant 2.
The geometry and the loading scheme of the structure are presented in
Figs. 1 and 2.
1
F1
V1
V1
F1
2
F2
F2
V2
V2
F3
V3
F3
V3
Fig. 1 The geometry and the loading scheme for the studied metallic structure:
1 longitudinal beams; 2 transverse beams.
g
a
V1
F1
2h
b
3
V2
F2
V3
f
F3
V1
V2
F2
F1
V3
F3
Fig. 2 The geometry and the loading scheme for the studied metallic structure;
horizontal plane view.
2. Variant 1
The variant 1 consists in finite element modeling of the structure from
Fig. 1 in the software program Ansys. We have inserted the following important
87
data:
1. element type BEAM 189 (presented in Fig. 3);
2. material: S235JR with the elasticity modulus E= 210000 MPa and
Poisson ratio = 0.3;
3. meshing type: manual (presented in Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 - The element type (variant 2).
Fig. 4 - The meshing (variant 1).
Fig. 5 - The studied structure with the loadings applied (variant 1).
The loadings applied are: F=P=Q=0.8 kN. The reaction forces obtained
are presented in Fig. 7 and the von Mises stress distribution in Fig. 6.
88
Fig. 6 The von Mises stress distribution (variant 1).
Fig. 7 The reaction forces (variant 1).
3. Variant 2
The variant 2 consists in finite element modeling of the structure from fig.
1 in the software program Robot Millennium. We have followed the next steps:
i) node defining;
ii) creating the beams through the considered nodes;
iii) defining the section type; inserting the material: S235JR with the
elasticity modulus E=210000 MPa and Poisson ratio = 0.3;
iv) inserting the simple supports and the loadings F, P, Q (according to
the scheme from Fig. 1);
v) static analysis of the structure.
89
Fig. 8 - The geometry with the beams numbers (variant 2).
Fig. 9 The reaction forces (variant 2).
Fig. 10 The Von Mises stress distribution (variant 2).
4. Conclusions
1. We will compare the obtained values with an analytical model
presented in a previous paper: variant 3- force method presented in (Mirioiu et
al., 2011). The reaction forces for all the considered variants are written in
90
Table 1 and the errors (we consider the reference value the variant 3) are written
in Table 2.
Reaction forces
V1
V2
V3
V1
V3
V5
V1
V2
V3
Variant
1
1
1
2
2
2
Table 1
Reaction forces
Variant 1- Ansys
444.96 N
637.65 N
1301.2 N
Variant 2- Robot Millennium
440 N
650 N
1310 N
Variant 3- Force Method
445.193 N
656.85 N
1298 N
Table 2
The errors
Reaction force
V1
V2
V3
V1
V2
V3
Error (%) (the variant 3

is the reference value)
0.05
2.92
0.25
1.17
2.92
0.92
2. From the Table 2 we can extract the following conclusions: the errors
are very small (under 3%); the highest errors are obtained for the V2 reaction
force in both software was 2,92%
i) the modeling created is very well verified analytically
The stress values (Von Mises stress) for all the considered variants are
written in Table 3 and the errors in Table 4.
From the Table 4 we can extract the following conclusions:
i) the errors are small (under 15%), allowed in practical engineering;
ii) the highest errors is obtained for Ansys in the node 4;
iii) the modeling created is well verified analytically.
3. If we compare the variants 1 and 2 we can extract the following
conclusions:
i) the structure modeling in Robot Millennium is easier than in Ansys
because this is a specialized program for metallic structures modeling; also in
Robot Millennium we can directly compute the section forces and stresses
diagrams;
91
ii) the Robot Millennium software furnishes a huge area of information to

the used in the metallic structures field;
iii) the Robot Millennium software has a more detailed database for the
beam section types;
Node
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Variant
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Table 3
The von Mises stress
Studying Variant
Equivalent stress (MPa)
1
0
1
33,659
1
18,7
1
7
1
33,659
1
0
2
0
2
33,11
2
18,45
2
6,51
2
33,48
2
0
3
0
3
33,443
3
18,136
3
5,951
3
32,274
3
0
Table 4
The errors
Node
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Error (%)
01
0,64
3,02
14,99
4,11
0
0
1
1,7
8,59
0,11
0
iv) Ansys has a larger area for applications in engineering; for example
we cannot use Robot Millennium for finite element analysis of gears;
92
v) both software have given correct information regarding the reaction

forces values and stress distributions;
vi) in Ansys software we can import any structure (with a high degree of
difficulty) from de modeling programs.
Acknowledgements. The work was partially supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU /88/1.5/S/50783 (2009), co-financed by the European Social Fund Investing
in People, within the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development
2007-2013.
REFERENCES
Clbureanu M., Introducere n Metoda Elementului Finit. Ed. Universitaria, Craiova,
2011.
Ilincioiu D., Roca V.Un efect dinamic asupra structurii principale de rezisten a unui
camion. Annals of the Univ. Craiova, Mechanical Series, 1, 1-6 (2001).
Ilincioiu D., Roca V., Analiza eforturilor din asiul unui autovehicul, Annals of the
Univ. Craiova, Mechanical Series, 1, 7-15 (2001).
Ilincioiu D. et al., Analytical Research of Mechanical Stresses in a Truck Strength
Structure. 2nd Int. Congress Automotive, Safety and Environment SMAT, 75-80,
2008.
Ilincioiu D. et al., Rezistena Materialelor, II, Ed. Universitaria, Craiova, 2011.
Mirioiu C. et al., An Analytical Model for Strength Calculus of Hiperstatic Structuresi.
J. of Eng. Studies and Research, 17, 3, 48-55 (2011).
Moaveni S., Finite Element Analysis. Theory and Application with Ansys. Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, 1999.
Negru M., Bazele proiectrii asistate de calculator. Ed. Universitaria, Craiova, 2004.
O COMPARAIE NTRE CTEVA SOFT-URI FOLOSITE PENTRU STUDIUL
TENSIUNILOR MECANICE N STRUCTURI METALICE
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea prezint o comparaie ntre cteva soft-uri folosite pentru studiul
tensiunilor mecanice n structuri metalice. Metoda elementului finit a aprut i s-a
dezvoltat din necesitatea de a avea un instrument puternic i rapid pentru a rezolva
problemele complexe de tensiuni i deformaii, pentru structuri a cror modelare
analitic este greoaie. n aceast lucrare se folosesc dou variante de studiu: varianta 1Ansys; varianta 2- Robot Millennium. Rezultatele obinute sunt comparate cu altele,
obinute analitic i prezentate n lucrri anterioare; sunt calculate de asemenea
diferenele care apar ntre rezultatele obinute cu aceste metode.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
PROPERTIES VARIATION, DUE TO NICKEL CONTENT AND

THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING, IN Fe-Cr-Ni-Si
MASTER ALLOYS USED FOR THE PREPARATION
OF SOME Fe-BASE SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
BY
ADRIAN LIVIU PARASCHIV, MARIUS GABRIEL SURU and

LEANDRU-GHEORGHE BUJOREANU
Gh.Asachi Technical University of Iai,
Faculty of Materials Science Engineering
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The effects of substituting a part of chromium amount with

nickel have been described in three Fe-Cr-Ni-Si master alloys, meant for
obtaining Fe-base shape memory alloys. After casting, the samples were
homogenized in order to level chemical composition and to refine grain size. The
microscopic observations results have revealed the effects of increasing nickel
amount while micro-hardness tests enabled the identification of metallographic
phases. After the application of hot rolling, a strong crumbling of dendrite arms
and the spreading of their fragments within the alloy were observed. Microhardness tests revealed big differences between metal matrix of the alloys and
dispersed fragments. Finally, the samples were quenched by solution treatment
and drastic changes of both phase structure and mechanical proprieties were
observed.
Key words: Fe-base shape memory alloys, chemical composition, optical
microscopy, micro-hardness.
1. Introduction
Corrosion-resistant steels include Chromium, as the key alloying element,
together with Nickel, Aluminium, Silicon and Titanium (Berns&Theisen,
2008). Due to the elevated amount of Nickel, Fe-30 % at., Ni base shape
Corresponding author: e-mail: lgbujor@tuiasi.ro
94
Adrian Liviu Paraschiv et al.
memory alloys (SMAs) are austenitic, workable and corrosion resistant (ReedHill, 1973). The workability is caused by the face centre cubic (fcc) structure of
austenitic matrix, while shape memory effect (SME, which represents the socalled thermal memory) relays on a reversible martensitic transformation
(fcc) (body centre cubic, bcc), with a thermal hysteresis of the order of
400 K (Sinha, 1989).
In order to reduce thermal hysteresis various alloying elements were
added such as Cr, Co, Ti, Mn, Nb, etc. In Fe-Ni-Cr SMAs two martensites were
observed: (i) (body centre tetragonal, bct) which favours pseudoelasticity
(representing so-called mechanical memory) and iii) (hexagonal closepacked, hcp) which favours SME. Since both martensites are fragile, plastic
deformation is typically applied in -phase, which leads to a metastable
structure as illustrated by the diagram shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Partial isothermal section, at room temperature, through metastable phase

diagram of Fe-Ni-Cr system (0.04 %C) illustrating the locus of the alloys with Ms =
=200C (Brook et al., 1975).
The diagram shows F alpha ferrite (bcc), ferromagnetic martensite

(bct), austenite (fcc) and m metastable austenite. The dash line represents the
locus of the alloys with the critical temperature of the start of direct martensitic
transformation Ms = 200C. The highest SME values were obtained for SMAs in
m phase corresponding to the composition Fe-(15-20) Ni-(10-20) Cr (mass. %)
(Brook et al., 1975).
The present paper is a preliminary study, on the structure and properties
of some master alloys located in region of the Fe-Ni-Cr phase diagram,
aiming to discuss the effects of substituting a part of Chromium with Nickel.
95
2. Experimental Procedure
Three master alloys, designated as 16, 14 and 17, respectively, were cast
in cylindrical moulds, machined into 5 50 10-3m ingots and homogenized
for 8 3.6 ks at 1300 K. After cutting some fragments, for structural analysis,
the homogenized ingots were hot rolled at 1273 K, according to the rolling
schedule listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Rolling schedule and parameters (t-thickness/ L-length), 10-3m
Pass no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rolling gap
4
3
2.1
1.6
1.1
0.8
0.65
0.5
16
t/ L 4/ 35 3/ 41 2.2/ 52 1.6/ 60 1.3/ 70 1.1/ 82
1/ 95
0.9/ 109
14
t/ L 4/ 39 3/ 46 2.2/ 55 1.8/ 65 1.4/ 77 1.1/ 93
1/ 103 0.9/ 119
17
t/ L 4/ 40 3/ 46 2.4/ 56 1.9/ 69 1.4/ 86 1.1/ 104 1/ 113 0.9/ 135
After rolling some fragments were cut for structural analysis and the rest
of the specimens were solution treated 1300 K/ 1.8 ks/ water. The fragments cut
from homogenized, hot rolled and solution treated samples, respectively, were
embedded into Mcaprex KM-U could mounting resign, ground and polished
on a Metkon FORCIPOL 1V machine and finally etched with Nital 4 %.
Optical microscopy (OM) micrographs were recorded with a Meiji
TECHNO microscope with video camera and QCapture software while
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs were obtained by means of a
SEMVEGA II LSH TESCAN microscope, coupled with an EDX
QUANTAX QX2 ROENTEC detector. The chemical compositions of the three
master alloys, determined by EDX analysis, are listed in Table 2.
Table 2
Chemical compositions, mass. %
Alloy number
Element
16
14
17
Iron
86.12
84.82 87.06
Chromium
10.25
9.5
7.19
Nickel
3.06
4.22
4.88
Silicon
0.57
1.46
0.87
After structural observations, micro-hardness was determined, as an

average of five measurements, by means of a Namicon type CV 400 DM tester
under a load of 0.2 kg applied for 25 s.
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
The representative OM and SEM micrographs of the homogenized, hot
rolled and solution treated states are shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
96
Fig. 2 OM (left) and SEM (right) micrographs revealing the persistence of dendritic
aspect in homogenized state of the master alloys under study, with corresponding
nominal composition: (a) alloy 16, 10 Cr + 3 Ni; (b) alloy 14, 9 Cr + 4 Ni; (c) alloy 17,
7 Cr + 5 Ni (mass. %).
97
Fig. 3 OM (left) and SEM (right) micrographs revealing the fragmentation of

dendritic arms in hot rolled state of the master alloys under study, with corresponding
nominal composition: (a) alloy 16, 10 Cr + 3 Ni; (b) alloy 14, 9 Cr + 4 Ni; (c) alloy 17,
7 Cr + 5 Ni (mass. %).
98
Fig. 4 OM (left) and SEM (right) micrographs revealing the characteristic aspect in
solution treated state of the master alloys under study, with corresponding nominal
composition: (a) alloy 16, 10 Cr + 3 Ni; (b) alloy 14, 9 Cr + 4 Ni; (c) alloy 17, 7 Cr + 5
Ni (mass. %).
99
It is noticeable that the dendrites are still present after homogenization in

Fig. 2. The substitution of Cr with Ni seems to contribute to the diminution of
dendritic character, in such a way that the differences between dendrites and
matrix become less obvious. This tendency is noticeable especially in the SEM
micrographs.
After 8 hot-rolling passes, most of the dendritic arms were broken as
noticeable in Fig. 3, which reveals the refining tendency of dispersed fragment
which augments with increasing the substitution degree of Cr with Ni.
The transformations underwent by both matrix and dispersed fragments,
as an effect of solution treatment, are shown in Fig. 4. The grain refining effect
of increasing Ni amount is noticeable especially in the SEM micrograph of alloy
17, Fig. 4 c, where the average grain size is of the order of 10 micrometers.
Micro-hardness measurements were performed, on each of the three
alloys under study in each of the three processing state, and the average of five
values is summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
Micro-hardness, HV0.2
Alloy number
State
16
14
Homogenized
564
718
Hot-rolled
654
601
Solution treated
531
337
17
789
575
408
It is worth mentioning that the pseudoelastic character of the alloys under

study caused a rapid decrease, in the first seconds, of the size of the indentation
marks impressed on the surface of the specimens, during the tests. Final
measurements were performed after 5 seconds. At first sight, Cr substitution
with Ni obviously caused micro-hardness increase of the alloys in homogenized
state. From structural point of view, this increasing tendency can be associated
with the diminution of dendritic character, noticed in Fig. 2.
When analysing the effects of Cr substitution with Ni, in hot-rolled and
solution treated states, respectively, in accordance with previous reports on FeNi base SMAs (Jost, 1992), the increase of nickel amount was accompanied by
a general hardening-decrease tendency.
Excepting for alloy 16, micro-hardness first decreased as an effect of
breaking the dendritic arms through hot rolling and further decreased as an
effect of solution treatment, which would normally cause the formation of
(bct) thermoelastic martensite accompanied by a softening effect (Tanaka et al.,
2010). In solution treated state, the alloy 17, with 5 % Ni has higher microhardness as compared with alloy 14, with 4 % Ni. This hardness-increase
tendency can be associated with the increase of the amount of precipitate phase
(Kokorin et al., 1993), which caused marked grain refinement in Fig. 4 c.
100
4. Conclusions
1. The substitution of Chromium with Nickel caused moderate structural
changes reflected by sensible variations of micro-hardness. Typically, the
increase of Ni content, from 3 to 5 % was accompanied by micro-hardness
fluctuation of 200 daN m-1/3.
2. Thermomechanical processing caused the fragmentation of dendrite
arms, by hot rolling and the formation of (bct) thermoelastic martensite, by
solution treatment, accompanied by a general decrease tendency of microhardness.
REFERENCES
Berns H., Theisen W., Ferrous Materials. Steel and Cast Iron. Springer, Berlin, 2008.
Brook G.B., Iles R.F. and Brooks P.L., The Relationship between Stacking Fault Energy
and Shape Memory in Primary Solid Solutions. In Shape Memory Effects in Alloys
(Perkins J., Ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 1975, pp. 477-486.
Jost N., Shape Memory Effects in Fe-Ni-Co Alloys. In Progress in Shape Memory Alloys
(Eucken S. Ed.), DGM-Informationsgesellschaft Verlag, Bochum, 1992, pp. 173190.
Kokorin V.V., Gunko, L.P., Shevchenko O.M., Martensitic Transformation in Ausaged
Fe/Co Based Alloys. Scripta metallurgica et Materialia, 28, 35-40 (1993).
Reed-Hill R.E., Physical Metallurgy Principles. Brooks/Cole Engineering Division,
Monterey, California, 1973.
Sinha A.K., Ferrous Physical Metallurgy. Butterworth, Boston, 1989.
Tanaka Y., Himuro Y., Kainuma R., Sutou Y., Omori T., Ishida K., Ferrous
Polycrystalline Shape-Memory Alloy Showing Huge Super-elasticity. Science,
327, 1488-1490 (2010).
VARIAIA PROPRIETILOR, DATORIT CONINUTULUI DE NICHEL I A
PRELUCRRII TERMOMECANICE, LA FEROALIAJELE Fe-Cr-Ni-Si UTILIZATE
PENTRU PREGTIREA UNOR ALIAJE CU MEMORIA FORMEI PE BAZ DE Fe
(Rezumat)
Au fost descrise efectele nlocuirii unei pri din cantitatea de crom de ctre
nichel, n trei feroaliaje Fe-Cr-Ni-Si, destinate obinerii aliajelor cu memoria formei pe
baz de Fe. Dup turnare, probele au fost omogenizate pentru egalizarea compoziiei
chimice i finisarea structurii. Rezultatele observaiilor microscopice au evideniat
efectele creterii cantitii de nichel, iar ncercrile de micro-duritate au permis
identificarea fazelor metalografice. Dup aplicarea laminrii la cald, a fost observat o
puternic sfrmare a braelor dendritice i rspndirea fragmentelor acestora.
ncercrile de micro-duritate au evideniat diferene mari ntre matricea metalic a
aliajelor i fragmentele dispersate. n final, probele au fost clite prin punere n soluie i
s-au observat modificri drastice att ale structurii fazice, ct i ale proprietilor
mecanice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME BIODEGRADABLE

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS,
WITH NATURAL YARN FABRICS REINFORCEMENT
BY
1
MARIAN MARE , CRISTINA RACU2, LILIANA BUHU2 and ADRIAN

BUHU2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics and Robotics,
2
Department of Textile Products Engineering and Design

Abstract. Biodegradable composites currently based on biopolymers with

natural fibre reinforcement are intended to be compostable, after their lifetime
use, in order to prevent the growth of permanent environmental pollution. This
paper focuses on a class of these composites, based on some raw materials that
are available on our internal market animal glue (together with some curing
and stabilizing agents) and bast fibre fabrics. The samples are firstly pre-formed,
by impregnating the polymeric matrix in the suitable textile reinforcement
arrangements, and then consolidated by moderately hot pressing. The evolution
of composite tensile properties was studied, in dependence with the parameters
(temperature and pressure) of consolidating process, in order to obtain their
suitable values for optimizing the composite mechanical response.
Key words: biodegradable composites, polymeric matrix, natural textile
reinforcement.
1. Introduction
The growing global interest in protecting the natural environment, by
progressively reducing the environmental load generated from the disposal of
used plastic products, has generated an important increase in the production of
various types of biodegradable plastics, including their combination with
Corresponding author: e-mail: mmares@tuiasi.ro
102
Marian Mare et al.
suitable reinforcements (Smith, 2006, Wallenberger & Kandachar, 2004). The

resulting composite materials could be seen as leading actors in this new
paradigm, as they are based primarily on some natural, abundant and renewable
raw materials, and so their large-scale use could generate important economic
opportunities for the agricultural sector and for many of the underdeveloped
countries.
Many sorts of plant fibre (Goda & Cao, 2007, Chen et al., 2005, Nishino
et al., 2003, Ochi, 2006), such as flax, ramie, jute, bamboo, pineapple, kenaf,
henequen and hemp have proved good qualities as reinforcements for polymeric
materials, leading to some composite materials having specific moduli (E/) and
strengths (/) that are comparable with some of the glass fibre reinforced
plastics, for example, mainly because of their very low specific weight.
However, these new materials are not competitive indeed with many of the
traditional polymer matrix composites (Mohatny et al., 2002), because their
unconventional processing techniques are still costly and less effective than
conventional ones.
The present paper is focused on a class of biodegradable composites that
are obtained from some largely available and inexpensive raw materials a
polymeric matrix based on animal glue and some bast-fibre fabrics
reinforcements. A study was made on these composite materials, regarding the
variation of their mechanical properties, in dependence with some technological
parameters of the manufacturing process.
2. Materials and Methods
The biodegradable composite materials were manufactured as rectangular
samples of crossply laminates, using a polymeric (proteic) matrix, based on
animal glue, initially as an aqueous solution containing some curing and
stabilizing agents. For every sample the reinforcement, in a weight fraction W f =
= 0.49, was composed by four plies of flax fibre fabrics, alternately disposed
with the principal directions (corresponding to the warp and the weft yarns) on
the long axis of the composite sample.
The initial stage of the composite manufacturing technique was the
samples performing, followed by drying and moderately hot pressing (for ten
minutes), for curing and consolidating the final material.
The main objective of the experiments was to observe the influence of the
moderate hot pressing technological parameters on the composite mechanical
properties, in order to establish the suitable combination of parameters values
for obtaining some valuable biodegradable composite samples.
On the basis of some experimentally results (Mare et al., 2011),
previously obtained by the authors of present paper, four different levels were
used for the processing temperature, namely 45C, 55C, 65C, and 75C,
successively combined with four pressure level values, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.28
103
MPa. These values are corresponding to the prescriptions from the literature
(Herrera & Valadez, 2004, Mehta et al., 2005, Ogihara et al., 2007) regarding
the chosen organic polymeric matrix.
The mechanical properties (tensile strength Rm, principal elastic modulus
E, and ultimate tensile strain Ar) of the studied composite materials have been
established using the standard uniaxial tension test (ASTM Standard D 3039,
2007), conducted on a universal, computer assisted testing machine, with 50kN
as the maximum loading capability. Some prismatic composite specimens were
used, having 200mm in length, 30mm in width, and the same thickness as the
composite sample (from which they have been cut), as resulted from the
forming process (3.2mm in average value).
The experimental results were analyzed in order to observe the evolution
of composite mechanical properties, in dependence with the technological
parameters of the consolidation process.
3. Results and Comments
The biodegradable composite materials that are presented herein were
intended to be used for components (from the ambient design, for example) that
must not have high levels of mechanical strength. In that, it must be said that the
composite samples, as resulted from the moderate hot pressing process, are
comparable in stiffness with the plywood samples of similar thicknesses.
The composite load-elongation dependence (Fig. 1) has a pronounced
non-linear aspect, with a down-right oriented convexity, that is typical for
woven textile reinforcements, as it could be observed from the load-elongation
curve which was obtained for the woven bast fibre (Fig. 2), before starting the
composite manufacturing process.
As it can be observed on the above-presented load-elongation curves, the
principal Youngs modulus (E1) of the composite, corresponding to the
specimen loading direction in the tensile test, could be considered as increasing
with the applied force: the modulus value is relatively low at the beginning of
the curve, but it is many times bigger at the last portion of the curve, before its
maximum point (F max).
One can say that, having in view the values of ultimate tensile strength
(24-27MPa) for the studied composites, it is convenient for these materials to be
utilized in samples that have to support, on the principal material direction,
normal stresses of approximately 1622MPa. Such a mechanical load will lead
to a material response corresponding to its maximum stiffness level.
On the other hand, it must be said that the modulus values that are
discussed herein have been established using the standard procedure, as the
initial slope of the stress-strain curve for the respective material specimen.
The following Figs. 3, 4 and 5 are briefly presenting the evolution of the
average experimental data, concerning the cited mechanical properties of the
104
Marian Mare et al.
studied biodegradable composites, in dependence with the technological

parameters (temperature and pressure) of the forming process.
Fig. 1 Typical aspects of the load-elongation dependence for the studied composites.
Fig. 2 The load-elongation dependence for the woven plant-fiber reinforcement.
45 deg C
55 deg C
65 deg C
105
75 deg C
Tensile Strength [MPa]
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Pressure [MPa]
Fig. 3 Tensile strength variation as a function of forming pressure, for different values
of processing temperature.
45 deg C
55 deg C
65 deg C
75 deg C
7.5
Fracture Strain [%]
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Pressure [MPa]
Fig. 4 Fracture strain variation as a function of forming pressure, for different values
of processing temperature.
Some particular issues could be observed, in the figures from above, for
the studied biodegradable composites, regarding their mechanical response:
a) as a general tendency, an increase in strength and stiffness could be
observed, when temperature and pressure levels are both increasing;
b) an interesting effect can be seen, regarding the results that are obtained
for the upper levels of temperature namely those of 65C and 75C, mainly
for the pressure levels overtaking 0.2MPa; for using these values of the
106
Marian Mare et al.
technological parameters, the suitable mechanical properties are corresponding

to the temperature of 65C, instead of the highest level (75C), as it could be
expected;
45 deg C
55 deg C
65 deg C
75 deg
Young's Modulus [MPa]
300
260
220
180
140
100
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Pressure [MPa]
Fig. 5 Youngs modulus variation as a function of forming pressure, for different

values of processing temperature.
c) as a consequence, one can assume that the increase of the temperature

level up to 75C have no favourable effect on the mechanical properties of the
studied biodegradable composites; moreover, for that condition a little influence
of the pressure level increase is observed;
d) on that basis, one can conclude that the best combination of composite
mechanical stiffness and strength was obtained for the samples that were
pressed at 0.3MPa and 65C, that can be retained as the optimum parameters
values for composite consolidating process;
e) the mechanical properties of the composite samples were
unsatisfactory, for their consolidation at only 45C, so that temperature value is
too low and not recommended for the studied manufacturing process.
4. Conclusions
1. Some biodegradable composite materials were obtained, using animal
glue as a polymeric matrix and woven flax fibre as reinforcement. The samples
were formed as balanced crossply laminates, with the principal directions of the
textile reinforcement plies alternately oriented on the sample longitudinal axis.
2. The composite mechanical properties variation was studied, when
using different values of technological parameters (temperature and pressure),
for the sample consolidating process.
3. The composite mechanical characteristics values tensile strength,
Youngs modulus and elongation at fracture were analyzed, by conducting
107
standard uniaxial tension tests, with the loading force oriented on the specimen
principal direction.
4. The best combination of composite strength and stiffness was obtained
for sample consolidation at 65C and 0.3MPa; the resulted composite exhibit
some mechanical properties that are close to those of plywood (nonbiodegradable) samples of the same thickness.
Acknowledgements. The present work was fully supported by PN2 Research
Project 72-200/2008.
REFERENCES
Chen Y. et al., Kenaf/Ramie Composite for Automotive Headliner. J. of Polym. and the
Environ., 13, 2, 107-114 (2005).
Goda K., Cao Y., Research and Development of Fully Green Composites Reinforced
with Natural Fibers, J. of Solid Mech. and Mat. Eng., 1, 9, 1073-1084 (2007).
Herrera-Franco P.J., Valadez-Gonzlez A., Mechanical Properties of Continuous
Natural Fibre-reinforced Polymer Composites. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 35,
339-345 (2004).
Mare M. et al., The Influence of Technological Parameters on the Mechanical
Properties of Some Biodegradable Polymer Matrix Composite Materials. Bul.
Univ. Petrol-Gaze Ploieti, LXIII, 1, 141-146 (2011).
Mehta G. et al., Novel Biocomposites Sheet Molding Compounds for Low Cost Housing
Panel Applications, J. of Polym. and the Environ., 13, 2, 169-175 (2005).
Mohatny A.K. et al., Sustainable Bio-Composites from Renewable Resources:
Opportunities and Challenges in the Green Materials World. J. of Polym. and the
Environ., 10, 1-2, 19-26 (2002).
Nishino T. et al., Kenaf Reinforced Biodegradable Composite. Compos. Sci. Technol.,
63, 1281-1286 (2003).
Ochi S., Development of High Strength Biodegradable Composites Using Manila Hemp
Fiber and Starch-based Biodegradable Resin. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf., 37,
11, 1879-1883 (2006).
Ogihara S. et al., Evaluation of Mechanical Properties in Biodegradable Composites
Reinforced with a Natural Fiber, Materials System, 25, 1, 35-42 (2007).
Smith R. (Ed.), Biodegradable Polymers for Industrial Applications. Woodhead
Publishing, London, 2006.
Wallenberger F. T., Kandachar P. V. (Eds.), Natural Fibres, Polymer and Composites.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, 2004.
*** Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite
Materials. ASTM Standard D 3039, 2007.
PROPRIETI MECANICE ALE UNOR MATERIALE COMPOZITE
BIODEGRADABILE CU MATRICE POLIMERIC
(Rezumat)
Polimerii biodegradabili au intrat n producia industrial imediat dup 1980 i
sunt deja folosii, pe o scar tot mai larg, n domenii tehnice diverse, inclusiv la
producerea obiectelor de uz casnic sau a echipamentelor sportive. Avantajul principal al
108
Marian Mare et al.
utilizrii lor este posibilitatea de a fi eliminate din mediul nconjurtor, atunci cnd
ajung acolo sub form de deeuri, prin simpla aciune a microorganismelor din mediul
natural.
Principala lor deficien este nivelul sczut al proprietilor mecanice, care le
limiteaz aplicabilitatea la produse care nu presupun solicitri mecanice deosebite.
Pentru rezolvarea acestei probleme se recurge la armarea polimerilor respectivi, mai
ales cu fire i fibre de natur vegetal, care reprezint resurse regenerabile, cu rezerve
practic nelimitate. n plus, acestea nu afecteaz calitatea compozitelor astfel obinute de
a fi biodegradabile.
Au fost testate ca materiale de armare categorii variate de fire i fibre provenite
din plante foarte diverse in, cnep, sisal, ananas, ramie, iut, bambus etc. iar
rezultatele au artat c unele dintre acestea, folosite ca atare sau sub form de esturi au
proprieti mecanice foarte bune, apropiate de ale fibrelor clasice de armare (fibrele de
sticl, de pild), mai ales dac sunt exprimate prin raportare la greutile lor specifice,
care sunt foarte mici.
Una dintre dificultile tehnologice importante la fabricarea acestor compozite
este posibila deteriorare a fibrelor de armare la introducerea lor n matricea polimeric,
la temperaturile relativ ridicate necesare pentru reticularea acesteia.
Lucrarea de fa se refer la astfel de compozite, obinute din materii prime
existente pe piaa noastr intern, la preuri relativ accesibile dar care pot fi
considerate foarte mici dac se folosesc ca materiale de armare deeuri de esturi din
fire naturale. Materialul matricei are drept component de baz cleiul animal, care
atunci cnd lucreaz singur are rezistene mecanice foarte mici, dar care poate s
reticuleze (n prezena unor ageni de reticulare potrivii acestui scop) la temperaturi
relativ sczute fa de alte materiale polimerice.
Pentru protejarea firelor de armare (esturi din fire de in) i pentru consolidarea
materialului final, n structura matricei s-a introdus un agent de reticulare de tip rin,
iar coninutul masic de ranforsant (valoare medie 49%) n structura compozitelor a fost
determinat de capacitatea de absorbie a polimerului de ctre esturi.
esturile au fost dispuse sub form de armare ncruciat, adic n straturi
orientate n mod alternativ cu firele de urzeal, respectiv de bttur, pe direcia
principal a eantioanelor de materiale compozite. S-au folosit diverse combinaii de
valori ale parametrilor tehnologici, n etapa de consolidare din procesul de obinere a
compozitelor temperaturi ntre 45C i 75C, respectiv presiuni ntre 0,15 i 0,3 MPa
(la un timp de meninere de 10 minute), cu scopul observrii influenei lor asupra
calitilor compozitelor.
S-a urmrit aspectul curbelor caracteristice, precum i evoluia proprietilor
mecanice la traciune modul de elasticitate, rezisten i alungire la rupere, pe baza
crora a fost stabilit combinaia potrivit de parametri tehnologici (65C, respectiv
0,3MPa) la formarea probelor de material compozit.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
COMPARISON OF POLLUTANTS EMISSION BY URBAN

BUSES AND PASSENGER CARS IN ISRAEL
BY
LEONID TARTAKOVSKY , VLADIMIR BAIBIKOV, MARCEL GUTMAN,

DORON POPESCU, MARC VEINBLAT and YORAM ZVIRIN
Technion Israel Institute of Technology,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Received: 28 March 2012
Accepted for publication: 12 April 2012
Abstract. Use of public transportation in cities is encouraged as an

effective tool of mobility improvement, traffic congestion reduction together
with mitigation of urban air pollution. However, environmental impact of public
transport depends on type of vehicle used, driving pattern, atmospheric
conditions, passengers load, etc. Therefore, environmental benefits of urban
transport should be carefully assessed and compared with other transportation
modes, first of all passenger cars.
In the reported study, a comparison of averaged emission by urban buses
and passenger cars in Israel is performed based on measurements of real-world
driving behaviour and assessment of emission factors with aid of ARTEMIS
model. Various parameters affecting transport environmental impact, such as:
vehicle fleet composition, driving patterns, atmospheric conditions, engine
technology, fuel quality, etc. are taken into consideration. Emission factors and
inventory of the air pollutants, such as: CO, HC, NOx and PM are assessed. A
total emission indicator is suggested as a tool for integral assessment of vehicle
emissions. The obtained results show that an urban bus emits 2.46 times less air
pollutants then a passenger car. The same level of emissions per passenger is
achieved when a bus carries circa 26 passengers.
Key words: urban busses, passenger cars, emission comparison, total
emission indicator.
1. Introduction
The problem of urban air pollution by motor vehicles has become acute
worldwide. Vehicle emissions that include particles and harmful gases
Corresponding author: e-mail: tartak@technion.ac.il
110
Leonid Tartakovsky et al.
negatively influence the cardio-vascular, respiratory and immune systems, thus

increasing the risk of stroke and cancer development. Nano-particles are found
to be penetrating through the blood cells into the human brain, liver etc. with
respective negative health effects.
In 2008 road vehicles in United States were responsible for 50% of the
total national emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), 32% of nitrogen oxides
(NOx), 22% of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and about 27% of carbon
dioxide (CO2), (Transportation Energy Data Book, 2011). Quite similar data are
published for EU-27. In Europe the road transportation contributed in 2009
about 20% of the total emissions of CO2, 40% NOx and 17% of non-methane
VOC, (European Environment Agency).
Public transportation in cities can be an effective tool of mobility
improvement, traffic congestion reduction and mitigation of urban air pollution.
However environmental impact of public transport depends on type of vehicles
used, driving pattern, atmospheric conditions, passengers load and other factors.
Therefore, it should be carefully assessed and compared with that of other
transportation modes, first of all individual transportation. Environmental
impact of different transportation modes, if they emit hazardous pollutants at the
same site with the same receptor density (calculated as the population per km2
of the site area - Curtiss, 1996), is determined by the level of their emissions.
Majority of the published studies are focused on assessment of emissions by
buses or passenger cars of different technologies and at different driving
conditions.
In this work we focus on the prediction and comparison of the fleet
averaged emissions by urban buses and passenger cars in Israel. The analysis is
based on the measurements of a real-world driving behaviour and assessment of
emission factors with aid of ARTEMIS model (Boulter, 2007).
2. Methodology
The fleet averaged emission values for buses and passenger cars were
calculated based on the detailed data of in-use vehicle fleet composition and
calculated values of emission factors for each type of vehicle, fuel and
technology generation (from Euro 0 till Euro 5). Emission factors (EF) were
evaluated by using ARTEMIS model. This numeric evaluation was based on the
measured data on a real-world driving behaviour of buses and cars. Fuel quality,
cold starts and climate conditions were taken into account too.
2.1. Vehicle Feet Composition
2.1.1. Urban Buses. Information on the urban buses fleet composition

was collected from the bus operators. Data on about 2600 urban buses was
gathered, which represent approximately 80% of the national urban buses fleet.
The results are shown in Table 1. All fleet buses were equipped by diesel engines.
111
Table 1
Composition of the considered urban buses fleet (%)
Bus type
Technology generation
Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5
Articulated 4.2
0.9
0.8
9.7
5.4
0
Standard
0.1
6.8
21
35
13
2.1
Midi
0
0
1
0
0
0
Total
21
78
1
2.1.2. Passenger Cars. Information on the passenger cars (PC) fleet

composition was collected from the published statistical data (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 2010). Data on fuel type used (diesel or gasoline) was supplied by the
Ministry of Transportation. There is negligible number of bi-fuel gasoline-LPG
passenger cars in the fleet. In this study they were assumed operating with
gasoline only. Composition of the PC fleet is shown in Table 2.
PC by engine
volume (L)
& fuel type
<1.4, gasoline
<1.4, diesel
1.4-2.0, gasoline
1.4-2.0, diesel
>2.0, gasoline
>2.0, diesel
Table 2
Composition of the considered PC fleet (%)
Technology generation
Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4
Euro 5
1.3
0
12.2
0
0.9
0
0.9
0
8.2
0.2
0.7
0
0.8
0
6.8
0.1
0.5
0
1.7
0
14.8
0.6
1.2
0
2.4
0
21.3
0.8
1.7
0
2.1
0
18.5
0.8
1.5
0
Total
9.2
0
81.8
2.5
6.5
0
2.2. Real-world Driving Behaviour
2.2.1. Urban Buses. Measurements of real-world driving behaviour of

urban buses were carried out in two Israeli cities: Haifa (over 270 thousands
inhabitants) and Netania (about 165 thousands inhabitants). These cities were
selected as typical average Israeli cities (by their infrastructure, quantity and
density of the population), differing mainly by their topography: hilly in Haifa
with road gradients up to 16% compared to flat in Netania. In total,
measurements of about 800 hours of urban bus driving were performed over
about 30 various bus routes, which were classified using a method developed by
Andre & Villanova (Andre, 2002). Two Euro 2 buses of popular European
makes were instrumented for the driving pattern measurements. The buses were
driven by various drivers chosen by the bus operator according to its standard
routine. No driving instructions were used. The following parameters were
logged by the data acquisition system Squirrel-1023 and processed on a secondby-second basis: engine torque and speed, bus velocity, road gradient, passenger
occupancy, coolant and oil temperatures and events of the air conditioning
switching on/off. Following the analysis of the measured driving patterns, two
112
real-world driving cycles were determined as typical for the hilly and flat
driving conditions. Main parameters of these driving cycles are shown in Table 3.
Average Speed, km/h
23
36
22
10
30
16
0.67
0.56
39
31
0.78
0.61
34
29
Percentage cruising, %
Stop Time, %
Hilly
Flat
Average Running
Speed, km/h
Average acceleration
m/s2
Percentage accelerating
%
Average deceleration
m/s2
Percentage decelerating
%
Cycle parameters
Table 3
Main parameters of the bus driving cycles
4
5
2.2.2. Passenger Cars. Real-world driving patterns of passenger cars

were measured at the same hilly and flat routes with minor adjustments
followed from the legal traffic limitations for passenger cars. Instantaneous
values of speed and distance were measured by the non-contact optical
CORRSYS DATRON measurement system with the sampling frequency of 10
Hz. Main parameters of PC driving cycles are shown in Table 4.
Average Speed, km/h
18
19
30
14
37
17
0.50
0.54
41
40
0.62
0.55
33
37
Percentage cruising, %
Stop Time, %
Hilly
Flat
Average Running
Speed, km/h
Average acceleration
m/s2
Percentage accelerating
%
Average deceleration
m/s2
Percentage decelerating
%
Cycle parameters
Table 4
Main parameters of the PC driving cycles
8
5
Comparison of the data in Tables 3 and 4 shows that PC is driven with a

significantly higher percentage of stops and average vehicle
accelerations/decelerations in comparison with a bus. Average PC speed is
higher than that of bus by 2729%.
2.3. Calculation of Fleet Averaged Emissions
Emission factors (EF) of both urban buses and PCs were calculated using
ARTEMIS model (Boulter, 2007) for each vehicle and fuel type, technology
113
generation, engine volume (only PCs) and driving cycle. This model is based on
the largest in Europe data base of experimentally measured emission factors. It
is widely accepted Europe-wide for assessment of real-world emissions by
various transportation modes. In all calculations use of diesel fuel and gasoline
meeting the European Directive 2009/30/EC with the sulfur content lower than
10 ppm was presumed. Calculations were carried out for different values of the
bus or car passenger occupancy.
For each vehicle sub-group the combined EF was calculated to account
for a relative contribution of the hilly and flat driving patterns
EFi comb = CF EFi flat + C H EFi hilly .
(1)
where: EFi comb , EFi flat and EFi hilly are EFs - g/vehiclekm of the pollutant i for
combined, flat and hilly driving, respectively; CF is the weighting coefficient to
account for the relative contribution of flat driving; CH is the weighting
coefficient to account for the relative contribution of hilly driving. The values of
CF = 0.6 and CH = 0.4 were determined using the data on total travelled distance
in the regions with hilly and flat topography. For both buses and PCs the same
values of weighting coefficients were used. Having combined emission factors
for each vehicle sub-group, weighted fleet-average values of EFs were
calculated for buses and PCs using fleet composition data presented in Tables 1
and 2, respectively.
The values of weighted fleet-average emissions of buses and PCs were
further processed, to provide a total emission indicator (TEI). The latter is useful
as a tool for an integral quantitative assessment of vehicle emissions and a
comparison between different transportation modes. TEI is defined as a sum of
normalized emission values of different pollutants. It is calculated as
TEI = ccor ( EM i TLVi ) .
(2)
where: TLVi threshold limit value for pollutant i, (mg/m3); ccor is dimension
correction coefficient (ccor = 1 mg/ m3). The values of TLVi are taken from the
ACGIH TLVs and BEIs ()Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices, 2010). Some relevant values of TLVi are presented in Table 5. Use of
TEI for integral assessment of pollutant emissions by road vehicles is similar to
"Impact weighting coefficients" approach applied by Granovskii et al. (2006).
3. Results
Table 6 shows weighted fleet-averaged values of pollutant emissions
predicted for urban buses and passenger cars. These results were obtained for
the following values of vehicle passenger occupancy: 1.2 for PC, 65 for
urban bus.
114
Table 5
TLVs for selected pollutants
Pollutant
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 (for normalization of NOx emissions)
Carbon monoxide CO
1,3-Butadiene (for normalization of HC emissions)
Particulate matter PM2.5 (for normalization of PM emissions)
TLV, mg/m3
5.6
28.5
4
3
Table 6
Weighted fleet-averaged values of pollutant emissions
Pollutant, g/km vehicle Urban buses fleet PC fleet
CO
0.65
4.23
HC
0.60
0.46
NOx
15.4
0.64
PM
0.22
0.003
The values of the TEI per vehicle per km per passenger, for a Israeli
averaged bus (TEIBUS) and for a Israeli averaged PC (TEIPC) are: TEIBUS=0.110
and TEIPC=0.271.
It follows from these values that for the typical for Israel average PC
occupancy of 1.2 the fleet averaged emissions by an urban bus become lower
compared with a passenger car, if passenger load of the bus is higher than 26.
The obtained results show also that an urban bus emits 2.46 times less
pollutants then a PC.
4. Conclusions
1. A comparison of fleet averaged emissions by urban buses and PCs in
Israel is performed based on measurement of real-world driving behaviour and
assessment of emission factors with aid of ARTEMIS model.
2. A total emission indicator, TEI, is suggested as a tool for integral
assessment of vehicles emissions.
3. For the typical Israeli average PC occupancy of 1.2 passengers, the
fleet averaged emissions by an urban bus become lower compared with a PC, if
the load of the bus is higher than 26 passengers.
4. The obtained results show that an urban bus emits 2.46 times less air
pollutants than a PC.
REFERENCES
*** Motor Vehicles. Central Bureau of Statistics, Jerusalem, Israel, 2010;
www.cbs.gov.il/publications11/1458/pdf/t17.pdf.
*** EU-27 Air Pollutant Emissions Country Factsheet. European Environment Agency,
http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/air-pollutant-emissions-country-factsheets/
eu -27- air-pollutant-emissions/view.
115
*** Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, 2010.
*** Transportation Energy Data Book. Edition 30, 2011, http://cta.ornl.gov/ data/index.
shtml
Andre M., Villanova A., Characterization of an Urban Bus Network for Environmental
Purposes. The Science of the Total Environment (special edition). Proc. of the 7th
International Highway and Urban Pollution Symposium, Barcelona, Spain, 2002.
Boulter P., McCrae I. (Eds.), ARTEMIS: Assessment and Reliability of Transport
Emission Models and Inventory Systems: Final Report. TRL report, Wokingham,
UK, 2007.
Curtiss P. S., Rabl A., Impacts of Air Pollution: General Relationships and Site
Dependence. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 19, 3331-3347 (1996).
Palm Granovskii M., Dincer I., Rosen M., Economic and Environmental Comparison of
Conventional, Hybrid, Electric and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles. Journal of
Power Sources, 159, 1186-1193 (2006).
COMPARAREA EMISIILOR POLUANTE DE LA AUTOBUZELE URBANE I DE
LA AUTOMOBILELE DE PASAGERI DIN ISRAEL
(Rezumat)
Utilizarea transportului public n orae este ncurajat ca mijloc pentru
mbuntirea mobilitii deoarece reduce aglomerarea traficului i a polurii urbane.
ns impactul transportului public asupra mediului depinde de tipul vehiculelor utilizate,
modul de conducere, condiiile atmosferice, sarcina vehiculului, etc. Prin urmare
beneficiul pentru mediul nconjurtor a transportului public trebuie evaluat cu atenie i
comparat cu alte tipuri de transport, n primul rnd cu automobilele de pasageri.
n acest studiu se efectueaz o comparaie a emisiilor parcului de autobuze
urbane i a parcului de automobile ce circul n Israel, n interiorul oraelor, bazat pe
msurtori n condiii reale de circulaie, evaluarea fcndu-se pa baza modelului
ARTEMIS. La folosirea acestui model s-au luat n considerare diferii paramerii ce
afecteaz poluarea de la vehicule ca: compoziia parcului de vehicule, modul de
conducere, condiiile atmosferice, tehnologia motoarelor, calitatea combustibililor, etc.
Sunt stabilii factorii de emisie si inventarul poluanilor aerului, cum ar fi: CO, HC, NOx
si PM. Un indicator total de emisie este sugerat ca modalitate integral de evaluare a
emisiei vehiculelor. Rezultatele obinute arat c un autobuz urban emite de 2.46 ori
mai puini poluanti fa de un automobil de pasageri, n cazul n care autobuzul
transport n medie 65 de pasageri i automobilul 1.2 pasageri. Emisiile de poluani
raportate la cltor sunt la fel pentru autobuzul urban i pentru automobilul de pasageri
care circul n ora, n cazul n care autobuzul transport 26 de cltori.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
RESERCHES REGARDING THE IMPROVEMENT AND

THE MODERNIZATION OF THE PUBLIC PASSENGERS
TRANSPORT IN THE PERIPHERAL AREA OF PITETI
I. STUDY OF DETERMINING FACTORS
FOR THE PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM
BY
VICTOR BRATU , ALEXANDRU BOROIU and ION TABACU

University of Piteti

Abstract. The transport is an essential element in the most activities of our

society. Therefore, it must be tackled with policy at all levels, from the overall (i.e.
United Nations) to the City Councils. A major importance is solving the dilemma
between the policies oriented to increase, which tends to generate more transport and
the environmental policies, which require the reduction of emissions. These can be
difficult to fulfill if technological development to reduce emissions are outweighed
by the increase of transport.
Public transport wants to improve continually his performance by meeting the
citizens need and expectations, through high quality of public transport by
implementing, maintaining and improving an Integrated Management System:
Quality, Environment, Health and Safety, Social Responsibility, information
security etc.
The socio-economical and industrial evolution of Pitesti has lent to the creation
of a peripheral/ metropolitan zone in which Pitesti and the towns Mioveni and
Stefanesti have become poles for the passenger transport.
Key words: Transport, networks, system, methods, passenger.
e-mail: victor.bratu@upit.ro
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Victor Bratu et al.
1. Introduction
For definition of the concept of public transport system is necessary to
define the components that are included in this phrase.
Thus, generally speaking, the transports represent a branch of economics
that includes not only transport activity but also infrastructure and
superstructure involved in the movement of goods and passengers.
Publicity of transports means that this activity is available to all those
who belong to a human collectivity (Ghionea, 1999).
Generally speaking, the transport can be transport of passengers or
transport of goods. Transport of passengers can be organized on regular services
(public transportation ) or special services ( taxi, rent a car, tourism etc).
In systems theory, the system is defined as a set of elements acting
conjugated to achieve a common objective.
As a result, in the concept of public passengers transport are found the
meanings of the components above mentioned.
Depending on the aria served the public passengers transport can be:
a) local ( assure the carriage of passengers to the community usually in
a city, but also in a county);
b) inter-counties (assure the carriage of passengers between different
counties, usually between the cities);
c) international (assure the carriage of passengers between/on the
territory of two or more countries).
2. Determining Factors in Designing and Shaping of
Public Passengers Transport System
The factors that are taken into account for designing and shaping of
public passengers transport system are very different and they can be classified
according to the Fig. 1 (Ghionea, 2004).
Transport infrastructure performs the basic function in relation to
superstructure, allowing executing the transport services (but without making
it). This consists of:
a) structure of networks (roads, bridges, tunnels etc.);
b) construction and installation structure (constituent elements of the
units providing transportation).
Transport superstructure represents all means of transport which are
making the movement of goods or passengers, as well as the methods and
techniques used in transport activity.
It is considered that the transport superstructure consisted of 6 structures:
a) material (includes, mainly transport);
b) technical (technical tools and technologies);
119
c) demo-economic (human resources, as well as transport demand);

d) organizational (organization structure defined by hierarchical
relations and cooperation between departments);
e) territorial (extension and arrangement of geographical area served);
f) ownership / property (public or private ).
Fig. 1 Determining factors in designing and shaping

of public passengers transport system.
Public passengers transport is one of the most important functions of the

community, thus ensuring the unity and coherence in community activities. It
can be considered an indicator of the level of community development, being an
inherent part of civilization
The basic characteristic of public passenger transport by means of
regular services (hereinafter referred to as public transport or public
transportation), is that it is done in an organized framework, on fixed routes,
with diagrams and predetermined routes.
This should be done on the time of demand and organized so that to
ensure taking-over of transport, with an appropriate degree of comfort and
safety, the purpose of un public urban transport being to meet the demands of
inhabitants, both residential areas and in industrial and recreation areas.
Quality of travel which is a product of the transport activity involves
many key factors as: safety, comfort, and rhythmicity of the ride / journey.
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Victor Bratu et al.
Organization of the general system of public passengers transport

operation in a city or area, should start from the need to ensure his uniformity
and subordination of the different methods of transport in the interest of masses
in accordance with the limits and possibilities offered by each in taking
passengers and road network or specific facilities (Ghionea, 1999).
Particularities of the transport activity:
1. the movement in space of goods or people represent the production of
transport process and add an extra value to the goods shipped, even in the
transport does not produce goods, only make possible their movement;
2. the existence of means of transport powered by the motive power, the
road/way he should travel and (labor force) human resources and ready to act on
means of transport or in the process of transport;
3. it does not use raw materials as in industrial activity;
4. circuit and rotation of capital as a simpler form than in industry;
5. the work coincides with the production of transport process performing
at the same time;
6. the result is measured using specific units (of measure) for the means
of transport;
7. and the elements of quality transportation services are illustrated in
Fig. 2 as requirements imposed to the carriers.
Fig. 2 Requirements imposed to the carriers.
121
3. Strategic Objectives of Arge County Council for the Public

Passenger Transport in the Peri-urban Area of Piteti Municipality
From the perspective of population mobility, the economic activity from
the Piteti urban crowding, (Piteti Municipality with peri-urban area, plus
Mioveni and tefneti towns) makes that they should be important poles of
passengers transport and it is even found the creation of heavy axes of
passengers transport from Piteti Mioveni .
Based on studies performed with regard to mobility of population
determined by the attraction exerted by these 3 poles of transport and of
analysis of the geo-economic-social situation at the level of the area which
includes together with the 3 towns and the 7 communes bordering the Piteti
Municipality (Bradu, Albota, Mooaia, Bbana, Bascov, Budeasa, Marcineni)
including the analysis of the road network (the length and the importance of
the connection roads between these localities) it has been reached the
conclusion that among these there are of no interest for the inclusion within an
extended local public transport system (metropolitan public transport system)
Bbana Communes (isolated and way too far located as compared with the
attraction poles) and Budeasa Commune (with an isolated position, although
quite near the Piteti Mioveni transport axis).
Fig. 3 Administrative Map of Piteti Municipality and of the Peri-urban Area.
122
Victor Bratu et al.
As result, studies have been developed namely Piteti local transport has
been extended at the level of the metropolitan area made up of the 3 towns
(Piteti Municipality and Mioveni and tefneti towns) and the 5 communes
(Bradu, Albota, Mooaia, Bascov, Mrcineni).
The current situation with regard to the passengers public transport
through regular services within this area is characterized by the following items:
In Piteti Municipality there is working a unitary local public transport system,
achieved by a sole operator - SC Publitrans 2000 S.A. in partnership with SC
Girexim Universal SA Piteti, on 19 transport lines, with a circulating park of
110 buses of mean capacity. Some transport lines have terminals also in
bordering localities (Arpechim Bradu Commune, Service tefneti Town,
Bascov Bascov Commune), which is explained by the fact that there have
been kept certain features of the old town and pre-town local transport system,
which conferred a unitary character to the urban and peri-urban area of Piteti
Municipality.
Passengers transport between the Piteti Municipality and the other
localities is provided through County transport lines, but also by local transport
lines at the communes level: certain communes bordering Piteti Municipality
(Bradu, Bbana and Bascov) promoted their own local transport (forcing the
letter of the law and ignoring its spirit). Obviously, this does not match the
unitary transport concept, acknowledged as being fundamental for the
modernization of the public transport and for its performances increase.
Thus, it can be found that currently in the metropolitan area previously
defined there is, outside the Piteti local routes, a number of 85 routes (80
county routes) and 5 local routes of the bordering communes (one in Bradu, two
in Bbana and two in Bascov).
As result, Arge County Council has taken the initiative of setting up an
intercommunity association which should reunite all these 8 localities.
4. Conclusions
1. On the basis of the analyses carried out together with the local
administrations (to identify the transport demand), of the visits in the field (to
evaluate roads condition) and of analyses carried out with the SC Publitrans
2000 SA Company (to evaluate its technical possibilities and to identify the
economic nature implications), the following proposals have been submitted
and they shall be formed within preliminary requirements for the development
of the metropolitan transport system:
a) the local public transport system (within the metropolitan area) shall
have an unitary feature, thus the taxation manner inclusively: the traveler shall
be able to follow one or more tracks with a single ticket, even though its price
shall differ according to the area where the ride takes place and shall be limited
in time;
123
b) the main tracks shall follow the access roads in Pitesti Municipality;
c) tying Pitesti municipality with the localities in the metropolitan area
and shall be 16 km long (this being the maximum accepted value for the
heaviest track, Piteti - Mioveni, which is constituted in a heavy public
transport axis);
d) the minimum frequency accepted on the main tracks throughout the
day shall be 4 rides/ hour, meaning a following duration of 15 minutes at the
most (it is a psychological limit for the traveler who must accept a change
from a county track to a local one, or the other way around);
e) at the ends from the outer parts of the metropolitan area of the main
tracks there shall be built station where the exchange of travelers shall take
place between the two transport systems: county and local;
f) the county tracks shall not superpose to the local metropolitan transport
system, being limited to the especially designed stations from the metropolitan
area outskirts;
g) the stations within Pitesti Municipality shall be used only for the
public inter-county transport and for the local public transport.
2. In addition, since the performed research regarding the transport
system revealed the fact that on the Piteti Mioveni track the number of
travelers is permanent and bears very high values (almost 2000 travelers/day), it
was decided it is necessary that on this track conditions should be created for
the development of a fast transport line and the performed analyses led to the
need to decommission the road Piteti Mrcineni - Mioveni from the heavy
traffic.
Fig. 4 The Areas for the 8 Stations for the Local Transport Trans-shipment County.
124
Victor Bratu et al.
3. Thus, it has arrived to the proposal to build a road part between

Mioveni and the new road belt of Piteti Municipality (see Figs. 14), this part
of the road becoming an integrated part of the national road DN 73 Piteti
Braov which shall totally take over the heavy traffic between Mioveni and
Piteti, and the present Piteti Mioveni national road is to be declassed as a
county road and be administered by the Arge County Council.
4. This way, on the Piteti Mrcineni - Mioveni track there shall only
be light traffic and there shall be created a fast, modern and efficient transport
line.
Fig. 5 The Transport Network with Special Buses of SC Automobile Dacia SA.
(Dacia Automobiles; Atlassib; Vulturul Company; Lucky Tour)
5. In accordance with these imposed conditions, as consequence of a

schedule through which there have been visited the localities which, together
with Piteti municipality, shall be constituted in an inter-communitarian
association , there were identified the transport request in the peri-urban area
and the access roads in the metropolitan areas. It was thus acknowledged that
there can be considered 8 access roads in the metropolitan area and it was
125
decided that on each of them, at the outer part of the metropolitan area there
shall be installed a station for transshipping the travelers between the two public
transport system the metropolitan and county one (Fig. 4).
6. Another aspect to be revealed is the fact that in the area to be studied
there is only one road network, so it can be developed further on only the road
transport manner (it is still remarkable the fact that it was suggested at the end
of the 1980s by an engineer specialized in train tracks, a train track which is to
tie Costeti town with Drgani town, following a track that crossed the
Cotmeana platform in the south of Vedea Commune, so which could have
satisfied a part of the local transport request in the area submitted to this study).
7. In what the road transport in the area is concerned, we must mention:
a) there are few inter-county transport trips on the Piteti Drgani
track,
b) the transport with special busses is performed in the analyzed area only
on one track, Mioveni Pduroiu din Deal, with one bus for each working shift,
for SC Automobile Dacia SA Mioveni (Fig. 5).
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank Prof. Viorel Eugen
Nicolae for the support and constructive comments and also to the staff of the
Transportation Laboratory.
REFERENCES
*** Design of Public Transport Strategy in Arges County People for 2008-2013, and
Public Transportation Design Program in Arges County People for the Period
2008-2011. University of Pitesti, Department of Automobile Contract no.
541/07.02.2008, Beneficiary: Arge County Council, Director of Contract: Boroiu
Alexander.
*** Specialist Study on Public Passenger Transport in Arges County. University of
Pitesti, Department of AUTOMOBILE, no. 3265/07.04.2008
*** Modernization Local Passenger Service in the City of Pitesti, University of Pitesti,
Department of Automobile Transport, Pitesti Employer City Council, 2006.
Ackoff R.L., Operational Research Basics Technical. Ed. House, Bucureti, 1975.
Bivolaru I., Reengineering Transport. Printech, Bucureti, 2002.
Ciobanu Ghe., Operational Research with Applications in Economics. Bucureti, 1996.
Drgan, G., Terminology for Accurate Science. ICPE Bucureti, 1999.
Dragu V., Urban and Suburban Passenger Traffic. Ed. Bren, Bucureti, 2001.
Fotea S., Optimization of Production in 1977 Rail Technical. Bucureti, 1977.
Ghionea Fl., Public Passenger Transport Technology. Ed. Matrix Rom, Bucureti,,
1999.
Malcoci I., Optimization of Urban Transport Technical. Ed. House Bucureti, 1978.
Mercan S, Oprian Al., How to Worker in Urban and Interurban Transport of Persons.
Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 1980.
Nistorescu T., The Transport Unit. Ed. Writing Romanian, Craiova, 1988.
Oancea M., Logic and Methodology. Printech, Bucureti, 2000.
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Victor Bratu et al.
Olariu V., Trigonometric Functions. Trigonometric series Matrix. Bucureti, 2000.

Peat I., Transport Systems Technology. Bucureti, 1978.
Raicu S., Railway transport: operation and development, efficiency Ed. tiinific i
Tehnic, Bucureti, 1981.
Schreiner C., Quality. Feasibility. Reliability. Ed. Gheorghe Asachi, Iai, 1997.
Srbu L., Transport Evolution. Ed.. CONPHIS, Bucureti, 2002.
CERCETRI CU PRIVIRE LA MBUNTIREA I MODERNIZAREA
SISTEMULUI DE TRANSPORT PUBLIC DE PERSOANE N ZONA PERIURBAN
PITETI
I. Studiul factorilor determinani pentru sistemul de transport public
(Rezumat)
Din punct de vedere al mobilitii populaiei, activitatea economic din
aglomerarea urban Piteti (muncipiul Piteti cu zona periurban, plus oraele Mioveni
i tefneti) face ca acestea s reprezinte importani poli de transport de persoane i se
constat chiar constituirea unei axe grele de transport de persoane Piteti Mioveni.
n baza studiilor efectuate cu privire la mobilitatea populaiei determinat de
atracia exercitat de aceti 3 poli de transport i a analizei situaiei geo-economicosociale la nivelul zonei ce include alturi de cele 3 orae i cele 7 comune limitrofe
muncipiului Piteti (Bradu, Albota, Mooaia, Bbana, Bascov, Budeasa, Marcineni)
inclusiv analiza reelei rutiere (lungimea i importana drumurilor de legatur dintre
aceste localiti) s-a ajuns la concluzia c dintre acestea nu prezint interes pentru
includerea ntr-un sistem de transport public local extins (sistem de transport public
metropolitan) comunele Bbana (izolat i mult prea departe plasat de polii de atracie)
i comuna Budeasa (cu o pozitie izolat, dei destul de apropiat de axa de transport
Piteti Mioveni).
Ca urmare, studiile au fost dezvoltate n sensul extinderii transportului local
Piteti la nivelul zonei metropolitane constituite din cele 3 orae (municipiul Piteti i
oraele Mioveni i tefneti) i cele 5 comune (Bradu, Albota, Mooaia, Bascov,
Mrcineni).

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
IMPACT OF EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION (EGR) ON

COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS IN A HCCI ENGINE
BY
CLAUDIU BUTNARU *
Department of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering
Abstract. The homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine

has attracted a lot of attention in the combustion community for its low NOx
emissions and high thermal efficiency characteristics. A major means of
delivering reduced NOx is obtained through the adoption of increased exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR). This article presents the influence of EGR on
combustion and emissions.
Key words: homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR), engine, combustion, emissions.
1. Introduction
The increasing use of automobiles (Diesel Compression Ignition and
Gasoline Spark Ignition) put the environment in front of great challenges. To
decrease the pollution, several restrictions are imposed. Meeting these
restrictions would imply finding alternative means for transportation. Ideally,
such an alternative should not be dependent on fossil fuels, emit no harmful
products and have a better efficiency. It is unrealistic to believe that a
substantial portion of the fossil fuel used for vehicle propulsion could be
replaced by sustainable alternatives in the nearby future, having better
efficiencies. Therefore it can be said that the use of internal combustion engines
will most likely continue for a while and that, as long as no outstanding
alternative is available, research that focuses on improving the internal
*
e-mail: butnaru.claudiu@yahoo.com
128
Claudiu Butnaru
combustion engine concept is justified. A very promising alternative combustion

seems to be the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI).
The HCCI engine incorporates the best features of both spark ignition
(SI) and compressionignition directinjection (CIDI) engines. It has the
potential to realize high efficiency and achieve low emissions. Like an SI
engine, the charge is well mixed which minimizes particulate emissions, and
similar to a CIDI engine it is compression ignited and has no throttling losses.
This combination not only makes the efficiency of the HCCI engine as high as
that of a CIDI engine, but also produces ultralow oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and
particulate matter (PM) emissions.
A major means of delivering reduced NOx is obtained through the
adoption of increased exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However due to the
lower combustion temperatures and reduced oxygen concentration, EGR
reduces the combustion rate more than excess air does this can lead to increased
emissions of HC and CO. In addition, active components within the exhaust
gases such as NO can promote ignition.
It is commonly accepted that the ignition and combustion of HCCI
engines are controlled by chemical kinetics. Temperature and pressure history
together with the concentration of O2, different fuel contents, and combustion
products govern how combustion is initiated. As a consequence, ignition and
combustion are strongly influenced by air:fuel ratio, inlet temperature,
compression ratio, residual gases, and exhaust gas recirculation.
HCCI combustion starts more or less simultaneously in the entire
cylinder. In order to achieve HCCI combustion, high intake charge temperatures
and a copious amount of charge dilution must be present. Incylinder gas
temperature must be sufficiently high to initiate and sustain the chemical
reactions leading to autoignition processes. Substantial charge dilution is
necessary to control runaway rates of the heat releasing reactions. Both of these
requirements can be realised by recycling and/or trapping the burnt gases within
the cylinder.
2. Principle of HCCI with Internal EGR
2.1. Characterisation of the Re-breathing Method
by Comparison with the Tapping Method
Compared to the standard valve timing of a gasoline engine, the two most
efficient methods to catch a large amount of internal EGR by changed valve
timing are residual gas compression, also known as residual gas trapping, and
exhaust gas re-breathing. These two different strategies are shown as timing
diagrams in Fig. 1 and compared to a standard valve timing diagram. The
overlapping phase, where intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time,
is hatched, and also the phase where most of internal EGR is introduced is
highlighted as internal EGR supply phase.
129
Fig. 1 Valve timing diagrams for different operation strategies.
The trapping method (or residual gas compression) operates with shorter
opening durations of exhaust and intake valves, resulting in an early exhaust
valve closing combined with late intake valve opening. The timing controls the
amount of residual gas trapped and with the intake closing event the virtual
compression ratio can be adjusted to a maximum depending on geometric
compression ratio and pressure waves in the intake system.
The re-breathing method shown in the diagram operates with a second
opening of at least one exhaust valve in the late intake phase. Duration and end
of this second exhaust opening defines the amount of residual gas in the
cylinder and the virtual compression ratio. The shorter intake valve opening
leads to a well defined separation of fresh air delivery and exhaust gas delivery
within the induction stroke. One part of the efficiency improvement with HCCI
combustion systems results from the possibility to avoid pumping losses by
more or less dethrottled operation.
The losses for the trapping method in the gas exchange phase are thermal
losses through the cylinder wall and blowby losses in the residual gas
compression phase, whereas the losses for the rebreathing method are caused
by the gas flow and gas dynamics in the intake and exhaust system absolute
value for the two variants are nearly equal for this load point. For lower load
there are some benefits for the trapping method, at higher load the rebreathing
method shows slightly lower overall pumping losses.
2.2. Comparison of Different Rebreathing Methods
In principle there are three different strategies for the rebreathing of

burned gas, common to all approaches is to store the needed exhaust gas in the
ports and peripheral piping for the next engine cycle. A second aspect is the
system stability and controllability. In all three methods shown in Fig. 2, the
exhaust gas control is managed by a second lift of either an intake valve or an
exhaust valve. Again the timing diagrams help to understand the principle of the
effects in the gas exchange phase.
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Claudiu Butnaru
Fig. 2 Different methods of exhaust gas rebreathing.
The first method operates by blowing back the burned gas into at least
one intake port by early opening of at least one intake valve (as indicated by the
second lift in the diagram). The opening timing and duration defines the amount
of residual gas for the following cycle. In the suction stroke the burned gas plus
fresh air is delivered to the cylinder.
The second method uses a second opening of at least one exhaust valve in
the early phase of the intake stroke. The burned gas is sucked directly from the
exhaust port into the cylinder and mixed with fresh air from the intake side. The
EGR rate is controlled mainly by the duration of the second exhaust valve lift.
In the third method the second exhaust valve lift takes place at the end of
the intake phase after the fresh air is delivered to the cylinder. The burned gas
comes directly from the exhaust port. Again the amount of internal EGR is
controlled by the opening duration of the second exhaust valve lift.
The internal EGR supply method with rebreathing via a second exhaust
valve opening in the late intake phase represents the most favourable operation
strategy to ensure a stable auto-ignition operation. This is even more the case
when a partly variable valve train with reduced flexibility is used.
3. Effect of EGR on HCCI Combustion and Emission
EGR is widely used as the main method to depress the NOx emission
from diesel engines. Currently, EGR is also used as the basic method to control
the ignition timing and burn rate of HCCI combustion.
Investigating the precise effect of EGR is not that evident and in most
experimental investigations the effect of EGR is only considered as a whole. It
is therefore, for understanding reasons, interesting to consider each effect
separately. Considering the thermal effect of EGR is the same as considering
the effect of the inlet temperature, from a theoretical point of view. The
application of EGR on HCCI combustion engine has a number of effects on the
combustion process and emissions:
131
1. The charge heating effect the burnt gases (not cooled EGR or
residual burnt gases) are introduced into the combustion chamber to heat the
fresh charge. This will make the temperature of the charge in a cylinder
increase: the fuel would be ignited by compression.
2. Effect of concentration of O2 in a cylinder (also known as the dilution
effect) the burnt gases partially replace air from the intake port, and O2
concentration is decreased. On the other hand, the increase in temperature of the
intake charge and pipe wall reduces the volumetric efficiency. This leads to a
slowdown in the combustion reaction rate and extends the combustion duration.
3. Heat capacity effect the total heat capacity of mixture of EGR, air,
and fuel will be higher as burnt gases increase, owing to the higher heat
capacity of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O). This will lead to a
reduction of incylinder temperature at the end of the compression stroke and
then it delays the ignition timing and extends the combustion duration.
4. Chemical effect some combustion products in the EGR will take part
in the chemical reactions. There are two ways of the chemical effect. In the case
of some two-stroke engines with very high residual gas rates and stratification
between the burned gas and fresh charge some radical could persist. Then the
active radical will affect the ignition timing. The other way, unburned
hydrocarbon, CO, CO2, NO, H2O, etc. in EGR take part in the chemical
reactions, and this leads a moderate effects on the reaction rates.
The influence of the EGR effects mentioned above depends on the HCCI
sub-concept that is applied. In the case of HCCI diesel applications, external
EGR with additional cooling is customarily used in order to prolong ignition
delay, while in the case of CAI combustion (gasoline HCCI) internal noncooled EGR is mainly used in order to increase the temperature to the required
auto-ignition level.
3.1. Effect of EGR on Combustion Efficiency
EGR gases have the following important properties for controlling HCCI
combustion: its internal energy can be directly used to adjust incylinder gas
temperature; EGR will change the heat capacity ratio of incylinder mixtures,
thus temperature history will also change (especially, in compression stroke).
The dilution of its inert components may also reduce the chemical reaction rate;
there are some active species in EGR gases (especially when the combustion
efficiency of the previous cycle is low), which, although small in amount, may
have great influence on the combustion process of the next cycle.
Combustion efficiency is the ratio between accumulated heat release and
the heat supplied by the total fuel. However, the total heat released in the
cylinder is hard to measure accurately in practice. Generally, combustion
efficiency (c) is calculated from the exhaust composition using:
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Claudiu Butnaru
c = 1
( m&
+ m& f
) x Q
i
m& f QHV f
HV f
(1)
where xj are the mass fractions of CO, H2, or HC respectively. QHV are the lower
& is the mass flow, and subscripts f and a
heating values of these components, m
denote fuel and air respectively.
3.2. Effect of EGR on Emission
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been considered a potential solution

for optimizing HCCI combustion operation. There are many reasons for its
popularity. First, the dilution of EGR will lead to lower combustion
temperature, which will result in lower NOx emission. Second, introducing EGR
will lower the pressure rising rate (PRR) and reduce the knocking tendency.
Thus, more fuel can be added in each cycle to achieve higher power output
without causing the knocking problem. The three-way catalyst (TWC), which is
widely used in gasoline engines today, can effectively reduce CO, HC, and NOx
emissions simultaneously. However, TWC requires that the equivalence ratio be
controlled strictly near 1.0 to achieve expected performance. On the other hand,
to avoid the knocking problem, HCCI is generally operated under lean
combustion conditions that prevent the application of TWC. If EGR is
introduced, more fuel can be added, therefore, a larger equivalence ratio closer
to the demand of TWC can be achieved. As a result, the emission problem of an
HCCI engine may be solved by TWC.
3.2.1. HC Emissions. HC emissions are the consequence of incomplete
combustion of fuel. HC emissions are mainly from the quenching area near the
walls of the engine combustion chamber and from the crevices, such as the
region between the piston crown and the cylinder wall. In addition, if the
ignition timing is not right the exhaust stroke will produce unburnt HC. EGR has
two contrary effects on HC emission: one is that the intake of some unburnt HC
with exhausted gas into the next cycle leads to a decrease in HC emissions; the
other is that a decrease in combustion temperature in-cylinder leads to an
increase in HC emissions.
3.2.2. CO Emissions. CO formation is one of the principal reaction steps
in the HC combustion mechanism. In contrast to HC emissions, the formation
of CO is controlled by chemical kinetics and it is mainly from the quenching
area in the wall of the cylinder. In these areas the LTR and the blue flame
reaction take place, but the hot flame reaction cannot be realized because of the
low charge temperature, which leads to incomplete oxidation of CO into CO2.
This can happen either by cooling from the wall or by bulk quenching during
expansion.
133
3.2.3. NOx Emissions. NOx formation strongly depends on temperature

and fuel:air equivalence ratio. NOx formation rate peaks at the lean of
stoichiometric composition due to the combined influence of temperature and
oxygen availability, and it decreases rapidly as the mixture becomes leaner or
richer. One of the most appealing attributes of HCCI is the leaner homogeneous
combustion. This means that the temperature is expected to be nearly the same
in the entire combustion chamber. Therefore, HCCI allows combustion to occur
at a much lower temperature. NOx emissions from the engine can be dramatically
reduced.
4. Conclusions
1. HCCI combustion is an autoignition process controlled by a chemical
reaction, which, in itself, is difficult to handle (EGR is an important technology
in the control of ignition and combustion in an HCCI engine. In an HCCI
engine, a highly diluted mixture is achieved by EGR, including exterior EGR
and interior EGR).
2. Compared to the standard valve timing of a gasoline engine, the two
most efficient methods to catch a large amount of internal EGR by changed
valve timing are residual gas compression, also known as residual gas trapping,
and exhaust gas re-breathing. For lower load there are some benefits for the
trapping method, at higher load the rebreathing method shows slightly lower
overall pumping losses. (The internal EGR supply method with rebreathing via
a second exhaust valve opening in the late intake phase represents the most
favourable operation strategy to ensure a stable auto-ignition operation. EGR
has different effects: dilution, thermal and chemical effects are the most
important ones).
REFERENCES
Baumgarten C., Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines. SpringerVerlag,
BerlinHeidelberg, 2006.
Chen Gen, Iida Norimasa, Huang Zuohua, Numerical Study of EGR Effects on Reducing
the Pressure Rise Rate of HCCI Engine Combustion. SpringerVerlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2010.
Machrafi H., Cavadias S., Amouroux J., Influence of Fuel Type, Dilution and
Equivalence Ratio on the Emission Reduction from the Autoignition in an
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine. Elsevier Ltd, 2010.
XingCai L, Wei Chen, Zhen Huang, A Fundamental Study on the Control of the
HCCI Combustion and Emissions by Fuel Design Concept Combined with
134
Claudiu Butnaru
Controllable EGR. Part 2. Effect of Operating Conditions and EGR on HCCI

Combustion. Elsevier Ltd, 2005.
Yao M., Zheng B., Chen Z., Xing Y., Effects of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on
Combustion and Emissions of a Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
Engine Fuelled with Primary Reference Fuels. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers; 221, D2; ProQuest Central, 2007, p. 197.
Zhao Hua, HCCI and CAI Engines for the Automotive Industry. Woodhead Publishing
Limited, 2007.
INFLUENA RECIRCULRII GAZELOR DE EVACUARE
ASUPRA ARDERII I EMISIILOR NTR-UN MOTOR HCCI
(Rezumat)
Motorul cu aprindere prin compresie a amestecului omogen (Homogeneous
Charge Compression Ignition HCCI) are parte de o atenie deosebit datorit emisiilor
reduse de NOx i de caracteristicile ridicate ale eficienei termice. Un mijloc important
pentru oferirea de emisii reduse de NOx este obinut prin adoptarea unor rate ridicate de
recirculare a gazelor de evacuare (Exhaust Gas Recirculation EGR). Acest articol
prezint influena recirculrii gazelor de evacuare asupra arderii i emisiilor.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
INFLUENCE OF ENGINE SPEED AND FUEL CONSUMPTION

ON EXHAUST EMISSIONS
BY
CLAUDIU BUTNARU *
Accepted for publication: 13 March 2012
Abstract. This article presents the influence of engine speed and fuel
consumption on exhaust emissions of a direct injection, spark ignition engine
using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as fuel. Also, the exhaust emissions of the
engine operating at stoichiometric ratio, according to the throttle opening were
investigated.
Key words: engine speed, fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, LPG.
1. Introduction
The introduction of the new emission standards represents a challenge
for the car manufacturers. To comply with regulations, they have developed
several technologies to reduce emissions and also searched new fuels to replace
the fossil ones. A substitute for the classic fuels is represented by LPG, which
was considered to be one of the most promising alternative fuels not only as a
substitute for petroleum but also as a means of reducing NOx, particulate matter
and soot. In the last years car manufacturers were focused on optimizing the
engine operating with this fuel and, in present, in the car market there are quite
a few dual-fuel models that run with LPG because of its superior properties.
2. Experimental Equipment
Experiments were performed on a four stroke spark ignition engine with
direct injection using LPG as fuel. Engine specifications are given in Table 1.
*
e-mail: butnaru.claudiu@yahoo.com
136
Claudiu Butnaru
Tests were made at stoichiometric ratio (=1) using four types of engine speeds
(1000 rpm, 2000 rpm, 3000 rpm and 4000 rpm) and two values of throttle
opening (20% and 40%).
Table 1
Engine specifications
Engine displacement
659 cm3
Number of cylinders
4
Valves per cylinder
4
Bore
61 mm
Stroke
56.4 mm
Compression ratio
8.5
3. Results
In Fig. 1 it can be noticed that at a throttle opening of 20% the pressure
inside the cylinder decreases as the engine speed increases and at a throttle
opening of 40% the pressure inside the cylinder increases as the engine speed
increases, reaching a maximum at 3000 rpm and then the pressure decreases
very little at 4000 rpm. It can also be observed that when the throttle opening
increases the pressure inside the cylinder increases as well.
Fig. 1 a pressure inside the cylinder at a throttle opening of 20%;

b pressure inside the cylinder at a throttle opening of 40%.
137
In Fig. 2 it can be noticed that at a throttle opening of 20% the maximum

temperature inside the cylinder is reached at the engine speed of 4000 rpm and
the minimum temperature is reached at the engine speed of 3000 rpm. At a
throttle opening of 40% the maximum temperature inside the cylinder is
reached at the engine speed of 2000 rpm and the minimum temperature is
reached at the engine speed of 1000 rpm. In conclusion, it cant be observed a
simple correlation between temperature and engine speed, but it can be noticed
that the temperature inside the cylinder increases with the throttle opening.
Fig. 2 a temperature inside the cylinder at a throttle opening of 20%;

b temperature inside the cylinder at a throttle opening of 40%.
138
Claudiu Butnaru
In Fig. 3 it can be observed that the CO emissions remain approximately

constant over the entire speed range regardless of the fuel consumption, while
CO2 emissions increase by around 2000 rpm, in this period recording the
highest increase in fuel consumption, and then the CO2 emissions start a slow
decline even if the fuel consumption increases. NO, NO2 and, respectively, NOx
emissions increase with the fuel consumption up to a maximum value
corresponding to the engine speed of around 2000 rpm, and after that starts to
decrease even though the fuel consumption increases. HC emissions decrease
while the engine speed and fuel consumption increase.
Fig. 3 a exhaust emissions depending on engine speed at a throttle opening of 20%;

b exhaust emissions depending on fuel consumption at a throttle opening of 20%.
139
In Fig. 4 it can be observed that the CO emissions remain approximately

constant over the entire speed range regardless of the fuel consumption, while
the CO2 emissions achieve the minimum value around the speed of 2000 rpm.
NO and NO2 emissions increase as the engine speed and fuel consumption
increase, up to the maximum value corresponding to the engine speed of about
3000 rpm, after which the emissions suffer a small decrease even if the fuel
consumption still increases. NOx emissions are approximately constant
regardless of speed and fuel consumption, while HC emissions decrease as the
speed and fuel consumption increase.
Fig. 4 a exhaust emissions depending on engine speed at a throttle opening of 40%;

b exhaust emissions depending on fuel consumption at a throttle opening of 40%.
140
Claudiu Butnaru
4. Conclusions
1. It can be observed that the increase in fuel consumption is getting
smaller as the engine speed increases, and the highest increase in fuel
consumption was recorded in the 1000 2000 rpm range.
2. The most noticeable change in the amount of NO and NO2 emissions
occur during the range of speed 1000 2000 rpm, where the highest increase in
fuel consumption is recorded, while CO, CO2 and NOx emissions remain
approximately constant regardless of engine speed. HC emissions are the only
ones that decrease over the entire range of speeds considered, even though the
speed and fuel consumption increases.
INFLUENA TURAIEI I A CONSUMULUI DE COMBUSTIBIL
ASUPRA GAZELOR DE ARDERE
(Rezumat)
Acest articol prezint influena turaiei i a consumului de combustibil asupra
gazelor de evacuare ale unui motor cu aprindere prin scnteie care folosete drept
combustibil GPL. De asemenea au fost ridicate valorile gazelor de evacuare ale
motorului care funcioneaz cu raport stoichiometric n funcie de gradul de deschidere
al clapetei de acceleraie. Cea mai mare cretere a consumului de combustibil a fost
nregistrat n intervalul 1000 2000 rpm, tot atunci nregistrndu-se i cea mai
sesizabil schimbare a emisiilor de NO i NO2.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
ASPECTS REGARDING THE CONTROL STRATEGIES

OF AIR CONDITIONING COMPRESSOR
BY
VASILE CAUNII *
Abstract. Air conditioning system is one of the main components of

modern cars, which defines the level of comfort, its performances directly
affecting the car performances. Over time one of the challenges that the
automobiles manufacturers had to face was the management of the air
conditioning system components, especially the way they affect engine
functioning in different operating regimes. With the improvement and
development of electronic control units (ECU), car manufacturers have
implemented several strategies and functions in the management of the engine in
order to get more efficient functioning regimes and higher performances, but
their availability is limited or prohibited to builders or assemblers of equipment
which is not part of the offer producer.
Key words: engine control unit, air conditioning compressor, temperature,
optimizing.
1. Introduction
This paper aims to analyze the way that the engine computer designers
have implemented over time and depending on available technology, various
functions and strategies regarding the management of the heat engine, when the
compressor of the car air conditioning system works (or it is off), which
parameters are involved, and the way that these can be modified so that any
equipment subsequently installed does not cause the dysfunction of the car.
*
e-mail: vasilecaunii@yahoo.com
142
Vasile Caunii
The compressor of the car air conditioning system is an auxiliary

component driven by the engine (together with the alternator, power steering
pump and water pump), which causes a loss of power, loss sized by the car
maker at the minimum possible value. When the coach builder adds later on an
additional component in the cooling system, if the engine computer is not
programmed properly, this can cause a malfunction in the operation.
2. Study Description
In this study we will analyze two generations of engine computers, and
the way that the management of the air conditioning systems compressor is
integrated in the management of the diesel engine and how we can correct the
dysfunctions appeared after car modification by the coach builder. The main
tool we used in my analysis is the program: WINOLS developed by Vertrieb
Communication Entwicklung company from Germany, specialized in software
analysis, editing, processing of the memory or memories from the motor
computer. For reading and writing data from the engine computer we used the
KESSV2 specialized interface produced by the Italian company ALIENTECH
which allows automatic correction of the checksum of file data.
In order to analyze and evaluate the data from the computer file we need
the file data read from computer memory and I also need the type
DAMOS/ASAP2 file (data file that describes the operation and computer
settings). The vehicle manufacturers are using development systems to match
ECUs to the according engines. These systems are displaying the maps
including scaling, sampling points and labels for the developers while only the
data contents themselves are being stored in the EPROM and built in to the
ECU.
All other information is stored into files which contain the addresses and
names of the maps. The DAMOS and ASAP2 file formats are the best for this
purpose and are being used by almost all German vehicle manufacturers.
In this study we will analyze two engine computers (ECU - Electronic
Control Unit) for engines with cylinder capacity of 1900 cm3 fitted in cars
manufactured by Volkswagen AG and we will watch the way the manufacturer
has implemented the management of air conditioning compressor in the engine
computer depending on the used injection system and on the development and
performances of the electronic components available at that time. Another
purpose of this study is to determine what changes could be made in computer
software in order to correct the malfunction that can occur due to subsequent
installing of the cooling equipments by the coach builder.
The first analyzed computer is the unit (ECU) that controls the 1.9 TDI
engine mounted on the T-model Audi A4. The car was modified by a coach
builder for the transport of confectionary, with a thermic insulated enclosure
connected to the air conditioning system, and after mounting the kit complaints
143
appeared that the car lost power, and for overtaking and boarding slope the
driver had to disconnect the air conditioning system to compensate the loss of
power. The vehicle injection system is EDC 15 VP type manufactured by
Bosch, having electronically controlled rotary injection pump and mechanical
injectors. EDC 15 VP injection computer has the code 0281010200, the
software version is 038906012AH, with engine power output of 110 hp.
The reading and correction of data from the engine computer requires the
following steps:
Reading the engine computer memory with a special interface connected
to the OBDII port (diagnostic connector) or by removing the memory from the
computer and reading it with a memory programmer. In this case we used
KESS V2 interface connected to the diagnostic port.
Identifying the appropriate file DAMOS type corresponding to the engine
computer to correctly identify the data maps, maps of the calibration limiter
sites, the switches in the WINOLS programme.
Loading data file in theWINOLS programme in order to see which are
the physical values from the maps of the engine computer.
Replacing the map data from the engine computer with the new data
according to the desired goal.
The checksums calculation when they are not directly calculated by the
specialized interface.
Rewriting the computer with the modified file.
The computer has a flash memory of 512 Kb (29 F400 BT), which
contains the engine data, and an EEPROM memory (24 C04) that contains
starting authorization data, transmission type and other options related to the
engine functioning. The data from Flash memory (29 F 400 BT) are important
for our study. In order to study the way that the manufacturer has designed the
engine computer we need the file DAMOS/ASAP2 type, with the code A4
1.9TDI-110HK-038906012A-0281010200-1037352255-2705-DAMOS.OLS
which must be loaded in WINOLS program.
After loading the DAMOS file in the WINOLS program we get a first
image of how EDC 15 computer memory is organized.
Fig. 1 Main screen with map description menu.
144
Vasile Caunii
Fig. 2 Air conditioning address related to air conditioning compressor, switches, data
bus, limiter and diagnostic code.
In order to systematize data on air conditioning compressor we created

the subfolder Air conditioning in the folder Hexdump. We put in this folder the
addresses that contain informations about maps, data messages about air
conditioning compressor, messages about errors that may occur etc.
As you can see the compressor functioning is managed by a torque
limiter correction map, by a duty cycle control signal, a minimum speed limiter,
and a limiter for maximum temperature maps (up to address the 73A0E
75CD8). We also have the addresses for the error codes, for the communication
on the data bus, and the addresses for functioning tests of the electromagnetic
clutch of the compressor.
In conclusion, the management of air conditioning compressor was pretty
simple, the computer engine realizing a correction of the engine torque. The
ECU accepts a compressor with electromagnetic clutch or with oscillating plate,
and the filling factor of the control signal can be modified and programmed. In
addition the control wire is monitored and in case of failure an error code is set.
The computer engine provides data on the performance of the air conditioning
compressor on data bus and monitors it to sense if it receives commands from
another module (for the climate).
Fig. 3 Address for maps and switches for air conditioning compressor control.
145
Fig. 4 Calibration map for air conditioning compressor (not detected).
After uploading data from the computer engine we could see that the
WINOLS program does not detect at 73A0E address a map that can be modified
(being a calibration map) but using the file DAMOS type we found the address
and we increased it with 5% (from the 0000 to 0005 value), which is enough to
compensate for power losses.
It is also necessary to modify the engine torque map with 5 to 10 percent
in order to compensate for the power losses. We have to emphasize that the
producer limits are not exceeded as in the revolutions and heavy loads become
operational the limitation maps, the limiters, and even the switch sites. The goal
is that the car could compensate, with a minimum correction, the loss of power
especially in the part load, and not to exceed the limits established by manufacturer in order to avoid any damage caused by overloading the components.
One can see that we changed the torque with 5% only for the small and
partial loads, and we did not change the other maps and limiters. Unfortunately,
because of the economical conditions, we cannot show a listing from the dyno
Fig. 5 Torque map modification.
146
Vasile Caunii
Fig. 6 DAMOS file VW Jetta 1.9 l TDI.
stand before and after maps correction to provide a complete and enlightening
image of the machine behavior. Here is another example of changing the maps
of the engine computer:
A client installed on a Volkswagen Touran vehicle a specialized cooling
chamber for transporting drugs and vaccines for veterinary use. After a while,
the vehicle driver complains that the car engine does not start when it is warm
and his opinion is that the situation arose when the car was equipped with the
cold box. Performing a test using the diagnostic system did not show any
damage on the engine computer or on other computers. After removing the strap
of the car accessories the engine started even when it was hot and the air
conditioning compressor was incriminated or the fact that the electric motor did
not generate enough rotations to start a hot car.
After reading the data from the engine computer one can notice:
The engine computer comes from the next generation, namely EDC
16U31, made by BOSCH, with the code track 0281011945 and the code VW
03G906016CD and with the software 1037371097 that equips 1.9 l TDI engine
with 100 hp power and with pump injector injection system. The computer has
Flash memory of 1Mbyte, and a more powerful processor, type 55X 32-bit
MPC, especially developed for the automotive industry by FREESCALE
company.
For software version the DAMOS file was not available, but in order to
analyze the computer data I used a DAMOS file for VW JETTA 1.9 l TDI
software code Jetta 1.9 TDI EDC16U31-4.47 038906016H_0281011146 for
BOSCH computer with the code 0281011146 (similar to VW Touran car).
After loading the file DAMOS type I noticed the following issues: The
first set of maps defines the necessary power consumption for the air
conditioning compressor, so that the producer could have many options in terms
of its type. The computer manufacturer may set in the computer the compressor
147
power consumption, the minimum and maximum limits within it can vary, and
the gear ratio between the pulley of the motor and of the compressor.
Fig. 7 Air conditioning map (default) for power, belt ratio and start delay.
Fig. 8 Start delay, start pressure, and timing for error condition.
The next set of maps and switches refers to the compressor malfunction
detection, including data communication errors and also the type and time of the
compressor functioning, the start delay and the PWM control signal parameters
according to the refrigerant pressure. Note that the manufacturer has
implemented the possibility to set upper and lower threshold for uncoupling and
coupling of the compressor according to different situations.
Thus one can see that the compressor can be switched off starting from
refrigerant pressure thresholds, when overcoming a certain rotation, at some
outdoor air temperatures, when detecting a fault on the CAN data bus and at
certain gearbox settings. The most important aspect was that at the start and
especially for another 1200 milliseconds or 1.2 seconds after the engine started
the air conditioning compressor was not working so it did not cause the hot start
problems.
Also from the analysis of the DAMOS type we noticed that the generator
did not function at the start so it couldnt cause the hot start problem. Further
148
Vasile Caunii
analyzing the data set we found that there are two injection maps depending on
the engine temperature.
Fig. 9 Torque friction maps.
After identifying the relevant map we loaded the data file from the engine
computer and we found at the address 0F0750 the first start map depending on
the engine temperature and the speed of the electric motor, the result being
expressed in mg of injected fuel.
Fig. 10 Hot start map 1 VW Touran
Note that the manufacturer has implemented a map in the engine

computer so that, depending on the electric motor rotation and on the engine
temperature, the engine computer injects a certain amount of fuel. For various
reasons (probably economical) the engine computer does not inject anything if
electric motor speed is below a minimum threshold. Thus at a temperature of
700 C the engine computer is programmed to inject nothing (0 mg injection) if
the rotation of the electric motor doesnt exceed 280 r/min. In this case one
solution would be changing the electric motor (rather expensive and
149
unsustainable in the long term due to the wear) or changing the starting map
according to the temperature so that instead of 0 mg to get the minimum amount
of injection.
Fig. 11 Hot star f(water temp) modified map.
After changing the addresses the vehicle started perfectly, functioned

normally and the replacing of the electric motor was no longer needed.
3. Conclusion
1. The study of the control strategies using DAMOS file type and data
files read from the computer shows that the control strategies of the air
conditioning compressor represent a constant concern for the cars and
computers manufacturers.
2. From one generation to another several functions, limiters, calibration
maps and operating maps of the air conditioning compressor have been
implemented, showing Bosch Company desire to make a versatile computer
allowing the vehicle motor to operate under normal or hybrid regimen, fulfilling
various conditions in terms of pollution (possibility to work with a particles
filter or not) and allowing the installation of a wide range of compressors (with
electromagnetic clutch, oscillating plate, etc.) with different pulley diameters. In
addition they have implemented several protection functions, errors detection
functions and multiple communication protocols.
3. Another very important issue is that by modifying the data file data
from the computer engine, we can optimize the functioning of some additional
equipment installed by a coach builder thus avoiding costly mechanical
changes. Last but not least one can notice that for subsequent equipment
installation made by body builders they would need a specialized
communication interface as well as a software tool (preferably integrated into
150
Vasile Caunii
the interface) that would allow them to modify the computer settings in order to
get the parameters compatible with equipment.
REFERENCES
***http://www.evc.de/en/product/ols/software/default.asp.
***http://www.alientech.to.
***http://www.alientech.to/ Help for KESS V2 operation.
***http://www.evc.de/en/product/ols/damos.asp, WinOls help page.
***http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checksum.
***http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/../ MPC555, WinOls help page.
ASPECTE PRIVIND STRATEGIILE DE CONTROL
A COMPRESORULUI AERULUI CONDIIONAT
(Rezumat)
Sistemul de aer condiionat reprezint una din principalele componente ale
mainilor moderne, care definete nivelul de confort, performanele lui afectnd n mod
direct performanele mainii. De-a lungul timpului, provocrile peste care constructorii
auto au trebuit s treac au fost gestionarea componentelor sistemului de aer
condiionat, n special modul n care acestea afecteaz funcionarea motorului pentru
diferite regimuri de funcionare. Odat cu mbuntirea i dezvoltarea unitilor
electronice de control (ECU), constructorii auto au implementat cteva strategii i
funcii n gestionarea motorului pentru a obine regimuri de funcionare mai eficiente i
performane mai mari, dar disponibilitatea lor este limitat sau interzis pentru
constructori sau asamblori de echipamente care nu fac parte din oferta productorului.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF

THE SI ENGINE TURBOCHARGING
BY
COSTIN DRAGOMIR, CONSTANTIN PAN , NICULAE NEGURESCU

and ALEXANDRU CERNAT
Politehnica University
Bucharest
Abstract. The spark ignition engines turbocharging is a efficient method

of great actuality for their brake mean effective pressure and of the specific
power increasing (downsizing concept) and for the pollution decreasing. The
method can be applied at the SI engines with an efficient control of their
operation for to avoid the knock appearance. The theoretical and experimental
investigations were performed on a turbocharged spark ignition engine with 1.5 l
displacement and fuel MP injection.
The paper presents the influences air supercharging pressure upon the
engine performances. In paper is determined a optimum correlation between
dosage, spark ignition advance, air supercharging pressure, exhaust gas
temperature, brake mean effective pressure, brake specific fuel consumption.
Key words: engine, supercharging, downsizing, downspeeding.
1. Introduction
Significant increasing in power per litter for spark ignition engine can be
assured by supercharging, which allows the increases of indicated mean
effective pressure. Downsizing and downspeeding application for spark ignition
engines represent modern concepts for lower displacement engines development
(compact gauge and low costs), with a lower speed for maximum power /
maximum torque comparative to aspirated engines (for the same or higher
*Corresponding author: e-mail: constantin.pana@mail.upb.ro
152
Costin Dragomir et al.
power/torque values), with favourable effects on engine thermal and mechanical

stress, efficiency, pollutant emissions and wear. Supercharging was
considered a common method used for IMEP increasing only for diesel engine. The
main issues of spark ignition engine supercharging are represented by: knocking
phenomena may appears; exhaust gases temperature increases; engine thermalmechanical stress increases.
Nowadays modern management of SIE running allows the supercharging
also for spark ignition engines. Thus, an optimal correlation between
supercharging pressure -compressor exhaust air temperature- compression ratiospark ignition timing-dosage-exhaust gases temperature can assure the spark
ignition engine operation without knocking combustion and with remarkable
energetically and polluting performances. During the last years the
supercharging of SIE was the most efficient method of increasing performances
from the point of view of energetically and polluting terms.
Thus, in Table 1 some of supercharged spark ignition engines
characteristics are presented.
Table 1
Engine
Uni Melb
WATTARD
Audi
VW
VW
Audi Q3
Skoda FW
BMW
VW 2.0 FSI
VW1.2MPI
Renault
MAHLE
Downsizing Engine
Displacement Compression
l
ratio
0.43
9-13:1
variable
9.8 :1
10.5 :1
10 :1
9.6 :1
Pmax / n Pmax
kW/rpm
M max /n M
max
Nm/rpm
53/9000
65 / 7000
225/1950-5000
280/1800-4700
200/1.500-4.000
280/1700-4200
105/3000
400/1200-5000
280/1800-4700
108/3000
190/2000-4000
285/2500-3000
1.8
1.984
1.4
1.8
1.2
2.979
1.984
1.2
1.2
10.2 :1
10.5 :1
10.3 :1
10 :1
125/5 900
147/5.700
90/5.000-5.500
125/4300-6000
40/4750
225/5800
147/5700
44/5200
85/4500
1.2
9.75:1
144/6500
2. Engine In-cylinder Thermo-gas Dynamic Processes Simulation
Engine in-cylinder processes simulation was developed for 1.5 litter

DAEWOO engine. In order to define the energetically performances and the
cycle performances parameters, a zero dimensional physic-mathematical model
was developed. The model uses a Vibe combustion formal law and takes into
consideration the heat transferred to the walls.
For knock avoiding, the combustion duration was established shorter than
end-gas auto ignition delay, parameters being evaluated by Douaud and Evzat
equation. For program calibration the experimental investigation results were
used and the considered model hypotheses were verified.

400
100
measured
calculated
80
350
c e [ g /k W h ]
p m ax [b a r]
153
60
measured
300
40
calculated
20
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
250
1
1.2
1.4
ps [bar]
ps [bar]
1.6
1.8
Fig.2 BSFC(ci) versus ps.
Fig.1 Maximum pressure versus ps.
10
20
calculated
p e [bar]
CO [% ]
15
calculated
6
4
10
2
measured
measured
5
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.2
1.4
1.8
ps [bar]
ps [bar]
Fig.4 CO versus ps.
Fig. 3 BMEP versus ps.

400
500
400
measured
H C [p p m ]
N O x [p p m ]
1.6
300
200
calculated
100
calculated
300
200
measured
100
0
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
ps [bar]
Fig.5 NOx versus ps.
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
ps [bar]
Fig. 6 HC versus ps.
In order to determinate the polluting emission level for the simulated

regimes the AVL Boost program was used. Modelling process was developed
for the aspirated engine and for the supercharged engine designed at built in the
laboratories of the Department of thermotechnics, engines, thermal equipments
and refrigeration installations from University Politehnica of Bucharest.
Different supercharging pressures, ps absolute pressure and temperatures of
the blower exhaust cooled air were taken into consideration. For knock avoiding
the reach dosages in the area of 0.8.0.9 and cooling of the inlet air were used.
For each regime, the spark ignition timing was set up for efficiency and knock
avoiding. Modelling results for full load and speed of 4800 rpm are shown in
Fig. 1-6.
3. Experimental Investigations and Results
The experimental researches were carried on an automotive SI engine,
type DAEWOO 1.5 l, at different engine operating regimens.
The engine was mounted on a test bench (Fig. 7) equipped with the next
necessary instruments for measuring operations: AVL ALPHA 160 eddy
154
current dynamometer equipped with throttle actuator that work in parallel with
the dyno in order to operates the control lever of the injection pump, real time
AVL data acquisition system for processing and storage of measured datas,
AVL in-cylinder pressure transducer line, AVL gas analyzer, Khrone Optimass
mass flow meter, engine inlet air flow meter, thermo resistances for engine
cooling liquid temperature, engine oil and air intake temperatures and
thermocouples for exhaust gas temperature, manometer for air pressure from
engine intake manifold. All instrumentation was calibrated prior to engine
testing. Experimental researchs carried out to obtain fuel consumption
characteristics for different speeds and engine full load and to determinate the
energetically and pollutant engine performance. Based on fuel consumption
characteristics were obtained some graphic representations for different
parameters such as: brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC), pollutants emissions level (HC, CO2, and NOx) versus to
absolute pressure ps.
Fig. 7 Test bed scheme: AGE exhaust gas analyzer ; AS charge amplifier; B
battery; ca intake manifold; CAD data acquisition computer; ce intake manifold; CF
dyno power cell; CG fuelling system computer; CIG injectors actuation; ct three
way catalyst; DA air flowmeter; DC fuel flowmeter; EGR exhaust gas
recirculation valve; F eddy current dyno; FC fuel filter; IND Indimodul 621 data
acquisition unit; IT temperature indicators; M Daewoo 1.5 spark ignition engine;
MP supercharging pressure manometer; ORS throttle; PCF dyno command panel ;
R engine cooler; RI intercooler; RC fuel reservoir; SA power supply; SCP
throttle actuator servomotor; SRAF dyno cooling system; st gas analyzer speed
sensor; TC turbocompressor; tf dyno cooling water temperature sensor; TF dyno
speed transducer; tp cylinder pressure transducer; TPU angle encoder; UCP
principal electronic control unit; UCS secondary electronic control unit; UPF dyno
power unit; UPS throttle actuator servomotor power unit; VE cooling electric fan for
intercooler; x electronic emitter-receptor.
155
4. Theoretical and Experimental Investigations Results
The results of theoretical and experimental investigations presented in

Figs. 1-6, show good correlation between them.
Supercharging pressures used are in the range of 1.41.8 bar.
Comparative to the aspirated engine, the maximum pressure increases with
almost 100 % for a supercharging pressure (ps) of 1.8 bar, Fig. 1. High value of
maximum pressure leads to the limitation of supercharging pressure at 1.4 bar
when the increase of maximum pressure value (~ with 50 % comparative to
classic solution) is acceptable for the engine reliability.
In order to avoid the knocking and to limit the maximum pressure, the
ignition angle value optimization was achieved in such a way that the BSFC is
maintained almost constant for different supercharging pressures (Fig. 2).
For 1.4 bar supercharge pressure the increase BMEP is significant
(~22%) and increase is more at much higher supercharging pressure because of
the influence of ignition timing value (Fig. 3). Also from this reason the
limitation of the supercharging pressure at 1.4 bar is justified.
Due to combustion process improvement the level of CO and HC
emissions decreased (~24% for CO and ~11% for HC) Fig. 4 and Fig. 6. The
NOx emission level decreases significant for 1,4 bar supercharging pressure
(Fig. 5) fact also influenced by the reduction of spark ignition timing.
Supercharging represents an efficient method of engine downsizing.
Thus, in order to obtain the same power as the reference engine, the engine
displacement must be reduced by 1.5 times for 1.4 supercharging pressure. This
engine displacement reduction can be assured by the limitation of the engine
cylinders number, which also leads to the increase of the engine mechanical
efficiency. Another advantage of supercharging is the reduction of the
maximum power/maximum torque speeds downspeeding concept. Thus, the
same power of 66 kW at 4800 rpm of the normal aspirated engine was obtained
for supercharging at 1,4 bar at 3900 rpm, and the maximum torque of 137
Nm/3600 rpm was reached at the speed of 2500 rpm. The reduction of the fuel
consumption and engine wear are the main advantages of this concept.
Spark ignition timing modification directly affects the combustion
process variability evaluated by coefficient of variability in maximum pressure.
For 4800 rpm the coefficient of variability in maximum pressure reach the value
of ( COV ) p = 6.574 %, for = 0.85 and 1.4 bar supercharging pressure.
max
The influences of combustion process on engine running are reflected by

the values of the coefficients of cycle variability in indicated mean effective
pressure. The values of variability coefficient in IMEP are (COV)IMEP=1.986%
for = 0.85 at ps = 1.4 bar.
156
5. Conclusions
The theoretical and experimental investigations results allow formulating

the following conclusions:
1. SI engine supercharging is a method to obtain efficiency and specific
power/torque performance increasing.
2. The pollutant emissions level decreases due to the improvement of the
combustion processes.
3. Knock is the most important limiting factor of the supercharging
engine. An optimum correlation establish between dosage, spark ignition
advance, air boost pressure, air boost temperature, exhaust gas temperature,
brake mean effective pressure, brake specific fuel consumption leads to the
avoiding of knocking phenomena.
4. Supercharging represents an efficient method of engine downsizing
and downspeeding.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank to AVL List GmbH Graz,
Austria, for providing the possibility to use the Simulation Software AVL BOOST
REFERENCES
Attard W., Watson H.C., Konidaris S., and Khan M.A., Comparing the Performance
and Limitations of a Downsized Formula SAE Engine in Normally Aspirated,
Supercharged and Turbocharged Modes. University of Melbourne, SAE Paper
No. 2006-32-0072, in SAE International (2006).
Attard W.A., Toulson E., Hamori F., Watson H.C., Combustion System Development
and Analysis of a Downsized Highly Turbocharged PFI Small Engine. SAE Paper
No.2009-32-0185 / 20097185, SAE Japan and SAE International (2009).
Attard W.P., Konidaris S., Toulson E., Watson W.C., The Feasibility of Downsizing a
1.25 Liter Normally Aspirated Engine to a 0.43 Liter Highly Turbocharged
Engine. University of Melbourne, SAE Paper No.2007-24-0083, SAE
International (2007).
Basshuysen R., Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung, Verfahren, Systeme, Entwicklung,
Potenzial. Vieweg+Teubener, GWV Fachverlage Gmbh., Weisbaden, Germany,
2008, 2, Auflage.
Basshuysen R., Gasoline Engine with Direct Injection, Processes, Systems,
Development, Potential. Vieweg+Teubener, GWV Fachverlage Gmbh.,
Weisbaden, Germany, 2009.
Becker N., Der Neue 1,0-L- Dreizilinder-MPI- Motor Fr Den UP!. ATZ Extra
September 2011, Germany, 36-43, 2011.
Blaxill H., The Role Of IC Engines In Future Energy Use. MAHLE Powertrain, 4th Oct.
2011, Germany, 2011.
Eiser A., Deblaze M., Freidmann K., Kerschenlohr A., Schachner M., Der Antrieb, Der
Neue Audi Q3. ATZ Extra Juli 2011, Germany, 2011. pp. 24-31.
157
Halder J., Dreizylindermotoren von Volkswagen. MTZ 05/2009, Germany, 2009, pp.
354-60.
Heywood J.B., Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1988.
Heywood J.B., Engine Research Center - 2005 Symposium University of Madison,
Wisconsin, 2005.
Kirwan J.E., Mark Shost M., Roth G., James Zizelman J., 3-Cylinder Turbocharged
Gasoline Direct Injection: A High Value Solution for Low CO2 and NOx
Emissions. SAE Paper No. 2010-01-0590, Published 04/12/2010, SAE
International (2010 ).
Klauer N., Kretschmer J., Harald Unger H, Der Antreb des BMW 535i Gran Turismo.
ATZ 09/September 2009, ISSN 0001-2785 10810, Germany, 2009, pp. 610- 617.
Korte V., Hancock D., Blaxill H., Downsizing-Motor von Mahle als
Technologiedemonstrator, Konzept, Auslegung und Konstruktion. MTZ 01/2009,
Germany, 2009, pp. 10 -19.
Navrtil J., Polek M., Vtek O., Macek J.,Baumruk P., Simulation of Supercharged
and Turbocharged Small Spark-Ignition Engine. 3 th. International Colloquium
MECCA 2003, Czech, 2003, pp. 27-33.
Pan C., Negurescu N., Popa M. G., Cernat A., Investigations Regarding the Use of the
Turbocharging and Bioethanol at SI Engines. Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, LXI(LX), 4, s.
Construcii de maini (2010).
Pfalzgraf B., Fitzen M.,Siebler J., Erdmann H.-D., First ULEV Turbo Gasoline EngineThe Audi 1.8 l 125kW 5-Valve Turbo. SAE Paper No.2001-01-1350, SAE
International.
Stephenson M., MAHLE Powertrain, Engine Downsizing - An Analysis Perspective.
SIMULIA Conference, Germany, 2009.
INVESTIGAII TEORETICE I EXPERIMENTALE ALE MOTORULUI
CU APRINDERE PRIN SCNTEIE SUPRAALIMENTAT
(Rezumat)
Supraalimentarea motoarelor cu aprindere prin scnteie este o metod eficient
de mare actualitate pentru creterea presiunii medii efective i a puterii litrice a lor
(conceptul downsizing) i pentru reducerea emisiilor poluante. Metoda poate fi aplicat
la motoarele cu aprindere prin scnteie cu un management eficient al funcionrii lor n
vederea evitrii apariiei fenomenului de ardere cu detonaie.
Investigaiile teoretice i experimentale au fost efectuate pe un motor cu
aprindere prin scnteie cu cilindreea de 1,5 l i cu injecie multipunct transformat dintrun motor de serie cu admisie normal.
Lucrarea prezint influene ale presiunii de supraalimentare asupra
performanelor motorului.
n lucrare a fost stabilit o corelaie optim ntre dozaj, avans la declanarea
scnteii electrice, presiune de supraalimentare, temperatura gazelor de evacuare,
presiune medie efectiv i consum specific efectiv de combustibil pentru un control
eficient al funcionrii motorului cu aprindere prin scnteie supraalimentat.

Publicat de
Tomul LVII (LXI), Fasc. 4, 2012
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN PLANAR PRODUCT

METHOD AND PLAN GEOMETRY METHOD FOR SCROLL
COMPRESSOR MATHEMATICAL MODEL
BY
MARIUS ATANASIU , MIHAI MARIUS PRODAN and EMIL JUGUREANU

Technical University Gheorghe Asachi of Iai,
Department of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering
Received: 5 April, 2012
Accepted for publication: 10 June, 2012
Abstract. This paper present a comparison between the mathematical

model of the scroll compressor based on plane geometry method and the
mathematical model based on the planar product method. The method based
on the planar product can be used with sufficient precision to determine the
volume of the work compartments. The advantage of this method is not
necessarily high accuracy as in that it enables determination of the semilunar
areas and not circular ones as in plane geometry method.
Key words: scroll geometry, thermal machine, compressor, expander.
1. Introduction
Today, scroll compressors are widely used for compressing refrigerants
in air-conditioners. There are many advantages over the traditional piston-pump
design. For example, only a small number of moving parts and no valves are
required, and the rotary motion can be completely balanced, reducing vibration
and noise. One problem with the traditional design is that the compression takes
place rather slowly, so a large number of turns is required to achieve the high
compression demanded for refrigeration and freezing. Unfortunately, for a
given total cross-sectional area, increasing the tightness of the spiral first
decreases the choke volume of gas that can be ingested in each cycle, then
Corresponding author: e-mail: marius.atanasiu@yahoo.com
160
Marius Atanasiu et al.
makes the job of machining the scrolls more difficult, and finally increases the
rate of leakage. (Gravesen & Henriksen, 2001).
For this type of machines it is possible to use different type of involutes
(Mahfouz et al, 2004). Our research is based on develop of a mathematical
model for the Archimedics scrolls. Using this model and combined with
mechanical and fluid mechanical modelling we try to find an algorithm for
scroll compressor (Youn et al, 2004).
2. Method Presentation
Archimedes spiral parameterization is based on the tangent direction, that
is correlated with angle (Fig. 1), formed by tangent with (Ox) axis:
Fig. 1 Parametric elements for Archimedes scroll.
Is taken into account that the spiral curve analysis is flat and is defined by
the equation (Gravesen&Henriksen, 2002)
= ( ) .
(1)
In this case, the curve is given by
k=
d
,
ds
(2)
161
and the radius of curvature, reverse of curvature, is expressed by
ds
= ( ) .
d
(3)
After integration, results
s = ( u ) du .
(4)
Tangent direction is given by the derivative of position vector, that is

dx
= e ( ) .
ds
(5)
Considered curve is translated on normal direction with r distance

equivalent with radius of eccentric that move mobile scroll (being in a plane
parallel movement) that means in t moment translated curve is
xt () = x() + d(t ),
(6)
d(t ) = rf (t ) = r ( i sin t + j cos t ).
(7)
where
At time t, xt part of mobile scroll and correspondent part y from fixed

scroll are touching at some points, so that y is the envelope {xt/t}. If y at
time t reaches the point xt in point xt( (t)), then y can be parameterized as
y (t ) = xt ( (t ) ) = x ( (t ) ) + d (t ).
(8)
Note that xt and y are touching without intersect, so there tangents are
parallel. The flowing condition exists
r
y '(t ) / / xt ' ( (t ) ) d '(t ) / / x ' ( (t ) )
(9)
Thus, give tangent direction at x and t, give the tangent direction at d.
The flowing relation exists
(t ) = t + n , n
Final expression of the two vectors defined area is
(10)
162

4
A = Ak = r 2 + r { [s x ( + 2 ) sx ()] + [ x() x( + 2 ), f () ]} ,
k =1
(11)
where sx () is the arc (curve length) of the position vector x(t ) for 0 t .
Vector equation of fixed scroll is:
r ( ) = a cos i + a sin j ,
(12)
and allows determining the radius of curvature with following formula

( ) = a
1+ 2
2+
3
2
(13)
3. Comparative Analysis with Method Derived from Plane Geometry

It is considered a scroll couple with a pitch of 20 mm and, for
generalization, extreme angles, initial and final, are defined as follows:
and,
i = 180 + 360 j
f = 180 + 360 (j + 1),
where j = 1, 2, , represent number of involutes (Atanasiu & Prodan, 2006).

3.1. Characteristic Positions of the Tangent to the Mobile Scroll
In determining the demarcated area between mobile scroll and fixed

scroll wit planar product it is necessary to establish a correlation between the
angle that is made by the tangent with mobile scroll (interior), , and the
angle for generation of scroll to the point where the tangent has that value.
Angles that are made by the tangent with the mobile scroll relative to the
axis (Ox) are plotted in Fig. 1 for j = 1, 2,...,8. Angles fall within the range of
8489o and 446449o, respectively. Note that as the number of turns
increases, their initial and final values tend to 90o, respectively, 450o, values that
are valid for a circle (Atanasiu et al, 2004)
Characteristic positions of the tangent with mobile scroll (Fig. 1),
expressed by the angle which that parameterised the scroll, are two by two
parallel to the axis (Ox), respectively, axis (Oy), and are noted with 1x ,2x , 1y
i 2y. It is noted that, while to the circle, the angles that are 90, 270, 180 and,
respectively, 360, in the case of Archimedes scroll these angles tend to this
values as they move to the upper turns. Thus, if for the first turns, these angles
are 95.2, 274.0, 6.0, respectively, 184.5, in the case of the eighth turns their
values are 91.0, 271.0, 1.07 and, respectively, 181.0.
163
3.2. Comparison of Semilunar Area (Bounded by the Mobile Scroll and Fixed
Scroll) Obtained by the Two Geometrical Methods
Semilunar area, defining the work volume of a compartment depends on

the angular position of the eccentric that controls the plan parallel movement of
the mobile scroll. In the following, it is analysed the case where the eccentric
position is = 0 (initial position). Note that this position coincides with the case
= 360 (final position). Appropriate to this position the first compartment
from the outside, defines the displacement and the last compartment, from the
inside, defines the volumetric ratio.
In the case of scrolls with the step of 20 mm areas of the eight
compartments separated by the eight turns, determined by the two methods
practically coincide at the scale of representation (Fig.2).
Highlighting of the differences can be done based on the errors compared
with the areas determined by the plane geometry method. Numerical solution by
the method of planar product involves using a certain number of steps,
conveniently chosen to ensure the accuracy in different stages. It is noted that
previously, the design software was calibrated for determining semilunar area
enclosed by the two circles that are inner tangent.
Fig. 2 Areas of involutes determined by the two methods.
A first comparison of the errors can be made based on Fig. 3, which have
reproduce the errors in determining areas of the different compartments,
numbered from the inside to the outside, when using the 100 steps,
respectively, of 500 steps on the variation of the angle formed by the tangent to
the mobile scroll (from the inside). Thus, we see very clearly that the accuracy
increase to the outer compartments and, surprisingly, is somewhat higher for a
smaller number of steps. The differences are still insignificant.
For further analysis of the importance of the number of steps are
presented graphically in Fig. 3 variations of errors in different compartments.
Thus, it appears that in all cases the errors fluctuate rapidly as the number of
integration steps increases and then stabilizes around values that are higher at
the inner compartments and smaller at the outer compartments.
164
Fig. 3 Obtained errors in determination of areas for different compartments.
4. Conclusions
1. This method and computer program based on the use of planar product
method can be used with sufficient precision to determine the volume of the
work compartments. The advantage of this method is not necessarily high
accuracy (which still can be improved by choosing another method of
integration), as in that it enables determination of the semilunar areas and not
circular ones as in plane geometry method.
2. Also, we have to consider that this method can be applied for the
scrolls of finite thickness (smaller or bigger), and a different configuration from
the Archimedes scrolls, which is not yet revealed by the method of plane
geometry.
REFERENCES
Atanasiu M., Prodan M.M., Algorithm for the Modelling of the Scroll Compressor.
Compressor, 171-176 (2006).
Atanasiu M., Srbu I., Prodan M.M., The Geometry of the Scroll Thermal Machine.
MET-IME 2005, 11-17 (2005).
Gravesen J., Henriksen C., The Geometry of the Scroll Compressor. SIAM Review, 43,
I, 113-126 (2001).
Gravesen J., Henriksen C., Scroll Compressor Using Gas and Liquid Injection:
Experimental Analysis and Modeling. IIFR Review, 25, 1143-1156 (2002).
Mahfouz H., Musa M.N., Hassan M.N., Theoretical Study on Scroll Compressor of
New Hexagonal Involute. Purdue Compressor Engineering & Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning Conferences at Purdue, 2004.
Youn C. P., Yongehan K.,Honghyun C., Thermodynamic Analysis on the Performance
of a Variable Speed Scroll Compressor with Refrigerant Injection. IIFR Review,
25, 1072-1082 (2002).
165
ANALIZA COMPARATIV NTRE METODA PRODUSULUI PLANAR

I METODA GEOMETRIEI PLANE PENTRU MODELUL MATEMATIC
AL COMPRESORULUI SPIRAL
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea prezint o comparative intre modelul matematic al compresorului spiral
bazat pe geometria plan i modelul matematic bazat pe metoda produsului planar.
Pentru aprofundarea analizei referitoare la importana numrului de pai se
prezint grafic variaiile erorilor la diferite compartimente. Astfel, se observ c n toate
cazurile erorile fluctueaz rapid pe msur ce crete numrul pailor de integrare i apoi
se stabilizeaz n jurul unor valori care sunt mai mari la compartimentele interioare i
mai mici la cele exterioare.
n concluzie, metoda i programul de calcul bazate pe utilizarea produsului
planar pot fi utilizate cu suficient precizie la determinarea volumelor compartimentelor
de lucru. Avantajul acestei metode nu este neaprat precizia ridicat (care oricum poate
fi ameliorat i prin alegerea unei alte metode de integrare), ct n aceea c ea permite
determinarea ariilor semilunare i nu inelare ca n cazul relaiilor bazate pe elementele
de geometrie plan. De asemenea, mai trebuie avut n vedere c aceast metod poate fi
aplicat i n cazul spirelor de grosime finit (mai mic sau mai mare), i de o
configuraie diferit de spirala arhimedic riguroas, ceea ce nu este relevat nc prin
metoda de geometrie plan.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THERMAL ENERGY

STORAGE USING PHASE CHANGE MATERIAL: EUTECTIC
Sn-Pb ALLOY
BY
MIHAI ADAM, GEORGE OVIDIU RU and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU

Gheorge Asachi Technical University of Iai,
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Automotive Engineering
Abstract. Latent heat of storage is one of the most efficient ways of storing
thermal energy. Unlike the sensible heat storage method, the latent heat storage
method provides much higher storage density, with a smaller temperature
difference between storing and releasing heat. This paper presents a study on the
time evolution of a phase change material (Sn-Pb alloy) packed in a container
with cylindrical geometry. The measurements have been made for different
electrical power with constant ambient temperatures.
Keywords: phase change materials, transient heat storage, time
temperature field.
1. Introduction
Thermal Energy Storage (TES) system using Phase Change Materials
(PCMs) as a storage medium offers advantages such as high volumetric heat
storage capacity, small unit size and constant temperature of the phase change
process during storing and discharging periods and, thus less lost exergy when
compared to the sensible heat storage. Thermal energy storage techniques can
be classified as sensible heat storage, latent heat storage and chemical energy
storage.
Corresponding author: e-mail: gdum@mail.tuiasi.ro
168
Mihai Adam et al.
Latent heat storage is particularly attractive, since it provides a high

energy storage density and can store the energy as the latent heat of fusion at a
constant temperature.
Materials to be used for phase change thermal energy storage must have a
large latent heat and high thermal conductivity. They should have a melting
temperature lying in the practical range of operation, melt congruently with
minimum sub-cooling and, be chemically stable, low in cost, nontoxic and noncorrosive. Materials that have been implied extensively in almost all
applications in the last years were hydrated salts, paraffin waxes, fatty acids and
eutectics of organic and non-organic compounds.
With its highest specific heat, water is the most commonly used medium
in a sensible heat storage system. Most solar water heating and space-heating
systems use hot water storage tanks located either inside or outside the
buildings or underground. Besides water, sensible heat storage can be using as
storage materials rocks or pebbles packed in insulated vessels. This type of
storage, by sensible heat, is used very often for temperatures up to 100C in
conjunction with solar air heaters.
Phase change systems are the most expensive but also the most compact
types but having relatively small utilization life because of the material
deformation and degradation problems. Because of their compactness, their
total initial costs are small. If the problems associated with phase change
systems are solved, in the future they are going to be the most promising ones.
2. Experimental Setup
The experimental setup has the following components, see Fig. 1: one
steel pipe filled with an eutectic Sn-Pb alloy, one electrical resistance, twelve
thermocouples-type K, ceramic fiber IsolAir thermal insulation, one digital
thermometer with twelve channels, two voltampermeters, one autotransformer
and a PC collecting the instantaneous temperature values.
Fig. 1 Experimental setup.
Through the acquisition SCANLINK 2.0 software, installed on the

computer, it was possible to monitor, in real time, all twelve channels, as well to
169
save the data in the computer. The SCANGRAPH 2.0 acquisition software
simultaneously store up the real-time temperature curves for the twelve
thermocouples.
The PCM has been selected based primarily on the temperature range of
application, the next most important factors to consider are:
i) the geometry of the PCM container;
ii) the thermal, and geometric parameters of the container required for a
given amount of PCM.
Each of these factors has a direct influence on the heat transfer
characteristics in the PCM and ultimately affects the melting time and the
performance of the PCM storage unit.
The design of the PCM systems requires a good evaluation of the
fundamental heat transfer temperatures and heat rates, in order to accurately
predict the thermal performance of the PCM system. Based on both
experimental and numerical investigations conducted to examine the thermal
characteristics of LHTES systems, various correlations have been developed
relating thermal performance and dimensionless numbers in given parametric
domains.
The numerical results were firstly read between the lines of the First
Law of Thermodynamics. During the heat storage period, the following basic
energy balance was involved:
Thermal Energy Input Lost Thermal Energy = Stored Thermal Energy,
where Thermal Energy Input was developed by an electrical resistance, Lost
Thermal Energy was caused by convection heat transfer process through the
thermal insulation
During the heat discharge period, the following basic energy balance was
involved:
Stored Thermal Energy Lost Thermal Energy = Useful Thermal Energy,
The experimental setup allowed making a series of measurements at
different electrically obtained heat rate input of 25W, 60W, 120W, 187.5W, and
285W. In this manner they were simulated both the storage processes at low and
high heat transfer inputs. The experiments followed the use of metal based PCM
in solar applications, and extra the optimum design of such storage processes by
considering all the parameters of the experimental storage and discharge
processes.
The numerical results are included in the Figs. 2 to 6.
170
Mihai Adam et al.
Fig. 2 Temperatures - Time dependence, storage and discharge, for 25W.
Fig. 5 Temperatures - Time dependence, storage and discharge, for 187.5W.
171
4. Conclusions
1. The experiments were conducted in order to firstly find the
dependences between:
a) the position of the phase change domain (183o198oC) and the solar
heat flux, electrically simulated;
b) the temperatures profiles of the solid and liquid phases and the solar
heat flux, electrically simulated;
c) the thermal properties of the solid and liquid phases and the
temperatures values, in quasi-steady state experimental procedure, the case
when the input heat equalize the lost heat outside the insulation.
2. The use of a metallic PCM offers a number of prospective
advantages, including cost savings and high storage, and discharge heat rates.
Heat transfer is dominated by the thermal conductivity of the solid PCM.
Thermodynamic and heat transfer analysis proved that such a design is feasible,
and the cost of the storage material provisionally appears to be competitive with
that of solar salts. The rationale for using a metallic PCM in a TES-system
include the potential for volume and cost savings and the fact that the
inherently high thermal conductivity of metallic PCMs may reduce cost through
simpler and very compact heat exchanger design.
Doctoral scholarships for research performance at European level project, financed by
the European Social Found and Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Abhat A., Low Temperature Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage: Heat Storage
Materials. Solar Energy, 30(4), 313-31 (1983).
Klk B., Ync H. (Eds.), Energy Storage Systems: Fundamentals and Applications.
Advanced Study Institute, June 27-July 8, 1988, zmir, Turkey, pp. 541-549.
Kar I., Clf A., Analysis of Shell-tube PCM Storage System. Proceedings of the eighth
International Heat Transfer Conference, San Francisco, 1986, pp. 1781-1786.
172
Mihai Adam et al.
Lane G. A., Solar Heat Storage: Latent Heat Material. Vol. I, CRS Press, Florida,
1983.
Rosen M. A., The Exergy of Stratified Thermal Energy Storages. Solar Energy, 71,
173-185 (2001).
Schmidt F. W., Willmott A. J., Thermal Energy Storage and Regeneration. Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation, 1981.
Sukhatme S. P., Solar Energy, Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage. Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 1991.
Wyman C., Castle J., Kreith F., A Review of Collector and Energy Storage Technology
for Intermediate Applications. Solar Energy, 24, 517-540 (1980).
CERCETRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND STOCAREA ENERGIEI TERMICE N
MATERIALE CU SCHIMBARE DE FAZ: ALIAJ EUTECTIC Sn-Pb
(Rezumat)
Se prezint studiul proceselor de ncrcare i descrcare ale unui stocator de
cldura cu mediu de stocare un aliaj eutectic Sn-Pb (60%-40%, temperatura de topire de
183C). S-au realizat msurtori la diferite valori ale puterii electrice (25W, 60W,
120W, 187.5W, 285W) ce au simulat diferite fluxuri termice solare. Rezultatele au fost
culese i stocate pe un PC. S-a utilizat un soft specializat, SCANLINK 2 i
SCANGRAPH 2, ce au permis trasarea n timp real a graficelor de ncrcare i
descrcare a instalaiei. Folosirea acestui aliaj eutectic ca mediu de stocare a energiei
termice ofer mai multe avantaje printre care rate ridicate de ncrcaredescrcare dar i
costuri relativ reduse. Conductivitatea termic ridicat a acestui aliaj este un factor
important pentru folosirea lui ca mediu de stocare a energiei termice, dar i ali factori
cum ar fi costul redus i este non-coroziv.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DIRECT ASSESSMENT OF PCM

USED IN HEAT STORAGE SYSTEMS
BY
MIHAI ADAM, RZVAN FLORIN BARZIC, GEORGE OVIDIU RU

and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU
Gheorge Asachi Technical University,
Department of Mecahnical & Automotive Engineering
Received: May 2012
Abstract. This paper presents a direct evaluation of thermal conductivity,

depending on the thermal properties and temperature, by using an experimental
heat storage setup with phase change material (Sn-Pb alloy) filling in an
insulated tube. The heat input at the one end of the tube and the insulation
assured one-dimensional heat propagation through PCM, i.e. along the axis of
the tube. The measurements have been made in a steady state experimental
procedure obtained when the input heat balanced the lost heat through the
insulation. Thus the heat propagation through PCM filling the insulated tube can
be assessed in a similar manner to that used for fins.
Key words: thermal conductivity, Sn-Pb alloy, thermal conductivity.
1. Introduction
There are a number of possible methods to measure thermal conductivity,
each of them suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal
properties and the medium temperature. Two classes of methods exist to
measure the thermal conductivity of a sample: steady-state and non-steady-state
(or transient) methods.
In general, steady-state techniques perform a measurement when the
temperature of the material measured does not change with time. This makes
the signal analysis straightforward (steady state implies constant signals). The
disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually needed.
174
Mihai Adam et al.
The transient techniques perform a measurement during the process of

heating up. The advantage is that measurements can be made relatively quickly.
Transient methods are usually carried out by needle probes. Non-steady-state
methods to measure the thermal conductivity do not require the signal to obtain
a constant value. Instead, the signal is studied as a function of time. The
advantage of these methods is that they can in general be performed more
quickly, since there is no need to wait for a steady-state situation. The
disadvantage is that the mathematical analysis of the data is in general more
difficult. Transient Plane Source Method, a plane sensor, a special mathematical
model describing the heat conductivity, combined with electronics, enables the
method to be used to measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a thermal
conductivity range of 45 orders of magnitude and can be used for measuring
various kinds of materials, such as solids, liquid, paste and thin films etc.
A variant of the above method is the Modified Transient Plane Source
Method (MTPS). The device uses a one-sided, interfacial, heat reflectance
sensor that applies a momentary, constant heat source to the sample. The
difference between this method and traditional transient plane source technique
described above is that the heating element is supported on a backing, which
provides mechanical support, electrical insulation and thermal insulation. This
modification provides a one-sided interfacial measurement in offering
maximum flexibility in testing liquids, powders, pastes and solids.
The laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a thin
disc in the thickness direction. This method is based upon the measurement of
the temperature rise at the rear face of the thin-disc specimen produced by a
short energy pulse on the front face.
One popular technique for thermoelectric materials is a 3-method, in
which thin metal strip evaporated on the sample acts as heat source and a
thermometer. The heater is driven with AC current at frequency , which
causes heat source to oscillate at frequency 2. By monitoring AC voltage as a
function of the frequency of the applied AC current thermal conductivity can be
determined.
Thermoreflectance is a method by which the thermal properties of a
material can be measured, most importantly thermal conductivity.
This method can be applied most notably to thin film materials (up to
hundreds of nanometers thick), which have properties that vary greatly when
compared to the same materials in bulk. The idea behind this technique is that
once a material is heated up, the change in the reflectance of the surface can be
utilized to derive the thermal properties. The reflectivity is measured with
respect to time, and the data received can be matched to a model which contains
coefficients that correspond to thermal properties.
175
The experimental setup was primarily designed to study the heat storage
process. In order to assess with high accuracy this process, it was organized a
set of first calibration experiments including in addition the thermal
conductivity estimation in steady state regimes.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity, k, is quantifying the heat flux, q,
which flows through a material at temperature gradient equal to 1K/m. The
finite difference calculation is:
k
q
,
T x
(1)
where the temperature gradient was approximated by experimental steady state

measurements.
The experimental device has the following components: one steel pipe
filled with the eutectic Sn-Pb alloy, one heating electrical resistance placed at
the upper end of the tube in order to avoid the damage of experimental setup by
thermal dilation (free liquid PCM volumetric expansion inside the upper part of
the tube), twelve thermocouples placed along the axis of the pipe, ceramic fiber
thermal insulation (IsolAir thermo insulation), one digital thermometer with
twelve channels, two voltampermeters, one autotransformer and a PC collecting
experimental data. The calibration steady state regime was finding for an
electrical power of 25 W. In this situation the lost heat trough insulation
balanced the heat input developed by electrical resistance. By knowing the
temperature field along the axis and the distance between them, the thermal
conductivity might be evaluated through equation (1). The thermal conductivity
values might be evaluated for both phases, liquid and solid ones separated by
the phase change zone defined by the known beginning and ending
temperatures. The Sn-Pb alloy has the phase change domain defined by 1830
1980C. The basic relations involved in the thermal conductivity evaluation are
written below.
PCM temperature field interpolation along pipe axis
i
T (x ) f TPCM
, xi ,
(2)
i
PCM
where T
are the measured temperatures along axis at distance xi, and f is the
interpolation function.
Heat lost along imposed distance xi-j = xj xi
i j
i j
i j
Qlost
= h Ainsulation
Tinsulation
Ta ,
(3)
i j
where h is the heat transfer coefficient outside insulation, Ainsulation
is the local
i j
outside insulation area, Tinsulation
is outside insulation local mean temperature, Ta
is the ambient temperature.
176
Mihai Adam et al.
Heat balance along imposed distance xi-j = xj xi

T
T
i j
ki j Across
Q& lost
ki j Across
(4)
.
x i
x ji
The time for recording the temperatures was 4.5 hours. The evaluated
thermal conductivities are included in Tables (1) and (2).
, \W/m.K
Table 1
Local values of thermal conductivity
Area I
Area II
Area III
Area IV
Area V
(Liquid)
(Liquid)
(Solid)
(Solid)
(Solid)
108.54
137.27
240.12
229.18
250.99
Area VI
(Solid)
216.99
Table 2
Average values of thermal conductivity for liquid and solid areas
Liquid area
Solid area
, W/m.K
122.91
234.32
Min err %
Max err %
Table 3
Error values
Liquid area
-11.69
11.687
Solid area
-7.113
7.3944
3. Conclusions
1. Thermal conductivities of solid and liquid phases for Sn-Pb alloy were
calculated as functions of temperature. The variations of thermal conductivities
of solid phase versus temperature for Sn-Pb alloy have been calculated with
7% experimental error. The variations of thermal conductivities of liquid
phase versus temperature for Sn-Pb alloy have been calculated with 12%
experimental error.
2. The paper presents a direct method used to evaluate the thermal
conductivity of solid and liquid phases for Sn-Pb alloy. The obtained values of
thermal conductivity are sensitive to a critical view, but the method.
3. The method can be involved directly on an experimental setup
designed to find extensive details regarding phase change processes.
4. The accuracy of this method is depending on the experimental
measurements, especially the number of temperatures probes, and the
temperature field interpolation procedure.
Doctoral scholarships for research performance at European level project, financed by
the European Social Found and Romanian Government.
177
REFERENCES
Akbulut S., Ocak Y., Keliolu K., Maral N., Thermal Conductivities of Solid and
Liquid Phases for Neopentylglycol, Aminomethylpropanediol and their Binary
Alloy. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids (2008).
Berman R., Thermal Conduction in Solids. Clarendon Press, Oxford, U.K, 1976.
Chan G.K., Jones R.E., Low-Temperature Thermal Conductivity of Amorphous
Solids. Phys. Rev., 126(6), 2055 (1962).
Chiapyng Lee, Chung-Yung Lin, Yee-Wen Yen, The 260 C Phase Equilibria of the SnSb-Ag Ternary System and Interfacial Reactions at the Sn-Sb/Ag Joints. Journal of
Alloys and Compounds, 458, 436-445 (2008).
Erol M., Keliolu K., ahingz R., Maral N., Experimental Determination of
Thermal Conductivity of Solid and Liquid Phases in BiSn and ZnMg Binary
Eutectic Alloys. Metals Miner. Int., 11, 421 (2005).
Ibach H., Luth H., Solid-state Physics: An Introduction to Principles of Materials
Science. Springer, New York (Advanced Texts in Physics), 2009.
Kaviany M., Principles of Heat Transfer. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA,
2002.
Kaygsz Y., Ocak Y., Akbulut S., Keliolu K., Maral N., adrl E., Kaya H.,
Thermal Conductivity and Interfacial Energies of Solid Sn in the Sn-Cu Alloys
Journal of Material Science (2009).
McGaughey A.J.H., Kaviany M., Thermal Conductivity Decomposition and Analysis
Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations Part II. Complex Silica Sructures. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer, 47, 1799 (2004).
Pomeranchuk I., Thermal Cnductivity of the Paramagnetic Dielectrics at Low
Temperatures. J. Phys. (USSR), 4, 357 (1941)
Touloukian Y. S., Powell R. W., Ho C. Y., Klemens P. G., Thermal Conductivity,
Metallic Elements and Alloys. Vol. 1, Thermal Conductivity of Tin+ Silver Alloys,
Washington New York ,1970, p. 845.
Washington New York, 1970, p. 348.
Washington New York, 1970 p. 346.
Washington: New York. 1970, p. 404.
Zeller R.C., Pohl R.O., Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat of Non-crystalline
Solids. Phys. Rev. B, 4(6), 2029 (1971).
EVALUAREA DIRECT A CONDUCTIVITII TERMICE PENTRU
MATERIALE UTILIZATE N SISTEME DE STOCARE A CLDURII PRIN
TRANSFORMRI DE FAZ
(Rezumat)
Aceasta lucrare prezint o metod de calcul a conductivitii termice n funcie
de temperatur, pentru materialul, aliaj Sn-Pb, dintr-un stoctor de cldur. Calculul a
178
Mihai Adam et al.
fost fcut n regim staionar de propagare unidimensional a cldurii prin cele dou faze,
lichid i solid, obinut cnd puterea electric consumat devine ega cu pierderile de
cldur prin izolaia termic a stocatorului. Instalaia experimental include o eav
vertical, din oel inox, plin cu aliaj i izolat pe exterior. Rezistena electric este
plasat la partea superioar, pe exteriorul evii, pentru a permite dilatarea liber a fazei
lichide. Propagarea cldurii a putut fi abordat ntr-o manier asemntoare cu cea
pentru aripioare/nervuri. Evaluarea conductivitii termice a fcut parte din etapa
preliminare de etalonare a standului experimental dedicat studierii in extenso a stocrii
cldurii n metale.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
MODELING THE FLOW THROUGH A TRANSONIC

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
I. THE INFLUENCE OF THE WALL TREATMANT METHOD
BY
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU , GHEORGHE DUMITRACU 1

and FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN2
1

2
National Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines COMOTI,
Bucureti
Abstract. The paper aims to analyse the influence of the wall treatment
methods on the performance prediction and flow field simulations in transonic
centrifugal compressors. For this reason 3 numerical codes were used to simulate
the flow through a high pressure centrifugal compressor, each having different
mathematical approaches on the treatment of the boundary layer. The results
show big differences in flow separation from the blade surface and performance
prediction.
Key words: transonic flow, centrifugal compressor, turbulence models.
1. Introduction
The complex phenomenon that accompanies the onset of the transonic
regime has increased the number of experimental and numerical investigations
of the flow field inside the transonic centrifugal compressor. Due to the high
inertial forces and complex logistical operations that take place inside the
impeller flow field, many researches have been made on the interaction between
the impeller and the diffuser blades in order to validate or optimize specific
numerical codes.
Corresponding author: e-mail: gdum@tuiasi.ro
180
Gabriel Alexandru et al.
In order to validate them different numerical codes have been used

alongside experimental investigations like the k l model (Bulot et al., 2009), k
or k models (Voges et al., 2006).
The paper aims to analyse the influence of the wall treatment methods on
the performance prediction and flow field simulations in transonic centrifugal
compressors. The turbulence models used in the present study have different
mathematical approaches on the wall treatment methods. The based models
use scalable wall functions in order to minimize the effects of the boundary
layer interaction while the based models use an automatic wall function
treatment for the boundary layer.
2. Numerical Analysis
2.1. Modelling and Meshing the Geometry
The 3D geometry was meshed using Ansys Turbogrid. Given the

geometry we used a H-C-J-L topology for the free stream flow surfaces and a
type O topology for meshing the blades. For the inlet and outlet regions we used
a H-dominant topology and H not matching grid for the space between the
blades and the shroud.
In order to ensure a good resolution of the boundary layer effects we
adopted 10 elements in the near wall region and a y+<2. This resulted in a
hexaedral mesh having 889379 nodes and 832000 elements for the centrifugal
compressor impeller as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Mesh configuration at the leading edge of the blade.

2.2. Numerical Analysis
Due to high pressure and density variations we modelled the working

fluid as real gas after the Aungier Redling Kwong cubic equation of state given
by the relation
p=
RT
a (T )
.
v b + c v (v + b )
(1)
Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVII (LXI), f. 1, 2011
181
The convergence criterion for the fluid flow simulation for both
turbulence models was set to a value of 10-4 of the residuals.
The SSG RSM model could not converge to a solution from the initial
conditions and we had to impose as an initial condition the results obtained
from a converged simulation performed with the SST turbulence model of
Menter (Menter, 1994)
The numerical analysis follows the interaction between the fluid and the
impeller blades . The numerical codes used have different approaches on the
near wall treatment. The k model does not simulate the viscous sublayer of
the flow and adopts an alternative velocity for the low Reynolds flow in the
logarithmic region of the boundary layer thus limiting the y+ to a value of
maximum 11.06.
The based models like the SST model of Menter (Menter, 1993),
pushes the first line of the mesh into the viscous sublayer and imposes a relation
for the turbulent frequency given by
s =
6v
( y ) 2
(2)
where v represents the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and y the distance
between the first 2 points of the mesh.
The SSG RSM (Speziale et al., 1991) model is a based model using a
scalable wall function similar to the k model but differs from this one by
taking into account the effects produce by the system rotation and geometry
curvature.
The differences in wall treatment methods can cause delayed or
premature separation of the flow from the blade surface which combined with
the transonic effects can lead to considerable losses in performance. Flow
separation causes the appearance of stagnating regions which distort the flow at
the impeller outlet and result in efficiency loss due to the interaction of the flow
with the diffuser blades. The separation of the flow from the blade surfaces are
presented in Fig. 2, for each turbulence model.
In Fig. 2 we highlighted the distance from the blade leading edge until de
separation of the flow occurs. As we can see the k model presents a delayed
separation of the flow compared to the other 2 models. This causes the flow to
be more homogeneous at the interaction with the splitter blades and thus to have
an increase in efficiency.
The isentropic efficiency and the absolute velocity angle obtained from
the numerical analysis are presented in Table 1.
From Table 1 we can see that the highest efficiency is obtained by the k
model and the lowest efficiency is obtained with the SSG RSM model.
182
Comparing them to experimental results the SSG RSM model shows the highest
compatibility. Also, we have shown the influence of the turbulence model on
the prediction of the absolute velocity flow angle at the trailing edge of the
impeller. Although the difference is small it has a great influence on the
interaction between the impeller exit flow and the leading edge of the diffuser
blades.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 2 Separation of the flow from the blade surface:
a k - model; b SST model; c SSG RSM model.
183
Table 1
Results of the numerical analysis
Turbulence
is, %
2,
model
k
83.25
78.26
SST
81.57
78.98
SSG RSM
80.61
78.65
4. Conclusions
1. The numerical results show a considerable difference in the flow
separation distance and efficiency. Compared with experimental results
obtained on a similar centrifugal compressor impeller the SSG RSM model
shows the best compatibility.
2. The SSG RSM model presents the lowest efficiency but not the
smallest separation distance. This can be explained by the fact that the SSG
RSM model takes into account other loss generators like the Coriolis effect and
streamline curvature.
Burse doctorale O investitie in inteligenta (BRAIN), ID 6681, project funded by the
European Social Fund and the Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Bulot N., Trebinjac I., Impeller-diffuser Interaction: Analysis of the Unsteady Flow
Structures Based on their Directions of Propagation. Journal of Thermal Science,
16 (2007).
Bulot N., Trebinjac I., Ottavy X., Kulisa P., Halter G., Paoletti B., Krikorian P.,
Experimental and Numerical Investigation on the Flow Field in a High
Pressure Centrifugal Compressor Impeller Near Surge. Journal of Power and
Energy, 223 (2009).
Menter F.R., Two-equation Eddy Viscosity Turbulence Models for Engineering
Applications. AIAA-Journal., 32(8) (1994).
Speziale C.G., Sarkar S., Gatski T.B., Modeling the Pressure-strain Correlation of
Turbulence: An Invariant Dynamical Systems Approach. J. Fluid Mechanics, 277
(1991).
Voges M., Beversdorff M., Willert C., Krain H., Aplication of Particle Image
Velocimetry to a Transonic Centrifugal Compressor. Springer-Verlag, 2007.
Wilcox D. C., Turbulence Modeling for CFD. DWC Industries, Canada, 1993.
MODELAREA CURGERII NTR-UN COMPRESOR CENTRIFUG TRANSONIC
I. Influena modelrii stratului limit al curgerii
(Rezumat)
Pentru a determina influena modelrii numerice adoptate de ctre diferitele
modele de turbulen asupra prediciei performanei i cmpului de curgere a unui
184
compresor centrifug transonic au fost efectuate o serie de analize numerice folosind 3

modele de turbulen diferite. Fiecare model trateaz stratul limit al curgerii n mod
diferit i implicit obine rezultate diferite. Comparnd cu rezultate experimentale am
obtinut o imagine mai clar asupra fenomenelor ce au loc n rotorul unui compresor
centrifug transonic. Modelul de turbulen k nu reuete s modeleze satisfctor
stratul limit al curgerii i ofer o predicie exagerat a performanei compresorului n
timp ce modelul SST k - l modeleaz satisfctor. Modelul SSG RSM adopt un mod
de tratare al stratului limit similar cu modelul k . Modelul SSG RSM a fost folosit
prin impunerea unor condiii iniiale stabile obinute cu modelul SST k - , astfel nct
acesta a reuit s convearg la o soluie satisfctoare, compatibil cu rezultatele
experimentale.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CORIOLIS EFFECT IN A

TRANSONIC CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
BY
GABRIEL ALEXANDRU1, GHEORGHE DUMITRASCU 1

and FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN2
1

Faculty of Mechanics
2
Bucureti
Received: May 2012
Abstract. Numerical investigations were conducted on a transonic

backswept centrifugal compressor impeller in order to determine the influence of
the numerical codes on the prediction of the Coriolis effects. The current study
focuses on the results obtained from a numerical simulation of a transonic
centrifugal compressor using two different turbulence models, the k and the
SSG RSM model, which have different mathematical approaches on the Coriolis
forces in the R.A.N.S. equations. The results show a big difference between the
two models which justifies to current study.
Key words: transonic flow, centrifugal compressor, turbulence models.
1. Introduction
The requirements of today industry regarding small sized high
performance machines, has pushed the operating point of the centrifugal
compressor in the transonic regime. Due to the complex phenomenon that
accompanies the onset of the transonic regime many experimental and
numerical studies have been made.
The experimental studies use mainly the L2F methods (Bulot et al. 2009),
P.I.V. and S.P.I.V. (Krain et al., 2006, Voges et al., 2007) methods in order to
Corresponding author: e-mail: gdum@tuiasi.ro
186
obtain more detailed views of the flow field, but due to their high costs and
complex logistical necessities, many researchers have tried to validate different
numerical schemes that can predict as closely as possible the performance and
the flow phenomenon inside the transonic centrifugal compressor.
The numerical studies on transonic centrifugal compressors have been
made with solvers using the R.A.N.S. equations and first order closure
equations like k or k kl (Bulot et al., 2009), which do not take into account
either the importance of the boundary layer or the Coriolis effect.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the prediction of two different
turbulence models, the industrys standard k turbulence model (Wilcox,
1993) and a second order turbulence model, namely the SSG RSM (Speziale et
al., 1991). A 9:1 pressure ratio centrifugal compressor was designed in order to
observe the contribution of the Coriolis effect in the transonic regime.
2. Numerical Analysis
2.1. Modelling and Meshing the Centrifugal Impeller
A backswept centrifugal compressor was designed having 20 blades (10

full blades and 10 splitter blades) with a pressure ratio of 9:1 and a rotation
speed of 43000 rpm.
The geometry was meshed in Ansys Turbogrid resulting 889379 nodes
and 832000 elements. For the near wall resolution of the mesh we used a y+<2
and 10 elements. The fluid was modeled as air real gas with a specific heat at
constant pressure following the relation
c p = 1006.71 0.14412T + 5.38 104 T 2 3.71 107 T 3 + 7.34 1011T 4 .
(1)
For modeling the real gas we used a cubic equation of state given by the
Augier Redling Kwong model represented in
p=
RT
a (T )
.
v b + c v (v + b )
(2)
The model simulation was realized using Ansys CFX. For the
numerical simulation we considered inlet boundary conditions to be a mass flow
rate of 3.4 kg/s, total temperature of 293.15 K and an absolute pressure of
101325 Pa. For the convergence criteria we chose a value of 10-4 for the
residuals.
The aim of the study is to analyze the prediction of the effects caused by
the combined gradient due the pressure gradient between two adjacent walls, the
Coriolis effects and the centrifugal forces which cause a circulation in the flow
passage as shown in Fig. (1).
The k model uses a closure solution for the R.A.N.S. equation given
by the relation
T = C
k2
,
187
(3)
where: T is the turbulence viscosity, the density of the fluid, k the

turbulent kinetic energy, the turbulence dissipation rate and C a constant
equal to 0.09.
Fig.1 Coriolis circulation.
As suppose to the k model, the SSG RSM model resolves a transport

equation for every component of the Reynolds stress and adds a term
responsible for the Coriolis forces given by the relation
Gij = krot ( jm ikm + im jkm ) ,
(4)
where, is the density of the fluid, rot

k the rotation rate of the reference
frame of calculation, the shear stress tensor and i, j , k coordinate system
and represents the Levi Chivita factor.
The numerical simulations were carried out on identical geometry and

conditions on Ansys CFX. The difference consists in the turbulence model used
as closure for the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes equations.
The velocity flow field was examined at two different streamline
positions. The first location of the transversal section representing the flow field
was located at 25% of the length of the passage from the inlet and the results are
shown in Fig. 2. The second location was positioned at 50% of the channel
length from the inlet and the results are shown in Fig. 3.
188
The velocity vectors presented in Figs. 2 and 3 capture the combined

effects of the Coriolis forces, the pressure gradient between two adjacent walls
but also capture the influence of the secondary flows from the tip of the
impeller.
a)
b)
Fig. 2 Velocity flow field at 25% length stream wise:
a k - ; b SSG RSM.
As we can see from Fig. 2, the combined effect of the Coriolis effect and
the leakage flows is much more intense in the SSG RSM case which causes a
distortion of the flow field.
Fig. 3 presents the velocity flow field at 50% length of the passage stream
wise.
189
a)
b)
Fig. 3 - Velocity flow field at 50% length stream wise:
a k - ; b SSG RSM.
The simulation results show an isentropic efficiency for the centrifugal

compressor impeller of 83.21% for the k model and a 80.65% for the SSG
RSM model. Comparing the results with an experimental investigation the SSG
RSM model shows a better compatibility.
4. Conclusions
1. The purpose of this work was to present the difference between two
turbulence models in respect to the flow field of a transonic centrifugal
compressor.
190
2. The results show that although it necessitates much more resources

than the k model, the SSG RSM offers a more complex image of the flow
field including the Coriolis effects.
Acknowledgement. This paper was realized with the support of POSDRU
Burse doctorale O investitie in inteligenta (BRAIN), ID 6681, project funded by the
European Social Fund and the Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Wilcox, D. C., Turbulence Modeling for CFD. DWC Industries, Canada, 1993.
Bulot N., Trebinjac I., Ottavy X., Kulisa P., Halter G., Paoletti B., Krikorian P.,
Experimental and Numerical Investigation on the Flow Field in a High
Pressure Centrifugal Compressor Impeller near Surge. Journal of Power and
Energy, 223 (2009).
Speziale, C.G., Sarkar, S., Gatski, T.B., Modeling the Pressure-strain Correlation of
Turbulence: An Invariant Dynamical Systems Approach. J. Fluid Mechanics,
277, (1991).
Bulot N., Trebinjac I., Impeller-diffuser Interaction: Analysis of the Unsteady Flow
Structures Based on their Directions of Propagation. Journal of Thermal Science,
16 (2007).
Voges M., Beversdorff M., Willert C., Krain H., Aplication of Particle Image
Velocimetry to a Transonic Centrifugal Compressor. Springer-Verlag, 2007.
ANALIZA NUMERIC A EFECTULUI CORIOLIS NTR-UN COMPRESOR
CENTRIFUGAL TRANSSONIC
(Rezumat)
Pentru a obine o mai bun imagine a fenomenelor ce au loc la curgerea fluidelor
prin compresoare centrifuge transonice au fost efectuate o serie de analize numerice
utiliznd 2 modele de modelarea a turbulenelor. Compresorul analizat a fost proiectat
astfel nct s produc un raport de comprimare de 9:1 ntr-o singur treapt iar
discretizarea geometriei a fost efectuat astfel nct s asigure o rezoluie ct mai bun a
stratului limit al curgerii. Modelele de turbulen cu 2 ecuaii sunt cele mai ntalnite i
acceptate la momentul actual n cercetrile de specialitate dei este cunoscut
incapacitatea lor pentru a modela stratul limit, efectele rotaiei sistemului sau curburii
geometriei dup caz. Pentru a evidenia diferenele am folosit modelul de turbulen de
ordinul I, k , i modelul de turbulen de ordinul II, SSG RSM. Rezultatele obinute
arat diferene considerabile ntre cele 2 modele n prelucrarea efectelor compuse ale
efectului Coriolis, forelor centrifuge i scurgerilor de la vrful paletelor. Desi necesit
resurse IT mai mari modelul SSG RSM prezint o imagine mai complex a fenomenelor
i asigur o predicie satisfctoare a performanelor compresoarelor centrifuge
transonice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR TESTING

THE PHASE CHANGE HEAT TRANSFERS IN HEAT PIPES
BY
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM1, IVANCU IONEL

and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU
Faculty of Mechanics
Abstract. An experimental setup was designed with the purpose of finding

all possible influences of the one dimensional heat transfer along the
thermosyphons, such as: the inclination angle, the power input and, the
condenser cooling method. Additionally, the experimental setup allowed
investigation of the operational parameters of phases of the working fluid, and of
the boiling and flooding limits. The experiment included thermosyphons with
different diameters, three types of condenser cooling, by natural air convection,
forced air convection and forced water convection, and different input heat rates
at the evaporator. The filling ratios of thermosyphons, working with water, were
approximately 60%. This paper presents the design and fabrication of the
experimental setup as well as the experimental procedures.
Keywords: heat transfer, thermosyphon, experimental procedure.
1. Introduction
The closed thermosyphon is basically a heat pipe, (Grover, 1964), that
uses the phase change processes ensuring a very efficient heat transfer, with
small temperature drops, between two heat carriers flowing along separated
paths. The combination between a simple design, an easy operation principle
and a high heat transport capacity of the two-phase closed thermosyphons are
192
George Ovidiu Ru et al.
the primary reasons for their utilization in many industrial and energy
applications. In practice, the effective thermal conductivity of a thermosyphon
exceeds that of copper by a factor of 200500 (Dunn & Reay, 1994). This
increase is achieved by the phase change processes, boiling and condensation of
the working fluid. The design of a heat pipe starts with the restrictive conditions
imposed by the application, such as the temperature range, heat rates, heat
carriers properties, distance between the flow paths, operational restrictions, and
others.
Fig.1 Two phase closed thermosyphon working principle.
2. Experimental
2.1. Test Rigs
Two experimental test rigs were designed and manufactured to

investigate the heat transfer performances of thermosyphons in house
manufactured following the literature techniques (Reay & Kew, 2006; Fukano
et al., 1988). The experimental functionality and calibration were performed by
preliminary testing procedures. The tested thermosyphons have the following
design parameters given in Tables 1 and 2
Table 1
Termosyphons design parameters
Outer diameter of the pipes
18 mm / 15 mm
Inner diameter o f the pipes
16.7 mm / 13.7 mm
Total length of the pipes
500 mm
Heat pipe wall material
cooper
Working fluid
Filling ratio
distilled water
60% of evaporator volume
Table 2
The steady state testing parameters
Cooling type
Free air
Forced air
Parameters
convection
convection
Length of evaporator, mm
Length of adiabatic section,
mm
Length of condenser, mm
Heat input, W
Inclination, deg
193
Forced water
convection
120
120
120
240
330
330
90
16.45; 32.5; 53.95 32.5; 71.25; 95.9

45; 60; 75; 90
45; 60; 75; 90
53.95; 71.25;
90.95; 125
45; 60; 75; 90
For each basic group of restrictive conditions (condenser cooling type/

heat input/inclination), were performed at least five full tests, approximately
600 hours of testing. The proper operation of thermosyphons depends especially
on the: the concentration of non-condensable gases (air) and, the filling ratio.
From the reference literature (Sarmasti Emami et al., 2008; Grooten & van der
Geld, 2009), a filling ratio of 60% of the evaporator volume was chosen. The
schemes of test rigs are included in Figs.2 and 3
Fig. 2 Experimental setup, free and

forced air convection configuration.
Fig. 3 Experimental setup, forced water

convection.
2.2. Evaluation of the Starting Duration
The duration of steady state operation periods depended on the start-up

time. At least ten times larger durations of the steady state tests were imposed.
In Table 3 are presented the start-up time for all intended tests.
194
Table 3
Start-up time
Condenser
cooling type
Air Free
Convection
Inclination
(degrees)
45
60
75
90
Air Forced
Convection
45
60
75
90
Water Forced
Convection
45
60
75
90
Power
(W)
Start time
TT15, min
Starting time
TT18, min
16.45
32.5
53.95
16.45
32.5
53.95
16.45
32.5
53.95
16.45
32.5
53.95
32.5
71.25
95.95
32.5
71.25
95.95
32.5
71.25
95.95
32.5
71.25
95.95
53,95
71.25
90,95
125
53,95
71.25
90.95
125
53.95
71.25
90.95
125
145
116
71
58
73
52
72
74
43
92
56
72
154
51
29
42
36
36
66
43
36
36
60
29
29
29
29
22
21
21
29
29
21
33
22
15
176
116
87
58
177
52
87
87
53
107
58
107
144
51
44
36
36
50
51
43
43
36
51
44
29
22
29
22
21
21
29
18
14
14
22
15
It was observed that start-up time was depending on: geometrical sizes of
thermosyphons, the condenser cooling method, the inclination, and the power.
195
The literature offers very poor information about the starting durations, as they
are supposing that these are negligible and treating it as a consequence and not
an objective to be pursued.
2.3. Data Acquisition System
The outside surface insulation temperatures, the ambient air and the inletoutlet temperatures of the cooling water were registered by using digital
thermometers OMEGA and TEKTRONIX. These temperatures were used to
estimate the lost heat and the condensing heat rate. Temperatures were recorded
after the thermosyphons reached a steady state regime. Ten readings were taken,
at ten minutes intervals, at the end of the test a mean value of these readings
was calculated. A DIGI-SENSE 12-chanel interval scanning thermometer was
employed for recording the temperatures provided by the 6 thermocouples
placed on the wall of each pipe. The reading interval was set at 5 seconds. The
SCAN LINK data acquisition soft made possible live visualization of all the
temperatures as well as registration of the data onto the PC. Finally, the
SCANGRAPH subroutine, traced in real time the temperature curves for all
twelve thermocouples.
3. Discussion
1. Special attention has been given to charging with working fluid,
degassing and, sealing the pipes, as the proper functioning of a thermosyphon
depends especially on these aspects.
2. Degassing the pipe means evacuation of all non-condensable gases,
meaning the air inside the tube, the air dissolved in the working fluid and the air
and other gases trapped on the surface of the inner wall. The extra filling
volume, above the chosen 60% evaporator filling ratio, was firstly estimated
numerically, considering the diameter of the filling nozzle, a degassing time of
10 s and the thermodynamic proprieties of steam.
3. The preliminary tests gave good information about the start up time,
non-negligible in any application, and about the temperatures drop along the
thermosyphons, also non-negligible in any application.
Doctoral Studies BRAIN, Investment on Intelligence, POSDRU/6/1.5/S/9, ID 6681
project funded by the European Social Fund and Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Dunn, P. D., Reay D. A., Heat Pipes. 3rd Ed., Pergamon Press, UK, 1994.
Fukano, T., Kadoguchi, K., Tien, C.L., Experimental Study on the Critical Heat Flux at
the Operating Limit of a Closed Two-Phase Thermosyphon. Heat Transfer Japanese Research, 17, 43-60 (1988).
196
Grooten M.H.M. van der Geld C.W.M., The Effect of the Angle of Inclination on the
Operation Limiting Heat Flux of Long R-134a Filled Thermosyphons. HT-081513 (2009).
Grover G. M., Evaporation-condensation Heat Transfer Device. US Patent, No.
3229759, 1964.
Reay D., Kew P., Heat Pipes Theory-Design and Applications. 5th Ed., 2006.
Sarmasti Emami M.R., Noie S.H., Khoshnoodi M., Effect of Aspect Ratio And Filling
Ratio On Thermal Performance Of An Inclined Two-Phase Closed
Thermosyphon. Iranian Journal of Science & Technology, Transaction B,
Engineering, 32(B1), 39-51 (2008).
INSTALAIE EXPERIMENTAL PENTRU STUDIUL TRANSFERULUI DE

CLDUR CU SCHIMBARE DE FAZ N TERMOSIFOANE
(Rezumat)
A fost proiectat i construit o instalaie experimental cu scopul de a investiga
toate influenele posibile ale transferului de cldur unidimensional n termosifoane,
cum ar fi: nclinaia, ncrcarea termic i metoda de rcire a condensatorului. Pe lng
acestea, instalaia a permis cercetarea parametrilor operaionali ai fazelor fluidului de
lucru i a limitelor la fierbere i inundare. Cercetarea experimental a inclus termosifoane cu diametre diferite, trei metode de rcire a condensatorului, prin convecie
natural cu aer, convecie forat cu aer i convecie forat cu ap, precum i diferite
ncrcri termice la vaporizator. Raportul de ncrcare al termosifoanelor, cu ap
distilat, a fost de aproximativ 60%. Aceast lucrare prezint concepia i fabricarea
instalaiei experimentale i procedurile experimentale.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF BOILING AND

FLOODING LIMITS, USING TWO-PHASE CLOSED
THERMOSYPHONS WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETERS
BY
GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU

Department of Mecahnical & Automotive Engineering
Received: May 2012
Abstract. This paper includes evaluations of boiling and flooding limits of

two-phase closed thermosyphons, for different experimental conditions. These
evaluations measured mainly how the inclination angle, power input and
condenser cooling method influence boiling and flooding limits. The
experiments were carried out on two thermosyphons with different diameters.
Three types of condenser cooling regimes were employed: free air convection,
forced air convection and forced water cooling. The thermosyphons evaporators
were worked with a volumetric filling ratio of approximately 60%. The
evaporator heat rates were 16.45, 32.5, 53.95, 71.25, 90.95 and, 125 W.
Key words: termosyphon heat pipe, boiling and flooding limits.
1. Introduction
Grover (1964), at the Los Alamos Laboratory, USA started the intensive
study of the heat pipes. The two-phase closed thermosyphon used is basically a
condensate flow gravity-assisted heat pipe, without any porous media that uses
the capilarity mainly in order to assure the condensate flow. The thermosyphon
as a heat transfer device is very efficient. They are considered that the heat
transfer involves small temperature differences by using the phase change
phenomena of the working fluid. This assertion is not entirely true, and the
performed experiments demonstrated clearly this fact.
198
However, in practice, the axial effective thermal conductivity of a

thermosyphon exceeds that of copper by a factor of 200500 (Dunn & Reay,
1994). The scheme of a thermosyphon heat pipe is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig.1 Two phase closed thermosyphon working principle.

2. Thermal Behavior Modeling Equations
2.1. Heat Transfer Rates
Electrical power W
P = UI = 0.012U 2 + 0.05U.
(1)
The electrical power relation was deduced by a preliminary calibration

and, U is the electrical tension.
Evaporator heat rate input, W
evaporator
Q& in = P Q& lost,insulation
radiation
evaporator
Q& lost,insulation
Condenser heat rate input, [W]

evaporator
evaporator
Q& in = P Q& lost
Q& lost
radiation
adiabatic zone
Q& lost
convection
convection
evaporator
Q& lost
convection
(2)
adiabatic zone
Q& lost
radiation
evaporator
Q& lost
radiation
convection
(3)
.
The lost heat rates were computed by relations from (Churchill & Chu,
1975) for air free convection outside the insulation (Churchill & Bernstein,
1977), Re/Pr > 0.2, for air forced convection outside the insulation (Incropera
& de Witt, 1990) for radiation and, experimentally based caloric relation for
water forced convection.
3. Heat Transfer Limitations
3.1. Boiling Limit
As more heat is applied at the evaporator of the thermosyphon, the

bubble formation intensity increases. The formation of vapour bubbles in this
heat pipe volume is undesirable because it can cause hot spots and this layer of
199
bubbles can block the liquid flow. The wallboiling liquid temperature
difference, or local superheating, governs the formation of bubbles, and they
can typically be defined a maximum heat flux depending on the fluid nature.
The boiling limit is associated to a high radial heat flux. In heat thermosyphon
pipes only the boiling and flooding limits are taken into account. Due to the fact
that heat rate input is rather low, the heat rate boiling limit [W] was evaluated
based on a correlation proposed by Gorbis and Savchenkov (1976):
0.25
Q& limit,b = K uh fg v0.5 9.81 ( l v )
,
L
K u = 0.0093 e
di
1.1
di

Lc
0.88
B o = di
FR 0.74 (1 + 0.03B o ) , 2 < Bo < 60,

2
9.81( l v )
(4)
where Ku is Kutateladze number, Bo is Bond number, hfg is the phase change

enthalpy, l is liquid density, v is vapor density Le is evaporator length, Lc is
condenser length, di is inner diameter, FR is filling ratio, is interfacial tension.
3.2. Flooding Limit
The flooding limit is similar to the entrainment limit. This particular

limit is applied to all gravitational orientations of the termosyphon, and is more
likely to occur in situations where either there is too much working fluid in the
heat pipe or the vapor mass flow rate from evaporator to condenser is too large
and thus an intense cooling of condenser provokes large condensate large mass
flow rates. We say the heat pipe has reached the flooding limit when the speed
of the vapor flow is so high, that it obstructs the condensate from flowing back
to the evaporator. The shear stresses at the liquid vapor interface blocks the
condensate in returning to the evaporator, and this is leading to the flooding of
the condenser section. Thus the evaporator will not have enough liquid and will
be periodically dry out. The effect is a sudden rise in evaporator wall
temperature and a decrease of heat transfer performance of the all
thermosyphon sections. The heat rate corresponding to the flooding limit is
evaluated based on the corelation proposed by Faghri (1995)
a) vertical termosyphons
Q&
= 9.81Kh A
( )0.25 0.25 + 0.25 ,
limit,c,90
fg cross

K = l
v
0.141
b) inclined termosyphons
tanh 2 B o0.25 ;
(5)
200
Q& limit,c,i
0.5
0.05
+
(
)
v
l
1 ,
= Q& limit,c,90 1 + 0.13
v l + 0.05
(6)
where K is modified Kutateladze number, Bo is Bond number, hfg is the phase

change enthalpy, l is liquid density, v is vapor density Across is cross section
area.
4. Results and Discutions
4.1. Boiling Limitation
Bioiling limit Qlim.b [W]
The boiling limitations are included in Figs. 2 to 7. A closer analysis of

these graphs, leads to the following observations:
1. At similar heat input and inclination, as larger the inner diameter as larger
the boiling limit, and this fact is valid for all three types of condenser cooling.
2. Boiling limit increases while the working temperatures decrease.
3. Boiling limit increases as the inclination increases, the maximum value is
registered at 45 degrees for both experimented termosyphons and for all three
condenser cooling regimes.
4. The highest values for the boiling limit were emphasized at maximum
heat input for all three cooling regimes; the rising trend of the boiling limit,
function of heat input and inclination, is approximately linear.
5. This linear aspect is most visible in case of forced water cooling.
6400
16.4W ,T 1
5
32.5W ,T 1
5
53.9W ,T 1
5
16.4W ,T 1
8
32 5W T 1
5400
4400
3400
Inclination with respect to horizontal [degrees]
2400
1400
45
60
75
90
Bioiling limit
Qlim.b [W]
Fig. 2 Boiling limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, free air convection.
5000
3000
1000
Fig. 3 Boiling limit heat rate vs. power input, both thermosyphons, free air
convection.
201
oiling limit
Qlim.b [W]
6900
4900
2900
900
Fig. 4 Boiling limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, forced air
convection.
Boiling limit
Qlim.b [W]
6500
4500
2500
500
Fig. 5 Boiling heat rate vs. power input, both thermosyphons, forced air convection.
Boiling limit
Qlim.b [W]
2100
1600
1100
600
oiling limit
Qlim.b [W]
Fig. 6 Boiling limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, forced water
cooling.
1500
500
Fig. 7 Boiling limit heat rate vs. power input, both thermosyphons, forced water
cooling
4.2. Flooding Limitation
The flooding limitations are included in Figs. 8 to 12. The analysis of these
graphs, conducts to the following observations:
202
1. Just like the boiling limit, we can assume that also the flooding limit
becomes higher as the pipe diameter increases and as the working temperature
of the thermosyphon decreases.
2. A decrease in the power input, leads to a proportional decrease for the
flooding limitation. The highest values for the flooding limit were observed for
the maximum power input tested, for each type of condenser cooling.
3. Concerning the dependence of the flooding limit to the inclination, the
trend is not as clear and visible as for the boiling limit, but still, it can be seen,
especially for water cooling, a slight decrease of the flooding limit with respect
to an increase of the inclination.
Fig. 8 Flooding limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, free air
convection.
Fig. 9 Flooding limit heat rate vs. power input, both thermosyphons, free air
convection.
Fig. 10 Flooding limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, forced air
convection.
203
Fig. 11 Flooding heat rate vs. power input, both thermosyphons, forced air
convection.
Fig. 12 Flooding limit heat rate vs. inclination, both thermosyphons, forced water
cooling.
5. Conclusions
1. At similar power input and inclination, the boiling limit manifests an

increase while the diameter increases. As well, the flooding limit increases as
the working temperatures are lessening.
2. Boiling limit increases whereas the inclination with respect to
horizontal plane decreases. The maximum value is recorded at 45 for both
termosyphons and all tested condenser cooling regimes.
3. As a result, at least in the case of this research, we can state that the
flooding limit increases as the thermosyphon diameter increases and as the
working temperatures decrease.
4. The inclination induces small variations on the flooding limit values,
and thus we can consider that it does not have a significant influence on this
limit.
5. While the power input drops, both the flooding and the boiling
limitations go down.
7. We can carefully say that in real applications, considering thermal
inputs optimized by design, the operational limits (boiling and flooding) of the
204
thermosyphons cannot practically reached (Sarmasti Emami et al., 2008;

Grooten & van der Geld, 2009).
Acknowledgements. This paper was realized with the support of BRAIN
project, financed by the European Social Found and Romanian Government.
REFERENCES
Grover G.M., Evaporation-condensation Heat Transfer Device. US Patent, No.
3229759, 1964.
Dunn P. D., Reay D. A., Heat Pipes. 3rd Ed., Pergamon Press, UK, 1994.
Churchill S.W., Chu H.H.S., Correlating Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Free
Convection from a Vertical Plate. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 18(11), 13231329 (1975)
Churchill S.W., Bernstein M., Heat Transfer. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York,
USA, 1977.
Incropera F.P., de Witt D.P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. 3rd Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA, 1990.
Gorbis Z. R., Savchenkov G. A., Low Temperature TPCT Investigation. 2nd Int. Heat
Pipe Conf., Bologna, Italy, 1976, pp. 37-45.
Faghri A. Heat Pipe Science and Technology. Taylor and Francis, Washington DC,
USA, 1995.
Sarmasti Emami M.R., Noie S.H., Khoshnoodi M., Effect Of Aspect Ratio And Filling
Ratio On Thermal Performance Of An Inclined Two-Phase Closed
Thermosyphon. Iranian Journal of Science & Technology, Transaction B,
Engineering, 32(B1), 39-51 (2008).
Grooten H.M., van der Geld C.W.M., The Effect of the Angle of Inclination on the
Operation Limiting Heat Flux of Long R-134a Filled Thermosyphons. HT-081513, 2009.
INVESTIGAREA EXPERIMENTAL A LIMITELOR DE FIERBERE I

INUNDARE, PENTRU TUBURI TERMICE TERMOSIFON CU DIFERITE
DIAMETRE
(Rezumat)
n lucrare se evalueaz limitele operaionale de fierbere i inundare pentru tuburi
termice termosifon, n condiii experimentale diferite, respectiv dou diametre, ase
fluxuri termice la vaporizator, patru unghiuri de nclinare, trei modaliti de rcire la
condensator convecie liber i forat cu aer i convecie forat cu ap. Umplerea
volumetric a vaporizatorului a fost de aproximativ 60%.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO DYNAMIC

OPTIMIZATION OF THE FRONTAL LOADER
WORKING MECHANISM
BY
2
DRAGO S. CRUDU 1 and VASILE MERTICARU

1
S.C. BMT - Aerospace S.R.L.Romania,
Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology
2
Received: March 20, 2010

Abstract. This article wants to show theoretical personal contributions

regarding the dynamically optimising for the working mechanism from the
frontal loader, trying to reduce the pushing forces from lifting arm cylinders and
for reducing the arms weight starting from resistance calculations.
Key words: constructive optimization, frontal loader mechanism.
1. Constructive Optimization of the Frontal Loader Mechanism

1.1. Starting Base
In Fig.1, can be seen many forms of lifting arms, depending on the type
of frontal loader that they are specific (light, medium or heavy). Thus, forms a,
b, c and e are specific lifting arms for the structure of medium and heavy
loaders (q bucket capacity 0.5 <q 2m3 respectively q> 2m3) of the form h and
d for light and medium loaders ( q 0.5 m3 and 0.5 <q <2m3), type g) for
medium loaders in particular those with skid steering so q 0.5 m3 and for
form, for the average 0.5 q <2m3 and only the above head unloading.
1
Corresponding author: e-mail: sfinxdacic@yahoo.com
206
Drago S. Crudu and Vasile Merticaru
In Fig.1 is considered lifting arm that cinematic element with role in

lifting the bucket and has a cinematically joint, direct to the bucket.
It can be observed that there are three forms for the axle of the lifting
arm called straight, with a single bend (stretched upside down L) and with two
bends (stretched upside down Z).
Starting base for optimizing a dynamic mechanism is to know the kind
of forces action during the work. It is also important the form of certain
structural elements starting from the multitude of existing mechanisms.
For the next stage of the optimization, a general form of the axis arm
will be chosen. From this, by particularizing, will get to the other.
Thus, it is consider the most complex constructive form of the arm, the
double bend one (stretched upside down Z).
The distributions of forces that occur on these types of arms during the
work can provide us clear data. Subsequently used to sections dimensioning
and other criteria (minimal displacement, fatigue resistance, etc.).
Fig. 1
207
Rx
l1
LT
Fig. 2
The forces which action on the arm are the forces of technological
resistance (useful). These are the greatest ones occurring during work and
therefore can be used as reference. The resistance forces are function of
technological size and rigidity of the arm. It concluded that the design of the
equipment is very important for the work functioning. If the forces distribution
on the arm is simple (e.g. linear.), then the design and implementation are
simple and thus the cost price is decreased. This criterion can be avoided if the
customer wants a kind of working equipment.
1.2. External Resistant Forces According to Considered Hypotheses
For an accurate appreciation of the external forces which are tensioning

the equipment, for the purpose of calculating the arm resistance, will be used
the following hypotheses:
1 the loader is rolling, the bucket is positioned for penetrating the
material, all the cylinders are blocked; the bucket encounters an obstacle
difficult to pass, it took the shock through equipment at maximum work speed;
2 the loader raise the bucket for loading the material, the rotation of
bucket is a blocked by a hard passing obstacle which acts on its edge; cylinders
of mechanism for tipping the bucket are developing a maximal breaking force,
turning the machine around the point of support (tires of face axis). Cylinders of
arm are blocked, and resistant forces are acting in the extremely tooth axis.
3 the loader is moving horizontally, and develops all traction force.
The cylinders of bucket are developing a force for disrupting the material (in
time of bucket raising). The arm cylinders are blocked and the resistant forces
acting in the extremely tooth axis.
4 the loader is moving horizontally, the bucket cylinders are
developing a force (at the lowering of bucket) to rotate the machine around the
point of support (rear tires axis). Arm cylinders are blocked and thee resistant
forces are in the extremely tooth axis.
1.2.1. Hypothesis 1 of Calculation. The force is considered as acting on
the axis of the extreme tooth of the bucket. The force size depends on the
traction force, mass of machine and the moving speed (see Fig. 3). Reaction
force of the obstacle will be
208
Rx = T + Fd ,
(1)
where T strength tensile conditions in maximum strength improved. Slipping

coefficient is p = 0.07 Fd is dynamic force according to the relation
Fd = v1 CM ,
(2)
where v1 speed work at loading (m/s), C relative rigidity (daN/m) is

determined according to rigidity equipment and the nature of the encountered
obstacle below
CC
C= 1 2 ,
(3)
C1 + C2
where C1 rigidity of equipment, C2 rigidity of obstacle
According to the speciality literature, can be adopted for the coefficient
of rigidity of the equipment the value ke = 0.1 cm-1.
It is noted with M the reduced mass of the loader, taking into account
the masses in circular movement of engine and transmission
G
Ji 2 ,
M = n + kT
(4)
T
g
rk2
1.2.2. Hypothesis II of Calculation. Forces on the bucket are acting in

the extreme tooth axis, considering: Ry = NS snatch force determined
considering the stability
x
Fig. 3
1.2.3. Hypothesis III of Calculation (the worst). Forces acting on the

bucket are the focus tooth extreme, considering: Ry = 0.75NS NS determined to
limit the stability of equipment (rising up of the back tyres off the ground).
1.2.4. Hypothesis IV of Calculation. Active forces are also in the
extremely tooth axis, their size is
Ry =
Gn ( LT xT )
; Rx = 0.5T.
LT + l1
209
x
Fig. 4
1.3. Steps of Optimization. In determining the stages of optimization, is

based on the forces that acting the equipment on the worst situation (hypothesis
3 of working to paragraph). We have the steps:
1 setting arm center axis form;
2 arrangement of forces and torques on the arm;
3 reactions calculation and efforts chart;
4 strains calculation and comparison with the admissible;
5 establishing the final shape of the section of each segment separately
1 Determination of arm center axis form of loader. As it is showed

previously, it is up to the customer and depends on the type of loader (easy,
medium or hard).
In general case, it is considered the axis form as upside down stretched
Z (with double bend), according to Fig. 5.
V=?
l32
l31
l22
2
l21
l11
MA
112
C
G1
Fig. 5
R=?
G3
210
The model is considered as a bent on two supports named support 2 in

the joint of the cylinder and support 3 in place of joint to the chassis. Is noted
AB = l11, BC = l12, CD = l21, DF = l22, FG = l31, GH = l32.
2 The forces and moments on the arm. The weights of every segment
are considered as concentrated G1, G2, G3 acting in the weight center of their
lengths. This approximation does not affect the reactions calculations (in these
equations are used balance relationships and they are correct even if used the
resultant of distributed forces).
Are also considered the forces FH and FV with mathematic expressions
as to Sec. 1.2.2 according to third hypothesis of the work FH = T
traction force considering good adherence conditions and the slipping
coefficient p = 0.07 = 0.75 NsFv = Ns snatching maximum force considering
the limit of stability of the equipment (of the back wheels to the ground)
3 Reactions calculation and chart of efforts. This calculus is
performed considering the issue is simple statically determined, because the
reactions occurring in the joints of hydraulic cylinders are components of the
force R from the cylinder rod, split to vertical and horizontal direction.
Considering the stage 2, we write equations for the balance of forces on
horizontal, vertical and moments
FH R cos + H = 0,
FV + G1 + G2 + G3 R sin V = 0,
FV LV + G1 ( LV l11 cos ) + G2 LV ( l11 + l12 ) cos l21 cos +
+ G3l32 cos + FH LH R cos LRH R sin LRV = 0,
where
( l11 + l12 ) cos + ( l21 +
l22 ) cos + ( l31 + l32 ) cos = LV ,
( l11 + l12 ) sin + ( l21 + l22 ) sin + ( l31 + l32 ) sin

a sin + ( l31 + l32 ) sin = LRH ,
a cos + ( l31 + l32 ) cos = LRV
and result the forces
R=
FV LV + FH LH + M (G )
,
LRH cos + LRV sin
H = R cos FH ,
V = FV + G R sin ,
= LH ,
211
where
M ( G ) = G1 ( LV l11 cos ) +
+ G 2 [ LV ( l11 + l12 ) cos l 21 cos ] + G 3 l32 cos ,
G = G1 + G 2 + G 3 .
If are considered only focused efforts, the diagram of moments (M) is

formed by portions of the linear shape and for drawing it are enough the forces
below
M A = 0,
M B = FH l11 sin FV l11 cos ,
M C = M B ( FH sin + FV cos )l12 G1l12 cos ,
M D = MC ( FH sin + FV cos )l21 G1l12 cos ,
M E = M D ( FH sin + FV cos )(l22 a) (G1 + G2 )(l22 a)cos ,
M F = M E ( FH sin + FV cos )a + R sin( + )a (G1 + G2 )a cos ,
M G = M F ( FH sin + FV cos )l31 + R sin( + )l31 (G1 + G2 )l31 cos ,
M H = 0.
After drawing the diagram of moments, should be dimensioned more
sections using the Navier formula: = M /WZ where is WZ polar resistance
module. Then redefine the positions of forces of gravity G1, G2 and G3.
We will write the strain equations using Castigliano's theorem, starting
from imposed condition of the equipment will consider C1=KeGn where
Ke=0,1cm1 Gn weight of base machine (daN).
Depending on this, it will determine maximal strain allowed by the
equipment. To calculate the strains (arrow and rotation) by using Castigliano's
theorem, we establish fictitious forces and moments (if they do not exist) in the
end where they are calculated. Finally, the forces and moments are replaced by
their real values.
Thus, through the end A will be inserted the moment MA which is the
reduced moment of the discharging bucket equipment weight (including the
bucket), it will help in calculating the strains. Steps to follow are:
212
1 the writing of bending moments expressions for each portion of the

arm;
2 writing partial derivatives after their fictitious forces and moments;
3 writing the final expressions of the strains (arrow and rotation);
4 replacement the values of forces and moments used as derivation
parameters, with their real values.

1, 2 start from the equations of moments on each considered portion;
3 writing of the final expressions of final strains (arrow and rotation)
x1 (0, l11 ),
M ( x1 ) = x1 F1 M 1 ,
M ( x1 )
= x1 cos ,
A B
F1
M ( x1 )
= 1,
M 1
where
F1 = FH sin + FV cos ,
M1 = M A ,
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
fH =
Li
i =1
=
i =1
Li
EI ( xi )
FH
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
EI ( xi ) M A
dxi ,
fv =
i =1
Li
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
EI ( xi )
FV
dxi ,
dxi .
I(xi) - moment of inertia of a cross section and the law is the same along
all the arm.
Maximal allowed strain (arrow) is imposed by the equipment rigidity,
which is calculated with the below formula according to (Bratu, 1984), where
Ke = 0.1 cm1,
Gn weight of the basic machine (daN).
213
x7 (0, l32 ),
M ( x7 ) = x7 F7 M 7 ,
M ( x7 )
GH
= ( x7 sin + LH 7 ) ,
FH
M ( x )
7
= ( x7 cos + LV 7 ),
M ( x7 ) = 1,
M A
where
F7 = FH sin + FV cos + (G1 + G2 + G3 ) cos + R sin( + ),
M 7 = FH LH 7 + FV LV 7 + G1 (l12 cos + l2 cos + l31 cos ) +
+ G2 (a cos + l31 cos ) + R[a sin( + ) + l31 sin( + )] + M A ,
LH 7 = l1 sin + l2 sin + l31 sin ,
LV 7 = l1cos + l2 cos + l31 cos .
Since the I(x) is in the form of a mathematical expression (according to
the order in x), it will achieve the numerical integration (the integrals used for
strains calculation are very complex and needs a very large volume of work).
The procedure is similarly to the dimensioning:
1 determining the strains at the free end;
2 calculating the moment of inertia I in the considered points,
3 calculating the strain is in the final point;
4 establishing the mathematical expression of I(x) based on results,
5 re-dimension the arm;
6 remaking the resistance calculations;
7 recalculating the strains;
8 if the strain of the free end is the required one, the calculations are
stopped;
214
9 if not, the arrow requested at point 1 is decreased and the

calculations are remade till is obtained a satisfactory result,
x2 (0, l12 ),
M ( x1 ) = x2 F2 M 2 ,
M ( x2 )
= ( x2 + l11 )sin,
BC
FH
M ( x )
2
= ( x2 + l11 )cos
FV
M ( x ) = 1,
M A
where
F2 = FH sin + FV cos + G1 cos ,
M 1 = M A + FH l11 sin + FV l12 cos .
4 The functional optimization of the frontal loader mechanism.

After the dynamical-constructive optimization, are achieved both the
constructive form of the lifting arm of the front loader, and the total weight of it.
Fig. 6
Considering that the conditions of graphic synthesis for the lifting

mechanism as satisfied, I go to the step of determining the position of lifting
cylinder. This is established by a minimum force condition at the start of the
lifting arm race.
215
Fig. 6 considers the model in accordance with (Bratu, 1991) the

expression of pushing force from the lifting cylinders will be
Si ' =
QN l11 + G0l10 (QN + GN )ik l5

,
l4
where: QN weight from bucket, G0 weight of equipment (no bucket) GN

empty buckets weight and ik =(l11l8)/(l9l7) force for raising the cup will be
SK= (Gn ik +N5 in)k1
N5 =
where
in =
l6l8
,
l9l7
Gt l2 G0l12 , maximum resistance to raise the bucket,

l1
K1 = 1.25 coefficient of loss through friction.

The model from (Bratu, 1991) do not allow appreciation of other
parameters during the lifting, the angle of transmission, losses variation from
joints, energy consumption during a cycle of lifting-downing. The model in Fig.
7 allows the study of the three parameters leading us by mathematical
expressions of force push the cylinder lifting and reaction of cinematic joints,
can be reached coefficients of loss that can be studied to reduce them.
Fig. 7
1 establishing several points during the lifting arm after certain

criteria eventually;
216
2 establishing several positions of hydraulic cylinders around the

point to catch arm after certain criteria;
3 gathering on the strength of the impulse and reaction of cinematic
joints for each point on the path to lifting the first stage set for a position of
hydraulic cylinders;
4 hydraulic cylinder position change (by rotating around the point at
arm grip);
5 resumption stages 1.2 and 3 for each new position hydraulic
cylinder;
6 comparing results;
7 establish optimal variant from the dynamic.
Fig. 8
The steps from above can be used to the mechanism for tipping cup.
Analogical to proceed also with the reaction from points A and H
The last stage involves a relationship that would allow comparison of data
obtained namely
F ( ) = max Ni [min Fe(i )],
cr
i =1,n
cr
i =1,n
217
where Ni the number of positions related where the pushing force is minimal
The optimal variant is for the greatest number of positions where pushing force
is minimal.
Pushing force and reaction from joints will be written in Table 1.
Table1
Pushing force Fe
Initial angle
H1
H2
Hn
FeH11
FeH12
FeHn1
FeH 21
FeH 22
FeHn2
..
..
..
FeHn1
FeHn2
FeHnn
Analog to proceed for the reactions from A, I and H. We will get the
functions
RI ( ) = max N i [min RI (i )],
i =1, n
cr
i =1, n
cr
RA ( ) = max N i [min RA (i )],

i =1, n
cr
i =1, n
cr
RH ( ) = max N i [min RH (i )].

i =1, n
cr
i =1, n
cr
Following this algorithm, will result another hydraulic cylinder for

lifting than those who did the best position. The same algorithm will be applied
to the mechanism for tipping cup.
REFERENCES
*** Annals of University of Oradea, Mechanisms, Machine, Robots, Tribology,
Descriptive Geometry and Technical Drawing, Vol. I (1996).
Acker C., Current Guidelines for Construction and Operation of Machinery Machining
Surface Soil Layer, the Growth Prospects of the Yield (or Reduce
Consumption). Machines Construction, 10, 1120 (1996).
Bratu P., Determination of Resistances to the Loader Bucket in the Loading Process.
Building Mechanization, 4, 23 (1984).
Bratu P., Evaluation of Dynamic Application in the Resistance Structure of the
Equipment of Frontal Loaders, because the Cross Oscillations. Building
Mechanization, 1, 11 (1985).
218
Bratu P., Optimising of Calculation and Dimensioning for Frontal Loader. Phase I.,
Study to Determine the Geometrical and Functional Parameters. INCERC,
Bucharest, 1991.
Bratu P., Optimising of Calculation and Dimensioning for Frontal Loader. Phase II,
Study to Determine the Geometrical and Functional Parameters. INCERC,
Bucharest, 1991.
Debeleac C., Dynamical Regime Analysis for Rapidly Frontal Loaders Regarding the
Establishing the Quality Performances. Tez de doctorat, "Dunrea de Jos"
University Galai, 2006.
Leohchi D., Oprisan C., Farca F., Specific Elements in Synthesis of Mechanisms from
Frontal Loader Construction. Bul. Inst. Polit Iai, L(LIV), 5b, s. Construcii de
Maini (2004).
Merticaru V., Dynamical Problems of Mechanisms Functioning. Ed. Junimea, Iai,
1991.
Merticaru V., Oprian C, The Synthesis of 6-link Watt Mechanism. Bul. Inst. Polit Iai,
XL(XLIV), 1-4, Machines Construction (1994).
Merticaru V., Oprian C., A New Content for the Concept of Mechanism Synthesis. Bul.
Inst. Polit Iai, XXXIV(XXXVIII), 1, s. Construcii de Maini (1988).
Oprisan C., Researches Regarding the Optimizing for Synthesis of Bar Mechanisms.
Tez de doctorat, Univ. Gheorghe Asachi, Iai, 1996.
Popescu S. et al., Research of the Kinematics and Dynamics of Front Loaders Mounted
on Agricultural Wheel Tractors. International Scientific Conference -Rousse,
Bulgaria, 2004.
Sellgren Ulf., Wheel Loader Realization - A Model and an Architectural that Enables
Simulation in a Process Context. Technical Report. The Royal Institute of
Technology Stockholm, Department of Machine Design. Sweden, 2003.
CONTRIBUII TEORETICE LA OPTIMIZAREA DINAMIC A MECANISMULUI
DE LUCRU A NCRCTORULUI FRONTAL
(Rezumat)
Articolul dorete s prezinte contribuii teoretice personale privind optimizarea
dinamic pentru mecanismul de lucru de la ncrctorul frontal, ncercndu-se reducerea
forelor de mpingere din cilindrii de ridicare a braului i reducerea greutii braului
pornindu-se de la calcule de rezisten.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL DATA REFERENCE TO DESIGN

WORKING MECHANISM FOR FRONTAL LOADER
BY
DRAGO S. CRUDU 1 and VASILE MERTICARU
S.C. BMT - Aerospace S.R.L.Romania,

Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology
2

Abstract. This article shows experimental data regarding dynamically

optimization of the working mechanism from the frontal loader. Based on
theoretical modeling described in a previous paper, the authors designed and
assembled a test stand to develop experimental data reference sets that may be
used to optimize the design process of a frontal loader mechanism.
Key words: frontal loader, working mechanism, dynamic optimization.
1. Introduction
The design of the work mechanism of the frontal loader includes also
the dynamic optimization of the process. This means to decrease to a minimum
the forces from the working process without negatively influencing the
productivity and the overall functioning of the machine.
From the forces belonging to the mechanism of the frontal loader, the
forces and moments of resistance or useful technology, the forces of gravity,
elastic forces, passive resistance forces, the forces of inertia, reactions from
cinematic joints, motor forces, only two ranges can be decreased. These are a
part of motor forces and the gravity ones excepting the elastically forces used at
constructive optimization.
1
Corresponding author: e-mail: sfinxdacic@yahoo.com
220

INPUT DATA
-customer request
-output element movement
-restrictions overall dims
-average mech. efficiency
-new materials
-new technologies
-similar multiple action
industrial robots
-theme expression
Studies of value engineering

-separate action possibilities
-types of kinematical links
-number of kinematical links
-order of kinematical links
- number of kinematical
elements
Choosing structural scheme
Theme specifications
Establishing of the synthesis criteria

considering
-imposed positions
-imposed trajectory
-limits of speed and acceleration
-pressure angle
-weight
-materials
-technologies
Establishing the objective functions
Establishing the optimizing
algorithm
Design of kinematical scheme
Organologic design
-materials choosing
-optimized constructive forms
-establishing the dims. for
kinematical elements
-precision
-durability
DATA
BASE
Dynamical analysis and synthesis

-calculation of forces
-losses in cinematically links
-coefficient of force increasing
-law of motion
-establishing the action systems
-coefficient of non-uniformity
-checking the balance conditions
-regulator, fly wheel
LIBRARY OF
PROGRAMS

-mechanisms with screw
-mechanism s with gears
-mechanisms with bars
-mechanisms with cams
-combined mechanisms
Choosing of mech. type
Calculation of kinematical parameters

Calculation of forces
YES
YES
Quality parameters are between

allowed limits?
NO
YES
The parameters of cinematically

scheme are optimal?
NO
Technological design
Fig. 1 CAD/CAM system for mechanisms.
The reducing of the gravity forces means only for the lifting arm. The
overall weight of the machine must ensure the adherence in time of work.
The algorithm of calculation for dynamically optimization is a part of
the logical diagram of the System CAD/CAM/CAE for mechanisms in both
variants, the existent (Fig.1) and the proposed one (Fig. 2).
INPUT DATA
-customer request
-output element movement
-dim .restrictions, overall dim
-new materials
-new technologies
-similar multiple actions
industrial robots
-theme expression

-separate action possibilities
-types of kinematical links
-number of kinematical links
-order of kinematical links
-number of kinematical
elements
Choosing of structural scheme
Calculation of kinematical parameters

Calculation of forces
Organologic design
-materials choosing
-optimized constructive forms
-establishing the dims. for kinematical
elements
-precision
-durability
DATA
BASE
Dynamical analysis and

synthesis
-calculation of forces
-losses in cinematically links
-coefficient of force increasing
-law of motion
-establishing the action systems
LIBRARY OF
PROGRAMS

-mechanisms with screw
-mechanism s with gears
-mechanisms with bars
-mechanisms with cams
-combined mechanisms
Choosing of mech. type
221
NO
YES
Establishing of the synthesis

criteria considering
-imposed positions
-imposed trajectory
-limits of speed and acceleration
-pressure angle
-weight
-materials
-technologies
Establishing the objective
functions
Establishing the optimizing
algorithm
Design of kinematical scheme
Efficiency is between allowed

limits?
YES
YES
The parameters of cinematically

scheme are optimal?
NO
NO
Technological design
Fig. 2 Proposed CAD/CAM system.
222
It can be seen that in the second case, the efficiency is a general

indicator for the good working of the mechanism; this parameter can be handled
both as value (percent) and as components (useful and motor forces).
2. The Constructive Optimization for the Working arm
of the Frontal Loader
The constructive optimization for the working arm means the
dimensioning according with the greatest forces which are acting in the worst
situation, by satisfying the conditions of deformation (arrow and rotation)
initially introduced. Also, the conditions of cinematically synthesis are satisfied
for the hydraulically action group mechanism which includes the lifting arm and
the hydraulically cylinder for lifting for a 45HP frontal loader. After this, will
follow the steps in according with:
1 choose the centerline shape of the lifting arm;
2 disposal of the forces and bending moments on arm;
3 calculation of reactions and drawing of the efforts diagram;
4 calculation of deformations and comparison with the allowable
values;
5 choosing the final shape of the section for every fragment of arm.
The results of these steps are as follows, beginning with the arm shape
and forces which are applied to the mechanism (FH, FV) and result the forces R,
H, V. The forces FH and FV are considered with the expressions for the worst
working situation hypothesis. FH = T maximal traction force in case of good
adherence, considering the slip coefficient p = 0.07 the expression of T having
the expression according to
Ti =
270 N n
(1 p )tr = 3410 [daN], real value being 3000daN
V1
where: Nn = 45CP power of engine , V1 = 2,7km/h working moving speed,

tr = 0,815 the transmissions output, p = 0.07 the slip coefficient for
working in conditions with good adherence.
The forces which are acting on the bucket in the extremely tooths
centerline, considering Rx = T, and Ry = FV = 0.75Ns = 4121daN, - Ns
determined at the stability limit of the machine (raise of the back wheels).
FV LV + F H L H + M ( G )
R = L c o s + L s in = 3 3 5 8 4 d a N
RH
RV
H = R c o s F H = 1 1 4 5 9 .7 d a N
V = F + G R s in = 2 9 7 5 1, 2 2 d a N ,
V
w h e re
M
( G ) = G 1 ( LV
l1 1 c o s ) + G 2 LV ( l1 1 + l1 2 ) c o s l 2 1 c o s + G 3 l 3 2 c o s ,
G = G1 + G 2 + G 3
223
Fig. 3
l32
l31
l22
MA
FH
E
D
1 G2
l11
BC
l21
H
G 3
y
x
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
224
and
(l11+l12)cos+(l21+l22)cos+(l31+l32)cos=LV ,
(l11+l12) sin+(l21+l22) sin+(l31+l32) sin=LH ,
where
asin + (l31 + l32)sin = LRH ,

and result the forces
acos + (l31 + l32)cos = LRV
FV LV + FH L H + M ( G )
R = L cos + L sin ,
RH
RV
H = R cos F ,
H
V = FV + G R sin ,
where
M ( G ) = G1 ( LV l11 cos ) + G 2 LV ( l11 + l12 ) cos l 21 cos + G 3 l32 cos ,
G = G1 + G 2 + G 3
If only focused efforts are considered, the diagram of moments (M) is

formed by portions of the linear shape and the forces below are enough.
M A = 0,
M B = FH l11 sin FV l11 cos ,
M C = M B ( FH sin + FV cos )l12 G1l12 cos ,
M D = M C ( FH sin + FV cos )l21 G1l12 cos ,
M E = M D ( FH sin + FV cos )(l22 a ) (G1 + G2 )(l22 a ) cos ,
M F = M E ( FH sin + FV cos ) a + R sin( + ) a (G1 + G2 ) a cos ,
M G = M F ( FH sin + FV cos )l31 + R sin( + )l31 (G1 + G2 )l31 cos ,
MH = 0
If only concentrated efforts are considered, the diagram of moments

(M) is formed by portions of the linear shape
M A = 0,
M B = FH l11 sin FV l11 cos = 824,176daNm,
M C = M B ( FH sin + FV cos )l12 G1l12 cos = 1219,836daNm,
M D = M C ( FH sin + FV cos )l21 G1l12 cos = 1601,59daNm,
M E = M D ( FH sin + FV cos )(l22 a ) (G1 + G 2 )(l22 a ) cos = 1554.989daNm ,
M F = M E ( FH sin + FV cos ) a + R sin( + ) a (G1 + G 2 ) a cos = 1250.832daNm,
M G = M F ( FH sin + FV cos )l31 + R sin( + )l31 (G1 + G 2 )l31 cos = 464.188daNm,
MH = 0
After drawing the diagram of moments, should be dimensioned more

sections using the Navier formula: = M/Wz (Wz polar resistance module) and
results the values of the height for the sections (thickness is 30 mm) in the
225
considered points (in the parentheses are the current values from the MMT 45
loader). hB=90mm (150 mm), hc=110mm (200 mm), hD=126mm (250 mm),
hE=124mm (300 mm), hF=112mm (300 mm), hG=68mm (225 mm).
After the relocating the weight centers G1, G2 and G3, will calculate the
deformations by Castiglianos theorem, the allowed deformation is x = T/C1 =
=3000/418 = 71mm (where T is the traction force 3000 daN and C1 = KeGn
where Ke = 0.1cm-1, Gn = 4355daN-weight of basic machine, C1 = 435.5 daN/cm
- arm rigidity).
The expressions for arrow and rotation for the free end of the arm are
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
fH =
Li
i =1
=
i =1
Li
EI ( xi )
FH
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
EI ( xi ) M A
dxi , f v =
i =1
Li
M ( xi ) M ( xi )
EI ( xi )
FV
dxi ,
dxi
The formulas for displacement (arrow) and rotation are

M ( xi )
fH =
Li
i =1
Li
i =1
i =1
Li
b hi +1 hi1
xi + hi
l
12
b hi +1 hi1
xi + hi
l
12
FH
M ( xi )
M ( xi )
b hi +1 hi
xi + hi
12 l
M ( xi )
fv =
M ( xi )
3
FV
M ( xi )
M A
M ( xi )
M ( xi )
12 6
dx,
3
bE i =1 Li hi +1 hi
FH
+
x
h
i
i
l
dx =i
dxi =
dxi =
M ( xi )
M ( xi )
12 6
dx,
3
FV
bE i =1 Li hi +1 hi
+
x
h
i
i
l
M ( xi )
M ( xi )
12 6
dx.
Li
bE i =1 hi +1 hi
M A
xi + hi
l
It can be seen that the integrals have complex expressions which can be
solved (with any approximation) by numerical methods as the rectangles
method for the horizontal arrow.
f H = [ f (0) + f ( x1 ) + f ( x2 ) + ......... + f ( xn )].
Maximal allowed displacement (arrow) is imposed by the rigidity of the

equipment (71 mm in this case). The procedure is similar to the dimensioning: 1
determining the strains at the free end; 2 calculating the moment of inertia I
in the considered points, 3 calculating the strain in the required point; 4
establishing the mathematical expression of I(x) based on results; 5
redimensioning the arm; 6 remaking the resistance calculations; 7
recalculating the strains; 8 if the strain of desired point is the required one, the
calculations are stopped; 9 if not, the arrow requested at point 1 is decreased
and the calculations are remade till is obtained a satisfactory result. In case of
the loader MMT 45, these steps were followed, and results a value 2.5 mm for
the displacement, which is enough.
226
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
3. The Functional Optimizing of the Frontal Loader Mechanism.

Experimental Data
The conditions for graphical and dynamical-constructive (form and

weight for the lifting arm) synthesis are considered as satisfied; the next step is
the determining of the position for the lifting cylinder. This means to be
satisfied the condition of minimal force at the beginning of lifting process.
227
Fig.8
The formula for pushing force from the lifting cylinders will be the
following, by considering the model from Fig.6
Si ' =
QN l11 + G0l10 (QN + GN )ik l5

,
l4
where: QN = load from bucket, Go = equipments weight (without bucket), GN =

l l
weight of empty bucket, ik = 11 8 , and the force for raising the bucket will be
l9 l7
SK = (Gn ik + N5 in)k1,
ll
where in = 6 8 , N 5 = Gtl2 G0l12 = maximal resistance force for buckets raising,
l9l7
l1
K1 = 1.25 friction loss coefficient.
The model do not allow the study of other parameters along the lifting, the
transmission angle, the variation of losses from joints, the energetically
consumption along an entire lifting-downing cycle.
If we consider the model from the Fig. 7, in this case can be monitored any
of three parameters. The loss coefficients can be studied for their decreasing, by
starting with the formula of pushing force from the lifting cylinder and the
reactions from the cinematically joints. It means that the parameters for
optimizing will be also the loss coefficients.
For optimization, will be followed the steps
1 establishing points along the lifting trajectory of the arm considering
some criteria (beginning of lifting that means the bucket acceleration, maximal
228
lifting speed that means beginning of deceleration, and other points which are in
first and second part of lifting process). Total lifting time must be 6-8 seconds
for the efficiency of the loader (according the model from Fig. 5, the
acceleration will be in angular range 10=30503600, t=4 seconds, =0.12
rad/s2, the deceleration will be in the range 10=0400, t=3 seconds, =0.16
rad/s2);
2 establishing more positions of lifting cylinder around the link point to
the arm considering some criteria (3 positions are compulsory: one by graphical
construction, one at perpendicular position on the joints axis to the chassislinking point for the cylinders rod (Fig. 8) and the third one, at the limit of
critical transmission angle = 60-200 );
3 picking-up information about the pushing force and the reactions from
the cinematically joints for every point from the lifting trajectory established at
first step for one position of the hydraulically cylinder;
4 position changes for the lifting arm cylinder;
5 iterate steps 1, 2 and 3 for every new position of hydraulic position;
6 the comparison of the results;
7 choosing the optimal dynamical variant (with the greatest number of
positions where the lifting force is minimal) by using the formula
F ( ) = max N i [min Fe (i )].
cr
i =1,n
cr
i =1,n
3
11
4
5
G
6
~~
1
9
8
Fig. 9 Experimental stand: 1-welded chassis; 2-hydraulically cylinder;

3-mobile arm; 4-distributor; 5-pump; 6-electrical engine; 7-filter; 8-oil tank;
9-safety valve; 10-work manometer; 11-control manometer.
229
For experimental verification, will be used a testing stand which

simulates at low scale the working mechanism of the loader MMT45 without
the bucket acting mechanism. The components are, in according with Fig.9 for
acting the entire assembly (pumping group and mechanism) by using either the
three-phase current or a 5.5 KW Briggs-Stratton generator. The manometers are
mechanical kind, third class, with the 300 bars range. The steps are known from
prior paragraph. In Table 1 can be seen the data picked-up from the experiment
(pressure in bars), the load is approx. 950 daN. Angle is the angle between the
cylinder axle and the horizontal line at the beginning of lifting run, and the
angle between the line of the bucket and chassis lines and the horizontal one.
The optimal variant satisfies the condition
P ( ) = max N i [min Pe (i )].
cr
cr
i =1,n
i =1,n
It can be seen in the table 1 that the single variant considered optimal is
#4 (bold); both at the beginning and in all other points of the trajectory, the
force is smallest for an angle of 93054 (the synthesis angle is 6603). Can be
found a new concept called minimal cycle mechanical work. This can be applied
if we have many optimal variants (with the same number of values per cycle);
the variation diagrams of the forces depending either by the piston position
along the trajectory or by the angle of arm, the surface between the variation
diagram and the abscissa gives useful information for choosing optimal variant.
The calculation for this surface will be made using the rectangles method or
trapeze one.
Cyl.
pos.
1
66.050
.
4
9.,900
5
102.600
9
134.060
-450
-22,50
Table1
00
22,50
300
450
500
105
136
146
134
125
101
92
96
99
126
128
136
136
125
126
117
118
96
97
87
88
134
168
161
146
136
112
102
The theory and experiments can be extended to dynamically optimization

and increasing the efficiency to all kinds of bar mechanisms which are
transmitting big efforts in work time. The stand and the optimization algorithm
are valid for the working mechanism of the frontal loader.
230
bar
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
- -22,5 0
22,5 30 45
45
50
4
5
7
4
1
grade
Fig.10 Variation of pushing pressure from the lifting cylinder

according to arms inclination and the cylinder position.
1
2
Fig. 11 Assemblied stand for tests: 1 electricity generator ; 2 pumping

group; 3 lifting assembly with mobile arm.
231
4. Conclusions
1. Method proposed here can be seen as another way for dynamically

optimization of the working mechanism of the frontal loader: reducing of the
pushing force from the lifting cylinders.
2. This involves the reducing both of the fuel consumption and of the
forces from joints.
REFERENCES
*** Annals of University of Oradea. Mechanical, s. Mechanisms Section, Machine,
Robots, Tribology, Descriptive Geometry and Technical Drawing, Volume I
(1996).
Acker C., Current Guidelines for Construction and Operation of Machinery Machining
Surface Soil Layer, the Growth Prospects of the Yield (or Reduce
Consumption). Machines Construction, 10, 1120 (1996)
Bratu P., Determination of Resistances to the Loader Bucket in the Loading Process.
Building mechanization, 4, 23 (1984).
Bratu P., Evaluation of Dynamic Application in the Resistance Structure of the
Equipment of Frontal Loaders, because the Cross Oscillations, Building
mechanization, 1, 11 (1985).
Bratu P., Optimising of Calculation and Dimensioning for Frontal Loader (I) Study to
Determine the Geometrical and Functional Parameters. INCERC Bucharest,
1991.
Bratu P., Optimising of Calculation and Dimensioning for Frontal Loader (III)
Methodology for Resistance Calculation of Equipment and Machines Stability.
INCERC Bucharest, 1991.
Debeleac C., Dynamical Regime Analysis for Rapidly Frontal Loaders Regarding the
Establishing the Quality Performances. Tez de doctorat, "Dunrea de Jos"
University Galai, 2006.
Leohchi D., Oprian C., Farca F., Specific Elements in Synthesis of Mechanisms from
Frontal Loader Construction. Bul. Inst. Polit Iai, L(LIV), 5b, s. Construcii de
Maini (2004).
Merticaru V., Dynamical Problems of Mechanisms Functioning, Ed. Junimea, Iai,
1991.
Merticaru V., Oprian C, The Synthesis of 6-link Watt Mechanism. Bul. Inst. Polit Iai,
XL(XLIV), 1-4, Machines Construction (1994).
Merticaru V., Oprian C. A New Content for the Concept of Mechanism Synthesis. Bul.
Inst. Polit Iai, XXXIV(XXXVIII), 1, s. Construcii de Maini (1988).
Oprisan C., Researches Regarding the Optimizing for Synthesis of Bar Mechanisms.
Tez de doctorat, Technical University Gh. Asachi, Iai, 1996
Popescu S. et al., Research of the Kinematics and Dynamics of Front Loaders Mounted
on Agricultural Wheel Tractors. International Scientific Conference -Rousse,
Bulgaria, 2004.
Sellgren Ulf., Wheel Loader Realization - A Model and an Architectural that Enables
Simulation in a Process Context. Technical report, The Royal Institute of
Technology Stockholm, Department of Machine Design. Sweden, 2003.
232
DATE EXPERIMENTALE DE REFERIN PENTRU PROIECTAREA

MECANISMULUI DE LUCRU DE LA NCRCTORUL FRONTAL
(Rezumat)
Articolul prezint datele experimentale obinute privind optimizarea dinamic
pentru mecanismul de lucru de la ncrctorul frontal. Bazat pe modelul teoretic expus
ntr-o lucrare anterioar a autorilor, acetia au proiectat i asamblat un stand de testare
pentru a obine seturi de date utile n procesul de optimizare a mecanismului de lucru a
ncrctorului frontal.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
STUDY OF A COUNTERFLOW WET COOLING TOWER

I. SIMULATION MODEL FOR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
BY
CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU *1 and SORINEL TOFAN2

1
Dunrea de Jos University of Galai,

2
Arcelor Mittal, Galai
Received: May 2012

Abstract. Cooling towers are devices used to extract heat from waste water
and reject it to atmospheric air. An energy analysis is usually used in order to
investigate the performance characteristics of cooling tower. However, the
energy concept alone is not enough to describe some important viewpoints on
energy utilization. In this study, a mathematical model based on heat and mass
transfer principle is developed to find the properties of water and air, which will
be further used in exergy analysis. The model is validated against experimental
data.
Keywords: Cooling tower, simulation, mathematical model, performance
characteristics.
1. Introduction
Cooling towers are devices designed to reject into the atmosphere heat
extracted from warm water. Heat rejection takes place through convection
between water droplets and air, and evaporation, when a small amount of water
evaporates into air.
Therefore, this complex process involves both heat and mass transfer.
Cooling towers are widely used in several branches of industry (El-Wakil,
1985), and they can be classified depending on: air to water movement
direction: counter flow or cross flow and air movement driving force:
mechanical draft or natural draft.
*
Corresponding author: e-mail: cristian.iosifescu@ugal.ro
234
Cristian Iosifescu and Sorinel Tofan
The method described in the paper assesses the operation of a forced draft
counter flow wet cooling tower using heat and mass transfer equations between
water and air. In order to take into account air and water exergy distribution in
the tower it was used the second law of thermodynamics.
Ap
Aer
m, a, hae,
xae, Tae
m, a,
ha+dh,
xa+dxa
m,
w,
hw
dQ
m, a,
h a,
xa
dH= dV/A
m, w-dmw,
hw+dhw
Hj=0, j=1
m, we, hwe,Twe
m, a, hai,
xai, Tai
Aer
m, wi,
h iT i
Hj=H, j=Jmax
Ap
Fig. 1 Schematic of mass and energy balance of a counter flow wet cooling tower.
2. Mathematical Model
In counter flow cooling tower, water flows downwards while air flows
upwards. It is assumed that the conditions of water and air vary only with
vertical position in the tower. The differential section of the tower height dH
and the given boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 1. The important
assumptions of the model are as follows (Kuehn et al., 1998):
i) Heat and mass transfer through the tower wall to the environment is
negligible.
ii) Heat transfer from the tower fan to air and water is negligible.
iii) Water and dry air specific heats are constant.
iv) Heat and mass transfer coefficients throughout the tower are constant.
v) Heat and mass transfer is in a direction normal to the flow.
vi) Water loss by drift is negligible.
vii) Temperatures of water and air at any cross-sections are uniform.
For steady state conditions, mass balance equation for evaporated water
into air is
235
(1)
dm, w = m, a dxa .
The amount of heat gave away by water is equal to the one received by air
m, a dha = m, w dh'w + lv,w m, a dxa .
(
2)
Equation for convective mass transfer is:
m, a dxa = m a a (xs,w - xa) dV .
(
3)
If we consider that phase change latent heat is the same with saturated
vapor enthalpy (lv,w h"w) (Zubair, Qureshi, 2006), energy balance for air is
da = da,c + da,e
m, adha=c a(Tw-Ta)dV + m a a dV(xs,w-xa)h"w
(4)
After simplification of Eqs. (3) and (4) and replacement of dV=AdH,

where H [m] is tower height, and A [m2] is cross section area, variation of
enthalpy and humidity ratio for air across the tower height are
dha KaA
=
[Lef cp,a (Tw Ta ) + h"w (xs,w xa )] ,
&a
dH m
(5)
dxa KaA
=
(x x ),
& a s, w a
dH m
(6)
where Lewis factor (Lef = c/(macp,a)) is an indicator of the relative rates of

heat and mass transfer in evaporative process (Krger, Kloppers, 2005) and is
determined to be unity (Osterle, 1991). Ka, which is ma, is tower
characteristic. By replacing dh'w = cp,w dTw in Eq. (2), the change of water
temperature on the tower height is
dTw =
m& a
(dha h'w dxa )
m& wc pw
(7)
The change of air enthalpy dha and humidity ratio dxa, ca be obtained by
solving Eqs. (5) and (6). Consequently, dTw can be calculated from Eq. (7).
According to Eq. (1), the water flow rate (which is decreasing from top to
bottom due to evaporation) can be written as
m, w,H(j+1) = m, w,H(j) + m, w = m, w,H(j) + m, a(xa H(j+1) - xa H(j)).

If the following items are given:
i) inlet water temperature (Tw,i),
ii) inlet air and water flow rates (m, a, m, w,i),
(8)
236
iii) inlet air pressure, dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures (Tdb,i, Twb,i),
iv) tower cross section (A) and
v) tower characteristic (K a),
then Eqs. (5) - (8) can be solved numerically in order to find exit conditions for
air and water.
The above correlations were implemented in a computer program using
EES software, in order to obtain the 4 unknowns (ha and xa for moist air, Tw and
m, w,H for water) in all discrete points (j = 1,,Jmax) equally spaced at H along
the tower height (including the exit). Computations starts from the bottom
upwards, from the air inlet section (H = 0); since in that section (air entry water exit), air properties are known and water properties are unknown, for the
latter the program is looking for some values (m, w,e, Tw,e) so that the computed
values obtained for water at the entry (m, w,i, Tw,i) after successively performing
the computations for all the discrete points along the tower height, match the
known (imposed) ones.
3. Performance Simulation
Computation results are shown in the following figures.
1. Fig. 2 shows water temperature, temperature and humidity ratio against
the height of the tower. Air enters through the bottom, moves upwards and exits
through the top. Since air receives humidity from cooled water, it's humidity
ratio increases continuously up to saturation, and thus dry and wet bulb
temperatures get closer and closer. Water temperature, Tw, decreases
continuously as it flows downwards. Dry bulb temperature Ta,db decreases
initially at the entrance, but then increases a little after the height corresponding
to the intersection point of Tw and Ta,db. Before this point Tw is smaller than Ta,db
and therefore sensible heat flows from air to water. After this point Tw is greater
than Ta,db and now heat sensible heat flows in the opposite direction.
2. Thermal energy of water is released both via convection heat transfer
but also via evaporation. Evaporation effect can be measured depending on air
humidity ratio, xa, and wet bulb temperature, Ta,wb. One can also notice that
Ta,wb, that increases continuously from bottom to top, is always smaller than Tw.
Consequently, on the entire tower height, latent heat passes from water to air.
Thus, in the cooling tower the heat transfer occurs mainly through evaporation,
which makes that due to enthalpy difference, heat to pass always from water to
air, aspect revealed also by the enthalpies of the two fluids shown in Fig. 3.
3. In the cooling tower, the driving force for mass transfer is humidity
ratio difference between saturation humidity ratio (air in contact with cu water
droplets having temperature Tw) and humidity ratio of the cooling air flow
237
(moist air having Ta,db and a) (x = xs,w - xa). This gradient decreases due to air
cooling - Fig. 4.
Fig. 2 Temperature profiles of water and air, Fig. 3 Water and air enthalpy along the
and humidity ratio profile along the cooling
cooling tower height.
tower height.
Fig. 4 Humidity ratios (x - xsat) along

the cooling tower height.
Fig. 5 Cooled water and evaporated water

flow rates along the cooling tower height.
4. When entering the cooling tower from the top, both cooled water and
evaporated water flow rates are high. As water flows downwards, due to rapidly
decreasing evaporated water flow rate, cooled water flow rate decreases
continuously (Fig. 5).
REFERENCES
Bahaidarah H.M.S., Design and Performance Evaluation of Evaporative Cooling
Towers. M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of the College of Graduate Studies, King Fahd
Dhahran, 1999.
Bejan A., Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. 2nd Ed., Wiley, Singapore, 1997.
Baker D. R., Shryock H.A., A Comprehensive Approach to the Analysis of Cooling
Tower Performance. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 83, 339-350 (1961).
El-Wakil M. M., Powerplant Technology. McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1985.
238
Krger D.G., Kloppers J.C., Cooling Tower Performance Evaluation: Markel, Poppe,
and e-NTU Methods of Analysis. ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines
and Power, 127, 1-7 (2005).
Krger D.G., Kloppers J.C., The Lewis Factor and its Influence on the Performance
Prediction of Wet-cooling towers. International Journal of Thermal Science, 44
(9), 879-884 (2005).
Kuehn T. H., Ramsey J.W., Threlkeld J.L., Thermal Environmental Engineering, 3rd
Ed., Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1998.
Mohiuddin A. K. M., Kant K., Knowledge Base for the Systematic Design of Wet
Cooling Towers (I). Selection and Tower Sharacteristics. International Journal
of Refrigeration, 19(1), 43- 51 (1996),.
Moran M. J., Availability Analysis: A Guide to Efficient Energy Use. Prentice-Hall,
New Jersey, 1982.
Osterle F., On the Analysis of Counter-flow Cooling Towers. International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 34, 1316-1318 (1991).
Poppe M., Rogener H., Berechnung von Ruckkuhlwerken, VDIWarmeatlas, Mi 1-Mi
15 (1991).
Shukuya M., Hammache A., Introduction to the Concept of Exergy. Low Exergy
Systems for Heating and Cooling of Buildings. IEA ANNEX 37 Finland, (2002),
pp. 41- 44.
Smrekar J., Oman J., irok B., Improving the Efficiency of Natural Draft Cooling
Towers. Energy Conversion and Management, 47, 1086-1100 (2006).
Zubair S. M., Khan J.R., Yaqub M., Performance Characteristics of Counter Flow Wet
Cooling Towers. Energy Conversion and Management, 44(13), 2073-2091
(2003).
Zubair S.M., Qureshi B.A., An Improved Non-dimensional Model of Wet-cooling
Towers. Proc. of IMechE, Part E. J. Process Mechanical Engineering, 220, 31-41
(2006).
*** ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, Inc., 2005.
STUDIUL UNUI TURN DE RCIRE UMED N CONTRA-CURENT.
I. Studiul funcionrii
(Rezumat)
Turnurile de rcire sunt utilizate pentru a extrage cldura rezidual din apa de
rcire a unor maini sau utilaje i de a o elimina n aerul atmosferic. Pentru a studia
caracteristicile de performan ale turnurilor de rcire se utilizeaz de obicei analiza
energetic. Cu toate acestea, doar conceptul de energie singur este insuficient pentru a
descrie unele aspecte ale analizei acestora. n acest studiu, care presupune calculul
exergiei din aerul i apa care curg prin turnul de rcire, precum i a distrugerii acesteia,
este folosit o analiz exergetic. Modelul matematic, bazat pe principiile transferului
de cldur i mas, este conceput pentru a determina parametrii de stare ai apei i
aerului, parametri care urmeaz a fi utilizai n analiza exergetic.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
STUDY OF A COUNTERFLOW WET COOLING TOWER

II. EXERGY ANALYSIS
BY
1
SORINEL TOFAN and CRISTIAN IOSIFESCU *2

1
Arcelor Mittal Galai,

Dunrea de Jos University of Galai
Received: May 2012

Abstract. The paper complements the previous paper with an exergy

analysis. The amount of exergy supplied by water is larger than that absorbed by
air, because the system produces entropy. To depict the utilizable exergy
between water and air, exergy of each working fluid along the tower are
presented. The water exergy decreases continuously from top to bottom. On the
other hand, air exergy is expressed in terms of convective and evaporative heat
transfer. Exergy of air via convective heat transfer initially loses at inlet and
slightly recovers along the flow before leaving the tower. However, exergy of
air via evaporative heat transfer is generally high and able to consume exergy
supplied by water. Exergy destruction is defined as the difference between water
exergy change and air exergy change. The lowest exergy destruction is located
at the top of the tower.
Key words: cooling tower, exergy analysis.
1. Exergy Calculation
The specific exergy in steady state psychometric process, without considering the effect of effect of kinetic and potential energy, can be written as
= tm + ch .
(1)
The specific thermo-mechanical exergy can be written as (Qureshi,

Zubair, 2003)
tm = (h - h0) - T0(s - s0).

*
Corresponding author: e-mail: cristian.iosifescu@ugal.ro
(2)
240
Sorinel Tofan and Cristian Iosifescu
For an ideal gas with constant specific heat cp
T
P
ytm = c p (T T0 ) T0 c p ln R ln
T0
P0
(3)
The specific chemical exergy according to Wark (Wark, 1995) is

n
ch = xk ( k ,0 k ,00 ) ,
(4)
k =1
where xk is the mole fraction of substance k in the mixture.

For ideal gas mixture, the chemical potential is
P
mk ,0 mk ,00 = RT0 ln k ,0
P
k ,00
(5)
Psychometric process specific exergy is a sum between thermomechanical and chemical exergy. Thus,
= (h - h0) - T0(s - s0) +
xk (k ,0 k ,00 ) .
k =1
(6)
Since the air and water are the only fluids flowing in the counter current
cooling towers, we will write exergy equations for these fluids. If water is
considered as an incompressible fluid (Wark, 1995), based on Eq. (6), one can
write water flow rate exergy Exw as
Exw = m,
[(h'w - h'0) + vf,T(P - Psat) - T0(sf,w - sf,0) - RvT0ln 0].
(7)
In practice, the second term on the right side of the above equation is
usually neglected, so the equation becomes
Exw= m,
[(h'w-h'0)- T0(sf,w-sf,0)- RvT0ln 0].
(8)
Air is considered as a mixture of ideal gases (dry air and water vapor),
and it's specific exergy air can be written as:
air = xa[h,a - h,a,0 - T0(s,a - s,a,0) + ,a - ,a,0] +

+xv[h,v - h,v,0 - T0(s,v - s,v,0) + ,v - ,v,0].
(9)
The over-bar (e.g. h,a, s,a, ,a) represents the mole basis. Considering
constant specific heats c,p,a and c,p,v, in Eq. (9) we can use the following
replacements h,a = c,p,a (T - T0), sa = c,p,a ln(T/T0) - R ln(P/P0) and also ,
a - ,a,0= = R,T0 ln(xa/xa,0). As a result we have,
air = (xa c p,a + xv c p,v) T T0 T0 ln
T
+
T0
P
x
x
+ R , T0 ln
+ R , T0 xa ln a + xv ln v .
xa 0
xv 0
P0
241
(10)
For an dried air flow rate and neglecting pressure loss (P = P0), air flow
rate exergy Exaer becomes
Exaer= m,
air
T
[(cpa + xacpv) T T0 T0 ln +
T0
1 + 1.608 xa 00
x
+ RaT0 (1 + 1.608xa ) lnln
+ 1.608xaln a .
1 + 1.608 xa
xa 00
(11)
For determining the rate of exergy destruction I, the loss potential of air to
recover exergy supplied by water, can be obtained from the control-volume
exergy balance equation. The relation is applied at steady state conditions and
undergoes an adiabatic process with no work delivered. Assuming that air
water thermodynamics properties are known at discrete points along the tower
height, the exergy destruction for each incremental tower height dH is
Exin = Exout + I [Exw,H(j+1) + Exaer,H(j)] = [Exw,H(j) + Exaer,H(j+1)] + I.
(12)
After rearrangement, the exergy destruction for the discrete height dH is

I = [Exw,H(j+1) - Exw,H(j)]+[Exaer,H(j) - Exaer,H(j+1)].
(13)
Ambient conditions used for exergy analysis are T0 = 25 C, P0 = 1 atm,

and x00 = 0.009923 kg/kg ( = 50 %).
2. Numerical Results
Fig. 1 shows water flow rate exergy, Exw, and water temperature Tw.
Water exergy, defined as available energy carried by water, decreases
continuously from top to bottom. This can be explained by the fact that water
temperature decreases from top to bottom as a result of supplying its exergy to
air. Water exergy shows that the supplied flow is almost constant down to the
lower part. Water exergy is explained in equation (16), where the first two terms
represent thermal exergy, and the last chemical exergy. Thermal exergy is the
exergy associated to temperature difference, and chemical exergy is the one
242
associated to relative humidity of ambient, 0. Since chemical exergy of

ambient is constant, water temperature can be used as an indicator of water
exergy. The process shows that water exergy at the bottom is less than that at
the top.
Fig. 1 Temperature and water exergy

variation along the cooling tower
height.
Fig. 2 Air temperature and convection

heat transfer air exergy variation along
the cooling tower height.
Air flow rate exergy, Exaer, represents the available energy of air to
recover the exergy supplied by water. In air exists two types of exergy: air
exergy due to convective heat transfer, Exaer,conv, and air exergy due to
evaporation heat transfer, Exaer,evap. The process is described by Eq. (11) where
first term represents Exaer,conv and the rest of the terms Exaer,evap. Fig. 2 shows air
exergy by convective heat transfer and dry bulb temperature along the cooling
tower. From the bottom up to a certain height it can be noticed a decrease of
Exaer,conv and Tdb. In that region, sensible heat transfer is taking place from air to
water due to inverse convection. The intersection point of Tdb and Tw shows no
temperature difference; hence, no convective heat transfer from air to water for
minimal value of Tdb. This indicates a minimum value for Exaer,conv. After this
point, Exaer,conv contained by air allows receiving of thermal energy, and thus it's
temperature, Tdb increases.
Exergy via evaporation heat transfer, Exaer,evap, and air absolute humidity
are shown in Fig. 3. Both increase continuously along the tower. This shows
that Exaer,evap contained in air allows receiving of thermal energy.
Air exergy via convective heat transfer and evaporation, Exaer,conv and
Exaer,evap, and also air exergy Exaer = Exaer,conv + Exaer,evap, are presented in Fig. 4
against tower height. In Fig. 4 is also clearly represented that the process is
dominated by de exergy air due to evaporative heat transfer.
Exergy consumption is always accompanied by entropy generation, and
so generated entropy must be constantly removed from water. Generated
entropy is proportional to de exergy destruction (Smrekar et al., 2006). Exergy
variations of the two fluids and exergy destruction I, computed as difference
243
between water exergy variation Exw and air exergy variation Exaer, is
represented in Fig. 5. This distribution shows that water exergy is much bigger
air exergy, and that exergy losses are bigger at the bottom and gradually
decrease to the top. The minimum I locates at the top.
Fig. 3 Humidity ratio and air exergy via

evaporative heat transfer vs. cooling tower
height.
Fig. 4 Total air exergy and exergy

components vs. cooling tower height.
25
24.5
Tw,e , Ta,db = 27 C
Tw,e , Ta,db = 29 C
Tw,e , Ta,db = 31 C
24
Tw,e [C]
23.5
23
22.5
22
21.5
18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23
T a,wb,i [C]
Fig. 5 Fluids exergies and exergy

destruction vs. cooling tower height.
Fig. 6 Influence of ambient air

parameters on cooled water.
Fig. 5 shows cooled water exit temperature vs air entry status,

characterized by wet bulb temperature (Ta,wb,i) and dry bulb temperature (Ta,db,i).
One can notice that wet bulb temperature (therefore relative humidity) strongly
influences cooled water temperature, but air dry bulb temperature have almost
no influence.
3. Conclusions
1. The described mathematical model for the prediction of water and air
proprieties along the counter current cooling tower height is based on heat and
mass transfer principles. Exergy analysis is used to explain the performances of
the cooling tower. Numerical results show that:
244
a) water energy, defined as available energy carried by water decreases

continuously from top to bottom.
b) air energy is the exergy available to receive the exergy supplied by
water. Air exergy is made of exergy due, on one hand, to convective heat
transfer and, on the other hand, to evaporative heat transfer which has the major
contribution.
c) exergy destruction is high at the bottom and reduced at the top.
2. An important finding of this study is that the selection of ambient
conditions (e.g. Twb, Tdb) significantly influences the results of the exergy
analysis.
REFERENCES
Bejan A., Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. 2nd Ed., Wiley, Singapore, 1997.
Carabogdan I.Ghe. et al., Manualul inginerului termotehnician. Ed. Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1986.
Chiriac F., Instalaii frigorifice. Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981, pp. 204221.
Qureshi B.A., Zubair S.M., Application of Exergy Analysis to Various Psychrometric
Processes. International Journal of Energy Research, 27, 1079-1094 (2003).
Simpson W.M., Sherwood T.K., Performance of Small Mechanical Draft Cooling
Towers. Refrigerating Engineering, 52(6), 525-543, 574-576 (1946).
Thirapong M., Wanchai A., Somchai W., An Exergy Analysis on the Performance of a
Counterflow Wet Cooling Tower. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, 910-917
(2007).
Wark K., Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
STUDIUL UNUI TURN DE RCIRE UMED N CONTRA-CURENT.
II. Analiza exergetic
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea completeaz studiul unui turn de rcire cu o analiz exergetic. Exergia
cedat de apa rcit este mai mare dect cea absorbit de aer, aceasta deoarece sistemul
produce entropie ntruct schimbul de energie se efectueaz la diferen finit de
potenial. Pentru a descrie exergia utilizabil dintre ap i aer, sunt prezentate exergiile
fiecrui fluid de lucru de-a lungul turnului. Rezultatele arat c exergia apei scade
continuu de sus n jos. Pe de alt parte, exergia aerului este exprimat n funcie de
transferul de cldur convectiv i prin evaporare. Exergia aerului datorat transferului
de cldur prin convecie scade iniial la intrare i recupereaz uor de-a lungul turnului
nainte de a iei din acesta. Cu toate acestea, exergia aerului datorat transferului de
cldur prin evaporare este n general mare i capabil s preia exergia furnizat de
ap. Distrugerea de exergie este definit ca fiind diferena dintre variaiile de exergie
ale apei i aerului. Ea arat c, datorit ireversibilitilor termodinamice, procesele de
rcire sunt puin intense la partea inferioar dar se mbuntesc treptat pe nlimea
turnului. Rezultatele arat c distrugerea de exergie minim are loc n partea de sus a
turnului.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF THE

AXIAL HYDRAULIC TURBINES WORKING WITH
CAVITATION AT IRON GATES I HYDRO-POWER PLANT
BY
ADRIAN I. SIMEDRU
Hidroserv Iron Gates
Received: May 2012
Abstract. The article investigates the operation of hydraulic turbines from

the hydro-power plant Iron Gates I. Here during the time it was observed a
difference between the non-cavitational prediction and the cavitational effects on
the Kaplan axial hydraulic turbines. For explaining and avoiding in the future this
contradiction and optimizing of hydraulic turbines operation it was studied closer
the implied phenomena.
So, there was established the characteristic curves obtained on analytic
basis and similitude and compared with curves measured experimentally on the
hydraulic machines from the power plant. The cavitational coefficient of the
machine and cavitational coefficient of the equipment in function of system
parameters between them especially the suction head, the runner and wicket gates
blades angles of opening. Numerical values obtained permit the necessary
correlation through a complex function which is able to reduce or eliminate the
unwished effects of the cavitation phenomena on the hydraulic turbines of the Iron
Gates power plant.
Key words: optimization, operation, cavitation, parameters, turbine,
similitude, model, prototype, hydraulic.
1. Introduction
To optimize the running of the axial hydraulic turbine, the differences
between operating parameters and those calculated from the universal diagram
and model with similitude equations, must be eliminated by using a necessary
function correlation.
e-mail: ionpaun@irongates.ro
246
Adrian I. Simedru
The resulted calculated parameters of the prototype turbine are in

correlation with the registered parameters by the opening angle of the wicket
gates and runner turbine blades.
If well evaluate properly the cavitation phenomenon and the operating
parameters, the hydraulic turbine can avoid the unfavorable regimes in order to
obtain optimized operation and to reduce the cavitation phenomenon.
Nomenclature
PA
MW
0
0
Q
n
HT
HS
p
PV
Pat
inst
T
Subscripts:
m
p
11
average
m3/s
rot/min
m
m
pascals
pascals
pascals
kg/m3
m/s
-
Active power
Wicket gates opening
Runner blades opening
Flow
Speed
Turbine head
Turbine suction head
Pressure
Vapour pressure of water
Atmosphere pressure
Density of water
Water speed
Plant cavitation coefficient
Turbine cavitation coefficient
model
Prototype
Double unitary model
Average
2. The Axial Hydraulic Turbine Operation with Cavitation

To see the performance of the axial hydraulic turbine the operating
registered parameters are used from the transducers.
Coefficient of cavitation in hydraulics is a dimensionless factor, that
characterize the phenomenon of cavitation from such a point M of the fluid flow
(Brglzan, 1999).
(1)
pM pV
p
.
= inst T =
gH T
1 2 v 2
Cavitation occurs (Knapp R.T. et al.., 1997) when the pressure of a

point is equal to the vapor pressure: pM = pV inst = T = crt
To avoid the cavitation is necessary that in every points of the hydraulic
layout the pressure must be greater than the vapor pressure:
pM > pV inst > T.
where T is obtained from the average of the five statistical formulas (Simedru &
Brglzan, 2006), (Anton, 1979), and T, (Anton, 1979).
inst
pat pv
HS
g
=
HT
247
(2)
In Table 1 we have a selection of the data recorded with transducers and

the cavitation coefficients at different angles of the wicket gates and runner
opening from the unit 6 in 2007 2008 which has operated with cavitation:
Table 1
Operating parameters of the turbine obtained from the recorded data
PA MW
HT m
Q m3/s
inst
T average
HS m
19
20
25,5
26
27
28
31
32
33
36
36
37
40
41
43
44
46
47
-10
-10
-5
-5
-5
-5
0
0
0
0
5
5
10
10
10
15
15
15
60.47
60.84
82.61
84.92
95.12
94.47
121.46
122.40
122.90
122.25
139.03
162.91
163.56
181.35
190.68
190.90
189.45
194.01
29.22
28.27
28.13
28.22
28.83
27.81
28.37
27.68
27.20
24.88
26.32
27.66
25.69
26.71
26.54
25.81
2474
24.63
231.0
235.0
312.0
313.0
340.0
355.0
455.0
469.0
477.0
519.0
556.0
618.0
667.0
723.0
772.0
803.0
829.0
852.0
0.6614
0.7091
0.7158
0.7128
0.6762
0.7381
0.7030
0.7372
0.7576
0.8684
0.7977
0.7395
0.8243
0.7692
0.7918
0.8262
0.8604
0.8739
0.2742
0.2949
0.3807
0.3868
0.4058
0.4344
0.5109
0.5405
0.5619
0.6716
0.6643
0.6829
0.7967
0.8008
0.8449
0.8955
0.9700
0.9988
-9.2
-9.9
-10.0
-10.0
-9.4
-10.4
-9.8
-10.3
-10.5
-11.5
-10.9
-10.4
-11.1
-10.4
-10.9
-11.2
-11.2
-11.4
Because of the Iron Gates II hydro-power plant which means lower

suction head, the most statistical formulas for the T indicate Taverage, < inst and
good cavitation condition on the whole period considered which contradicts the
operating with cavitation of the turbines. The average statistical formulas with
SUA ASA and Brglzan formula represent the real operating with cavitation
of the turbines at the Iron Gates I hydro-power plant.
In accordance with the data recorded on the turbines from Iron Gates I
power plant after about 41 angle we have T average > inst which means
cavitation conditions at the turbine operating.
Adrian I. Simedru
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
inst
[-]
T
average
[-]
27.53
30.07
31.61
32.91
34.14
35.34
36.59
37.44
38.62
39.99
41.07
41.85
42.57
43.17
43.82
44.63
45.16
inst, T average [-]
248
[]
Fig. 1 Cavitation coefficients variation obtained by the registered parameters.
3. The Model Parameters Implemented by the Openings

Blades of the Wicket Gates and Runner Turbine
Fig. 2 Universal characteristic of the turbine model at the Iron Gates I turbines.
It is presented above in Fig. 2 the universal characteristic of the turbine

resulted from stand tests, the corresponding point of the industrial turbine
operating point is defined by values m and m of the model and there are
determined the universal model parameters with Lagrange interpolation.
Then the model parameters are obtained from the universal model
parameters by the similitude formulas and model stand tests conditions. In the
Table 2 there are shown a selection of the operating model parameters in
accordance with the wicket gates and runner blades opening of the registered
parameters at the industrial turbine operation
249
Table 2
Parameters of the model obtained by the universal model diagram
nm
Qm m3/s
Hm m
Pm kW
inst m
T m
m
rot/min
19
20
25.5
26
27
28
31
32
33
36
36
37
40
41
43
44
46
47
-10
-10
-5
-5
-5
-5
0
0
0
0
5
5
10
10
10
15
15
15
1340,9
1340.9
1336.4
1339
1336.5
1336.5
1334.1
1334.1
1334.1
1336.4
1336.40
1332.1
1336.4
1336.3
1336.4
1334.2
1334.3
1325.3
0,149
0.151
0.2188
0.2213
0.2239
0.2268
0.2905
0.2947
0.2968
0.3068
0.3617
0.3655
0.4349
0.4415
0.4519
0.5158
0.5293
0.5306
11.10
11.09
11.08
11.07
11.07
11.07
11.05
11.04
11.04
11.04
11.01
11.01
10.96
10.96
10.95
10.90
10.89
10.89
36.392
36.392
36.269
36.340
36.272
36.272
36.207
36.207
36.207
36.269
36.269
36.152
36.269
36.267
36.269
36.210
36.212
35.967
0.9528
0.9562
0.9559
0.9560
0.9533
0.9579
0.9570
0.9587
0.9597
0.9644
0.9646
0.9617
0.9699
0.9669
0.9693
0.9768
0.9768
0.9770
0.2532
0.2556
0.3564
0.3611
0.3638
0.3671
0.4524
0.4606
0.4629
0.4772
0.5445
0.5512
0.6294
0.6445
0.6592
0.7123
0.7369
0.7330
4. The Operating and Cavitation Parameters

Calculated at the Prototype Turbine
In accordance with the model parameters obtained previously, the
prototype turbine parameters are obtained by transposition with similitude
formulas and some conditions of the model stand tests, in order to be compared
with the measured parameters from the turbine operation. In the Table 3 it is
shown a selection of the prototype calculated data obtained from the model
parameters in accordance with wicket gate and runner blades opening recorded
from the turbine in operation.
The Fig. 3 represents the variation of the turbine and unit cavitation
coefficient with the calculated flow of the prototype turbine.
It is observed in Fig. 3 that at the calculated cavitation parameters of the
prototype turbine inst> T average on the greater period than the diagrams of the
measured parameters in the turbine operation which means better cavitation
condition for the calculated parameters of the turbine.
It is recommended to determine the real exploitation diagram using a
correction coefficient of an accurate assessment of the operating parameters at
the turbine, which will reflect the reality by reducing the error caused by the
250
Adrian I. Simedru
phenomenon of similitude. If there are reduced the differences between the

measured parameters and the calculated prototype parameters, the cavitation
phenomenon is minimized.
Table 3
Calculated parameters of the prototype turbine resulted with the model data
QP m3/s
HP m
Pp MW
HS m
inst p
Tp average
19
20
25.5
26
27
28
31
32
33
36
36
37
40
41
43
44
46
47
-10
-10
-5
-5
-5
-5
0
0
0
0
5
5
10
10
10
15
15
15
232.92
236.04
343.18
346.43
351.15
355.70
456.42
463.02
466.32
481.20
567.31
575.12
682.12
692.53
708.79
810.35
831.49
839.20
28.93
28.92
29.11
28.99
29.1
29.1
29.14
29.15
29.14
29.03
28.95
29.14
28.81
28.82
28.8
28.72
28.71
29.1
58.21
58.89
89.87
90.43
92.11
93.08
120.7
123.4
124.1
127.6
148.8
153.6
175.7
180.9
185.7
202.9
211.1
217
-8.78
-9.6
-9.86
-9.73
-9.13
-10.3
-9.73
-10,2
-10.5
-11.5
-10.8
-10.4
-11
-10.3
-10.8
-11.3
-11.2
-11.8
0.6532
0.6814
0.6860
0.6843
0.6612
0.7012
0.6808
0.6983
0.7061
0.7443
0.7228
0.7030
0.7332
0.7084
0.7270
0.7446
0.7431
0.7547
0.2658
0.2684
0.3742
0.3792
0.3820
0.3854
0.4750
0.4837
0.4860
0.5011
0.5717
0.5788
0.6609
0.6767
0.6921
0.7479
0.7737
0.7697
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
inst P
[-]
46.00
43.00
40.00
36.00
33.00
31.00
27.00
25.50
TP
average
[-]
19.00
inst P, T average P [-]
[]
Fig. 3 Cavitation coefficients variation obtained by the calculated parameters.
251
4. Conclusions
1. Studying the parameters of cavitation in turbine operation with
internationally known formulas, there are observed some substantial differences
between data resulting from the calculation by universal diagram and those
obtained from the measured parameters.
2. Comparing the diagrams translated from model to prototype with the
corresponding diagram of the measured data, it is shown that for the second
situation, the turbine operates in lower conditions in terms of cavitation.
3. Hence we need to use a correction coefficient of the calculated
parameters in accordance with the cavitation erosion phenomenon observed and
found to comply with the existing reality and with the parameters measured in
turbine operation at the Iron Gates I hydro-power plant.
4. Thus, with properly evaluation of the effect of the cavitation, by
electronic cam of the turbine speed regulator it can cause the turbine to avoid
these unfavorable regimes in order to obtain optimized operation and reduce the
cavitation phenomenon.
5. The numerical values, which have been calculated by universal
diagram of the model and with similitude formulas, also permit the necessary
correlation with the measured parameters of the turbine in order to determine
exactly the unit real efficiency and the turbinated flow at the Iron Gates I hydropower plant.
REFERENCES
Anton I., Turbine hidraulice. Ed. Facla, Timioara, 1979.
Brglzan M., Turbine hidraulice i transmisii hidrodinamice. Ed. Politehnica, Timioara,
1999.
Knapp R.T., Daily J.W., Hammit F.G., Cavitation. McGraw - Hill Book Company, New
York, 1997.
Simedru A.I., Brglzan M., The Cavitation Problems Of The Axial Hydraulic Turbines
Maintenance. HERVEX - Salonul international de hidraulic i pneumatic,
sisteme de etanare, mecanic fin, scule, dispozitive i echipamente electronice
specifice, mecatronic, Ed. INOE Institutul de Cercetri pentru Hidraulic i
Pneumatic, Camera de Comer i Industrie Vlcea, 2006.
COMPARAIA TEORETICO-EXPERIMENTAL LA FUNCIONAREA
CAVITAIONAL A TURBINELOR HIDRAULICE AXIALE
DE LA HIDROCENTRALA PORILE DE FIER I
(Rezumat)
Articolul investigheaz funcionarea turbinei hidraulice din centrala Porile de
Fier I. S-a observat o diferen ntre predicia de funcionare fr cavitaie, i efectele
cavitaionale asupra turbinei hidraulice axiale Kaplan.
252
Adrian I. Simedru
Pentru a explica i evita n viitor aceast contradicie, a fost studiat optimizarea

funcionrii turbinelor hidraulice aproape de fenomenul implicat.
Au fost analizate curbele caracteristice obinute analitic cu formulele de
similitudine n comparaie cu cele msurate experimental la turbinele hidraulice de la
centrala Porile de Fier I. Variaia coeficientului cavitaional al turbinei i coeficientului
cavitaional al instalaiei este studiat funcie de parametrii de funconare ai turbinei n
special cderea de aspiraie, deschiderea paletelor rotorului i aparatului director.
Datorit centralei de la Porile de Fier II, nlimea de aspiraie a turbinei este
mai mic dect cea din diagramele de exploatare ale turbinei. Pentru determinarea
coeficientului de cavitaie al turbinei corespunztor funcionrii cu cavitaie se folosete
media a dou formule statistice respectiv formula Brglzan i formula ASA-SUA.
n punctul de funcionare aferent momentului de monitorizare se preiau din
proces parametrii msurai ai turbinei. Conform cu deschderile paletelor aparatului
director i ale rotorului msurate n funcionare, se detemin pe diagrama universal a
modelului parametrii corespunztori, de unde se obin cu formulele de similitudine i
unele condiii de la testele pe model, parametrii de funcionare ai modelului. Se obin n
final parametrii de funcionare ai turbinei prototip, care difer de cei obinui la
funcionarea turbinei.
Analiznd parametrii de funcionare i cei de cavitaie calculai ai turbinei,
deducem c turbina hidraulic axial funcioneaz cu cavitaie mai mare, n situaia n care
se consider parametrii nregistrai de la traductori la funcionarea turbinei.
Valorile numerice obinute prin calcul permit obinerea unei metode de
determinare a parametrilor de cavitaie n coresponden cu diagrama universal a
turbinei. prin intermediul unei funcii complexe care s reduc sau s elimine efectele
nedorite ale fenomenului de cavitatie, aprute la paletele turbinelor hidraulice de la
centrala Porile de Fier I.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
STUDY CONCERNING OPTIMUM HEAT SOURCE

TEMPERATURE FOR A SOLAR ADSORPTION SYSTEM
BY
BOGDAN CCIUL1, VIOREL POPA 2 and TNASE PANAIT2

1
CRIOMEC S.A. Galai,

Dunarea de Jos University of Galai
Received: April 20, 2012

Accepted for publication: June 12, 2012
Abstract. Adsorption chillers tend to become a present refrigeration

technology, because they can be activated with solar energy. The hot water
produced in solar panels is circulated through a water tank, which represent the
heat source for the adsorption chiller. This article presents a theoretical study
concerning optimum heat source temperature for a maximum solar cooling
coefficient of performance.
Key words: adsorption system, solar energy, heat source temperature.
1. Introduction
For adsorption chillers, a high heat source temperature involves high
cooling COP. In the same time, a high heat water temperature in the storage
tank involves low solar panel efficiency. So, the solar adsorption airconditioning system will have an optimum hot water temperature. This article
presents a theoretical study concerning optimum heat source temperature for a
maximum solar cooling coefficient of performance.
2. The Solar Adsorption Air Conditioning System Analysis
2.1. The Silica GelWater Adsorption Chiller
The model is based on the following assumptions:

a) the temperature and pressure distributions in the heat exchangers are
uniform.
Corresponding author: e-mail: viorel.popa@ugal.ro
254
Bogdan Cciul et al.
b) the refrigerant can be uniformly adsorbed by the adsorbent.

c) the heat exchangers are well-insulated, and there is no heat loss to the
surroundings.
d) the lumped parameters model was considered.
Mass and energy balance equations for the adsorbent bed, condenser and
evaporator, as the coupled unsteady equations were set up for each stage is
presented as in (1) to (4). Provided that there is no heat recovery processes, a
theoretical Coefficient of Performance, COPth, of the adsorption cycle can be
defined as the ratio of the latent cooling energy of refrigerant to the sum of the
heat input during the switching and the desorption processes using Eq. (5).
Superscripts a and d used in Eqs. (1)-(4) represent the adsorption, respectively
desorption process. Cmax and Cmin are the maximum and the minimum water
content of the adsorption bed, respectively
(M c
s ps
+ M s c prwCbd + M bm c pbm
d
b
) ddTt
= m& h c pw (Th ,i Th ,0 ) + H ad c prwTbd
(M c
s ps
+ M s c prwCba + M bm c pbm
a
b
) ddTt
(
= m& ca c pw (Tca ,i Tca ,0 ) + H ad c prwTba
(M
c , rw prw
+ M c ,m c pc , m )
e , rw prw
(3)
dC d
dC a
Tcc ,0 ) + ( H ev c prwTc ) M s b + c prwTe M s b ,
dt
dt
+ M e ,m c pc ,m )
dTe
=
dt
= m& ch c pw (Tch ,i
COPth =
(2)
dC a
Ms b ,
dt
dTc
=
dt
= m& cc c pw (Tcc ,i
(M
(1)
dC d
Ms b ,
dt
(4)
dC a
Tch ,0 ) H ev c prw (Tc Te ) M s b ,
dt
M s H ev ( Cmax Cmin )
M s H ad ( Cmax Cmin ) + M s c ps (1 + b )(Th Tca )
(5)
The heating power consumed by the adsorption chiller, Qh , is given by
Qh
cycle
m& hw (Thw,in Thw,out ) dt

cycle
255
(6)
where cycle is the refrigeration cycle period of the adsorption chiller.

The adsorption time affects the cooling performances of the chiller,
because in this time the cooling effect is obtained.
The cooling capacity of the adsorption chiller, Qc , is given by
Qc
cycle
m& chw (Tchw,in Tchw,out ) dt

cycle
(7)
The cycle COP of the adsorption chiller, COPcycle, is defined by:

COPcycle =
Qc
.
Qh
(8)
2.2. The Solar Water Heating sub-System
Generally, evacuated tube and flat plate solar panels are commonly
used in solar thermal application system. The heat-collecting coefficient of the
two kinds of panels (Fang et al., 1995), c, is given by
a) for evacuated tube panel
c = 0.72 3.9
Tc in Tam
;
It
(9)
b) for flat plate panel
c = 0.63 5.8
Tc in Tam
,
It
(10)
were Tc in is the inlet water temperature of panel (K), Tam ambient

temperature (K), I t solar radiation intensity on the top surface of the panel
(W/m2).
Assuming that the water temperature distribution in the heat storage tank
is uniform, the unsteady energy equation of water in the heat storage is
mht c pw
dTht
= Acc I t Qh
dt
(11)
where mht is the water mass in the heat storage tank (kg), Tht is the water
temperature in the heat storage tank (K). In the same time, Tht should be
considered the heat source temperature of the solar adsorption system, Ac is the
solar collecting area of the solar water heating unit (m2).
256
Bogdan Cciul et al.
2.3. Coefficient of Performances of the SAS
The solar cooling COP of the solar adsorption system, COPsolar, is

defined by
COPsolar =
Qc
Acc I t
(12)
If the climatic conditions are considered constant, the water temperature

in the hot water tank would stay at an equilibrium temperature, and all of the
heat collected by the solar water heating unit would be used to power the
adsorption chiller, so
Qc = Ac c I t .
(13)
When the heat gains of the solar water heating unit and the heat
consumptions of the adsorption chiller reach equilibrium, it is assumed that the
heat source temperature, the outlet and inlet water temperature of panel are
correlated as follows:
Thw =
Tc in + Tc out
,
2
(14)
where Tc out is the outlet water temperature of panel (K).

From Eqs. (8), (12) and (13) results that:
COPsolar = c COPcycle
(15)
3. Heat Source Temperature Effects on the Solar COP of Solar

Adsorption System
Variations of the solar cooling COP of Solar Adsorption System (SAS)

with the heat source temperature under typical climate conditions are plotted in
Fig. 1.
As is shown in Fig 1, for SAS with the evacuated tube panel, the
optimum heat source temperatures are about 70, 74, 77, and 82C respectively,
under four types of climatic conditions. Its solar cooling COP can exceed 0.35
with the optimum heat source temperature under moderate solar radiation.
Moreover, the SAS with the evacuated tube panel can run with high
efficiency in a wide heat source temperature range when the solar radiation is
more than 700 W/m2.
0.45
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
COPsolar
COPsolar
0.45
0.30
0.25
0.30
0.2
0.20
0.20
0.15
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Heatsourcetemperature,(C)
0.1
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Heatsourcetemperature,(C)
b)It=700W/m2;Tamb=30C
a)It=650W/m2;Tamb=28C
0.45
0.45
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
COPsolar
COPsolar
257
0.30
0.30
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.1550 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Hotsourcetemperature,(C)
0.15
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Hotsourcetemperature,(C)
d)It=800W/m2;Tamb=34C
c)It=750W/m2;Tamb=32C
Fig. 2. Variation of solar cooling COPsolar with heat source temperature

COPsolar with plate panel.
COPsolar with vacuum panel ;
For SAS with the flat plate panel, the optimum heat source temperatures
are respectively about 62, 66, 69, and 72C under four types of climatic
conditions. Its solar cooling COP is much lower than that of SAS with the
evacuated tube panel. To improve system performance, it is reasonable to
employ an evacuated tube panel to power SAS.
4. Conclusions
1. The solar energy can be used like heat source for adsorption system.
Vacuum panels and flat plat panel are suitable to be used to produce hot water.
2. From Fig.1 it can be seen that for constant climatic parameters (solar
intensity and ambient temperature), the solar coefficient of performance of the
adsorption system will increase, than it will attend a maximum value and than
will decrease. That because there are about 46 % mass water connected with
a single hydroxyl group on the surface of silica atom, which cannot be removed,
otherwise the silicagel would lost the adsorption capability. Thus, the
desorption temperature cannot be higher than 120C and it is generally lower
than 90C.
258
Bogdan Cciul et al.
REFERENCES
Di J., Wu J.Y., Xia Z.Z., Wang R.Z., Theoretical and Experimental Study on
Characteristics of a Novel Silica Gelwater Chiller under the Conditions of
Variable Heat Source Ttemperature. Int. J. Refrig., 30, 515-26 (2007).
Fang, R.S., Xiang L.C., Li T.H. et al., Solar Application Technology. Agricultural
Machine Press of China, Beijing, 1995.
Popa V., Costiuc L., Cuzic M., Theoretical Study and Performance Analysis of an
Adsorption Chiller, International Congress of Refrigeration ICR, Prague, 2011.
Popa V., Popa C., A. Serban, A., Costiuc, L. The Analysis of the Adsorption Cooling
Subsystem Used in a MCCHP System with Stirling Engine like Prime Mover.
International Journal of Energy, 4(1), 1-8 (2010).
STUDIU PRIVIND TEMPERATURA OPTIM A SURSEI CALDE CARE
ACIONEAZ UN SISTEM PRIN ADSORBIE SOLAR DE CLIMATIZARE
(Rezumat)
Sistemele solare cu adsorbie s-au dezvoltat deosebit de rapid n ultimii 15 ani,
deoarece au o aplicabilitate deosebit in domeniul condiionrii aerului, putnd fi
acionate cu energii regenerabile de potenial termic sczut i cu energie solar. n plus,
au nivel de zgomot foarte sczut i un consum nesemnificativ de energie electric.
Articolul are ca scop studiul temperaturii optime de acionare a sistemelor cu
adsorbie care folosesc energia solar. Prin determinarea acestei valori a temperaturii, se
urmrete s se minimizeze suprafaa captatorilor solari. Este prezentat un model
matematic att al sistemului de adsorbie ct i al sistemului solar de captare a energiei
termice. Din analiza teoretic prezentat, rezult c randamentul solar al sistemului cu
adsorbie este mult mai bun n cazul utilizrii captatorilor cu tuburi vidate i, de
asemenea ca, funcie de caracteristicile climaterice, temperatura optim a sursei calde
trebuie s fie cuprins n intervalul de temperaturi (70...82C).

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THERMODYNAMIC STUDY
OF TOLUENE + AN ALKANE AT 318.15 K
BY
GEORGIANA BOLAT and DANIEL SUTIMAN

Department of Chemical Engineering
Received: June, 20, 2012
Accepted for publication: July, 10, 2012
Abstract. In this work, we present the experimental data of mixing

properties for a set of five binary mixtures formed by toluene with several
alkanes (octane, decane, dodecane, tetradecane, hexadecane). The excess
enthalpies, HmE and excess volumes, VmE were measured at T = 318.15 K for all
systems. In all cases, the experimental values were treated with a suitable
polynomial equation, which is function of the so-called active fraction.
Key words: excess enthalpy, excess volumes, binary mixtures, alkane,
density.
1. Introduction
This article continues a series of works that study the behaviour of
binary mixtures containing benzene derivate with saturated hydrocarbons.
Studies of systems with butyl, propyl, ethyl and methyl benzene have been
presented in previous articles (Ortega et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Bolat et al.,
2009), which provided experimental data of enthalpies H mE and excess
volumes VmE for mixtures containing these compounds, giving an

interpretation of their molecular behaviour. Hydrocarbons are among the
most important chemicals used in hydrocarbon processing industries. Such

properties are important from the fundamental viewpoint to understand their
mixing behavior (molecular interactions) as well as in practical applications
such as in petrochemical industries.
Corresponding author: e-mail: georgiana20022@yahoo.com
260
Georgiana Bolat and Daniel Sutiman
In order to carry out a systematic study on the systems indicated above in

this work the mixing properties, H mE and VmE at 318.15 K for a set of five
mixtures formed by toluene + alkanes (octane, decane, dodecane, tetradecane,
hexadecane) have been measured. Results were justified through an analysis of
the interaction occurring for this kind of mixtures and a model was proposed to
explain their behaviour.
2. Experimental
The products used in this work were of the highest commercial purity
and those manufactured by Fluka and Aldrich. Before use, all substances were
degassed with ultrasounds for several days and then stored in the dark on a
molecular sieve (Fluka, 0.3 nm), to remove the possible moisture. The quality
of substances was checked measuring some physical properties, such as the
density and refractive index nD at 318.15 K.
Experimental measurements obtained are shown in Table 1 together
with the values reported in literature, at the same conditions, and all of them
presented a good agreement with those from literature (Ortega et al., 1986;
TRC, 1991). Indirectly were calculated the VmE from density measurements at
the 318.15 K for pure compounds and mixtures. Measurements were carried out
using a vibrating-tube densimeter from Anton Paar model DMA-58, with a
reading error of 0.02 kg m-3. The densimeter was previously calibrated using
double-distilled water and nonane (Fluka). The precision in the temperature
control was of 0.01 K. Molar fraction of the mixtures were calculated with an
uncertainty better than 510-5 and the VmE , were indirectly calculated with an
uncertainty of 210-9 m3 mol-1.
The excess molar enthalpies, H mE were measured directly in a
microcalorimeter Calvet model MS80D (Setaram) at 318.15 K. The apparatus
was regularly calibrated with a Joule effect. The uncertainty estimated for
enthalpy measurements was of 0.2 J mol-1, comparing the experimental results
obtained with those from standard mixture (ciclohexane + benzene) (Stokes et
al., 1969) and of 210-4 for the mole fractions.
Figs.1 and 2 present the experimental values and correlation curves
obtained for H mE and VmE at temperature of 318.15 K for the set of five binary
mixtures of {toluene + alkanes (octane, decane, dodecane, tetradecane and
hexadecane)}. Both excess quantities, H mE and VmE , represented generically by
-1
3
-1
YmE (J mol or m mol ), were correlated with a polynomial equation as follows
YmE = z (1 z ) Ai 1 z i 1 ,
i
(1)
261
Table 1
Physical properties of pure substances measured at T = 318.15 K and atmospheric
pressure, where and nD denote the density and refractive index, respectively
nD
, kg/m3
Compound
Exp.
Lit.
Exp.
Lit.
Toluene
843.40
843.45a
1.4846
1.4827a
Octane
682.14
682.09a
1.3868
1.3855a
Decane
710.70
711.43a
1.4008
1.4008a
a
Dodecane
730.85
730.78
1.4111
1.4110a
Tetradecane
744.97
745.30b
1.4189
Hexadecane
756.21
756.30b
1.4242
a
(Ortega et al., 1986), b(TRC, 1991)
860
16
14
12
645
10
hE/(Jmol-1)
8
430
215
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
x1
0.8
Fig. 1 Plots of experimental values for HmE and correlation curves for binary mixtures
{x1C6H5CH3 + (1- x1) CnH2n+2}; labels indicate the n-values.
600
16
14
12
450
109vE/(m3mol-1)
10
300
150
0
0
0.2
0.4
x1
0.6
0.8
Fig. 2 Plots of experimental values for VmE and correlation curves for binary mixtures
{x1C6H5CH3 + (1- x1) CnH2n+2}; labels indicate the n-values.
262
where
z=
x
.
x + k (1 x)
(2)
Table 2
Coefficients Ai and k, and standard deviation s, obtained in the correlations of
experimental values, using Eq. (1) at 318.15 K
YmE = H mE / J mol 1
Mixture
x1C6H5CH3+
(1- x1) C8H18
(1- x1) C10H22
(1- x1) C12H26
(1-x1) C14H30
(1-x1) C16H34
kh
A0
A1
A2
s(H mE ) / J mol 1
1.693
2.038
2.357
2.689
3.029
3161
3784
4361
5051
5489
-2238
-3671
-4572
-6392
-6916
976
1639
2089
3241
3519
3
6
9
9
9
YmE = 10 9 VmE / m 3 mol 1
x1C6H5CH3+
(1- x1) C8H18
(1- x1) C10H22
(1- x1) C12H26
(1- x1) C14H30
(1- x1) C16H34
kv
A0
A1
A2
10 9 s(VmE ) / m 3 mol 1
1.532
1.831
2.133
2.437
2.739
1476
2689
2914
3217
3636
-1177
-2939
-2713
-2853
-3920
499
2014
1207
1129
1649
4
11
6
8
9
The values of k-parameter depend on the correlations to be made. Hence,

to correlate the pairs (x, VmE ) this parameter is calculated as the quotient of
molar volumes of pure components at the same working temperature, denoted in
0
0 . For treatment of (x,
this case by kv = Vm,2
H mE ) values (Ortega et al.
/ Vm,1
2005, 2006) also described in detail the use of k values obtained as a quotient of
surface parameter kq = q j /qi , corresponding to the substances i, j weighted with
the quotient of both real molar volumes kv and the volume parameters kr = r j /ri .
The volume parameters are determined using a group contribution method using
the corresponding surface and volume group parameters shown in (Bondi,
1968). The expression used is
0
q Vm,2
kh = 2 0
q1 Vm,1
2/3
r1

r2
2/3
q k r
= 2 v 1
q1 r2
2/3
k
= kq v
kr
2/3
(3)
The values calculated for kv and kh, using this procedure are recorded in
Table 2, together with values of the coefficients Ai obtained in the data
263
correlation for each of the five binary systems studied in this work. The
coefficients Ai were achieved by applying a least-squares procedure, minimizing
the standard deviation, s( YmE ), of the corresponding excess quantities.
Analysing the results represented in Figs. 1 and 2 we can establish that
the mixing processes of these compounds are carried out endothermically,
H mE > 0 , for all the toluene + alkane mixtures and with expansive effects,
VmE > 0 .
4. Conclusions
1. We report experimental data of mixing properties for a set of five

binary mixtures formed by toluene with octane, or decane, or dodecane, or
tetradecane, or hexadecane mixtures at 318.15 K.
2. The experimental values of the excess enthalpy and excess volumes are
fitted with a new suitable parametric equation. So, the excess enthalpies are
positive (process endothermic) in all cases increasing regularly with the alkane
chain-length increases.
3. The interaction between these two kinds of substances is probably due
to three kinds of interactions: the relatively strong interaction between aromatic
-electrons (- interactions), and the aromatic-aliphatic and aliphatic-aliphatic
interactions.
Acknowledgements. This paper was supported by the project PERFORM-ERA
"Postdoctoral Performance for Integration in the European Research Area" (ID-57649),
financed by the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government. Also the authors
would like to thank Prof. Juan Ortega Saavedra of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
University for their technical assistance.
REFERENCES
Bolat G., Cilean A., Sutiman D., Mareci D., Thermodynamic Properties of (Toluene +
an Alkane): at 298.15 K. Bul. Inst. Polit. Iasi, LV(LIX), 1, s. Matematic
Mecanic teoreticFizic, 115-130 (2009).
Bondi A., Physical Properties of Molecular Liquids. Crystals and Glasses. Wiley, New
York, 1968.
Ortega J., Matos S., Paz-Andrade M. I., Fernandez J., Romani L., Excess Volumes of
(Toluene + Each of Several Isomers of Hexanol) at 298.15 K. The Journal of
Chemical Thermodynamics, 18, 5, 419-422 (1986).
Ortega J., Marrero E., Toledo F., Espiau F., Thermodynamic Study of (Alkyl Esters+,alkyl Dihalides) I: and for 25 Binary Mixtures {xCu1H2u1CO2C2H5+ (1x),ClCH2(CH2)v2CH2Cl}, where u = 1 to 5, = 1 and v = = 2 to 6. The Journal
of Chemical Thermodynamics, 37, 12, 1332-1346 (2005).
264
Ortega J., Navas A., Placido J., Toledo F., Thermodynamic Study of (Alkyl Esters+,Alkyl Dihalides) II: and for 25 Binary Mixtures {xCu1H 2u1CO2C2H5+(1x),BrCH2(CH2)v2CH2Br}, where u = 1 to 5, = 1 and v = = 2 to 6. The Journal
of Chemical Thermodynamics, 38, 5, 585-598 (2006).
Ortega J., Bolat G., Marrero E., Thermodynamic Study of the Mixtures (butylbenzene +
E and
an Alkane or + an Alkyl Ethanoate): Experimental H m
VmE Values. Physics
and Chemistry of Liquids, 45, 3, 1-9 (2007).
E and
Ortega J., Bolat G., Marrero E., Popa I. M., Experimental Results of H m
VmE for
Binary Mixtures (Propylbenzene + an Alkane or + an Alkyl Ethanoate). Physics
and Chemistry of Liquids, 46, 4, 408-416 (2008).
Ortega J., Navas A., Bolat G., Popa I. M., Thermodynamic Properties of (Ethylbenzene
E and
+ an Alkane or + an Alkyl Ethanoate): Experimental H m
VmE Values.
Physics and Chemistry of Liquids, 47, 3, 322-334 (2009)
Stokes R. H., Marsh K. N., Tomlins R. P., Enthalpies of Exothermic Mixing Measured
by the Isothermal Displacement Calorimeter for Cyclo-octane + Cyclopentane at
25 C. The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics, 1, 4, 377-379 (1969).
TRC, (1991), Tables Non-Hydrocarbons. University College Station, Thermodynamic
Research Center, Texas A&M, TX.
STUDIUL TERMODINAMIC AL SISTEMELOR BINARE FORMATE DIN

TOLUEN + ALCANI LA TEMPERATURA DE 318.15 K
(Rezumat)
S-au obinut experimental mrimile de exces pentru un set de cinci sisteme
binare formate din toluen i alcani (octan, decan, dodecan, tetradecan, hexadecan).
Entalpia i volumul de exces pentru sistemele indicate au fost determinate la
temperatura de 318.15 K. Abaterile de la idealitate sunt pozitive att n cazul entalpiei
ct i a volumului de exces i cresc cu creterea numrului de atomi de carbon din
catena alcanului. Toate datele experimentale au fost corelate cu o nou ecuaie
polinomic, care se dorete de introdus n form extins n determinrile experimentale
ale soluiilor.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL

MEASUREMENTS IN A GAS TURBINE TURBULENT
EXHAUST JET
BY
FLORIN GABRIEL FLOREAN1, IONU PORUMBEL1,

GABRIEL ALEXANDRU2 and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU 2
1
National Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines - COMOTI

2
Received: May 2012

Abstract. The work presented here has been carried on at the National
Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines COMOTI Bucharest, as
part of a National Research program aimed at conversion of aviation and
industrial gas turbines for agricultural applications. The paper presents a Linear
Eddy Model based numerical simulation of round turbulent exhaust jet of a
Garrett 30-67 gas turbine. Experimental measurements of jet gas composition
and temperature, using a gas analyzer model VARIOPLUS INDUSTRIAL, have
also been conducted, in order to ensure numerical algorithm validation. The
numerical results are analyzed with respect to the future utilization as carrier
phase for active substances in agricultural applications. Finally, acoustic
measurements of the jet noise have been performed in order to ensure device
compliance to the environmental noise regulations, and are included in this
paper.
Key words: Gas turbine, turbulent jet, Linear Eddy Model, numerical
simulation, experimental measurements.
1. Introduction
This paper present the results obtained as part as the national research
contract number 51-063, titled Aerosol generator for plant protection against
diseases and pests designed and manufactured based on aviation technologies,
266
Florin Gabriel Florean et al.
and coordinated by the (Romanian) National Research and Development

Institute for Gas Turbines COMOTI, of Bucharest.
2. Experimental
The gas velocity at the Garrett 30 67 gas turbine engine exhaust section
centre has been measured using a hot wire anemometer model YK 2005 AH.
The measured velocity was of 185.00 m / s, data that was used for the
initialization of the numerical algorithm. Downstream of the engine, the
distance from its exhaust was measured in the direction of the engine axis, and
both the exhaust gas composition and the gas temperature have been measured
at each axial location, at the centreline, using a VARIOPLUS INDUSTRIAL
model gas analyzer. The result of the measurements is given in Table 1.
Table 1
Experimental measurements of Garrett 30-67 exhaust jet gas composition and temperature
Location
m
T
K
0
0.5
1.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
545.6
466.3
404.3
336.6
316.9
309.2
O2
mole
fraction
.1913
.1988
.2016
.2059
.2081
.2083
CO2
mole
fraction
.012
.008
.003
.001
0
0
CO
mole
fraction
.0528
.0335
.0129
.0045
.0007
0
H2
mole
fraction
.0002
.0001
.00005
0
0
0
CH4
mole
fraction
.00013
.00010
.00007
0
0
0
3. Numerical Algorithm and Results

The physics of the fluid flow in a round turbulent jet is described by the
diffusion equations of chemical species and of temperature, under the unity
Lewis number assumption:
Yk
+ uYk ( Dk Yk ) = 0,
t
+ uT ( DT T ) = 0,
t
(1)
where is the fluid density, u is the fluid velocity, Yk and Dk are, respectively,
the mass fraction and the molecular diffusivity of chemical species k, T is the
fluid temperature and T is the heat diffusion coefficient.
The discretization grid in this case needs to be fine enough to capture the
smallest turbulent scales (Kolmogorov scales - Pope, 2000), so the diffusion
equation can be solved numerically, without modeling, on a one-dimensional
domain positioned radially in this study, and convected downstream at a
267
prescribed velocity and observing mass and momentum conservation. The

impact of the turbulent eddies in the inertial range on the scalar fields is
modeled through the LEM technique, using a mapping process called block
inversion (Menon, 1994; Wu, 2001). The size, position and frequency of these
events are determined using inertial range scaling valid for three-dimensional
turbulence (Porumbel, 2003). Further details on numerical algorithm can be
found elsewhere (Wu, 2003; Porumbel, 2003).
3.1. Algorithm Initialization
The jet exhaust velocity has been assumed as fully axial and was used for
the algorithm initialization as the inflow mean axial velocity. Downstream, the
axial velocity was determined according to the jet similarity law for round jets.
The Reynolds number is 550,000 and is based on the engine exhaust
velocity and exhaust nozzle diameter. The Kolmogorov scale based on this
Reynolds number was 60 m. According to experimental measurements, five
chemical species exist in the gas turbine engine exhaust jet: CH4, CO, CO2, H2
and O2. Moreover, presence of H2O and N2 is assumed, and numerical algorithm
tracked seven chemical species. At the computational domain inlet, the radial
profiles were set based on experimental measurements, as shown in Figs. 1 - 4.
In Fig. 1, as well as in all remaining figures, chemical species mass
fractions are presented multiplied by the factors indicated in Table 2.
Table 2
Multiplication factors for species mass fractions
Species
H2
O2
H2O
CH4
CO
CO2
N2
Multiplication factor
105
10
103
105
102
102
10
600
500
H2
O2
H2O
CH4
CO
CO2
N2
Temperature [K]
Mass Fractions
400
300
200
100
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
Radial Distance [m]
1,2
1,4
1,6
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
Radial Distance [m]
Fig. 1 Radial profiles of gas composition and temperature at the inlet.
Inside the exhaust jet, the gas composition and the temperature were set to a
constant value, using the experimental data, according to Table 1. As indicated
there, no measurements of H2O and N2 were available; therefore the mass
fractions for these chemical species were computed. Assuming that the only
source of O2 in the global chemical reaction for methane is the engine exhaust
268
gas is the atmospheric air, the proportion of N2 and O2 in this has to be the same
as in the standard atmosphere:
YN2 =
79
YO .
21 2
(2)
With the amount of N2 thus known and assuming that only the seven
species mentioned earlier are present in the exhaust gas, the H2O mass fraction
results:
YH2O = 1 YO2 + YN2 + YCO2 + YCO + YH2 + YCH4 .
(3)
3.2. Axial Results
The axial variation of chemical species mass fractions and temperature at

the centerline are shown in Fig. 2, with measured data converted to mass
fractions.
The agreement between the measured data between the numerical
simulation results is generally good, allowing the validation of the numerical
results, such they may be used later, instead of the more difficult and more
expensive experimental measurements. The agreement is generally better in the
near field that in the far field. As mentioned, the measurements have been
conducted with the engine mounted on the transport vehicle, in the setup that
will be used for the practical application, therefore they had to be carried on
outside, in open air, where wind gusts may have affected the measurements. In
the numerical simulation, the surrounding air is assumed quiescent; therefore
the turbulence level is very low. In the real, measured case, the turbulence level,
hence the turbulent mixing intensity was increased by the wind, leading to
lowered measured scalar values in the far field.
Another discrepancy between the measured and the simulated data can be
observed in the H2 and CO mass fractions, at axial locations over x/d = 10.
Here, the computed values are very small, below the sensitivity level of the gas
analyzer, and therefore were not detected in the experimental measurement.
3.3. Radial Results
Figs. 3 and 4 present the numerical results of radial variation of the gas
composition and temperature at axial positions of x/d = 1, and x/d = 100.
At the first axial location, the chemical species and temperature profiles
are closer to initial profiles, as expected, but sharp scalar gradients shown in
Fig. 4 have been smoothed out by effect of molecular diffusion and turbulent
mixing.
Further downstream, as cold, pure air is entrained, the jet spreads and the
temperature and mass fraction of the combustion gases and of the unburned
hydrocarbons decrease, while the Oxygen and Nitrogen mass fractions increase.
269
In the far field, both the temperature and the species mass fraction profiles tend
to become uniform, as the jet dissipates into the surrounding air.
600
9
8
H2
Mass fraction
O2
H2O
CH4
CO
CO2
Temperature [K]
500
N2
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
300
200
100
0
-1
400
140
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Axial distance [x / d]
Axial distance [x / d]
Fig. 2 Axial profiles of gas composition (left) and temperature (right) at the centerline.
The lines represent the numerical results, and the dots represent the experimental data.
9
600
500
H2
O2
H2O
CH4
CO
CO2
N2
Temperature [K]
Mass Fractions x 10^n
400
300
200
100
1
0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
Radial Distance [r /d]
Radial Distance [r / d]
Fig. 3 Radial profiles of gas composition (left) and temperature (right) at x/d= 1.
9
335
330
H2
325
O2
320
H2O
CH4
CO
CO2
N2
Temperature [K]
Mass Fractions x 10^n
315
310
305
300
295
290
285
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
Fig. 4 Radial profiles of gas composition (left) and temperature (right) at x/d=100.
4. Conclusions
1. Experimental measurements of gas composition and gas temperature
have been carried on in the exhaust jet of a Garrett 30 67 gas turbine engine.
The same exhaust jet has been numerically simulated using a Linear-Eddy
model technique that resolves the diffusion equation at Direct Numerical
Simulation (DNS) scales on a one-dimensional domain convected axially at a
prescribed velocity, while simulating the effect of the turbulent eddies.
2. The numerical results were found generally in good agreement with the
measured data, small discrepancies being due to either experimental setup, or to
270
the measurement equipment limits. Based on this validation, the results of the
numerical simulation may be further used in the project to determine the
conditions in the exhaust jet where no experimental measurements are available.
3. As also seen in previous studies, the accuracy of the numerical results
depends strongly on three factors: spreading rate constant, c, controlling both
the velocity decay rate and jet radial expansion, set to 0.065, the Kolmogorov
scale constant, K, controlling the turbulent mixing intensity, set to 2.83, and the
probability density function describing the turbulent eddy location distribution
set to a bimodal Gaussian with averages at the jet edges, and a variance equal to
two jet diameters. The result sensitivity to these parameters represents the topic
of a future study.
REFERENCES
Menon S., Calhoon W.H., Goldin G., Kerstein A.R., Effects of Molecular Transport on
Turbulence Chemistry Interactions in a Hydrogen Argon Air Jet Diffusion
Flame. 25th Symposium (International) on Combustion, 1994 , pp. 1125-1131.
Menon S., Wu J., Effects of Micro- and Macroscale Turbulent Mixing on Chemical
Processes in Engine Exhaust Plumes. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 37, 639653 (1998).
Pope S.B., Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K, 2000.
Porumbel, I. and Menon, S., Prediction of Soot Formation in a Turbulent Diffusion Jet
Flame Using the Linear-Eddy Model. AIAA, 2003 0312, 2003.
Wu J., Menon S., Aerosol Dynamics in the near Field of Engine Exhaust Plumes.
Journal of Applied Meteorology, 40, 795-809 (2001).
SIMULAREA NUMERIC I DETERMINRI EXPERIMENTALE

NTR-UN JET TURBULENT DE GAZE EVACUATE
DINTR-O TURBIN CU GAZE
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea prezint un model liniar Eddy bazat pe simularea numeric a unui
jet circular turbulent dintr-o turbin cu gaze tip Garrett 30-67. Au fost efectuate
msurtori experimentale cu un analizor de gaze tip Varioplus Industrial, pentru
validarea experimental a modelului numeric. Rezultatele numerice sunt analizate
pentru o utilizare ulterioar n aplicaii n domeniul agriculturii. Au fost efectuate
i msurtori acustice ale jetului pentru a asigura conformitatea cu normele de
mediu, n ceea ce privete nivelul zgomotului.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND NUMERICAL

SIMULATIONS IN ISOTHERMAL TURBULENT FLOWS
BY
FLORIN FLOREAN GABRIEL1, ALEXANDRU GABRIEL2

and GHEORGHE DUMITRACU 2
1

2
Received: May 2012

Abstract. The paper presents Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

experimental measurements and an ANSYS CFX numerical simulation of the
mean and fluctuating velocity field in a turbulent, isothermal flow downstream
of a V-shaped bluff body flame stabilizer equipping a post-combustion system
installed downstream of a Garrett 30-67 gas turbine engine. Also, the
instrumentation used on the experimental rig, including the Particle Image
Velocimetry equipment, is briefly described.The presence of a bluff body inside
the high speed flow creates a re-circulating wake structure, clearly seen in the
experimental data. In the near field, the re-circulating region's length and width
of are captured reasonably well by the numerical simulation, but the momentum
rate transfer further downstream is over-predicted, as the grid resolution
worsens.An overall over prediction of the axial velocity by the numerical
simulation is noted by comparing the numerical simulation results to the
experimental data, explained by an over estimated inlet velocity in the numerical
simulation, provided by PIV experimental measurements in the free exhaust jet
behind the gas generator, without the installation of the post-combustion system,
thus neglecting the effect of the latter on the operating regime of the gas turbine
engine.
Key words: bluff body, PIV, numerical simulation.
272
1. Introduction
Bluff body stabilized flames have been a research topic for quite a long
time, due to their relevance to a wide range of aeronautical and industrial
applications (e.g. turbojet afterburners, nozzle mixing burners, ramjets and
SCRAM jets). Experimental studies of bluff body stabilized flames were
reported as early as the middle of the previous century (Nicholson & Fields,
1949), the first investigations being concerned with determining the parameters
can affect the geometry of recirculation zone and, therefore, the stability limits
of the flame (Winterfeld, 1965). With the recent advances in the computer
technology, the numerical simulations of both reactive and non-reactive flow
have become feasible and the bluff body stabilized flames were no exception to
this rule. Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) simulations of reactive
flows behind bluff bodies were reported by many researchers in the field with
varying degrees of success. However, important discrepancies in the wake
configuration could not be avoided due to shortcomings stemming mostly from
the RANS' inability to handle the smaller turbulent scales that are key to the
combustion process.The later development of the Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
technique allowed a significant improvement of numerical simulation accuracy
in general. Due to its ability to resolve a larger range of turbulent scales, the
method is more appropriate to simulate turbulent flows. Numerical simulations
using this technique and dealing with bluff body flame holders were
reported.Some Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) studies have also been
reported over the last years, but they are only limited to small domains due to
the important computational cost.
2. Experimental Measurements Setup
The experimental data presented in this paper is the result experimental
measurements of mean and fluctuating velocity of an isothermal (non-reactive)
turbulent flow in a post-combustion system provided with a bluff body flame
stabilizer. The experimental measurements were carried out by means of
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and provide the instantaneous velocity field
downstream of the bluff body flame stabilizer.
3. Experimental Model
The experimental model used for the experimental measurements
presented in this paper consists in a post-combustion system placed downstream
of a gas turbine engine. The exhaust gas is directed towards a noise damper to
comply with environmental regulation. No fuel is introduced in the postcombustion system; the flow through the experimental installation is nonreactive.
273
4. The Post-Combustion System

The post-combustion system was designed and built at COMOTI,
Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, in Bucharest,
Romania, and has the following general dimensions: L = 168 mm; h = 228 mm;
l = 330 mm. The post-combustion chamber is equipped with a V-shaped based,
prismatic, bluff body flame stabilizer composed from the outer casing and the
post-combustion chamber. The outer casing has the following dimensions:
L = 330 mm; h = 228 mm, and includes a fuel pipe of: = 10 mm; h = 470mm.
5. The Gas Generator
The exhaust gas entering the post-combustion system is provided by a
Garrett 30-67 gas turbine engine. The gas turbine engine drives an electrical
generator, as brake.
6. Test Rig Instrumentation
PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) is an optical method of flow
visualization used in research and industry for obtaining instantaneous velocity
measurements and related properties in fluids. Small particles are added to the
fluid assuming they follow, to a certain degree, the flow dynamics. The motion
of the particles is used to calculate the velocity field of the flow.
7. Computational Domain
The numerical simulation presented in the paper has been carried out
using the commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software ANSYS
CFX. The geometry of the numerical simulation reproduces the experimental
model geometry, in order to allow the comparison between the numerical and
the experimental data. The computational domain includes the post-combustion
system described n the previous section, and extends 350 mm downstream of
the bluff body stabilizer. In the transversal direction the extension measures 300
mm, centred on the post-combustion symmetry axis, and in the spanwise
direction it reaches the edges of the post-combustion chamber.
The computational domain discretisation is created by a computational
grid of RANS resolution, composed of 948.076 elements and 167.979 nodes.
The obtained grid in presented below, in Fig. 1. Four types of boundary
conditions have been applied on the bi-dimensional regions of the
computational domain:
1. Subsonic inlet, for the entry section of the post-combustion system,
with a purely axial velocity of exhaust gas of 47 m/s, a pressure of 1 bar, and a
temperature of 550 K, and for the fuel inlet, with a velocity of gas fuel of 0 m/s,
a pressure of 1 bar, and a temperature of 300 K.
274
2. Subsonic outlet, for the exit section of the computational domain, as

well as for the exit section of the outer casing of the post-combustion system
with a pressure of 1 bar;
3. Subsonic opening, where the flow direction is dictated by the mass flux
at the surface, for the rectangular downstream extension of the computational
domain (except, obviously, for the exit section), with a pressure of 1 bar and a
temperature of 300 K;
4. Adiabatic, solid, no-slip, smooth wall for the inner wall of the outer
casing, the inner wall of the inner casing, and the outer and inner walls of the
flame stabilizer.
Fig. 1 Computational grid.
8. Results and Discussions

The mean axial and transversal velocity profiles are presented in the
following section at three axial locations: 25 mm, 100 mm and 200 mm from
the flame stabilizer edge. The axial and transversal velocity numerical and
experimental profiles in the near field, at 25 mm from the flame stabilizer edge,
are presented in Figs. 2 and 3. Both profiles capture well the recirculation
region, were the values become negative. Outside the recirculation, region the
free stream is accelerated in the convergent section created by the prismatic
surfaces of the flame holder, up to an experimentally measured value of over 40
m/s. The RANS numerical simulation captures well the recirculation region and
the velocity gradient in the shear layer that delimits it, but the free stream
velocity predicted is of about 60 m/s, presenting also an overestimation of the
shear layer thickness. As the data in Fig. 4 is time averaged, the von Karman
vortex street is not captured by the transverse velocity plots that only indicate a
pair of counter - rotating vortices at the trailing edge of the flame holder in both
the numerical and the experimental data. The intensity of these vortices is over
predicted by the numerical simulation due to the inherent limitations induced by
turbulence modelling in a RANS simulation. In the middle field, at 100 mm
from the flame stabilizer edge, the axial and transversal velocity numerical and
experimental profiles are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
Finally, Fig. 4 shows the axial and transversal velocity numerical and
experimental profiles in the far field, at 200 mm from the flame stabilizer edge.
275
Fig. 2 Mean axial velocity profiles at 25 mm and 100 mm from the flame stabilizer.
Fig. 3 Mean transversal velocity profiles at 25 mm and 100 mm from the flame
stabilizer.
Fig. 4 Mean axial and transversal velocity profiles at 200 mm from the flame
stabilizer.
Fig. 5 Mean axial and transversal velocity profiles along the post-combustion
centreline.
For a quantitative comparison of numerical and experimental data, Fig. 5

presents both the experimental measurements and the numerical results of the
axial and, respectively transversal mean velocity variation profiles along the
post-combustion symmetry axis. The error bars are determined as the velocity
276
rms evaluated between the means of the 10 data series. In some figures, the size
of the error bars is too small to be seen.
9. Conclusions and Future Work
1. The main goal of this work was to present experimental measurements
and numerical simulation data of the mean and fluctuating velocity field in a
turbulent, isothermal flow downstream of a V-shaped bluff body flame
stabilizer.
2. The velocity measurements are carried on through Particle Image
Velocimetry. The numerical simulation is a RANS simulation and is carried out
using the commercial software ANSYS CFX. The CFD results presented in the
paper are not very accurate, and this is partly due to the inherent weaknesses of
a RANS simulation.
3. The numerical simulation captures reasonably well the length and
width of the re-circulating region behind the bluff body in the near field region,
overestimating the momentum rate transfer further downstream, as the grid
resolution worsens.
REFERENCES
Nicholson H.M., Fields J.P., Some Experimental Techniques to Investigate the
Mechanism of Flame Stabilization in the Wake of Bluff Bodies. Part I, Third
Symposium (International) on Combustion, 44-68 (1949).
Winterfeld G., Processes of Turbulent Exchange Behind Axisymmetric Flameholders.
Tenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, 1265-1275 (1965).
DETERMINRI EXPERIMENTALE I SIMULRI NUMERICE N CURGERI

TURBULENTE IZOTERMICE
(Rezumat)
Lucrarea prezint msurtori experimentale realizate cu ajutorul tehnologiei
PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) i simulri numerice n ANSYS CFX ale cmpului
de viteze mediu i variabil, ntr-o curgere turbulent i izoterm, n avalul unui
stabilizator de flacr n form de V, care echipeaz o camer de ardere postcombustie a unei turbine cu gaze Garrett 30-67. Prezena unui corp masiv ntr-o
curgere de mare vitez, creaz un vrtej de recirculare, care se observ clar n datele
experimentale. Simularea numeric reuete s modeleze cu destul acuratee limea
i lungimea regiunii de recirculare, dar majoreaz predicia cu privire la rata de
transfer a momentului curgerii n aval.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXERGETIC EVALUATION OF AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES

GASIFICATION
BY

CTLIN MOCANU
Thermal Systems and Environmental Engineering Department
Received: May 3, 2012
Accepted for publication: 10, June 2012
Abstract. In order to quantify the real value of the gasification process,

exergy-based efficiencies, defined as the ratio of chemical and physical exergy of
the flue gases to chemical exergy of a biomass, are proposed in this paper.
Biomass considered includes briquettes made from different agricultural
residues. The aim of the exergy analysis is to identify the locations and the
magnitudes of real exergy losses. The exergy losses occurred in the gasification
plant have been calculated using mass, energy and exergy balance equations. It
has be found that the major causes of exergy destruction take place in itself
combustion process and heat transfer at a finite temperature difference.
Key words: exergy efficiency, exergy loss, gasification.
1. Introduction
Exergy analysis provides the tool for the clear distinction between energy
losses to the environment and internal irreversibility of the process. Exergy
analysis is a methodology for the evaluation of the performance of devices and
processes, and involves examining the exergy at different points in a series of
energy conversion steps. With this information, efficiencies can be evaluated,
and the process steps having the largest losses can be identified (Peerapong &
Corresponding author: e-mail: dtasma@ugal.ro
278
Daniela Tasma et al.
Limmeechokchai, 2009). Exergy analysis is based on the second law of

thermodynamics and helps to identify the magnitude and locations of the
imperfections in order to improve the performance of the system or process
(Rosen, 2001). Exergy is the useful work potential of a system or stream as it
proceeds to an equilibrium state with respect to a reference environment
(Rosen, 2001). The reference environment is characterized by specifying its
temperature, pressure and chemical composition (Rosen & Dincer, 2004).
Numerous thermodynamic analysis and optimization studies using energy
and exergy have been undertaken of various thermal power plants and
processes.
Bejan (2002) defines the fundamentals of the methods of exergy analysis
and entropy generation minimization and describes the concept of
irreversibility, entropy generation, or exergy destruction.
For the current state of thermodynamics, it seems almost impossible to
have a common efficiency definition for all energy systems. In his study,
Kanoglu (Kanoglu et al., 2007) says that the best way of avoiding misuse and
misunderstanding is to define the efficiency used in any application carefully.
An understanding of both energy and exergy efficiencies is essential for
designing, analyzing, optimizing and improving energy systems through
appropriate energy policies and strategies.
Dincer (2004) says that exergy appears to be a key concept and is a
linkage between the physical and engineering world and the surrounding
environment. The exergy expresses the true efficiency of engineering systems,
which makes it a useful concept to find improvements.
Kotas (1995) explained in this work the concept of exergy used to define
criteria of performance of thermal plant.
Nakahara (Nakahara et al., 2005) developed in their study an exergy
analysis on combustion and energy conversion, showing a comparison between
exergy and energy balances in thermodynamic processes. The authors introduce
some examples of exergy and energy balances, for the power generation, heat
pump, boiler and combustion processes and they show that the exergy and
energy values have a great difference between them, which are supported by
their temperature levels.
It must distinguish between exergy and energy in order to avoid any
confusion with the traditional energy-based methods of thermal system analysis
and design (Bejan, 2002).
A wide range of biomass sources, such as traditional agricultural crops,
dedicated energy crops, residues from agriculture and foresting as well as
organic wastes can be gasified (Ptasinski et al., 2007).
The main purpose of this paper is to compare different types of
agricultural residues for their gasification efficiency.
279
2. Evaluation of Exergy Efficiency

The gasification process considered in this paper is schematically
presented in Fig. 1. A boiler can be divided into combustor and heat exchanger.
Biomass and gasifying agent enter the gasifier at environmental temperature T0.
Air is used as gasifying agent.
Hot water
Fuel
Air
Heat loss
Heat
exchanger
Combustor
Hot
products
Flue gas
Cold water
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the combustor and heat exchanger in a boiler (Cengel, 2007).
Briquettes made from different agriculture residues were used in the

present study: pure reed, pure sawdust, mixture of sawdust with ground wheat
straw. Acacia wood log was also tested. Table 1 reports the ultimate analysis,
the higher heating value and density of energy of the selected biomass fuel.
Table 1.
The properties of fuels
Ultimate
analysis
%
C
H
N
S
O
Ash
Moisture
HHV
MJ/kg
Density of
energy
GJ/m2N
Sawdust
50% +
wheat
straw 50%
briquettes
Acacia
wood log
Reed
briquettes
Sawdust
briquettes
Sawdust
50%+ corn
stalk 50%
briquettes
49.6
6.0
0.9
0.1
33.8
4.2
5.4
48.4
5.5
0.6
0.0
31.2
7.3
7.0
50.0
5.9
1.8
0.0
33.6
2.6
6.0
46.1
5.5
0.4
0.0
38.0
3.3
6.7
48.2
5.9
0.6
0.0
34.5
3.4
7.5
20.798
19.987
20.850
18.569
20.130
14.97
15.13
15.78
17.37
14.42
280
In order to do the exergy analysis, mass, energy and exergy balance on

the system are required to determine the flow rates and energy transfer rates at
the control surface. From the first and second laws of thermodynamics, we can
found the formula for energy and exergy balances as the following:
Mass balance
m& = m& ,
i
(1)
m& mass flow rate, kg/s.

Energy balance
m& h + Q& = m& h

i i
e e
+ W& ,
(2)
where h specific enthalpy, kJ/kg, Q& heat interaction rate, kW, W& net work
produced by system, kW.
Exergy balance
E& xi + 1
i
T0 &
Q j = E& xe + W& + I& .
T
e
(3)
E& x - exergy rate, MW, T - temperature, K, I rate of exergy destruction, kJ/s.

The overall energy efficiency of the power plant, known as thermal
efficiency, can be expressed as
net energy output

.
energy input
(4)
Similary, the exergy efficiency can be expressed as follows
net work output

.
exergy input
The exergy can be divided

(Jarungthammachote & Dutta, 2007)
into
(5)
two
Ex = Exch + Exph ,
major
components
(6)
where Exch chemical exergy, Exph physical exergy.

The specific chemical exergy of ideal mixture gas can be calculated by
the following equation (Kotas, 1995)
281
ch.M = xi ch,i + RT0 xi ln xi ,

i
(7)
with xi mole fraction of ith component, exch,i standard chemical exergy of

ith component, kJ/kmol.
The specific physical exergy can be calculated as (Prins, 2003)
ph = ( h h0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) ,
(8)
where h enthalpy of a system at given temperature and pressure, s entropy of

a system at given temperature and pressure, h0 enthalpy of a system at the
environmental temperature and pressure, s0 entropy of a system at the
environmental temperature and pressure.
The specific chemical exergy of the biomass is calculated by (Kotas, 1995)
,
+ 9417
ch,biomass = LHV + 2442
100
100
(9)
where is the chemical exergy coefficient and defined as
1.0438 + 0.1882H/C 0.2509O/C(1 + 0.7256H/C) + 0.0383N/C

,.
1 0.3035O/C
(10)
where C, H, N and O are the solid compounds of the species in the biomass and
their proportions are given in Table 1.
In Table 2 are presented the specific chemical exergy calculated by Eq

(9) and the lower heating values for various briquettes made from agricultural
residues. It can be observed for briquettes made from 50% sawdust + 50% corn
stalk the specific chemical exergy is more higher than the lower heating value
Oi
due to these briquettes have the highest ratio i =0.826.
C
The energy and exergy efficiencies are shown in Fig. 2. There is a
comparison between the results obtained for gasification of all briquettes made
from agricultural residue. The highest value for energy efficiency is obtained
from sawdust briquettes gasification. Value of energy efficiency is influenced
primarily by the boiler load, the operating conditions and then by the fuel type.
282
The exergy losses occurred in the gasification plant have been calculated
using mass, energy and exergy balance equations. The combustor part
contributes the biggest amount of the exergy distruction.
The moisture content in biomass is the main problem related gasification
process. If it is too high, then here will not be enough energy (low temperatures)
to start up the process. To take place, gasification needs temperature above
800K. The moisture content is responsible for an increase in the destruction of
exergy inside the reactor, as a result of an increase of the energy required to
evaporate the moisture.
Fuel
Acacia wood log
Table 2
Specific chemical exergy of the fuels
Lower heating value
Specific chemical exergy
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
18218.63
18386.73
Reed briquettes
17295.27
17481.80
Sawdust briquettes
18298.54
18420.87
Sawdust 50%+ corn

stalk 50% briquettes
Sawdust 50% + wheat
straw 50% briquettes
16048.48
17166.43
17413.96
18047.78
Fig. 2 Energy and exergy efficiency for the gasification of agricultural residue.
283
briquettes
E& hot water =34,75kW
E& =41,93kW
45,7%
17,4%
E& flue gas =2,5 kW

6,05%
E& dHeat
,p
Exch
=16,6 kW
E& cold
36,33%
water
84,2%
HEAT EXCHANGER
E& hot
=34,75kW
gas =26,28kW
34,6%
E& dcomb =16,6 kW
40.22%
COMBUSTOR
E& f =41,27 kW
100%
Fig. 3 Grassman diagram for exergy flow in boiler.
4. Conclusions
1. This paper presents the results of the energetic and exergetic analysis of
agricultural residues gasification process. The exergy contained in the biomass
is converted by gasification into chemical exergy of the product gas, physical
exergy of the product gas, and part of the exergy of biomass is lost due to
process irreversibilities.
2. The exergy efficiencies of gasification process are lower than the
energy efficiencies. The exergy losses occurred in the gasification plant have
been calculated using mass, energy and exergy balance equations.
284
3. It has be found that the major causes of exergy destruction take place in
itself combustion process and heat transfer at a finite temperature difference.
Acknowledgements. The work of this paper was supported by Project SOP
HRD EFICIENT 61445/2009.
REFERENCES
Rosen M. A., Energy and Exergy-based Comparison of Coal-fired and Nuclear Steam
Power Plants. Exergy, an International Journal, 1, 3, 180-192 (2001).
Bejan A., Fundamentals of Exergy Analysis, Entropy Generation. International Journal
of Energy Research, 26, 545-565 (2002).
Dincer I., Hussain M. M., Al-Zaharnah I., Analysis of Sectoral Energy and Exergy Use
of Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Energy Research , 28, 205-243 (2004).
Taniguchi H., Mouri K., Nakahara T., Arai N., Exergy Analysis on Combustion and
Energy Conversion Processes. Energy, 30, 111-117 (2005).
Jarungthammachote S., Dutta A., Thermodynamic Equilibrium Model and Second Law
Analysis of a Downdraft Waste Gasifier. Energy, 1660-1669 (2007).
Kotas T., The Exergy Method of Thermal Plant Analysis. Malabar, Florida, 1995.
Krzysztof J., Ptasinski M.J., Exergetic Evaluation of Biomass Gasification. Energy, 32,
568-574 (2007).
Peerapong P., Limmeechokchai B., Exergetic and Thermoeconomic Analyses of the
Rice-Husk Power Plant in Thailand. Journal of Metals, Materials and Minerals,
19, 2, 9-14 (2009).
Prins M.J., Thermodynamics of Gas-char Reactions: First and Second Law Analysis.
Chemical Engineering Science, 58, 1003-1011 (2003).
Rosen M.A., Dincer I., A Study of Industrial Steam Process Heating through Exergy
Analysis. International Journal of Energy Research, 28, 917-930 (2004).
Kanoglu M., Dincer I., Rosen M.A., Understanding Energy and Exergy Efficiencies for
Improved Energy Management in Power Plants. Energy Policy, 35, 3967-3978
(2007).
Cengel Y.A., Boles M.A., Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach. Tata McGraw
Hill, New Delphi, 2007.
EVALUAREA EXERGETIC A GAZEIFICRII REZIDURILOR DIN
AGRICULTUR
(Rezumat)
n scopul de a cuantifica calitatea real a procesului de gazeificare, n acest
articol s-au studiat randamentele exergetice, definite ca raportul dintre exergia chimic
i fizic a gazelor de ardere i exergia chimic a biomasei. Biomasa considerat include
brichete formate din diferite reziduuri agricole. Scopul analizei exergetice este de a
identifica locul unde au loc pierderile reale de exergie i mrimea acestora. Pierderile
de exergie ale instalaiei de gazeificare au fost calculate folosind ecuaiile de bilan
masic, energetic i exergetic. S-a observat c principalele cauze ale distrugerii de
exergie sunt reprezentate de procesul de ardere n sine i de schimbul de cldur la
diferen finit de temperatur.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
INFLUENCE OF EXCESS AIR RATIO ON BIOMASS

GASIFICATION
BY

CTLIN MOCANU
Department of Thermal Systems and Environmental Engineering
Abstract. In this paper is presented the influence of excess air ratio () on

the biomass gasification processes, through producer gases composition,
calorific value and temperature. It has been found that in the gas obtained by
gasification process, the molar fractions of H2 and CO decrease with the increase
in excess air ratio, while the molar fractions of N2, CO2 and CH4 increase. The
calorific value of the syngas obtained decreases with the increase in excess air
ratio. The decrease in calorific value is due to the decrease in the molar fraction
of CO.
Key words: excess air ratio, biomass, gasification, syngas.
1. Introduction
A large percentage of the biomass potentially available for energy
production is generated as agricultural residue and comprises grass and straw
materials. Part of the production of these materials finds application on the
farms, e.g. as cattle feed, but in many cases the excess material is burned on the
fields, giving rise to huge seasonal pollution in agricultural regions. However,
the grass and straw materials represent valuable energy that can be used as
energy source. In this way, residues are valued and the consumption of fossil
fuels is reduced (Boerrigter et al., 2004). The use of biomass to provide partial
Corresponding author: e-mail: dtasma@ugal.ro
286
substitution of fossil fuels has an additional importance as concerns global

warming since biomass combustion has the potential to be CO2 neutral. This is
particularly the case with regard to agricultural residues or energy plants, which
are periodically planted and harvested. During their growth, these plants have
removed CO2 from the atmosphere for photosynthesis which is released again
during combustion (Werther et al., 2000).
A way to use agricultural residue for production of heat, electricity, hot
water is through gasification. Gasification is a thermo-chemical process of
gaseous fuel production by partial oxidation of biomass at high temperature
around 800-900C in the presence of a gasifying agent such as air, steam or
oxygen. In this process, the chemical energy of the solid fuel is converted into
the chemical and thermal energy of the syngas (Karamarkovic & Karamarkovic,
2010). If air is used as a gasifying medium, the syngas from is a mixture of
CO2, CO, H2, CH4, H2O, and N2.
Fig.1 The down-draught fixed bed gasifier (Belgiorno et al., 2003).
The choice of gasifier type depends on the type of fuel to be gasified and
end use of the gas produced. In a downdraft fixed bed gasifier, the biomass is
fed in from the top, the gasifying agent is introduced at the sides above the grate
and the producer gas is withdrawn under the grate Fixed bed reactors are
relatively simpler, reliable, amenable to gasify different kinds of feedstock,
other lower particulate concentration in product gases, and can achieve higher
efficiencies than other reactors ( Rao et al., 2004).
In this paper is presented the influence of excess air ratio () on the
biomass gasification processes, through producer gases composition, calorific
value and temperature.
287
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
In the present study were used briquettes made from different agriculture
residues: one briquette produced from pure reed, two briquettes produced from
mixture of sawdust with ground wheat straw and with ground corn stalk, one
briquette produced from pure sawdust and acacia wood. The briquettes have a
diameter of 7 cm and different lengths. Table 1 shows the basic characteristics
of biomass used. The gasifying agent in the analyses was the combustion air at
25C consisting of 21 mol% oxygen and 79 mol% nitrogen.
Fuel
sample
Acacia wood
log
Reed
briquettes
Sawdust
briquettes
Sawdust
50% + corn
stalk 50%
briquettes
Sawdust
50% + wheat
straw 50%
briquettes
Table 1
Fuel properties
Ultimate analysis
(% of dry fuel with ash)
C
Proximate analysis
(% of fuel with initial moisture)
Fixed Volatile
Ash
Ash Moisture
Carbon matter
52.43 35.73
6.34
0.95
0.11
4.44
20
70.4
4.2
5.4
52.04 33.55
5.91
0.65
7.85
29
56.70
7.30
53.3
35.75
6.28
1.91
2.77
24.85
66.55
2.6
49.41 40.73
5.90
0.43
3.54
22.60
67.40
3.30
6.70
50.63 38.08
6.12
0.53
4.64
20.30
70.10
4.40
5.20
2.2. The Downdraft Fixed Bed Gasifier
The downdraft gasifier has two combustion chambers separated by a

refractory plate. This plate has three slots provided with holes for secondary air
supply. In a downdraft fixed bed gasifier the combustion process occurs in two
phases: volatiles combustion and char combustion. While the flue gases are
guided down they transfer their heat to water space and then flow from the
bottom to the chimney.
Excess air ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual air to fuel ratio divided
by the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio required for complete combustion. The
increase of the excess air ratio causes a proportional increase of the N2 molar
fraction due to the greater amount of air fed to the reactor. The lower heating
value of producer gas is dependent on the percentage quantities of CO, H2 and
CH4 in producer gas and can be calculated from the following equation
288
LHVg = YCO LHVCO + YH2 LHVH2 + YCH4 LHV CH4 ,
(1)
where Y is the mole fraction of each gas species. The lower heating values of
the gas species are (Reed, 1988): LHVCO=13.1 MJ/Nm3, LHVH2=11.2 MJ/Nm3,
LHVCH4=37.1 MJ/Nm3.
Fig. 2 The downdraft fixed bed gasifier.
3. Results and Dscussion

The influence of excess air ratio () on the biomass gasification
processes, through producer gases composition, calorific value and temperature
was investigated. Table 2 and Fig. 3 present the influence of excess air ratio on
syngas composition. The main components of the syngas are CO, H2, N2, CO2,
H2O and CH4.
The increase in the excess air ratio means that the feeding air increases.
The excess air ratio for the reed briquettes gasification is found to be in range
0.19-0.31.
It can be observed that the molar fraction of CH4 is very low. This
increases with the increase of the excess air ratio. The molar fraction of H2 in
the product gas decreases with increase of excess air ratio, from 29.2% to
20.84%. The molar fraction of N2 increases linearly with the excess air ratio.
The molar fraction of CO is the most significant contribution to the heating
value of the syngas. The molar fraction of the CO decreases from 38.14% to
25.6% with the increase of excess air ratio.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of lower heating value against the excess air
ratio. It is evident that the lower heating value decreases with increasing of
excess air ratio. The LHV of the producer gases ranges from 5.4 MJ/Nm3 to 8.5
289
MJ/Nm3. The LHV is high for low excess air ratios due to the high H2 and CO
contents.
Table 2
The molar composition of syngas produced by gasification of reed briquettes
Syngas composition, molar fractions
Temperature
C
CO
H2
CH4
N2
NH3
H2O
CO2
700
0.313534 0.0653
0.256
0.2084
0.0056
0.4307
0.0011
0.0328
750
0.251931 0.0354
0.3159
0.245
0.0045
0.3771
0.0011
0.021
800
0.218085 0.0174
0.353
0.2699
0.0033
0.343
0.0011
0.0122
850
0.201535 0.0083
0.3722
0.2843
0.0023
0.3249
0.0011
0.0069
900
0.193768 0.004
0.3814
0.292
0.0016
0.3159
0.0011
0.0039
Fig. 3 The influence of the excess air ratio on the syngas composition for reed
briquettes.
The gasification temperature plays an important role in biomass

gasification. The gasification temperature depends on the amount of air fed to
the gasifier being controlled by the excess air ratio. Fig. shows that the
temperature increases with the decrease in excess air ratio. The increase of
syngas heating value with increasing temperature indicates that the gasifier can
benefit from better thermal insulation and from air preheating (Li et al., 2004).
290
Fig, 4 The variation of lower heating value of syngas against excess air ratio.
Fig. 5 The excess air ratio as a function of the temperature.
291
Fig. 6 a Variation of the molar fractions of H2 with the excess air ratio;
b variation of the molar fractions of CO2 and CO with the excess air ratio.
The variation of the molar fractions of CO and CO2 with excess air ratio
is presented in (Werther, 2000). It can be observed that the increase in excess air
ratio increases the CO2 content and decreases the CO content in the syngas. The
highest contents of the CO and CO2 in the syngas were obtained by gasification
of briquettes made from sawdust 50% + corn stalk 50%.
292
4. Conclusions
1. An experimental investigation of a downdraft fixed bed gasifier is
carried out using agricultural residues briquettes. The effects of varying excess
air ratio and gasification temperature on product gas composition and syngas
heating value were investigated.
2. In this paper is presented the influence of excess air ratio on the
biomass gasification processes, through producer gases composition, calorific
value and temperature.
3. The syngas composition is strongly influenced by the excess air ratio.
An increase in the excess air ratio resulted in a decrease in the concentrations of
H2 and CO and a higher CO2 production. The highest content of the H2 in the
syngas was obtained by gasification of sawdust 50% + wheat straw 50%
briquettes for an excess air ratio =0.18 . The minimum value of the H2 molar
fraction was obtained by gasification of sawdust briquettes for an excess air
ratio =0.33. The highest contents of the CO and CO2 in the syngas were
obtained by gasification of briquettes made from sawdust 50% + cornstalk 50%.
4. The LHV of the syngas ranges from 5.4 MJ/Nm3 to 8.5 MJ/Nm3. The
LHV is high for low excess air ratios due to the high H2 and CO contents.
Acknowledgements. The work of this paper was supported by Project SOP
HRD EFICIENT 61445/2009.
REFERENCES
Belgiorno V., De Feo G., Della Rocca C., Napoli R.M.A., Energy from Gasification of
Solid Wastes. Waste Management, 23, 1-15 (2003).
Boerrigter H., Verhoeff F., Jansen J. K., Teeselink H. K., Ratering H., Sun L., Guo D.
G., Su M., Renewable Energy in the Paper Industry in China; Replacing Coal by
Cofiring Wheat Straw Reject (WSR) in Existing Boilers. The 2nd World
Conference and Technology Exhibition on Biomass for Energy, Industry and
Climate Protection, 2004.
Karamarkovic R., Karamarkovic V., Energy and Exergy Analysis of Biomass
Gasification at Different Temperatures. Energy, 35, 537-549 (2010).
Li X.T., Grace J.R., Lim C.J., Watkinson A.P., Chen H.P., Kim J.R., Biomass
Gasification in a Circulating Fluidized Bed. Biomass and Bioenergy, 26, 171193 (2004).
Rao M.S., Singh S.P., Sodha M.S., Dubey A.K., Shyam M., Stoichiometric, Mass,
Energy and Exergy Balance Analysis of Countercurrent Fixed-bed Gasification
of Post-consumer Residues. Biomass and Bioenergy, 27, 155- 171 (2004).
Reed T. B., Das A., Handbook of Biomass Downdraft Gasifier Engine Systems.
SERI/SP-271-3022 DE88001135. Solar Energy, US Departament of Energy,
Research Institute, 1988.
Werther J., Saenger M., Hartge E.-U., Ogada T., Siagi Z., Combustion of Agricultural
Residues. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 26, 1-27 (2000).
293
INFLUENA COEFICIENTULUI DE EXCES DE AER ASUPRA GAZEIFICRII

BIOMASEI
(Rezumat)
n acest articol este prezentat influena coeficientului de exces de aer, asupra
proceselor de gazeificare, prin compoziia gazelor de ardere, puterea caloric i
temperatur. S-a observat c fraciile molare ale H2 i CO scad cu creterea
coeficientului de exces de aer, n timp ce fraciile molare ale N2, CO2 i CH4 cresc.
Puterea caloric a gazului sintetic obinut scade cu creterea coeficientului de exces de
aer. Scderea puterii calorice se datoreaz scderii fraciei molare a CO.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
EXPERIMENTAL PLANS USED FOR VERIFICATION OF

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY NANOCRYSTALS
BY
OLIVIA GIUCA and IOAN NICOAR

Politehica
University of Timioara
Accepted for publication: April 30, 2012
Abstract. Nanocrystals presents quantum structures comparable to those of

atomic dimensions (nanometers), and their study in analogy with existing
systems in nature (nuclei, atoms, molecules) has two major advantages: it can be
manufactured in laboratories and can relatively easily interconnect various
electronic circuits. Due to small size, presents remarkable properties that change
with size, form, concentration of carriers, application of electric or magnetic
field, things that can be controlled with increased accuracy, advantages that will
require quite quickly this technology in areas such as medicine, engineering
industry, glass and paint, etc. To conceptualize the application of methods and
techniques for verifying the stability of nanocrystals size, authors made an
optimal combination of factors that determine the stability dimension, namely to
identify the methods that follow a minimum number of experiments. The values
of model adequacy indicators shows a good correlation between experimental
data and those obtained based on mathematical equations of model developed.
Key words: dimensions, plan of experiments, factors.
1. Introduction
Titanium dioxide TiO2 is stable in four natural forms: anatase
(tetragonal), Brooke (orthorhombic), rutile (tetragonal), TiO2-B (monoclinic).
Forms rutile, anatase and Brook have octahedral structure type [TiO6]
(Latroche, 1989). Temperature and speed conversion phase transition depend
directly on how fast the particles crystallize in anatase phase to reach the critical
Corresponding author: e-mail: oliviagiuca@yahoo.com
296
Olivia Giuca and Ioan Nicoar
size. From circumstantial evidence that the critical size of crystallites of rutile
nucleus is at least three times higher than those of anatase (Wang et al., 1999).
Sintering of anatase particles can be delayed by appropriate techniques
(methods of synthesis, dispersion on a support or adding compounds that Ln2O3,
ZrO2, and SiO2 used in preventing agglomeration of anatase particles) and the
probability of formation of nuclei of critical size is reduced, transformation of
anatase phase is delayed and it is possible to stabilize the temperature of 10000C
(So et al, 2001). The small size of particles is usually associated with a higher
specific surface. In these conditions, the total energy of the TiO2 surface
increases, leading to the formation of rutile forces grow and produce
transformation anatase / rutile. Once the critical size of anatase particles is
achieved using nanodimensional as starting material, conversion reaches a
measurable speed at temperatures below 4000C (Gouma et al, 1999). Low
temperature sintering is possible if pressure is applied, which appears as a
parameter variable hydrothermal synthesis, and then the surface free energy and
potential energy surface can be adjusted with sufficient accuracy. If classic
hydrothermal method, heating is done in ovens heated autoclave resistance and
high temperature is carried out on a schedule for each synthesis. Stationary
phase may occur that can affect the growth and transition of the crystals until
the working temperature (Balakhonov, 2010).
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Obtaining Ag doped TiO2 by Hydrothermal Method in the Field of Microwave
In a beaker were added to a quantity of absolute alcohol over who added
titanium izopropoxid drop under stirring, and after a few minutes, add distilled
water aiming to double by adding nitric acid to adjust final pH according to plan
experiments. Then has been added dopant solution, silver nitrate. When
titanium is added izopropoxidul than alcohol, precipitated solution, yielding a
white precipitate which, before heat treatment, was washed with distilled water,
filtered and dried at a temperature of 600C for 10 hours. After autoclaving the
field of microwave titanium dioxide materials were filtered and washed with
distilled water to remove reaction side products. Filtrate was made in the oven
drying temperature of 600C. After autoclaving the field of microwave titanium
dioxide materials were filtered and washed with distilled water to remove
reaction side products. Filtrate was made at oven drying temperature of 600C.
2.2. Methods of Design of Experiments - Response Surface Method
Response Surface Method (RSM) is a mixture of statistical and

mathematical techniques used for building empirical models. Using design of
experiment optimization aims response (output variable) is influenced by
several independent variables (input variables). Order method in the
optimization process is to decrease costs and reduce noise associated with them,
y = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xq ) + .
297
(1)
In most cases, the response function y is usually unknown and to build a

fair approximation for y begins with a polynomial of rank 1. If the answer can
be defined by a linear function of independent variables, the approximation
function is called first-order model (as in Eq. (2); if there is some curvature in
the surface response, you should use a higher degree polynomial and function
approximation for the two variables is called second order model (Eq. (3)),
y = 0 + 1 x1 + 2 x2 + , ,
(2)
y = 0 + 1 x1 + 2 x2 + + 11 x12 + 22 x22 + 12 x1 x2 + .
(3)
If first-order models, plans factorial experiments consisted of factorial

points nf and nc central points. Central points are observations collected at xi = 0
(i = 1, 2, ... , q). Replicated points can be used to calculate the pure error. The
contrast between the average central points and average point factor provides a
test for absence of suitability of this model. Absence of fitness for a first-order
model when the model is not correct average response as a function of the
factor. Table 1 presents the theoretical analysis of variance for absence of
suitability.
Table 1
Analysis of variance for absence of appropriateness of the model
Average
Degrees of
Sum of
F0
Variance
freedom
square
squares
Residual values
SSE
Nq1
MSE
Absence of
MSLOF / MSPE
nd q 1
MSLOF
SSLOF
suitability
Pure error
SSPE
N nd
MSPE
where N is the number of observations, q is the number of independent

variables and nd its the number of distinct design points
Reaching an optimal flow of objective function is provided by
determining the values of influence factors. Also, the experimental and model
of the process or phenomenon studied regression are adapted successively
orientation is determined by the conclusions drawn from previous experimental
results processing, targeting criteria can be varied, each generating a sequential
method of orientation. Principle experiment aimed in the direction of maximum
slope (gradient) is the successive approximation surface response by plane (for
the case of two factors of influence) or hyper plane (for more than two factors
of influence). First is chosen arbitrarily or based on a priori information, a basic
area of influence factors (independent variables), with a central core, is
designed and made a split factorial experiment.
298
Have progressed beyond the initial direction depending on the

researcher's experience, the nature of the model, the costs etc. In general, after a
control experience shows that progress in the direction followed is difficult (due
to changes in slope), take this as a new base and run another experimental
program that leads to a new linear model, which reduce the response surface
approximation by a new plan, after which the procedure is repeated movement.
3. Experimental and Results
There is a compositional plan experiments small randomized orthogonal

Draper-Lin with which to study the effect of seven factors in 40 experiments in
a single block (including two central points per block) with four degrees of
freedom for error. Analyzing the main effects of factors on the size of
nanocrystals estimated in Fig. 1 presents the effects of factors in descending
order and the vertical line determines which effects are statistically significant
(standardized Pareto diagram in which all interactions were excluded).
After application of response surface method by experiments plan Draper
- Lin in Table 2 shows the order of importance factors.
Note that autoclaving temperature factors, degree of filling and
microwave power are considered as main factors (in that order). Fig. 2 shows
the main effects chart.
Fig. 1 Pareto chart for standardized effects of factors on the size of nanoparticles.
Table 2
Order of importance factors obtained by RSM method (Draper-Lin experimental plan)

Order of importance
Draper-Lin(without interactions)
1
Autoclaving temperature
2
Degree filling
3
Microwave power
4
Quantity nutrient
5
pH
6
Time autoclaving
7
Concentration dopant
299
Fig. 2 The main effects of size.

Table 3
Table ANOVA (plan experiments Draper - Lin)
Source
Report Value
F
p
0.00000121221 0.00 0.9933
0.000840397
0.05 0.8239
Sum of squares Gdl Average square
A:Concentration dopant 0.00000121221 1

B:Time autoclaving
0.000840397
1
C:Autoclaving
0.0249996
1
temperature
D:Microwave power
0.0143543
1
E:Quantity nutrient
0.00144949
1
F:PH
0.000952973
1
G:Degree filling
0.0181866
1
Total error
0.534093
32
Total (correction)
0.594878
39
0.0249996
1.50
0.2299
0.0143543
0.00144949
0.000952973
0.0181866
0.0166904
0.86
0.09
0.06
1.09
0.3607
0.7701
0.8127
0.3044
In Table 3 presents the ANOVA table associated with the plan of

experiments Draper - Lin, which contains the values "p" can be used to test the
statistical significance of each effect, partition variability in nanoparticle size
separate components for each effect. Then statistical significance of each effect
was tested by comparing mean square with an estimate of experimental error.
Table shows that three effects are significantly different from 0, with a
probability of 70%. In Eq. (4) regression equation is presented, in the form of
order I in Eq. (2) and the variable values are specified in the original units.
Dimnanoparticles = 9.66292 + 0.000378769Concdopant [ %] +
+0.0006648469Timeautoclav [ min ] 0.00108788Autoclavtemp 0 C +

.
.
+0.000206084Micropower [W ] 0.0013976Quantitynutrient [ g ]
+0.0354602 PH + 0.00463939Degreefilling [ %].
(4)
300
With first order model of Eq. (2) associated the plan of Draper-Lin
experiments determine the values of measured, predicted values for them based
on the model, the forecast for average and their limits a 95% (5% significance).
Predictions using gradient analysis method (method "steepest slope")
indicate favorable locations to be carried out additional experiments. For
maintenance of response (nanoparticle size) to 10 nm, Table 4 presents the
optimized combination of factors levels.
Table 4
Combination of factors levels plan optimized Draper-Lin
Factor
Min
Max
Optimum
Optimal value
Concentration dopant
1,39332
3,60668
2,51328
Time autoclaving
5,89977
39,1002
22,5813
Autoclaving temperature
119,666
230,334
176,099
10
Microwave power
678,664
1121,34
894,826
Quantity nutrient
3,93318
26,0668
15,1762
PH solution
2,318
2,982
2,65026
Degree filling
43,9332
66,0668
54,8221
Fig. 3 Response surface estimated (autoclaving temp degree filling).
Fig. 4 Response surface contours estimated (autoclaving temp degree filling).
301
Figs. 3-4 are estimated response surfaces and respectively contours

estimated response surfaces. It is noted that the surface height is the forecast for
the size of nanoparticles on a space determined by two factors, the remaining 5
factors being maintained at their average values.
4. Conclusions
1. For the synthesis of TiO2 nanocrystals doped with Ag by hydrothermal

method in the microwave field by applying Response Surface Method, plan
experiments Draper - Lin, a result that the statistical model associated with the
plan of experiments is a first-order model containing terms that are only main
effects. After analyzing the main effects of factors influence (input variables)
according to their statistical significance, the aTiO2 synthesis is strongly
determined by three factors temperature autoclaving, high filling and
microwave power. To test the statistical significance of factor analysis of
variance was performed with ANOVA method, which was determined by
regression equation model order I plan experiments associated Draper-Lin.
2. Also, predictions were analyzed using gradient method (method
"steepest slope") which were shown to be favorable locations additional
experiments, causing - the optimized combination of factors levels plan DraperLin, stating the minimum values, maximum and optimal factors. It was
concluded that no significant differences between the three methods applied.
The method proposed for determining the size of nanoparticles provides a
facilitating control of size, structure and properties.
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Balakhonov S. V., Tsymbarenko D. M., Meskin P. E., Churagulov B. R., Goodilin E.
A., Tretyakov Y. D., Hydrothermal Synthesis of a Novel Phase of VanadiaBased
Nanowhiskers. Mendeleev Communications, 3(20), 153 (2010).
Gouma P. I., Dutta P. K., Mills M. J., Structural Stability of Titania Then Films.
Nanostructured Materials, 11, 1231 (1999).
Latroche M., Brohan L., Marchand R., Tournoux M., New Hollandite Oxides: TiO2(H)
and K0.06TiO2. Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 81(1), 78-92 (1989)
Minto C., Response Surface Modeling of Drug Interactions. (website) http://eurosiva.
org/ Archive/Vienna/abstracts, 2006 (accesat Iulie 17, 2010).
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Improvement with Steepest Ascent, the Analysis of Response Surfaces,
Experimental Designs for Fitting Response Surfaces. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
NY, 1995. pp. 183-351.
Pugna A.P., Mocan M.L., Negru-Strui G., Giuca M.G.O., Using DOE to Improve
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of the 22nd International Daaam Symposium; B. Katalinic (Ed.), Daaam
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Ramberg, J.S., Sanchez S.M., Sanchez P.J., Hollick L.J., Designing Simulation
Experiments: Taguchi Methods and Response Surface Models. Proceedings of the
1991 Winter Simulation Conference, Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, Piscataway, NJ, USA, 1991.
So W.W., Park S.B., Kim K.J., Shin C.H., Moon S. J., The Crystalline Phase Stability
of Titania Particles Preparated at Room Temperature by the SolGel Method.
Journal of Materials Science, 36(17), 4299-4305 (2001).
Wang C.C., Ying J.Y., Sol Gel Synthesis and Hydrothermal Processing of Anatase
and Rutile Titania Nanocrystals. Chemistry Materials, 11, 3113-3120 (1999).
UTILIZAREA PLANURILOR DE EXPERIMENTE PENTRU VERIFICAREA
STABILITII DIMENSIONALE A NANOCRISTALELOR
(Rezumat)
Nanocristalele prezint structuri cuantice de dimensiuni comparabile cu cele ale
atomilor (nanometrii), iar studierea acestora n analogie cu sistemele deja existente n
natura (nuclee, atomi, molecule) prezint dou mari avantaje: se pot fabrica n
laboratoare i se pot interconecta relativ uor n diverse circuite electronice. Datorit
dimensiunii foarte mici prezint proprieti remarcabile care se modific o dat cu
mrimea, forma lor, concentraia de purttori, aplicarea unui cmp electric sau
magnetic, lucruri ce pot fi controlate cu precizie mrit, avantaje care vor impune destul
de repede aceast tehnologie n domenii ca medicina, industria constructoare de maini,
industria sticlei i vopselei, etc. Pentru a conceptualiza modul de aplicare al metodelor
i tehnicilor de verificare a stabilitii dimensiunii nanocristalelor, trebuie realizat o
combinaie optim a factorilor care determin stabilitatea dimensiunii, respectiv de a
identifica metodele care parcurg un numr minim de experimente. Valorile indicatorilor
adecvai modelului arat o bun corelare ntre datele experimentale i cele obinute pe
baza ecuaiile matematice ale modelului dezvoltat.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL VIRTUAL MODEL OF THE

HUMAN KNEE JOINT
MARIUS CATAN and DAIELA TARNI
Faculty of Mechanics,
Department of Applied Mechanics
Abstract. The paper presents the methodology to obtain a 3D virtual model

of the knee joint using CT images. For that purpose, SpaceClaim CAD program
software was used, based on defining models with a high level of difficulty
including complex 3D structure. The biomechanical system of the knee joint
containing bones, ligaments and cartilages will be studied using the finite
elements method for kinematical and dynamical simulations. The 3D virtual
model will be useful for future studies concerning orthosis optimization,
improving the performances of orthotic systems for normal and pathological
knee.
Key words: human knee joint, 3D model, bones, menisci, ligaments.
1. Introduction
Human knee joint is one of the most complex joints in terms of geometry
space and three-dimensional model. Virtual modeling of human knee joint have
been addressed in several articles by (Bae et al., 2012), (Fening, 2005),
(Bahraminasaba et al., 2011), (Sandholm et al.,2011), (Mohammad, 2011),
(Kazemi et al., 2011), (Kubicek & Zdenek, 2009), (Hartley, 2009), (Harryson et
al., 2007), (Popa et al., 2005), (Tarnita et al., 2006).
In their articles (Vidal-Lesso et al., 2011; Chung, 2004) have been
considered the components tibia, femur, cartilage, notwithstanding the menisci
and ligaments, while his articles (Hartley, 2009; Kubicek & Li, 2009; Fenning,
Corresponding author: e-mail: dtarnita@yahoo.com
304
Marius Catana and Daniela Tarni
2005; Ramaniraka et al., 2005) was performed complex modeling, taking into
account the ligaments and menisci and his articles (Mohammad, 2011) have
taken into consideration muscles that were simulated as rigid links (Sandholm et
al., 2011). In his work (Harryson et al., 2007) were also taken into account
fibula, patella, and patellar tendon.
These geometric patterns were created from images taken by MRI and
CT, dual fluoroscopic images, or using automatic creation programs (Mimics)
for the geometrical model (Bingham et al., 2008). Virtual models were analyzed
with FEM, after performing a finite element model with tetrahedral type (Vidal
et al., 2008), hexaedral, or using automatic meshing methods. The articles have
used an algorithm for meshing with hexahedrons and bricks in order to analyze
with a much better approximation for the tibio-femoral contact area (Fening,
2005), (Mohammad, 2011), (Kazemi, 2011), (Kubicek & Zdenek, 2009).
Emerging field of biomechanics computing offers a new series of tools,
including finite element method for studies that can provide information that
would otherwise be difficult or impossible to obtain from experiments. Finite
Element Modelling based on continuum mechanics is a very powerful
instrument in predicting the behaviour of ligaments. However, the construction
and validation of models is very difficult due to the fact that ligaments are
nonlinear, anisotropic, viscoelastic, porous media and inhomogeneous.
Ligaments also undergo large deformations when loaded. Very few data are
available for other material properties like transverse and shear moduli. (Weiss
& Gardiner, 2001).
2. Method
To achieve an accurate virtual model is necessary for CT images to have
a good quality and clarity. At Prima Medical Fig. 1) has conducted a series of
images using CT technology (computed tomography) without contrast solution.
To better capture the sectional ultrasound images of the knee joint the antenna
was established at small step (1.5 mm) in the joint area and larger in the rest of
the joint (2.5 mm). Mentioned is that the images used for the personal right leg.
Fig 1 CT Device.
305
The geometric model of the human knee joint consists in: bony
structures (tibia, peroneu, and femur) and their principal components: cartilages,
meniscus, and collateral lateral and medial ligaments, posterior and anterior
cruciate ligaments. Thus, after a CT scan approximately 400 images section
were obtained. To achieve bone contours we used SpaceClaim application,
which is integrated in package ANSYS Workbench. This application is a preprocessor for direct modelling. The CT files were imported in SpaceClaim as
jpg files, where contour lines (inner and outer sections) were created (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 CT Images of the femur imported in SpaceClaim application.
The sections were first, defined in SpaceClaim, and after that were
imported one-by-one in DesignModeler parallel sketches.
These operations are repeated for each tomographical image, and for each
bone. The definition scheme for the bones is presented in Fig. 3.
To define the virtual bone components were used Ansys Workbench,
with integrated application DesignModeler pre-processor software. This
sofware allows the generation of the parametrical tridimensional models which
can be modified, edited and exported in kinematical, or FEA software.
Fig. 3 The initial definition parameters for the tibia and peroneu. the virtual models of
the virtual femur, tibia and peroneu.
Finally, were obtained the virtual models of the main bone components
which compose the human knee joint: femur, tibia and peroneu (Fig. 4).
This components where relative to be as close to reality. Based on the
modelled geometry of the bones, the ligaments, cartilages and meniscus were
created (Figs. 5-7).
306
Fig. 5 Anterior views for the distal cartilage head of the femur and proximal cartilage
head of the tibia.
Fig. 6 Different position views for the ligaments collateral (left) and cruciate (right).
Fig. 7. Meniscus views in top position and complex knee joint model in the right
position.
3. Conclusions
1. The virtual model of the knee joint presented in this paper, patterned
after human anatomy, can be a good base for research in the following
directions:
a) The kinematic and dynamic analysis of the knee joint starting from
different hypotheses (flexionextension, pathological situations, disease).
b) The knee analysis using FEA method for different situations (normal
movement, moving irregular, different situations).
2. Post-surgical kinematic and dynamic analysis of the knee (different
implants, orthotics), using FEA method.
307
3. Different studies for orthotic devices optimization function of

dimensions, material, shapes, maximum stress, etc.
Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU/CPP107/DMI1.5/S/78421, Project ID 78421 (2010), co-financed by the
European Social Fund Investing in People, Sectoral Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007 2013.
REFERENCES
Bae Y.J, Kyung S.P., Jong K.S., Dai S.K., Biomechanical Analysis of the Effects of
Medial Meniscectomy on Degenerative Osteoarthritis., Med. Biol. Eng. Comput.,
50, 53-60 (2012).
Bahraminasaba M., Saharia B.B., Roshdi H., Arumugamc M., Shamsborhand, Finite
Element Analysis of the Effect of Shape Memory Alloy on the Stress Distribution
and Contact Pressure in Total Knee Replacement. Trends Biomater Artif.
Organs, 25, 3, 95-100 (2011).
Bingham J.T., R. Papannagari R., Van de Velde S. K., Gross C., Grill T. J., Felson D.
T., Rubash H. E.and Li G., In Vivo Cartilage Contact Deformation in the Healthy
Human Tibiofemoral Joint. Rheumatology, 47, 1622-1627 (2008).
Chung L.Y., Experimental Evaluation of a Natural Knee Contact Model Using
Responce Surface Optimization. Degree of Master of Science, University of
Florida, 2004.
Fening D.S., The Effects of Meniscal Sizing on the Knee Using Finite Element Methods.
College of Engineering and Technology of Ohio University, 2005.
Harrysson O.L., Yasser A.H., Nayfeh F.J., Custom-designed Orthopedic Implants
Evaluated Using Finite Element Analysis of Patient-specific Computed
Tomography Data: Femoral-component Case Study. BMC Musculoskeletal
Disorders, 2007.
Hartley Y.N., TheEeffect of the Frontal Plane Tibiofemoral Angle on the Contact Stress
and Strain at the Knee Joint. Mechanical Engineering Dissertations, Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, 2009.
Kazemi M., Li L.P., Savard P., Buschmann M.D., Creep Behavior of the Intact and
Meniscectomy Knee Joints. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical
Materials (2011).
Kubicek M., Zdenek F., Stress Strain Analysis of Knee Joint. Engineering Mechanics,
16, 5, 315-322 (2009).
Mohammad K., A Musculoskeletal Model of a Subject Specific Knee Joint with Menisci
During the Stance Phase of a Walk Cycle. Dissertation in Engineering and
Mathematics, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2011.
Popa D., Tarni D.N., Tarni D., Grecu, D., The Generation of the ThreeDimensional Model of the Human Knee Joint. Romanian Journal of Morphology
and Embriology, 46(4), 3-6 (2005).
Ramaniraka N.A., Terrier A., Theumann N., Siegrist O., Effects of the Posterior
Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction on the Biomechanics of the Knee Joint: A
Finite Element Analysis. Clinical Biomechanics, 20, 434-442 (2005).
308
Sandholm A., Schwartz C., Pronost N., Zee M., Voigt M., Thalmann D., Evaluation of
a Geometry-based Knee Joint Comparedto a Planar Knee Joint. cole
Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Virtual Reality Lab.,Switzerland,
2011.
Tarni D.N., Popa D., Tarni D, Tarni R., The CAD Method and the Finite Elements
Method Used for Spatial Models of Human Bones. BIO Materialien
Interdisciplinary Journal of Functional Materials, Biomechanics and Tissue
Engineering, 230 (2006).
Vidal A., Lesso R., Rodrighez R.,Garcia S.&Daza L., Analysis, Simulation and
Prediction of Contact Stresses in Articular Cartilage of Knee Joint. International
Conference Ansys, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Tecnologico
de Celaya, Mexico, 2008.
Vidal-Lesso A., Ledesma O., Lesso A.R, Rodrguez C., Dynamic Response of Femoral
Cartilage in Knees with Unicompartmental Osteoarthritis. Journal of Applied
Research and Technology, 9, 2, 173-187 (2011).
Weiss .J.A., Gardiner J.C., Computational Modeling of Ligament Mechanics. Critical
Reviews in Biomedical Engineering, 29, 4, 1-70 (2001).
MODELUL VIRTUAL TRIDIMENSIONAL AL
ARTICULAIEI GENUNCHIULUI UMAN
(Rezumat)
Articolul i propune s prezinte algoritmul elaborarii modelului virtual complex
al articulaiei genunchiului uman, bazat pe achizitii de date si imagini in vivo ale unei
articulatii umane. Modelul virtual al articulaiei genunchiului cuprinde urmtoarele
componente: femurul, tibia, peroneul, rotula, cartilajele oaselor, meniscurile, ligamentul
ncruciat anterior, ligamentul ncruciat posterior, ligamentul colateral lateral,
ligamentul colateral medial tendonul patelar. Pentru realizarea modelelor virtuale ale
componentelor osoase se pornete de la imagini CT. Au fost stabilite distane ale
seciunilor la 1,5 mm n zona articulaiei i la 2,5 mm pentru zona care ncepe la o
distana de 15 cm fa de articulaie, pentru a surprinde ct mai bine geometria spaial
complex a articulaiei genunchiului. Au fost obinute peste 400 de seciuni ale
articulaiei genunchiului uman. Modelul virtual este elaborat n vederea studierii
biomecanicii articulaiei genunchiului uman normal, dar i al celui cu afeciuni, pentru a
pune n eviden micrile reale care apar la nivelul articulaiei genunchiului. Modelul
va fi supus simulrilor cinematice i dinamice, folosind analiza cu elemente finite, i se
vor elabora soluii ortotice pentru reabilitarea micrilor articulaiei cu afeciuni.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
PHYSICS-BASED BONE SAWING INTERACTION FOR A

HAPTIC SIMULATOR
BY
RALUCA SOFRONIA , ARJANA DAVIDESCU and GEORGE SAVII

Politehnica University of Timisoara,
Department of Mechatronics
Received: May 2012
Abstract. Bone sawing is an important component of many surgical

procedures and demands a high level of dexterity, which can be gained by the
use of Virtual Reality (VR)-based systems. In this paper, a haptic and visual
simulation of bone cutting by the use of a small reciprocating saw is presented. A
physics-based approach based on metal machining theory is used to describe the
bone-saw interaction, that includes haptic force feedback and bone removal
process. The developed simulation is implemented into an orthognathic training
system.
Key words: bone sawing, virtual reality, haptic, medical training simulator.
1. Introduction
Bone sawing is widely used in different areas of surgery, such as
orthopaedic or maxillofacial surgery. An accurate sawing process can lead to a
successful procedure and to a faster recovery. Due to the complex structure and
the anisotropy of the bone, a high level of dexterity and experience is
mandatory. The required skills can be achieved by a large amount of practice.
The traditional sawing training methods include: practice on cadavers or on
synthetic bones.
Regardless of these traditional methods, computer-based simulations
proved to be a valid alternative. In case of VR-based training systems, a virtual
environment is created by a computer and the trainee is able to naturally interact
Corresponding author: e-mail: raluca.sofronia@mec.upt.ro
310
Raluca Sofronia et al.
with it, e.g. through physical interaction by means of a haptic interface. An

important aspect of these systems is the force feedback, because during the real
procedures the surgeons rely more on tactile than visual sensations. This leads
to the demand of modelling high-fidelity realistic feedback. Even though a large
amount of medical simulators are developed, only a few use physics-based
interaction models and even fewer address bone sawing.
2. Related Work
By the development of the multi-point sampling method (Petersick et al.,
2002), the haptic interaction increased in realism. The method consists in
representing the tool surface through a number of samples and inward normals;
each sample contributes to the overall force with a vector along the normal
sample direction and proportional with the penetration depth. After this, the
researchers started to focus on integrating physical aspects in the simulators.
Morris developed the volumetric multi-point method, in which both the tool and
the volume are represented by voxels (Morris, 2006). The realism of his
simulation was improved by the use of tool vibrations based on real data
obtained from experiments. Experiments were also used by (Agus, 2004) in
order to determine the parameters of a simplified burring model based on
Hertzs contact theory.
Even if most of the current simulators that interact with hard tissues are
using voxel-based representations for the virtual objects (such as the ones
mentioned above), there are a few attempts to use surface meshes due to the less
computational time. Wang et al. used impulse theorem and Coulombs law to
simulate the bone drilling interaction (Wang et al., 2008). Furthermore
experiments and physics were the base for a cutting and grinding dental
simulator (Liu et al., 2008).
A deeper approach, based on metal machining, has started to be used for
simulating realistic haptic interactions. Hsieh et al. suggested a force model for
sawing, but their model does not take into consideration the influence of several
specific parameters: saw rake angle, point angle, helix angle, cutting velocity
and feed rate (Hsieh et al.,2006). A more realistic model for bone milling was
developed by (Arbabtafti et al., 2011), who considered most of these parameters
in their experiments.
3. Bone Sawing Model
3.1. The Machining Process
All material machining processes (turning, milling, drilling, sawing, etc.)

can be reduced to the general case of oblique cutting with a single point cutting
tool. The tool at a rake angle of is moved against the workpiece with a
velocity v in order to remove a layer of material in the form of a chip. The depth
of the layer removed by the tool is known as the undeformed chip thickness s.
311
The force that acts on the tool has three components in the general case of
oblique cutting, in which the helix angle is different than zero (Groover, 2001;
Boothroyd & Knight, 1989): the tangential force Ft (in the cutting direction), the
normal force Fn (normal to the cutting direction) and the radial force Fr
(perpendicular on both forces) (Fig. 1).
The power P (energy per time) required to perform the machining
operation is given by the product of the cutting force and speed (only the force
in the cutting direction is consuming energy)
P = Ft v.
(1)
The energy consumed per material removal rate R is referred to as the unit
power or the specific energy Kt (Groover, 2001)
Kt =
P
.
R
(2)
The material removal rate is defined as the removed volume per time
R=
V
.
t
(3)
The removed material volume is the product of the area of the chip
section A and the length of the cut l, where the length of the cut is obtained from
dividing the cutting velocity by time
V = Al = Avl.
(4)
Using the above relations, the specific energy can be defined as

Kt =
Ft
.
A
(5)
The specific cutting energy can vary considerable for a given material
due to the influence of the cutting conditions, e.g. rake angle, helix angle,
cutting velocity etc. However, for small changes in the cutting conditions at a
high cutting velocity and large feeds the specific cutting energy tends to be
constant and can be used to extend the mechanical properties of the material
(Groover, 2001).
In case of oblique cutting, the normal and radial forces are proportional to
the tangential force, and therefore proportional to the area of the undeformed
chip
Ft K t
F = K A,
n n
Fr K r
(6)
312
where Kt, Kn and Kr [Nm/m3] are the specific cutting energy along the
tangential, normal and radial direction of the cutting.
3.2. Sawing Force Analysis
The typical saw used in orthognathic surgery is a small electrical

reciprocating saw. The material removal process is the effect of two motions:
i) an oscillating motion along the workpiece (the primary motion of the
machining process),
ii) a linear motion, the feed, in order to push the saw into the workpiece
(the second motion of the machining process).
Based on the cutting tool classification (Groover, 2001), the saw is
considered a multiple cutting edge tool; each of the edges is performing an
oblique cut. The saw blades frequently used in surgeries have a constant pitch;
therefore, the total forces acting on the saw are proportional with the number of
saw teeth n that are in contact with the workpiece. Another design aspect of the
surgical saw blades is the fact that the neighbouring saw teeth are facing
opposite sides in order to cancel the radial forces generated by the neighbouring
teeth. Therefore, the cutting force components acting on the saw are (Fig. 2): the
tangential force Ft and the normal force Fn.
3.3. Bone Sawing Model
Due to the fact that the saw consists of multiple cutting edges that cut
simultaneously into the workpiece to remove a volume, the sawing force
components depend on the volume removed from the workpiece V and therefore
depend on the volume of the undeformed chip removed by a tooth Vi,
Ft,n = K t,nV = K t,n nV i .
Fig. 1 The force components

in the case of oblique cutting.
(7)
Fig. 2 The force components

in the case of reciprocating saw.
The volume of the undeformed chip can be determined by analyzing the

saw teeth movements. In two successive positions (during a period of time
313
equal to half of the reciprocating frequency f) the tooth moves along the
workpiece (with a distance equal to the reciprocating amplitude the stroke - a)
and along the feeding direction (with a distance equal to the chip thickness s).
Therefore, the chip volume is (where w is the incision saw blade width)
V i = wa
v
.
2f
(8)
The number of saw teeth that are in contact with the workpiece can be
determined by dividing the length of the cut l to the saw pitch p,
n=
l
.
p
(9)
In addition, the removal rate R is defined as the product of the length of

the cut, the incision saw blade width and the cutting speed. In conclusion, the
cutting force components for a small reciprocating saw typically used in
orthognathic surgery are
Ft , n = K t , n
Ra
.
pf
(10)
4. Implementation
4.1. Application Area: Orthognathic Surgery
Orthognathic or jaw surgery is a branch of surgery which is used to

correct jaws misalignment by repositioning the elements of the facial skeleton.
Most of the orthognathic procedures consist mainly of four steps (Ylikontiola,
2002):
i) soft-tissue detachment;
ii) creation of the osteotomy line using a saw or a Lindemanns burr;
iii) mandible splitting;
iv) segments relocation and fixation. Unfavourable sawing pattern or
insufficient area of contact could lead to different consequences, from
aesthetically unpleasant results to paraesthesia.
During the sawing stage, the surgeon makes the decision regarding the
depth of the osteotomy line based on the felt force feedback. Therefore, a
realistic physics-based bone sawing needs to be implemented into the simulator.
Also aspects regarding the bone structure need to be integrated, to allow
experience the change in resistance between compact and cancellous bone.
4.2. System Overview
The current hardware configuration of the bone sawing training system

(Fig. 3) consists of:
314
Fig. 3 The bone sawing training system.
1. A PHANTOM Omni haptic device from SensAble Inc., that provides

six degrees of freedom tracking and three degrees of freedom force feedback.
2. A personal computer equipped with an Intel Core2Quad Q6600 central
processing unit, NVIDIA Quadro NVS 290 graphics card and 4 GB RAM.
3. A display for visualization.
The simulation was developed by the use of forssim (Forsslund et al.,
2009), an open source haptic library for voxel-based hard tissue removal that is
based on a free and open source scene graph implementation, H3DAPI. The
simulation consists mainly of two threads:
a) the haptic loop (updated at 1kHz), where collision detection and
collision response take place;
b) the visual loop (updated at 30Hz), that handles the visualization and
the bone erosion.
The virtual environment was created by the use of X3D (eXtensible 3D
Graphics), an ISO standard XML-based file format for representing 3D
computer graphics. Sawing is performed on a human mandible model obtained
from segmenting a Computer Tomography scan by the use of ITK-Snap
(Yushkevic et al., 2006). In the current implementation the mandible is
simulated through a volume model of 105 136 170 cubical voxels (0.5mm
side). Each voxel has a specified material (air, teeth, cortical and spongious
bone) and a removal rate.
4.3. Haptic Rendering
A new collision detection algorithm for long thin objects (the modelled
saw is a typically orthognathic saw, with a saw blade length of 33mm and width
of 1mm) was developed in order to meet the main requirement of the haptic
rendering, an update frequency of 1kHz. The frequency is affected by the
number of transformations between the coordinate systems of the virtual scene
(being created by the use of X3D standard, the simulation has three main
coordinate systems attached to: the scene, the saw and the volume model).
In order to reduce the number of transformations several approaches are
used. First, the saw is divided into a number of volumes; for each saw volume
315
an Axis-Aligned Bounding Box (AABB) and an Oriented Bounding Box (OBB)

are defined. Every voxel that is inside the AABB is checked against the OBB,
by computing the voxel position in the saw coordinate system based on the
position of the previous voxel, by adding the voxels sampling distance in the
saw coordinate system. In this way, the regular transformations of each voxel
from the volume model to the saw coordinate system (in order to test them
against the OBB) are eliminated; therefore the OBB can be seen as an AABB in
the saw coordinate system.
If collision is detected, the depth of the saw penetration inside the bone is
computed. The force feedback (along the feeding direction) is simulated as an
elastic force proportional to the penetration depth. Also a vibrational force is
used to simulate the normal component of the sawing force.
4.4. Visual Rendering
Since the voxel-based model does not contain an explicit representation

of the object surfaces, the so-called iso-surface is rendered based on the
marching-cubes algorithm.
In the current prototype, the suggested bone removal model suffered
some simplifications by allowing the trainee to use only one saw blade and the
same cutting parameters (sawing amplitude and frequency). Based on the
computed force feedback and the removal rates of the intersected voxels, the
volume that needs to be removed during one haptic loop is determined. The
erosion process starts with voxels that have a higher penetration depth and ends
when the removed volume equals the one that needs to be removed.
5. Conclusions
1. We have presented a physics-based haptic and visual bone sawing
interaction that is being developed as part of a VR-based training system for
orthognathic surgery.
2. Since (to our knowledge) there are no available data for mandibular
bone sawing, we are currently focusing on experimental determination of the
suggested model coefficients.
Acknowledgements. This work was partially supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU/88/1.5/S/50783, Project ID50783 (2009), co-financed by the European Social
Fund- Investing in People, within the Sectoral Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007-2013. The authors sincerely thank Professor T. Kuhlen
and PhD. student T. Knott from the Virtual Reality Group of RWTH Aachen
University, Germany (where the first author did a research stage for 8 months), for their
suggestions regarding virtual reality aspects. We furthermore thank M. Gerressen from
Department for Operative Dentistry and Plastic Facial Surgery of RWTH Aachen
University Hospital for medical expertise.
316
REFERENCES
Agus M., Haptic and Visual Simulation of Bone Dissection. Doctoral Thesis, Universita
degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy, 2004.
Arbabtafti M. et. al., Physics-based Haptic Simulation of Bone Machining. IEEE Trans.
Haptics., 4, 39-50 (2011).
Boothroyd G., Knight W. A., Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools. Marcel
Dekker, New York, 1989.
Forsslund J., Sallnas E. L., Palmerius K. J., A User-centered Designed FOSS
Implementation of Bone Surgery Simulations. Proc. IEEE Joint Eurohaptics Conf.
Symp. Haptic Interfaces Virtual Environ. Teleoper. Syst., Salt Lake City, US,
2009, pp. 391-392.
Groover M. P. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes and
Systems. Second Ed., Wiley, 2001.
Hsieh M. S., Tsai M. D., Yeh Y. D., An Amputation Simulator with Bone Sawing Haptic
Interaction. Biomed. Eng. Appl. Basis. Comm., 18, 229-236 (2006).
Liu G., Zhang Y., Townsend W. T., Force Modeling for Tooth Preparation in a Dental
Training System. Virtual Reality, 12, 2008, pp. 125-136.
Morris D., Haptics and Physical Simulation for Virtual Bone Surgery. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Dept. of Computer Science, Stanford University, US, 2006.
Petersik A., Pflesser B., Tiede U., Hhne K. H., Leuwer R., Haptic Volume Interaction
with Anatomic Models at Sub-voxel Resolution. Proc. 10th IEEE Symp. Haptic
Interface Virtual Env. Teleoperator. Syst., Orlando, 2002, pp. 66-72.
Ylikontiola L., Neurosensory Disturbance after Bilateral Sagittal Split Osteotomy.
Doctoral Thesis, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, 2002.
Yushkevic P. A. et. al., User-guided 3D Active Contour Segmentation of Anatomical
Structures: Significantly Improved Efficiency and Reliability. Neuroimage., 31,
1116-1128 (2006).
Wang Q. et al., Dynamic Touch-enable Bone Drilling Interaction. Proc. 5th Int. IEEE
Conf. on Inf. Tech. App. Biomed., Shenzhen ,China, 2008, pp.457 -460.
INTERACIUNEA OS-FIERSTRU N CADRUL UNUI SIMULATOR HAPTIC
(Rezumat)
Debitarea cu fierstrul este una dintre etapele principale din cadrul multor
proceduri chirurgicale, precum osteotomii, ostectomii, artroplastii sau amputaii.
Lucrarea de fa propune un nou simulator de realitate virtual pentru exersarea debitrii
cu fierstrul. Plecnd de la procesul tehnologic de achiere, lucrarea propune un model
matematic pentru fora de debitare cu un fierstru electric cu micare rectilinie
alternativ. Modelul este integrat n cadrul unui simulator pentru trainingul procedurilor
din cadrul chirurgiei ortognatice.

Publicat de
Secia
CONSTRUCII DE MAINI
SMALL COGENERATION SYSTEM

WITH WOOD GASIFIER
BY
MARIAN STANCU, DANIEL DRAGOMIR-STANCIU

and CONSTANTIN LUCA
Department of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering

Abstract. The authors analyse a small scale cogeneration system with

wood downdraft gasifier and piston engine. The electrical power is 10 kW. Are
mentioned the quality conditions for gas generator. The paper presents the
cogeneration system and the results of calculation of the most important
parameters: thermal power of piston engines and of the gasifier, fuel
consumption, efficiency of cogeneration unit.
Key words: cogeneration, downdraft, gasifier, efficiency.
1. Introduction
Gasification is the process that converts organic matter into fuel gas,
particularly CO and H2, through a chain reaction of solid fuels with a limited
amount of oxygen.
The gas produced by gasification of biomass begins to be used for
production of clean energy as heat, mechanical work or electricity. It can use a
wide range of vegetable waste properly prepared. The most common
applications are based on internal combustion engines. In principle any type of
internal combustion engine can be "converted" to run partially or totally on gas
(Rajvanshi, 1986). Currently there is no technology devised to ensure the safe
Corresponding author: e-mail: ddragomir03@yahoo.com
318
Marian Stancu et al.
and long lasting group of micro. The trend today is to adapt and use existing
engines. There is still some equipment manufacturer dedicated to also apply
It is convenient to distinguish between applications in terms of power
output:
a) large scale applications (500 kW and above);
b) medium scale applications (30 -500 kW);
c) small-scale applications (7 - 30 kW);
d) micro scale applications (1 - 7 kW).
2. The Cogeneration System
When a gasifier system is used in conjunction with an internal
combustion engine, an important requirement is that the engine is supplied with
a gas that is sufficiently free from dust, tars and acids. These impurities may
lead to operational problems and abnormal engine wear. The main problem of
gasifier system design is to generate a gas with a high proportion of combustible
components and a minimum of impurities. The tolerable amounts of these
substances will vary depending on the type and outfit of the engine. The
tolerable average amounts for currently available engines have the following
values (Tiedema et al., 1983):
dust:
lower than 50 mg/m gas preferably 5 mg/m gas;
tars:
lower than 500 mg/m gas;
acids:
lower than 50 mg/m gas (measured as acetic acid).
The main advantage of downdraught gasifiers lies in the possibility of
producing a tar-free gas suitable for engine applications.
The cogeneration system is presented in Fig.1. The wood gas generator 1
operates in conjunction with a piston engine 3. Producer gas, the gas generated
when wood is gasified with air, is the fuel for the piston engine 3 driving an
electrical generator 4, after cleaning in filter 2.
7
8
1
2
3
4
6
Fig. 1 Cogeneration system with wood gasifier.
319
The heat recovered from piston engine - cooling water (heat exchanger 6)
and exhaust gas (heat exchanger 8) - and gas cooling system (heat exchanger 7)
is used to produce warm water in boiler 5.
Drawbacks of the downdraught system, as compared to updraught, are
somewhat lower efficiency resulting from the lack of internal heat exchange as
well as the lower heating value of the gas. Besides this, the necessity to
maintain uniform high temperatures over a given cross-sectional area makes
impractical the use of downdraught gasifiers in a power range above about 350
kW (shaft power).
3. Design Calculation
The generator electrical power Pe = 10 kW. Efficiency of generator is
considered e = 0,8 .
Mechanical output of this engine is
Pm = Pe e ,
(1)
Pm = 12.5 kW.
Efficiency of piston engine is taken m = 0,8. The thermal power realised
by gas burning
Qgas =
Pm
,
m
(2)
Qgas = 50 kW = 42960.4 kcal/h

The heat value of the gas is taken at: Hi = 3458 kcal/kg, or Hi = 1503.5
kcal/ Nm3. The necessary gas massflow is
Dgas =
Qgas
Hi
(3)
Dgas = 28.57 Nm3/h

The dry fluegas for 1 kg wood is Vg = 1.89 Nm3/kg. Wood consumption
gasifier
FC =
Dgas
Vg
FC = 15.100 kg/h
Electrical efficiency, 24%.
The heat recovered (transferred to hot water) is about 12 kW.
Combined heat and power (CHP) efficiency, 58.5% .
(4)
320
Marian Stancu et al.
4. Conclusions
1, Gasification technology is a promising technology for power and heat

cogeneration.
2. The efficiency of CHP gasifier system is satisfactory and the price of
energy is lower than classical systems. It is possible to use gas generators for
combined cooling, heating and power production (CCHP).
3. The biomass gasification systems can be used in conjunction with
other alternative energy systems, e.g. solar systems.
REFERENCES
Kaupp A., Gross J.R., State of the Art of Small Scale Gas Producer Engine Systems.
Final Report, U.S.D.A., Forest Service, Ch. 7, 1981.
Rajvanshi A.K., Biomass Gasification. Ch. 4, Alternative Energy in Agriculture. Vol.
II, Ed. D. Yogi Goswami, 1986, pp. 83-102.
Roos C., Clean Heat and Power Using Biomass Gasification for Industrial and
Agricultural Projects. WSU Extension Energy Program, US, Departament of
Energy, Clean Energy Application Center, 2010.
Tiedema P., van der Weide J., Dekker H.J., Converting Diesel Engines to the Use of
Gaseous Fuels. Producer Gas. The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1983, pp.
393-414.
Van Der Heijden S., Szladow A. J., Barabas M., Sirianni G., Wood Gasification System
for Electricity Production. Proceedings 16th IECEC, 1981, p. 459.
Venselaar J., Design Rules for Down-draught Gasifiers, A Short Review. IT Bandung,
Indonesia, 1982.
INSTALAIE DE COGENERARE DE MIC PUTERE

CU GAZEIFICAREA LEMNULUI
(Rezumat)
Se analizeaz o instalaie n care este utilizat gazul de generator pentru
producerea combinat a energiei electrice i termice. Instalaia poate produce 10 kWe i
12 kWt . Sunt precizate condiiile pe care trebuie s le indeplineasc gazul pentru a
putea fi utilizat drept combustibil n motorul cu piston. Tipul de gazeificator care se
preteaz cel mai bine acestui gen de instalaie este cel cu circulaie descendent, care are
cea mai mic cantitate de gudron n gazul produs. Este prezentat schema instalaiei i
sunt efectuate calculele de dimensionare din care rezult puterea la arborele motorului
cu piston i puterea termic a gazeificatorului. Sunt determinate randamentul pentru
producia de energie electric i randamentul global al instalaiei de cogenerare.

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BULETINUL

Tomul LVIII (LXII)

BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAI

GHEORGHE ASACHI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF IAI

Editorial Advisory Board

Prof.dr.eng. Dorel Leon, Gheorghe Asachi Technical

BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAI

ISAAC NELSON (SUA), CONSTANTIN CIOCNEL (SUA) i HEIDI

DAN ILINCIOIU i COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, Influena ipotezelor

DAN ILINCIOIU i COSMIN MIHAI MIRIOIU, O comparaie ntre cteva

MARIAN MARE, CRISTINA RACU, LILIANA BUHU i ADRIAN

GABRIEL ALEXANDRU, GHEORGHE DUMITRACU i FLORIN

OLIVIA GIUCA i IOAN NICOAR, Utilizarea planurilor de experimente

BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAI

MARIAN MARE, CRISTINA RACU, LILIANA BUHU and ADRIAN

GEORGE OVIDIU RU, MIHAI ADAM and GHEORGHE

MARIAN STANCU, DANIEL DRAGOMIR-STANCIU and CONSTANTIN

BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAI

BEHAVIOUR OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE BEAM AT THE

Abstract. One of the current problems connected with multiplayer

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

with transverse shear function

where, H(x3 x3(m)), the Heaviside Step function is defined as:

&& is set such that

Ambartsumain (1958), where

Kaczkowski & Panc (1975) and Reissner (1975) where

Levinson (1980), Muthy (1981) and Reddy (1984) where

and finally Touratier (1991), where

So, we took a start with an exponential function, because an exponential

Touratier (1991), where

As it is clear from expansions of the transverse shear stress functions, that

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

But the virtual power of the acceleration quantities is

Now the virtual power of internal work is

so, in two dimension

so Eq. (10) becomes (see Appendix B for the mathematical detail),

Now the virtual power of external loading is

so Eq. (14) becomes (see Appendix C for the mathematical detail),

P(*e ) = ( n1u1o * + ( n 3 + m 1,1 ) w * + p 11* )d x1 + N 1u1o * ( N 3 m 1 ) w * M 1 w,1* + P 11*

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

( ) = P11,1 P13 + p1.

Now, the generalized constitutive law

So, the governing Eqs. (17) become

And the natural boundary conditions (18) become

Interface of layer (1) and layer (2)

Interface of layer (2) and layer (3)

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

Now by Eqs. (25) and (26),

3. Finite Element Analysis

Since no exact 3D solution exists for the considered case study, so

The static bending analysis is studied, so the virtual power of acceleration

E22 = E33 = 18.89 GPa,

G23 = 3.45 GPa,

G12 = G13 = 5.18 GPa,

1(1) = - 1(3) = 0.2210501411,

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

Fig. 1 Description of the beam.

Problem 1: bending of a simply supported beam under distributed

Now the governing Eqs (22), with P(a)* = 0 , becomes

Now, by the Levy solution, the governing equations become:

and also, the displacement (1), becomes

and integration of the equilibrium equation 13,1 + 33,3 = 0 , enables us to

For this problem, the present model present a better mechanical

Bul. Inst. Polit. Iai, t. LVIII (LXII), f. 3, 2012

P(e ) = ( n1u1o + ( n 3 + m 1,1 ) w * + p 11* )d x1 + N 1u1o * ( N 3 m 1 ) w * M 1 w,1* + P 11*

P(i ) = 11,1u1o x311,11w* h1 ( x3 )11,11* + h1,3 ( x3 )131* d