Hydraulic machines turbines

Water driven turbines are primarily used for the development of the hydro-electric energy. Turbines
extract energy from flowing water and convert it to the mechanical energy to derive electric
generators. Hydro-electric, as it is called is the major source of the power production. [1] Pakistan has
an installed generation capacity of 5,013.2 MW. [2]

Hydraulic turbines
There are two basic types of turbines
Impulse turbine: a free jet of water impinges on the revolving element of the machine, which
is exposed to the atmospheric pressure. The energy delivered to an impulse turbine is all
kinetic.
Reaction turbine: flow takes place under pressure in a closed chamber. RT uses the pressure
energy as well as the kinetic energy.
The action of both turbines depends on a change in the momentum of the water so that the dynamic
force is exerted on the rotating element, runner.
Turbines are operated at constant speeds. In most part of the world 50 cycles (cycles/sec, Hz) electric
current is most common, under such conditions the rotative speed of the turbine in revolutions per
minute is given by = /, where is the number of the poles in the generator set and must
be an even integer.
The power demand of the power distribution system varies throughout the day, high during daylight
hours and lower at night. Consequently there is a variation in the load on the system. In a large system
the variation in load can be accommodated by varying the number of the generators in the operation.
Even so the load on a single generator may vary with time. Therefore, if the generator is driven by a
hydraulic turbine, to maintain a constant speed, flow passing through the turbine must be adjusted to
regulate the power output of the turbine. [1]

Impulse turbines
Impulse turbine sometimes called as impulse wheel or Pelton wheel. The runner has a number of
split pockets located around its periphery.

Figure 1 Pelton wheel with Bucket [3]

When the jet strikes the dividing ridge of the bucket, it splits in to two parts that discharge at both
ends of the bucket. Each split bucket has a notch that enables the bucket to attain a position nearly
tangent to the direction of the jet before the bucket intercepts the jet. Usually one jet is used for small
turbines but two or more jets can be used impinging at different points around the wheel on large
units.
Nozzle is accompanied with governor operated by-pass valves or deflector units to regulate the flow
of the water. To overcome the energy loses we use specifically designed supply pipes with large
diameters, penstock.
The generator rotor set is usually mounted on a horizontal shaft between two bearings with runner
installed on the projecting end, such an installation is termed as single overhung installation. Often
runners are installed on both sides of the generator, making it a double overhung installation.
For good efficiency the width of the bucket should be 3 4 times the jet diameter, and the wheel
diameter is usually 15 20 times the jet diameter. The wheel diameter also referred to as the pitch
diameter, is the diameter of the pitch circle, the circle to which the center line of the jet is tangent. [1]

Efficiencies of an impulse Turbine

In general, the term efficiency may be defined as the ratio of work done to the energy supplied. An
impulse turbine has the following three types of energies. [4]
Hydraulic Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency
Overall Efficiency

Hydraulic Efficiency
It is the ratio of work done, on the wheel, to the energy of the jet.

Mechanical Efficiency
It has been observed that all the energy supplied to the wheel does not come out as useful work. But
a part of it is dissipated in overcoming friction of bearings and other moving parts. Thus the mechanical
efficiency is the ratio of actual work available at the turbine to the energy imparted to the wheel.

Overall Efficiency
It is a measure of performance of turbine, and is the ratio of actual power produced by the turbine to
the energy supplied to the turbine.
Overall Efficiency of the turbines is defined by:
=

( )

Where
=
=
=
= [4]

Reaction turbine
A reaction turbine is one in which flow takes place in a closed chamber under pressure. The flow
through a reaction turbine may be radially inward, axial, or mixed (partially radial and partially axial).
There are two types of reaction turbines that are in use
Francis Turbine inward flow turbine
Axial flow (propeller) turbine

Francis Turbine
In the usual Francis turbine water enters the casing and moves into the runner through the series of
guide vanes with contracting passages that convert pressure head to velocity head. These vanes,
known as wicket gates are adjustable so that the quantity and direction of flow can be controlled they
are operated by moving a shifting ring to which each gate is attached. Constant rotative speed of the
runner under varying load is achieved by a governor that actuates a mechanism that regulates the
gate openings. A relief valve or a surge tank is generally necessary to prevent serious water hammer
pressures.

Figure 2 Francis Turbine

Flow through the usual Francis runner is at first inward in the radial direction, gradually changes to
axial, such turbines are therefore also called mixed flow turbines. They are usually mounted on a
vertical axis. The casing of the turbine is designed to decrease the cross-sectional area in proportion
to the decreasing flow rate passing a given section of the casing so that flow enters the guide vanes
uniformly around the periphery of the vanes.

Axial flow (propeller) turbine

The propeller turbine, an axial-flow machine with its runner confined in a closed conduit, is commonly
set on vertical axis, though it may be set on a horizontal and inclines axis. The usual manner has 4 8
blades mounted on a hub, with very little clearance with the conduit wall. The blades have free outer
ends like marine propeller. Adjustable gates actuated by a governor at the upstream of the runner are
used to regulate the flow.

Figure 3 Kaplan turbine

A Kaplan Turbine is a propeller turbine with moveable blades whose pitch can be adjusted suit existing
operating conditions. The adjustment is accomplished by a mechanism in the runner hub, which is
actuated hydraulically by the governor in synchronization with the guide vanes adjustments.
Two other types of propeller turbines are

Deriaz
An adjustable blade, diagonal flow turbine where the flow is directed inwards as it passes through
the blades

Tube turbine
An inclined axis type that is particularly well adapted to low head installations. [1]

Efficiency of turbines
In general, the term efficiency may be defined as the ratio of work done to the energy supplied.
Following are three types of efficiencies of a turbine.
Mechanical efficiency
Hydraulic Efficiency
Overall efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of actual work available at the turbine to the energy imparted to the wheel.

Hydraulic Efficiency
Work done on the wheel to the head of water (or actual energy) supplied to the turbine.

Overall efficiency of Turbine

Efficiency of the turbines is defined by:
=

( )

Where
=
=
=
= [1]

Comparison of an Impulse and a reaction turbine

Following table covers the few points of difference between the reaction and impulse turbine.
Impulse Turbine
The entire energy available of water is first
converted into Kinetic Energy.
The water flow throught he nozzles and impinges
on the buckets, which are fixed to the outer
periphery of the wheel.
The water impinges on the buckets, with kinetic
energy.
The pressure of flowing water remains unchanged
and is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
it is not essential that the wheel should run full,
there should be free access of air between the
blades and casing.
The water may be admitted over a part of the
circumference or over the whole circumference of
the wheel.
The work is done by the change in kinetic energy
of the jet.

Reaction Turbine
The available energy of water is not converted
from one form to another.
The water is guided by the guide blades to flow
over the moving vanes.
The water guides over the moving vanes, with
pressure energy.
The pressure of the water is reduced after
gliding over the vanes.
It is essential that the wheel should run full and
kept full of water.
The water must be admitted over the whole
circumference of the wheel.
The work is done partly by the change in the
velocity head, but almost entirely by the
change in pressure head, or the later only.

Turbine installations
Impulse turbines
The impulse wheel is especially adapted for use under high heads. For heads above 1500 ft (457m) it
is the only type that can be used.

Francis turbines
The Francis Turbine is especially used for heads ranging from 50 to 1000 ft (15 to 300m), and has
been used for heads as high as 460 m.

Propeller Turbines
Propeller turbines, both fixed blade and adjustable blades (Kaplan Turbine), are best suited for low
head installations, usually for heads less than 100ft (30m). [1]

References
[1] J. B. F. E. John Finnemore, Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, McGraw Hill.
[2] waterinfo.net.pk, [Online]. Available:
http://waterinfo.net.pk/sites/default/files/knowledge/Hydel%20Power.pdf. [Accessed 17 05
2015].
[3] NPTEL Online-IIT Kanpur, [Online]. Available: nptel.ac.in. [Accessed 17 05 2015].
[4] R. S. Khurmi.