PHY F111

Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves

Instructors
Dr. V. Satya Narayana Murthy
Dr. Asrarul Haque
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus

Part - I
Oscillations and Waves
V. Satya Narayana Murthy
A217
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus
Hyderabad

Topics to be covered
Ch 10

Kleppner & Kolenkow

Harmonic oscillator

A P French
Ch 3
Free vibrations of a physical system
Oscillations involving massive springs
Ch 4

Forced vibrations and resonance

The power absorbed by a driven oscillator

Ch 2

Super position of periodic motions

Ch 5

Coupled oscillators & normal modes

Ch 6

Normal modes of continuous

systems
Free vibrations of a stretched string
Superposition of modes on a string
Forced harmonic vibrations of a
stretched string

Ch 7

Progressive waves
Normal modes and travelling waves
Progressive waves
Dispersion, phase and group velocity
The energy in a mechanical wave

The Harmonic Oscillator

Kleppner & Kolenkow (CH 10)
A P French (CH - 3 & 4)

Topics to be covered
Periodic motions
Simple harmonic motion
Damped harmonic oscillator
Forced harmonic oscillator
The power absorbed by a driven oscillator
Oscillations involving massive springs

In every day life we come across various

things that move
The motion of physical systems can be
classified into 2 broad categories
1 Translational motion
2 Vibrational motion

Periodic motions

Vibratory / Oscillatory motions

SHM

Periodic motions
A movement that repeats with periodicity
Ex:

The pattern that repeats may be simple or

complicated

Vibratory / oscillatory motion

A body in periodic motion moves back and
forth over the same path
What is the difference between oscillatory
and vibratory motion?
In oscillation time taken to complete one cycle
is constant, in vibration it may not be
Oscillations occur in physical or biological
systems
Vibrations occur in mechanical systems

EX. the oscillations of a pendulum

the vibrations of a string of a guitar
Every oscillatory motion is periodic
but every periodic motion need not be
oscillatory
Uniform circular motion
is a periodic motion, but
it is not oscillatory

Simple Harmonic Motion / Sinusoidal Motion

Simple periodic motion
In many systems a small displacement (x)
from the equilibrium position sets up SHM
Restoring force = -kx
Where k is a constant
(stiffness or spring
constant)
SHM No friction force

Vertical spring mass system

In equilibrium net
force acting on the
mass, F = -k dl = Mg
Now M is displaced
from equilibrium
position by a
distance x

l
Fnet
dl
x

Total net force acting on M is

F net = -k (dl + x) Mg = -kx

Mg
Mg

The equation for the motion of SHM is:

F kx
mx kx
k
x
x 0 (1)
m

How to solve?

The solution for this equation is of the form:

x Ccoso t

Another possible solution is : x Bsinot

Therefore the most general solution will be
x Bsino t Ccoso t (2)

Equ. (2) can be written in convenient form as

x Acos(0 t ) (3)

Rotating vector representation

SHM can be represented as geometric
projection of uniform circular motion

x Acos
If we take counter clock wise direction as +ve
then = 0t +
x Acos(0 t ) (3)

The value of is determined from the value

of x at t=0

(2) x Bsinot Ccosot

or
(3) x Acos(0 t )

where

B Asin
C Acos

(3) x Acos(0 t )
2

x A0 cos(0 t )
2

x 0 x 0 (4)

Comparing eq. (1) & (4)

k
(5)
m

k
(1) x
x 0
m

Examples of SHM Eq. Of motion is

mx kx
Simple pendulum

mS mgsin

S gsin 0 (6)

For small angular displacements

sin and

s
m
mgsin

mg

mgcos S

(6) S S 0
l

g
l

S
l

Oscillations of floating bodies

Fb

When a body is in equilibrium,

the weight is balanced by the
buoyant force
Displace the body from its
equilibrium position by an
amount x
the extra buoyancy force is
given by:

0
mx gAx

x
mgm

Ag
m

Harmonic oscillations of an LC circuit

voltage across capacitor
q
v
C

K
source

voltage across inductor

di
d q
v L
L 2
dt
dt

Lq
1
C
q
q 0
LC

1
LC

Nomenclature
(3) x Acos(0 t )

x = instantaneous displacement of the

particle at time t
A = amplitude (maximum displacement)
o = angular frequency = 2/T
= phase factor or phase angle

How to calculate A and ?

A and are fixed by initial conditions
Let at t = 0, the position of the mass is x(0)
and its velocity is v(0)
x(0) A cos

v(0)

tan

x
(
0
)
0

v(0) A0 sin

v (0 )
A x(0)

0
2

Energy of an oscillator
The total energy (potential +kinetic) is a
constant for an undamped oscillator
1 2
1
E U K kx mv 2
2
2

The individual values of P.E and K.E will

vary with time
1 2 2
1
2
E kA cos 0 t m0 A2 sin 2 0 t
2
2
1 2
E kA
2

Time average values

f

What is time average?

What is area under the f(t)
curve between t 1 and
t2 ?
t
f t dt
2

t1

t2

t1

t2

f t 2 t1

t1

f t dt or

t 2 t1

t2

f t dt
t1

Examples

sin t 0

1.0

0.0

1.0

-0.5

0.8
0.6

-1.0

Sin ()

Sin ()

0.5

(radian)

0.4
0.2

1
sin t
2

0.0

Mathematically

sin t
2
2

(radian)

1
0 sin (t )dt 2
2

What is the time average values of P.E. or

K.E. over one period?
1 2
1 2
2
K .E. kA cos t kA
2
4

1 2
1 2
2
P.E. kA sin t kA
2
4

K .E. P.E.

Time average value

When friction is present, this is no longer

true

Calculating 0 or T from E
Spring mass system
m

1 2
1
E U K kx mx 2
2
2

Since E is constant

k
m

dE
0
dt

k
x
x 0
m

T 2

m
k

Simple pendulum

l-y

For small

s m
y
m
l

1
2
E mv mgy
2

y s

s l y
2

s 2ly y

ds

dt
2

s
y
2l

 ds
v

dt
s2
y
2l

1
1 mg 2
2
E ms
s
2
2 l

Since E is constant

dE
0
dt

dE
0
dt

g
s s 0
l

T 2

g
l
l
g

Simple pendulum
E interms of

l cos

For small
l

s m
y
m
dE
0
dt

1
2
E mv mgy
2
ds
d
v
l
dt
dt

2
y l 1 cos l
2
2

1 2 d
1
2
E ml mgl
2
2
dt
g

0
l

g
l

Recap
Periodic motion
Vibratory / Oscillatory motion
Equ. of motion for different SHO
How to guess a solution for second order
differential equ. having constant coefficients
Time average values of KE & PE

Today's topics
Complex numbers
Damped harmonic oscillator
Equ. of motion
Lightly damped
Heavily damped
Critically damped
Energy
Quality factor

Complex numbers
What is the use of complex numbers in
harmonic oscillator?
Sol. of a SHM

x Acos(0 t )

x A0 sin (0 t )
2

x A0 cos(0 t )

To simplify the calculations we use complex

numbers

Complex numbers are represented by

z = x + iy
x is the real part and y is the imaginary part
Graphical representation of complex numbers
Imaginary axis
z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )
Real axis

y
A

A cos

A sin
x

z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )

z = A ei
Geometrically
what is the
meaning?
xy - complex plane

y
A

vector of length A makes an angle with

the real axis

z A1 A2 e

i ( 2 1 )

Add vector of length A2

at angle (2- 1) to A1

i ( t 1 )

Turn it by an angle

(t+ 1)

2 1
2 1

A2

t 1

A2
A1
O

A1
X

x Acos(0 t )

How to represent in complex form ?

Consider the imaginary component
y A sin(0 t )

Z A cos (0 t ) i A sin(0 t )
Z A e i (0t ) Calculation

Real part represents

the equ. of SHM

becomes
simpler

Z A e i (0t )

Z A i0 e i (0t )

Real part x A0 sin (0t )

Z A 02 e i (0t )
2

Real part x A0 cos(0 t )

Damped Harmonic Oscillator

SHM No friction force
What is the effect of friction on the harmonic
oscillator?
Assume a special form of friction force
viscous force velocity f = - bv
b = coefficient of damping force
Condition: Viscous force arises when an
object moves through a fluid at speeds
which are not so large to cause turbulence

Total force acting on m is F = Fspring + f

F kx bv

Equ. of motion is
m x
x

b
m

b x

kx
k
m

x x

2
0

x x x 0
2
0

How to solve ?
To convert into complex form use the
companion equation

y y y 0
2
0

2
0

In complex form z z z 0

2
0

z z z 0
The solution will be of the form,

z z0 e

Substituting the solution back into the

original equation gives us:
t

2
0

z0 e ( ) 0

2
0

z0 e ( ) 0

2
0
4

The most general solution will be:

z z Ae

1t

zBe

2t

Here zA and zB are constants and 1 and 2

are the two roots

1t

z z Ae z B e

2t

1, 2
Case (i)
2

2
o
4

0
2
4

Case (ii)
2

2
o
4

Case (iii)
2

2
o
4

Case (i)

2
o
4

2
o
4

Light Damping
or
Under Damping

is imaginary

2
i o
i1
2
4
2

The solution to the differential equation is:

z e

t/2

z e

i1t

z2e

i1t

Real part of x is

x e

t/2

Bcos1t

Csin1t

or

t
2

x Ae cos1t A(t)cos1t

The solution is oscillatory, but with a reduced

frequency and time varying (exponentially
decaying) amplitude

x Ae

t
2

cos1t A(t) cos1t

4
2
o

1
2

2
o
4

1 0

Case (ii)

2
o
4

Heavy Damping
or
Over Damping

2
o
4

is real

2
2

Both roots are negative

2
o

4
1 2

Solution is

z z1e

1 t

z2e

2 t

Real part of the solution is

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

This represents non-oscillatory behavior

The actual displacement will depend upon
the initial conditions

2
o
4

1 0

Case (iii) o2
4

Critical Damping

Sol. is x Ce /2 t

The solution is incomplete

Why?

The sol. to a 2nd order differential equ.

should have two independent constants
which are to be fixed by the initial conditions

solution will be of the form x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Light

Heavy

Critical

Air

Thick
oil

Water

x Ae

t
2

cos1t

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Energy of a Damped Harmonic Oscillator

From work energy theorem
E t E 0 W friction

Wfriction = work done by the friction force

from time 0 to t
f = -bv
opposes the motion

x(t)

Wf

fdx

x(0)

bv dt
0

Friction force dissipates energy

E(t) decreases with time
1 2 1 2
E (t) U (t) K (t) kx mx
2
2

For the lightly damped oscillator

x Aexp( t/2)cos(1t )
v 1 Ae

t
2

cos(1t )
sin(1t )
21

can be neglected
2

2
o
4

1 0
2

2
1

21

1
A m
2
K(t) mv
exp( t)sin 2 (1t )
2
2

U t

1
1
2
2 t
2

kx
kA e cos ( 1 t )
2
2

E t
1 2 t
2
A e m1 sin 2 (1t ) kcos 2 (1t )
2

For light damping 1 0

1 2 t
E t kA e
2

1 2
E0 kA
2

At t=0

E t E0 e
5
4
3

In general

2
1
0
0

time(s)

Time constant
The decay is characterized by a time ,
damping time, during which the energy
falls to e-1 of its initial value

E t E0 e

E0
E t
0.368E0
e

When

Recap
Complex numbers
Damped harmonic oscillator
Equ. of motion m x kx
1t

z z Ae z B e
2

1, 2

2t

0
2
4

b x

Case (i)
2

Case (ii)

Case (iii)

2
o
4

2
o
4

2
o
4

Light

Heavy

Critical

x Ae

t
2

cos1t

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Energy of a lightly damped harmonic

oscillator
5
4
3

E t E0 e

2
1
0
0

time(s)

Time constant ()

E0
E t
0.368E0
e

Todays topics
Q factor of DHO
Forced Harmonic oscillator
Undamped FHO
Equ. Of motion
Solution
Resonance
+ve and ve aspects

Quality factor
The damping can be specified by a
dimensionless parameter Q

E(t)

energy stored in the oscillator

Q
energy dissipated per radian

Rate of change of energy

dE
E0et E
dt

Energy dissipated in a time T is

dE
T ET
dt

T = 2 / 1 oscillates through 2 radians

Energy dissipated in 2
radians
E
Energy dissipated per radian is
1
dE
T ET
dt

E
1
0
Q

1
Q 1 0

Light damping Q>>1

Heavy damping Q is low
Undamped oscillator Q is infinite

In an experiment, a paperweight suspended

from a hefty rubber band had a period of
1.2 s and the amplitude of oscillation
decreased by a factor of 2 after three
periods. What is the estimated Q of the
system?
Solution
A(t) Ae

t
2

Ae(0)
2
1.8
Ae

1.8 ln2

0.39s

1
2
Q

13

0.39 * 1.2

10.3 In an undamped free harmonic oscillator the

motion is given by x = A sin0t. The displacement is
maximum exactly midway between the zero
crossings.
In a damped oscillator the motion is no longer
sinusoidal and the maximum is advanced before the
midpoint of zero crossings. Show that the maximum
is advanced by a phase angle given approximately
by = 1/2Q

Forced Harmonic Oscillator

Undamped Forced Oscillator
Equ. of motion of a SHO
mx kx

Driving force

mx kx F0 cost

mx kx F0 cost
How to solve?
RHS of equ. has cos t
LHS of equ. must also have cos t
Try the solution

x A cost

Equ. of motion mx kx F0 cost

x A cost

solution

k A cos t Fo cos t

Fo
A
2
k m

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

F
1
0
The solution is x
cos

t
2
m 0 2
Incomplete solution

???

No arbitrary constants
Must able to specify x0 and v0

 Complete solution is

F0
1
x
cos
t

Bcos(
t

)
0
2
m 0 2

Steady state
solution

General solution of
undamped oscillator
2

x 0 x 0

Resonance

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

A 0
= 0 A is finite

0 A
Resonance

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

0.010

A 0; 0

0.000

A 0; 0

0.005

-0.005

-ve A ?

-0.010

A ; 0

20

40

60

80

100

The displacement is opposite to the direction

of the force!
There is a phase difference of between the
displacement and the applied force

The phenomenon of resonance has both +ve

and ve aspects
+ve aspects
Small driving force gives large amplitude
Tuning radios to the desired frequency
-wave oven
food with no water
content cannot be
heated
Applied -wave frequency is equal to the
H2O molecules (non zero dipole moment)
natural frequency

-ve aspects

To reduce response at resonance dissipative

friction force is needed - Forced Damped
Harmonic Oscillator

Recap
1
0

Q factor of DHO Q

Forced Undamped oscillator

mx kx F0 cost
F0
1
cos

t
solution x
2
m 0 2

 Complete solution is

F0
1
x
cos
t

Bcos(
t

)
0
2
m 0 2

Steady state
solution

General solution of
undamped oscillator
2

x 0 x 0

0.010

Fo
1
A
m o2 2
A

0.005

0.000

-0.005

mx kx F0 cost

-ve A ?

-0.010

20

40

60

80

100

displacement is opposite to the direction of

the force!
There is a phase difference of between the
displacement and the applied force

Todays topics
Forced damped harmonic oscillator
Equ. Of motion
Solution
Resonance
Energy
Quality factor

Forced Damped Harmonic Oscillator

SHM

F Fspring

mx kx

Undamped FHO F Fspring Fdriving

mx kx F0 cost
Actual motion is the superposition of
oscillations at two frequencies and 0
Transient behavior

Damped FHO

F Fspring Fviscous Fdriving

mx kx - bv F0 cost
In the initial stage transient state exists
After a sufficiently long time the natural
oscillations dies out because of the damping
force
Now the oscillator oscillates at the frequency
of the driving force Steady state

mx kx - bv F0 cost

b
k
F0
x
x
x
cost
m
m
m

x x

2
o x

Fo

cos t
m

Will x =A cos t satisfy this differential equ.?

No!
The velocity term gives sin t

x x

2
o x

Fo

cos t
m

How to find the solution?

Write the above equation in complex form

F0 it
z z 0 z e
m
i

t
Solution will be of the form z = zo e
2

Real part of z = zo eit gives the solution to

Forced damped harmonic oscillator
Substituting z

= zo eit in complex equation

F0 it
z0 e ( i 0 ) e
m
F0
1
z0
2
2
m 0 i
it

2
2
F0
1
F0 (0 ) i
z0

2
2
2
m 0 i
m (0 2 )2 ( )2

z0 Re i

In
polar
form

1
R z0 z0
2
2 2
2
(0 ) ( )

1

tan 2
2
0
*

F0

1
2

The complete solution is z = zo eit

-i it

z Re e

Re

i t

Real part x R cos(t )

Fo
1
A R
m 2 2 2 2
o

tan 2
2
o
1

1/2

Phase difference between

the driving force
and the displacement

Fo
1
A R
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2

A is constant for a given frequency

dA
0
dt

At = max

0 1
2
2Q

1
2

Fo
1
A R
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2

For light damping, A is maximum for = o

and the amplitude at resonance is:
Fo
A(o )
mo

The behavior of A and as functions of ,

depends on the ratio / o

Fo
1
A
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2

1
0
Q

1
0
m

0 1
2
2Q

1
2

Fo
1
A
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2

0 1
2
2Q

1
2

1
0

As increases, the maximum amplitude occurs

at a frequency less than the resonant frequency

tan 2
2
o
1

Undamped FHO

Damped FHO
Fo
1
A
m 2 2 2 2
o

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

0.010

0.005

0.000

-0.005

-0.010
0

20

40

60

80

100

tan 2
2
o
1

1/2

Energy
For steady state motion amplitude is constant
in time

x A cost
v A sin t
1 2 1
K (t ) mv m 2 A2 sin(t )
2
2
1 2 1 2
U (t ) kx kA cos 2 (t )
2
2

1
2 2
K m A
4
1 2 2
U k A
4

1
2 2
K m A
4
1 2 2
U k A
4
1
2
2
2
E mA ( 0 )
4
2
Fo

1
(
E
4 m 2
o

2
o )
2 2

Steady state

Light Damping

Steady state

<<0
2
Fo

1
(
E
4 m 2
o

2
o )
2 2

Replace by o
1 Fo2
1
E
8 m o 2 / 2 2

Resonance curve or lorentzian

1 Fo2
1
E
2
2
8 m o / 2

maximum
height

Falls to one half maximum

0
2

FWHM = 2(-0) = 2

4
2

Recap
Forced damped harmonic oscillator
Equ. Of motion mx kx - bv F0 cost
Steady state solution x A cost
Fo
1
A R
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2 tan
2
2

o

Fo
1
A R
m 2 2 2 2
o

1/2

A is constant for a given frequency

m

0 1
2
2Q

1
2

tan 2
2
o
1

2
Fo

1
1
E
8 m o 2 / 2 2

Steady state

Todays topics
Power absorbed by an oscillator
Similarity between the power and
energy curves
Q factor calculation from resonance
curves
Oscillations involving massive springs

Power absorbed by an oscillator

How to maintain the amplitude of a forced
harmonic oscillator constantly?
Rate at which energy is supplied to a driven
oscillator to maintain its amplitude
constantly is
dw
dx
P
F
Fv
dt
dt

Undamped FHO
Fo
1
x A cost where A m 2 2
o

Driving force F F0 cos t

x v A sin t
&
AF0
P Fv AF0 sin t cos t sin 2t
2

 AF0
P Fv
sin 2t
2

P sin 2t

P 0

Energy is fed into the system in one half

cycle and is taken out again during next
half cycle

Damped FHO

x A cost
Fo
1
A
2
2 2
2 1/ 2
m [(o ) ( ) ]

v A sin t
P Fv F0 A cos t sin (t )

P Fv F0 A cos t sin(t )
(F0 A cos ) sin t cos t
2

(F0 A sin ) cos t

Average value is zero

1
P F0 A sin
2

1
P F0 A sin
2
2
0

1 F
1
P
2
2
2
2
2 m
0

For light damping 0 =

2
F
1 0
P
8 m

1 F02
1
P
2
2
8 m 0 /2

1 Fo2
1
Average energy is E
8 m o 2 / 2 2

Resonance curve or lorentzian

1 F02
1
P
8 m 0 2 /2 2

1 Fo2
1
E
8 m o 2 / 2 2

maximum
height

Falls to one half maximum

0
2

4
2

half maximum

P
2

Width of the curve

Full width at
half
maximum /
resonance
width

or

E
2

0
2

E or P
=

Quality factor
o
resonance frequency
Q

frequency width of resonance curve

Gives the frequency selective property of

an oscillator
Q = 10 is more selective
Sharpness of resonance
curve means the system
will not respond unless
driven very near its resonance frequency

Response in time vs response in frequency

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02

FWHM

0.00
50

100

150

Oscillators which are very frequency

selective also have weak damping.
So such an oscillator does not recover from a
disturbance or does not respond quickly.
The damping time and the resonance curve
width obey
1
1

Oscillations involving massive springs

What is the frequency of oscillation?
Total energy is a constant
l
dE
0
dt

E = K + U = Constant

k M

1 2
U kx
2

K = K spring + K mass
How to calculate the KE of the spring ?

Assumptions
The spring oscillations are not so large that
they cause the spring coils to bump into each
other
Stretching force is same at all points along
the spring
All the points in the spring undergo
displacements proportional to their distances
from fixed end Static extension
Velocity is the same for all the elements of
the spring

M
dM
ds
l

l
l/3 l/3 l/3
m

Displacement s
x
of ds
l
s dx
dv
l dt
1
2
dK (dM)dv
2

m
x
3

2x
3

ds

1
1 M s dx
2
dK (dM)dv ds

2
2 l
l dt
2

M dx 2
dK 3 s ds
2l dt
K spring

M dx
3
2l dt

K spring

2 l
2

s ds
0

dx

dt

E = PE spring + KE spring + KE mass

1 2 M
E kx
2
6

dE
0
dt

dx 1 dx
m
dt 2 dt

k
M
m
3

Suppose m = 0

k
M
m
3

3k
M

The above calculation is not exact Why?

Because of the assumptions
(i) Extension of the spring is proportional
to the distance from the fixed end
(ii) Velocity (dx/dt) is the same for all the
elements of the spring

k
M
m
3

Is only an approximation
It will hold if M << m

In this case the stretching force does not

vary appreciably with distance along the
spring and can be treated as roughly
constant

10.7 Find the driving frequency for which

the velocity of a forced damped oscillator is
exactly in phase with the driving force.

10.10 A small cuckoo clock has a pendulum

25 cm long with a mass of 10 g and a
period of 1s. The clock is powered by a 200
g weight which falls 2 m between daily
windings. The amplitude of the swings is
0.2 rad. What is the Q of the clock? How
long would the clock run if it were powered
by a battery with 1 J capacity?