Table of Contents

Properties of X-rays ............................................................................................................................................. 3

X-ray Spectrum ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Continuous X-ray Spectrum .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Characteristic Spectrum ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Uses of X-rays ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Moseleys Law ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

de-Broglie Waves or Matter Waves ................................................................................................................. 13
Properties of Matter Waves ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Davisson Germer Experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Applications of de-Broglie Wave Hypothesis ................................................................................................................. 16

Radiation Pressure/Force .................................................................................................................................. 19

Laws of photoelectric effect (Experimental Observation) ............................................................................ 25
First Law ............................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Second Law ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Third Law ........................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Fourth Law......................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Fifth Law ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26

Photoelectric Effect ............................................................................................................................................ 26

Work Function ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Intensity of Radiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 28

Two Theories of Radiation ................................................................................................................................ 30

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect .................................................................................................... 31
Einsteins Explanation for Photoelectric Effect .............................................................................................................. 32
Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory ........................................................................................................................... 32
Summary of Photoelectric Effect .................................................................................................................................... 32
Graphical Variation ........................................................................................................................................................... 33

Atomic Excitation ................................................................................................................................................ 39

Ways of Atomic Excitation ............................................................................................................................................... 39

Atomic Models ..................................................................................................................................................... 45

Daltons Atomic Model...................................................................................................................................................... 45
J.J. Thompsons Atomic Model ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Special Points .................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Results from Rutherfords Experiment ........................................................................................................................... 46

Failure of Thompsons Model .......................................................................................................................................... 47

Rutherfords Atomic Model .............................................................................................................................................. 47
Rutherfords - scattering experiment .......................................................................................................................... 47
Failure of Rutherfords Atomic Model ............................................................................................................................. 50
Bohrs Atomic Model ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Energy of Electrons .......................................................................................................................................................... 52

Hydrogen Spectrum ........................................................................................................................................... 55

Special Points .................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Properties of Electron in nth Orbit ................................................................................................................................. 56
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Limitations of Bohrs Atomic Model ................................................................................................................................ 58

Nuclear Motion .................................................................................................................................................... 63

Special Points .................................................................................................................................................................... 66

Properties of X-rays

X-rays are invisible to human eyes

X-rays affect photographic plate similar to visible radiation
X-rays, under suitable condition cause photoelectric effect
X-rays exhibit interference, diffraction and polarisation under suitable condition
X-rays cause ionization of the gas through which they pass
X-rays produce fluorescence and phosphorescence
X-rays cause genetic mutation which leads to cancer
X-rays are absorbed by the material through which they pass
Due to interaction of X-ray photons with electrons of atoms of material
Io = Intensity of incident radiation
x = Thickness penetrated
I = Io e-x
= Absorption coefficient

Intensity of X-rays

Depth of Penetration

(x)

X-ray equipments are never operated continuously

X-ray equipments are always operated intermittently
The process of X-ray production can be looked upon as inverse photo-electric
effect
The intensity of X-rays depends upon the number of electrons striking the target i.e.
rate of emission of electrons from filament. This can be controlled by varying the
filament current by adjusting electron gun circuit parameter.

the quality of X-rays which is measured by their penetrating power is a function of

potential difference

High Potential Difference

High Penetrating Power
Hard X-rays

Low Potential Difference

Low Penetrating Power
Soft X-rays

The efficiency of an X-ray tube is given as

Efficiency = 1.4 x 10-19 Z V
Z = Atomic no. of target
V = Potential difference
For example:
Z = 74 (Tungsten as target)
V = 100 kV
Efficiency 1 %
Hence, 99% of the energy of striking electrons is converted into heat.

X-ray Spectrum

X-ray Spectrum

Continuous X-ray Spectrum

Characteristics X-ray Spectrum

Continuous X-ray Spectrum

These continuous X-rays are produced due to variable deceleration/retardation

experienced by electrons beam as it hits and penetrates target metal.

This is called continuous as we get all possible wavelengths starting from minimum
wavelength called cut of wavelength.

eV hfmax

min

hc
min

hc
eV

Intensity of
radiation

V = Voltage

min

(wavelength)

The continuous X-radiations are also known as Bremsstrahlung Radiation, a

german word meaning, literally breaking radiations. This word is describing the
mechanism of production of X-rays.
In practice, X-rays of wavelength min are not produced.
There is wavelength (m) corresponding to which intensity of radiation is maximum

Intensity of
radiation

V = Voltage

min

max

(wavelength)

0
m V cons tant

Characteristic Spectrum

These X-rays are produced due to knockout of electrons of target metal atom
When electron from K-shell is knocked out and vacancy is filled by electron from L,
we get K radiation, if it is filled by electrons from M shell, we get K radiations.
Similarly K radiations. Hence, when electrons from K-shell is knocked out, we get Kseries.

E hf

hc

E is Energy difference between two transition levels

E is minimum for K

Hence, XK is longest. Also, first member of any series will have longest wavelength.
The last member will have shortest wavelength.

All members of K-series will have wavelength lesser than member of L-series and Lseries members will have wavelength lesser than M-series.

Characteristic X-ray radiations are so called as these radiations are characteristic

target used in X-ray production.
When target is changed say from tungsten to molybdenum, the positions of peaks
will change.
When target is not changed, only min is affected.
fk = fk + fL

Uses of X-rays

Surgery
Radiotherapy
Industry
Defective Departments
Scientific Research
Crystallography
Metallography

Moseleys Law
This states that square root of frequency of characteristic of spectral line is directly
proportional to the atomic number of target used in X-ray production

f b (Z a)
a = screening constant
b = A constant which depends on series

Slope = b

Depth of Penetration

For K-series
a=1

For other series, it is determined experimentally

The value of b is worked using atomic model
From Bohrs atomic model

1
RZ2

f = RCZ2

1
1
2 2
n1 n2
1
1
2
2
n1 n2

The value of b for different members of K-series

3
RC
2

8
RC
9

15
RC
16

24
RC
25

Example: A X-ray tube is operating at 12 kV and 5 mA. Calculate the number of electrons
striking the target per second and the speed of striking electrons.
Solution:
We know that

Q ne

t
t

Where, n is the number of electrons striking the target per second.

n

I.t 5x103 x1

3.125x1016 / s Ans.
19
e 1.6x10

Also,

2eV
m

= (2x1.6x10-19x12x103/9.1x10-31)1/2
= 6.49x107 m/s Ans.

Example: The wavelength of a certain line in the X-ray spectrum for tungsten (Z=74) is
200 . What would be the wavelength of the same line for platinum (Z=78)? the constant
is unity.
Solution:
Using Moseleys law, we get

f1
f2

b(Z1 )
b(Z2 )

10

c 1 (Z1 )2

c 2 (Z2 )2
(Z1 )2
2 = 1
(Z2 )2
= 200 x (74-1)2/(78-1)2 = 179.76 Ans.

Example: The mass absorption coefficient for aluminium for X-rays having = 0.32 is 0.6
cm2/g. If density of aluminium is 2.7 g/cm2, find
(i) the linear absorption coefficient of aluminium,
(ii) half value thickness, and
(iii) the thickness of the absorber needed to cut down the intensity of beam to 1/20 of initial
value.
Sol. (i) The mass absorption coefficient m and linear absorption coefficient are related as
m =
where is the density of material
= m = 2.7 0.6
= 1.68 cm-1 Ans.
(ii) Half value thickness =

=
= 0.428

(iii) We know that

I = I0 e-x

According to problem
or
or

Ans.

=
= e-1.62x

or

x = 1.85 cm Ans.

11

20 = e1.62x

Example: The wavelength of the characteristic X-ray K line emitted by a hydrogen like
element is 0.32 . Calculate the wavelength K line emitted by the same element.
Sol. For hydrogen like element
=R

For

K line,

=R

For

K line,

=R

or

=
=

= 0.27

Ans.

12

de-Broglie Waves or Matter Waves

The waves associated with moving bodies are referred as de-Broglie waves or matter
waves.
This concept of matter waves was given by de-Broglie.
De-Broglie had following two things in mind while giving this hypothesis.

Nature of Lone Symmetry

Dual Nature of Radiation

E = hf
Energy

. (1)

Plancks Constant

Frequency of Radiation

.. (2)

P=
Momentum
Using above two relations, we get
P=

or

de-Broglie relation
= de-Broglie wavelength
P = momentum of moving body

13

We know
KE =
P=

Properties of Matter Waves

de-Broglie waves are different from electromagnetic waves.
Speed of matter wave is more than the speed of light.
v = speed of wave = f
=

As speed of particle can never exceed speed of light.

v>c

In ordinary situation, de-Broglie wavelength is very small and wave nature of matter
can be ignored.
=

4.8 10-34 m

The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be observed at the same
time i.e. the two natures are mutually exclusive.

14

Davisson Germer Experiment

(Proof of Matter Wave)

In this experiment, high energy electron beam was made to impinge on a Nickel crystal and
electron beam was found to be diffracted.

One experimental observation indicated that the first order maxima of electrons, accelerated
through a potential difference of 54 V, was obtained when both the incident beam and the
detector made 65 angle with a particular family of crystal planes.

For lower and higher voltages, the peak is suppressed.

According to Braggs law, for maxima,
2d sin = n
where is the wavelength of electron.
In this case,

d = 0.91 10-10 m
= 65
n=1

or

2 0.91 10-10 sin 65 = 1

= 1.65
V = potential difference (in volt) between two electrodes

15

mv2 = eV

or

mv2 = 2 eV

or

mv =

If is the wavelength of wave associated with the electron

=
or

we know that,

h = 6.626 10-14 Js
m = 9.1 10-31 kg
e = 1.6 10-19 C

or

For

V = 54 V
=

= 1.67

Applications of de-Broglie Wave Hypothesis

1. Electron Microscope
2. Quantization of Angular Momentum
2r=n=n

mvr =

de- Broglie wavelength of a charged particle

q = charge
16

V = potential difference through which charged particle is accelerated.

KE = q v

charged particle

For electron,
q = 1.6
m = 9.1

kg

=
de- Broglie wavelength of a gas molecule
K.E.gas molecule =

KT

T= Absolute temperature
K= Boltzmanns constant

gas molecule =
This relation is valid for any gas irrespective of type of gas molecule (mono atomic,
diatomic, poly atomic).
de- Broglie wavelength of a thermal neutron
Thermal neutrons behave like gas molecule
KE =

KT

thermal neutron

17

Example: Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelength of proton and alpha particle which has
been accelerated through same particle difference.
Solution: We know that

=
=

Alpha particle = doubly ionized helium particle

=4
=2

Ans.

Example: Find the ratio of de- Broglie wavelength of molecule of hydrogen and helium
which are at 27C and 127C respectively.
Solution:
For gas molecule, we know that

=
=

Ans.

18

Radiation Pressure/Force
The force/pressure experienced by any surface exposed to radiation is called
radiation force/pressure as the case may be
Radiation Pressure =

Calculation of Radiation Pressure/Force

Particle nature of Photons

E = P.c

E = hf
c = speed of light
Case (I) : Surface is perfectly reflecting

I = Intensity of radiation

E = Energy received by surface per sec

=IA
N = No. of photons falling per sec
=
|

=
| = change in momentum of one photon due to reflection
=2

We know that the force is rate of change of momentum,

F = N. P
=

2.

F=
19

Also, Radiation Pressure (P) =

Case (II) : Surface is perfectly absorbing

|

|=

F=

F=

Case (III) : Surface is partially reflecting

Reflection coefficient = 0.7

Due to reflected
photons
and

Due to absorbed photons

are in same direction,

F = F1 + F2
= 0.7

+ 0.3

F=

20

Radiation is falling obliquely

E = (I) (A cos )

For Perfectly Surface

pone photon = 2

cos

F =

For perfectly absorbing surface

p=

F =

In case of perfectly reflecting surface, the surface will experience force is downward
direction and is care of perfectly absorbing surface, it will experience force in the
direction of incident radiation.
For partially reflecting surface
F1 = force due to reflecting photons

=
F2 = force due to absorbed photons
=
f = Resultant force =
Whenever exposed surface behaves like a black body
Radiation force (F)=

(projected area of surface in the direction of

radiation)

21

Projected Area

A=

= RH

F=

Projected Area
A=
= 2 RH

F=

Example: A plank of mass m is lying on a rough surface having coefficient of friction as

in situation as shown in figure. Find the acceleration of plank assuming that it slips and
surface of body exposed to radiation is black body.

Solution:

E = Energy received by surface per second

= I.A. cos = Iab cos
N = number of photons received by surface per second
=

22

 Pone photon =

Fradiation = Pone photon .N =

Let us draw the FBD of plank

F sin - N = m.a
N = mg + F cos
From above two equations, we get
a=

Ans.

Remark:
If surface is perfectly reflecting then acceleration will be zero because surface will
experience radiation force perpendicular to surface in downward direction.

Example: A metallic sphere of radius R is kept in the path of a parallel beam of light beam
of intensity I. Find the force exerted by the beam on the sphere.
Solution: Let us consider an elementary ring as shown in figure.

r = Radius of elementary ring = R sin

A = Area of elementary ring
= (2r) (R d) = 2R2 sin d
Further, let us imagine a very small portion of this elementary ring of area A.
E = Energy received per sec = (I) ( A cos )

23

 N = Number of photon received per sec

F = Force experienced = N Pone photon

The direction of this force is radial as shown in figure.

Force experienced by elementary ring is given by

D =
The components of F in the plane of elementary ring will cancel out.

cos

dF =
=

2 R2 sin d

The force on the entire sphere is given by

=
or

F=

cos3 d =

Ans.

24

Remark:
Had the sphere been perfectly absorbing, the expression of radiation force
experienced would be same.
The existence of radiation force supports quantum theory or photon nature of light.

Laws of photoelectric effect (Experimental Observation)

First Law
Saturation photocurrent is directly proportional to intensity of radiation

IS = Saturation
Photocurrent

I (Intensity)

Second Law
There is no time lag between photon absorption and photoelectron emission (photoelectric
effect)

Third Law

Photoelectric effect takes place when frequency of incident radiation is more than a
certaib minimum value known as threshold frequency (fo)
If frequency of incident radiation is less than threshold frequency, then photoelectric
effect does not take place, however intense is the radiation.
Threshold wavelength (o) is the minimum wavelength which will cause photoelectric
effect.
For photoelectric effect:
i)
o
ii)
f fo

25

Fourth Law
Maximum Kinetic Energy of emitted photoelectron does not depend on intensity of radiation.
It depends on frequency of wavelength of radiation.

Fifth Law
Photoelectrons emitted in photoelectric effect have a range of kinetic energies
(K.E.)min = 0
(K.E.)max = eVs

Photoelectric Effect

The phenomenon of ejection of electrons, when metallic surfaces are exposed to certain
energetic radiations, is called photoelectric effect.

26

Basic Terms

Photo Current

Photo electrons

Work Function

The electrons which

The current constituted

The minimum

are ejected as a

when randomly ejected

energy required

result of photoelectric

photo electrons are

to free an

effect are known as

made to flow in one

electron from

photo electrons.

direction by suitable

metal bondage is

application of electric

called work

field.

function.

Work Function
Work function is a property of metallic surface.
Ionization energy should not be confused with work function. Ionization energy is
the energy required to remove an electron from outer most shell in isolated state.
Theoretically, we can expect that work function will be lesser than ionization energy.
Experimentally, it is found

Work function () =

27

Metal
Cesium
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
Copper
Silver
Platinum

Work Function
1.9 eV
2.2 eV
2.3 eV
2.5 eV
3.2 eV
4.5 eV
5.6 eV

Table: Work functions for Some Photosensitive Metals

Work Function can be overcome by many ways:

Thermionic Emission:

By application of heat.

Field Emission:

By application of high electric field.

Secondary Emission:

By impinging a beam of high speed electrons.

Intensity of Radiation
This is defined as energy flowing per second per unit area normally.
Case I :

Point Source

PS = Power of
Source

For a point source

28

Case II : Linear Source

I=

Remark : In general, we can say, as we move away from source, intensity decreases. How
intensity will be function of distance, will depend on the geometry of source.

29

Two Theories of Radiation

Wave theory

Photon Theory

We assume, energy is

We assume, energy is

propagated in the form

emitted in the form of

of waves.

energy packets known as

We assume, the energy

photons. Energy of photon is

from the source is emitted

given by

E = hf

continuously.

E = energy of photon
h = Plancks constant
f = frequency of radiation
* Energy from source is not
emitted continuously.

Photoelectric effect supports photon theory of radiation.

A photon is a charge-less and mass-less particle.
A photon is bound to move with speed of light.
P

P = momentum of photon
c = speed of light
Whenever photon interacts with mater, it transfers energy and momentum.

30

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

Photocurrent
(I)
IS

VS

VP

Voltage (V)

Variation of photoelectric current with anode potential

(a) Saturation Current (Is): The maximum value of photocurrent in a given situation is
called saturation point.
(b) Stopping Potential (Vs): The negative collector plate potential at which corresponding
photocurrent is zero, is called stopping potential. This is also known as cut off voltage.
(c) Pinch of Voltage (VP): The positive plate potential at which photocurrent saturates, is
called pinch of voltage. If plate voltage is increased beyond pinch off voltage, there is no
increase in photocurrent.

31

Einsteins Explanation for Photoelectric Effect

Einstein explained photoelectric effect using Plancks quantum theory of radiation

Einstein says that the entire energy of incident photon is absorbed by electron
E = + (K.E.)max
or hf = + (K.E.)max
represents work function

It is very clear, photo electric effect will take place only if energy of incident photon
is greater than work function
= hfo = hc/o
Hence photon theory of radiation beautifully explains the existence of threshold
wavelength or frequency.

The typical penetration of radiation is 10-8 cm. Hence, electrons are emitted out not
only from surface but also from subsurface layer also.

Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory

According to wave theory, energy radiation is bound to cause photoelectric effect.

The more the intensity of radiation, the sooner is the photoelectric effect.
According to wave theory, (K.E.)max will depend on the intensity of radiation.
Wave theory predicts appreciable time lag between energy absorption and
photoelectron ejection.

Summary of Photoelectric Effect

1. hf = + (K.E.)max
2. (K.E.)max = eVs
3. = hfo = hc/o

Frequency of radiation is frequency of oscillation of electric field or magnetic field

Einstein received Nobel Prize for explaining photoelectric effect not for his famous
theory of relativity.

32

Graphical Variation
1. Maximum Kinetic Energy Vs Frequency
hf = + (K.E.)max
or (K.E.)max = hf -

K.E.MAX

Metal 2
Metal 1
Metal 3
Slope = h

fo1

fo2

33

fo3

2. Stopping Potential Vs Frequency

eVs = hf -
or

h
Vs f
e
e

VS

Metal 2
Metal 1
Metal 3
Slope = h/e

fo1

fo2

-/e

34

fo3

3. Stopping Potential Vs

hc
eVs

or

hc 1
Vs
e e

VS

Metal 2
Metal 1
Metal 3
Slope = h/e

fo1

fo2

-/e

35

fo3

4. Maximum speed of photoelectron Vs frequency

(K.E.)max = hf -

1
m2max = hf -
2

VS

f0

36

Example: The stopping potential for photoelectrons emitted from surface illuminated by
light wavelength 5893 is 0.36 volt. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons, the work function of the surface and the threshold energy.
Solution:
We know that

hc

(K.E.)max = hf - =

hc
K.E.max

Also, K.E.max = eVs = 0.36eV Ans.

(6.62x1034 )(3x108 )
0.36x1.6x1019
10
5893x10
= 1.746 eV Ans.

The threshold frequency is given by:

fo

2.794x1019

4.22x1014 hertz
34
h
6.62x10

Example : A beam of light has three wavelengths 4144 , 4972 and 6261 with a total
intensity of 3.6 10-3 Wm-2 equally distributed amongst the three wavelengths. The beam
falls normally on an area 1.0 cm2 of a clean metallic surface of work function 2.3 eV.
Assume that there is no loss of light by reflection and that each energetically capable photon
ejects one electron. Calculate the number of photoelectron liberated in two seconds.
Solution : We know that threshold wavelength (0) =

0 =
= 5.404 10-7 m = 5404

Thus, wavelength 4144 and 4972 will emit electrons from the metal surface.
Energy incident on surface for each wavelength
= Intensity of each wavelength Area of the surface
=

(1.0 cm2) = 1.2 10-7 watt

37

Energy incident on surface for each wavelength in two second

E = (1.2 10-7) (2) = 2.4 10-7 Joule
Number of photons n1 due to wavelength 4144 = 4144 10-10 m
= 0.5 1012

n1 =
Number of photons n2 due to wavelength 4972

= 0.575 1012

n2 =

N = n1 + n2 = 0.5 1012 + 0.575 1012

= 1.075 1012

Ans.

38

Atomic Excitation
Ways of Atomic Excitation
Two ways of Atomic Excitation

By Photon

By Collision

Absorption
An atom will not

Whenever an atom is

absorb photon of any

excited by collision,

arbitrary energy.

collision must be
inelastic.

For a photon to be

If loss of K.E. as

absorbed by an atom, it

permitted by

must have energy equal

conservation of linear

to difference of energy

momentum is less than

of ground state and any

the minimum

excited state

excitation energy, then

collision will be elastic.

39

Example: A hydrogen atom is projected towards a stationary hydrogen atom in ground

state. Find the minimum kinetic energy of projected hydrogen atom so that after collision,
one of the hydrogen atom is capable of emitting photon. Given that ionization energy of
hydrogen atom = 13.6 eV.
Solution:

v.

Before collision

After collision

Conservation of linear momentum gives

mv = 2 mv

v = v/2

Loss of K.E. =

mv2 -

m(v/2)2 =

=
= 50 % of initial kinetic energy
KEmin = (10.2 eV) 2 = 20.4 eV

Ans.

Example: A neutron of kinetic energy 65 eV collides in-elastically with a singly ionized

helium atom at rest. It is scattered at an angle of 90 with respect to its original direction.
(i)
(ii)

Find the allowed values of the energy of neutron and that of the atom after the
collision.
If the atoms get de-excited subsequently by emitting radiation, find the
frequencies of the emitted radiation.

Solution: Applying the law of conservation of momentum in X and Y directions,

We have,
m = 4 m2 cos
m1 = 42 sin
Eliminating , we get

40

2 + 12 = 16 22 [sin2 + cos2 ] = 16 22
22 =

2 12
16

If E represents the loss of energy in the collision, then COE gives

1
65 eV = 1 m 12 + (4m) 22 + E
2

= 1 m 12 + 1 (4m) +
2
2
=

u2 12

16

+ E

1 m 2 + 1 u2 + 1 m 2 + E
1
1
2
8
8

= 1 m 12 + 1 1 mu2 + 1 m 12 + E

2
4 2
8

= 5 m 12 + 1 (65 eV) + E
4
8

or

5
3
65 4 eV = 8

We know that, En =

m 12 + E

13.6Z 2
n2

Here,

Z=4

E1 = - 54.4 eV

E2 = - 13.6 eV
41

E3 = - 6.04 eV

E4 = - 3.4 eV

E5 = - 2.17 eV
Now, loss of energy in the collision process must have been used in
exciting the atom. There may be different possibilities regarding the
loss of energy in the collision process.
First Possibility:
Let E = 54.4 13.6 = 40.8 eV
If we make substitution for this value of E, we get

5 m 2 = 65 3 - E =
1
4
8

65 4 40.8 eV

= (48.75 40.8) eV = 7.95 eV

Kinetic energy of scattered neutron is
=

1 m 2 + 4 7.95 eV = 4 1.59 eV = 6.36 eV

1
2
5

Hence 1st allowed values of the energy of neutron

after collision = 6.36
2 + 12 = 16 22
or

1 m 2 + 1 m 2 = 1 m 16 2
1
2
2
2
2

or

1 m 2 + 1 m 2 = 4 1 (4m) 2
1
2
2
2
2

or

65 eV + 6.36 eV = 4 K.E. of atom

K.E. of atom =

71.36 eV = 17.84 eV
4

Ans.

Second Possibility:
Let E = 54.4 6.04 = 48.36 eV
In this case,

5 m 2 = 65 3 - E =
1
4
8

eV
65 4 48.36

= (48.75 48.36) eV = 0.39 eV

42

4
1 m 12 = 0.39 eV = 2.56 eV = 0.312 eV
2
5
5
Hence 2nd allowed value of the energy of neutron
after collision = 0.312 eV
2 + 12 = 16 22
or

1 m 2 + 1 m 2 = 4 1 (4m) 2
1
2
2
2
2

or

65 eV + 0.312 eV = 4 K.E. of atom

K.E. of atom =

65.312
eV = 16.328 eV
4

Ans.

Proceeding as above, if E = 54.4 3.4 = 51 eV

Kinetic energy of neutron is

1 m 2 = 4 (48.75 - 51) = - 4 2.25 eV

1
2
5
5
= - 4 0.45 eV = - 1.80 eV
This gives negative energy. Hence, further values of energy are not allowed. Thus, allowed
values of energies of neutron are 6.36 eV, 0.312 eV while the allowed values of energies of
He-atom are 17.84 eV and 16.328 eV.
(ii) It is clear from first part that the helium atom is excited to third state or second state.
Hence, there can be three possible emission transitions i.e. 3 1, 3 2, and 2 1. The
frequencies of radiations emitted in these transitions can be calculated as follows:
(a) 1 = Z2 R 1 1 = 4 1.097 8 107
12 32
9
1

f1 =

c
= (1.097 107) 4 8 (3 108)
1
9
= 11.7 1015 Hz

(b)

1
= Z2 R
2
f2 =

Ans.

1 = 4 1.097 107 5
1
22 32
36

c
= (1.097 107) 4 5 (3 108)
2
36
= 1.827 1015 Hz

Ans.
43

(c) 1 = Z2 R 1 1 = 4 1.097 107 3

12 22
4
3

f3 =

c
3

= (1.097 107) 4
= 9.85 1015 Hz

3
(3 108)
4
Ans.

44

Atomic Models
Any explanation regarding atomic structure is called atomic model.
Daltons atomic model.
Thompsons atomic model.
Rutherfords atomic model.

Daltons Atomic Model

According to this model, matter is made up of very tiny particles called atom.
An atom is in divisible, i.e. it cant be divided by any physical or chemical process.

J.J. Thompsons Atomic Model

(Water- Melon Model)
J. J. Thompson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom. The model is known
after him as Thompsons atomic model.
According to this model, whole of positive charge is distributed uniformly in the form
of a sphere. Negatively charged electrons are arranged within this sphere here and
there. The model is popularly known as plum pudding model.

e
e
e

Positively Charged
Matter

e
e
e

Electron
s

Every electron is attracted towards the centre of uniformly charged sphere while they
exert a force of repulsion upon each other. The electrons get themselves arranged in
such a way that the force of repulsion is exactly balanced.

45

Special Points
(i) As the gold foil is very thin, it can be assumed that - particles will not suffer
more than one collision during their passage through gold foil. Hence , single nucleus
computation of - particles trajectory is sufficient.
(ii) The nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than an - particle, therefore gold
nucleus remains stationary throughout the scattering process and produces a large
deflection in - particle.
(iii) The formula that Rutherford obtained for - particle scattering by a thin foil on
the basis of the nuclear model, of the atom and Coulombs law is
N=
Where,

N = Number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the screen at a
scattering angle of .

Ni = Total number of alpha particles that reach the screen

n = Number of atoms per unit volume in the foil
Z = Atomic number of the foil atoms
r = Distance of the screen from the foil
KE = Kinetic energy of the alpha particles
t = Foil thickness.
The - particles on striking the atoms of the foil, get scattered in
different directions. By rotating the chamber, the number of particles
scattered along different directions can be recorded by observing the
scintillations on the fluorescent screen.

Results from Rutherfords Experiment

Most of the - particles, either passed straight through the metallic foil, or suffered only
small deflections. This could be explained by Thompsons atomic model.
A few particles were deflected through angles which were less than or equal to 90.
Very few particles were found to be deflected at greater than 90. It was observed that
only one in 2000 - particles was found to be deflected through 180. In other words, it
was sent back in the same direction from where it came. The target could not be
explained by Thompsons atomic model. It was one of the main reasons for rejecting
Thompsons atomic model.
46

Scattering angle () = 180

The graph between N and was found to be as shown in figure.

If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of - particles scattered in a
particular direction ( = constant) it was observed that
= Constant
When distributed, electrons vibrate to and fro within the atom and causes emission
of visible, infrared and ultraviolet light.

Failure of Thompsons Model

According to this model, hydrogen can give rise to a single spectral line. Experimentally,
hydrogen is found to give several spectral lines.

Rutherfords Atomic Model

This atomic model is based on Rutherfords - scattering experiment.

Rutherfords - scattering experiment

Rutherford performed experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin
metal foils. A radioactive source (radon) of - particles was placed in a lead box having a
narrow opening as shown in figure. This source emits - particles in all possible directions.
However, only a narrow beam of alpha particles emerged from the lead box, the rest being
absorbed by the lead box. This beam of - particles is made incident on a gold foil, the particle is made incident on a gold foil whose thickness is only one micron, i.e. 10-6 m. When
passing through the metal foil, the - particles get scattered through different angles.
47

These particles fall on a fluorescent screen, producing a tiny flash of light on the screen.
This can be easily viewed by a low power microscope in a dark room.

Conclusion
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

The fact that most of the - particles passed undeviated led to the conclusion
that an atom has a lot of empty space in it.
- particles are heavy particles having high initial speeds. These could be
deflected through large angles only by a nearly the entire mass of the atom
were concentrated in a tiny central core. Rutherford named this core as
nucleus.
The scattering of - particles by the nucleus was found to be in accordance
to coulombs law which proved that coulombs law hold for atomic distances
also.
The difference in deflection of various particles can be explained as follows:

- particles which pass at greater distance away from the nucleus, shown as 2 and 8 in
below figure., suffer a small deflection due to smaller repulsion exerted by the nucleus
upon them. The particles like 3 and 7 which pass close to the nucleus experience a
comparatively greater force and hence get deflected through greater angles.

48

A particle 5 which travels directly towards the nucleus is first slowed down by the
repulsion force. Such a particle finally stops and is repelled along the direction of its
approach. Thus, it gets repelled back after suffering a deviation of 180.
Rutherfords Atomic Model:
(i)
(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

(v)

An atom consists of equal amounts of positive and negative charge so that

atom, as a whole, is electrically neutral.
The whole of positive charge of the atom and practically whole of its mass is
concentrated in a small region which forms the core of the atom, called the
nucleus.
The negative charge, which is contained in the atom of electrons, is
distributed all around the nucleus, but separated from it.
In order to explain the stability of electron at a certain distance from the
nucleus, it was proposed by Rutherford that the electrons revolve round the
nucleus in circular orbits. The electrostatic force of attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons provides the centripetal force.
The nuclear diameter is of the order of 10-14 m.

This can be shown as follows:

Let us consider an - particle projected towards a nucleus having charge +Ze with velocity
v0 as shown in figure.

Now, at a distance of closest approach (r0), - particle will come to rest instantly.
From conservation of energy, we get
mv02 =

r0

49

In one of the experiments, - particles of velocity 2 107 ms-1 was bomdarded upon gold
foil.
Here,

Z = 79
e = 1.59 10-19 C
m = 4 1.67 10-27 kg
v = 2 107 ms-1
r0 = 4 9 109
= 2.69 10-14 m

This gives the radius of the nucleus.

Failure of Rutherfords Atomic Model

(i)

According to electromagnetic theory, a charged particle in accelerated

motion must radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. As
the electron revolves in a circular orbit, it is constantly subjected to
centripetal acceleration

. So, it must radiate energy continuously. As a

result of this, there should be a gradual decrease in the energy of

electron. The electron should follow a spiral path and ultimately fall into
the nucleus.

Electron spiraling inwards as it radiates energy due to its

acceleration}

(ii)

Thus, the whole atomic structure should collapse. This is contrary to the
actual fact that atom is very stable.
According to Rutherfords model, electrons can revolve in any orbit. If so,
it must emit continuous radiations of all frequencies. But atoms emit
spectral lines of only definite frequencies.

50

Bohrs Atomic Model

(i)

Law of circular orbit: According to Bohr, electron revolve around

nucleus in circular orbit and the necessary centripetal force is provided by
electrical force of attraction between nucleus and electron

(ii)

(iii)

Law of stationary orbit: The electrons revolve around nucleus in orbits

known as stationary orbits. When electron revolve in stationary orbit, they
are permitted to disobey the law of electrodynamics i.e. electrons do not
radiate energy.
Law of quantization of angular momentum: When electron revolves
around nucleus in stationary orbit, its angular momentum is quantized
and is given by
mvr =

(iv)

(v)

Law of emission of radiation: When electron makes transition from

higher orbit to lower orbit the different energy is emitted, as
electromagnetic radiation emitting one or more photons.
Law of absorption of radiation: An electron can not absorb photon of
arbitrary energy value. It absorbs photon of energy equal to difference of
energy between ground state and any excited state. When an electron
absorbs, photon is moved to higher orbit. In fact, probability of
absorption of photon having energy not corresponding to difference of
energy between ground state and any excited state.

51

Energy of Electrons
All laws of classical mechanics are valid when an electron revolves around nucleus
and are not valid during transition. During transition, quantum physics is applicable.
The energy En of an electron in orbit having principle quantum number n is the sum
of kinetic and potential energies
En = KE + PE
PE = Electrostatic potential energy
+ Gravitational Potential energy

mv2 -

En =

We can write
mv2 =

En = -

Now, we get
r=

This is the equation for the radius of the permitted orbits.

Now, we get
En =
On substituting the value of different constants, we get
En =

eV

52

Special Points
(i)
a)
b)
(ii)

In the derivation of above expression for the energy of the electron in the nth
orbit, following assumptions are taken:
Gravitational potential energy has been neglected and for writing electrostatic
potential energy, infinity is taken as zero potential position.
Nucleus is assumed to be infinitely massive i.e. nucleus is at rest.
The quantity
Also,

is known as Rydberg constant R and its value is

1.09 107 m-1.

Rhc = 13.6 eV

(iii)

Total energy, (TE) =

= - KE

(iv)

For Hydrogen atom, Z = 1

En =

For sake of convenience and fast calculation, it is better to remember following energy
levels.

1. Excitation Energy:
This is defined as energy difference between ground state and excited state.
First excitation energy = E2 E1
For Hydrogen atom = 10.2 eV
Second excitation energy = E3 E1
For Hydrogen atom = 12.1 eV

53

2. Excitation Potential:
This is defined as the potential difference which will be required to accelerate
electron to acquire energy equal to given excitation energy.
Excitation potential =
For Hydrogen Atom, first excitation potential energy = 10.2 V

IInd Excitation potential =

=
= 12.1 eV
3. Ionization energy (IE):
This is defined as the amount of energy required to ionize an atom.
Energy required to make electron move from ground state to infinity.

IE = E- E1
For hydrogen atom
IE = 0 - (- 13.6 eV)
= 13.6 eV
4. Ionization potential (I.P.):
o This is defined as the potential difference required to accelerate an electron
so that it acquires energy to ionization energy.
o

I.P. =

For hydrogen atom

o

I.P. =

= 13.6 eV

54

Hydrogen Spectrum
Hydrogen Spectrum

Emission
spectrum

Absorption
spectrum
It has only Lyman series.

It has many series.

N = Number of spectral lines
= nC2
=
n = principal quantum of
excited state
let n = 3 (2nd excited state) N =
3
C2 = 3

En =
E2 - E1 = hf =

Excited state

Ground state

=R

R = Rydberg constant
Lyman Series:
n1 = 1
55

n2 = 2, 3, 4, .
Balmer Series :
This is a series in which all the lines correspond to transition of electrons from
higher state to the orbit having n = 2, n1 = 2,
n2 = 3, 4, 5,
Bracket Series :
n1 = 3
n2 = 4, 5, 6, ..
Paschen Series :
n1 = 4
Pfund Series :
n1 = 5

Special Points
(i)
(ii)

For any series, the wavelength of first member of series is longest and that of
limiting member is shortest.
Lyman series lies in ultraviolet region.
Balmar series lies in visible region.
Bracket series
Paschen series lies in infrared region.
Pfund series

(iii)

Absorption spectrum of H-atom consists of Lyman series only.

Properties of Electron in nth Orbit

(i)

Energy of electron in nth orbit

En =

En me
(ii)

Bohr Radius

rn =

rn

56

(iii)

Velocity of electron in nth orbit

Vn = 2.18 106

m/s

Vn is independent of mass of electron

(iv)

Current (In)
In = e fn
fn =

In
(v)

Time Period (Tn)

Tn =

Tn

fn =
(vi)

Magnetic Dipole Moment (Mn)

Mn = In An = (e fn) ( rn2)

Mn

The value of magnetic moment in first Bohr orbit is called Bohr magneton
(B). Its value is given by
= 9.27 10-24 A m2

B =

Mn

It is independent of atomic number.

(vii)

Magnetic Field (Bn)

The magnetic field at centre due to revolution of electron in nth orbit
is given by
Bn =
57

Bn

Summary
To calculate any property of atom, it is sufficient to remember dependency of
ENERGY, RADIUS and VELOCITY on principal quantum number (n), atomic number
(Z) and mass of electron (me).
Dependency on mass of electron is required in situation where motion of nucleus is
taken into consideration.

Limitations of Bohrs Atomic Model

It is applicable to one electron system only.
Bohr could not explain why electrons are permitted to disobey law of
electrodynamics while revolving in stable orbits.
Bohr could not explain quantization of angular momentum.
Bohr model could not account for splitting in magnetic and electric field.
Bohr atomic model could not explain hyperfine structure of spectral line.

58

Example: A gas of identical hydrogen like atom has some atoms in the lowest (ground)
energy level A and some atoms in a particular upper (excited) energy level B and there are
no atoms in any other energy level. The atom of the gas make transition to higher energy
level by absorbing monochromatic light of photons have energy 2.7 eV. Some have more
and some have less than 2.7 eV.
(i) Find the principal quantum number at initially excited level B.
(ii) Find the ionization energy for the gas atoms.
(iii) Find the maximum and the minimum energies of the emitted photons.
Solution:

Above figure shows the energy levels A, B of the hydrogen like atom. When light of photon
energy 2.7 eV is absorbed, let the electrons go to an excited state C. Since subsequently the
atom emits six different photons, state C should be such that six different transitions are
possible. The possible transitions are shown in the above figure and it is obvious that energy
level C must correspond to quantum number 4. The quantum number corresponding to
state B must therefore be between 1 and 4. This means that it is either 2 or 3.
Also,

EC EB = 2.7 eV

If nB = 3, there will be no subsequent radiations with energy less than 2.7 eV. But we are
given that there are some subsequent radiations with energy less than 2.7 eV. This is
possible only if there is some other energy state between B and C having a difference less
than 2.7 eV. Therefore, nB must be 2.
(i)

En = EB = E 2 = -

Z2
Z2 = - 3.4 Z2

59

and

EC = E 4 = -

Z2 = - 0.852 Z2 (- 3.4 Z2) = 2.55 Z2

EC EB = 2.7 eV = - 0.852 Z2 = - 13.6 eV

Z = 1 Ans

(ii) The ionization energy = E1 = - 13.6 Z2 = - 13.6 eV

Ans.

(iii) The maximum energy of the emitted radiation Emax corresponds to a transition from n =
4 to n =1

Emax = - 0.852 (- 13.6) = 12.748 eV

and

Emin = E4 E3 = 15.1 0.85

Ans.

= 0.66 eV Ans.

Example: Consider an excited hydrogen atom in state n moving with a velocity v (v < c). It
emits a photon in the direction of its motion and changes its state to a lower state m. Find
the frequency of emitted radiation in terms of frequency f0 emitted if the atom were at rest.
Solution: Consider the situation as shown in figure

mv = mv +
or

m(v v) =
mv2 + En =

(1)
mv 2 + Em + hf

(v2 v 2)+ En Em = hf . (2)

or

(v + v) (v v) + hf0 = hf

[ En Em = hf0]

Using equation (1), we get

60

(2v)

+ hf0 = hf

or
As

f = f0
< 1, expanding binomially and neglecting higher powers, we get
f = f0

Ans.

Example: Suppose the potential energy between electron and proton at a distance r is
given by

. Use Bohrs theory to obtain energy levels of such a hypothetical atom.

Solution: We know that

It is given that

U=-

Hence,

F=

=F

According to Bohrs theory, this force provides the necessary centripetal force for orbital
motion.
=

Also,
Hence, v =

mvr =

(1)

. (2)

. (3)

Substituting this value in equation (1), we get

=

or

r=

Substituting this value of r in equation (2), we get

v=

61

Total Energy (E) = K.E. + P.E. =

mv2 -

or

E=

62

k=

Ans.

Nuclear Motion
When motion of nucleus is taken into consideration, it is dealt with the concept of
reduced mass.
In situation, where nucleus as well as electrons is moving, it is better to say that
both revolve around common centre of mass.
The motion of nucleus is taken into account when the physical properties of the
system (atom) are affected significantly compared to the situation when nucleus is
assumed to be stationary. When motion of nucleus is accounted, it is more
appropriate to say that both electron and nucleus revolve around their common
centre of mass.

r = rN + r e
From the property of mass
mN rN = me re
On solving above equations, we get
rN =

re =

Example: Taking into account the motion of the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, find the
expressions for the electrons energy in the ground state and for the Rydberg constant. How
much (in percent) do the binding energy and the Rydberg constant, obtained without taking
into account the motion of the nucleus, differ from the more accurate corresponding values
of these quantities ?
Solution: We know that when motion of nucleus is taken into consideration, mass of
electron is replaced by reduced mass of system which is given by
=

63

where me = mass of electron

mN = mass of nucleus
Now for H-atom, binding energy is given by
Eb = - E1 =

Eb =

Hence, relative difference in binding energy of the electron in the two cases is given
by

0.055 %

Ans.

For hydrogen atom with stationary nucleus, Rydberg constant is given by

R=
Hence, Rydberg constant considering motion of nucleus is given as
R =

Therefore, relative difference in two values of Rydberg constant is given as

0.055 %

I = Ie + IN

where I = moment inertial of system (atom)

Ie = moment of enertia of electron
IN = moment of enertia of nucleus
I = me re2 + mN rN2
= me

+ mN

= r2
= reduced mass =
64

Ans.

is angular momentum of system

is angular momentum of electron
is angular momentum of nucleus
L = me ve re + mN vN rN
= me w re2 + mN vN rN2
= w r2
=
is less than one, hence it is called reduced mass.
To calculate any property of such system, we can look upon as system of
particle having mass equal to reduced mass () revolving around stationary
nucleus at a separation r.

Law of Circular Orbit:

=

Law of Quantisation of Angular Momentum:

me ve re + mN vN rN =

65

Special Points
(i)
(ii)

The concept of nuclear motion led to the discovery of deuterium isotopes.

When motion of nucleus is considered in hydrogen atom, all the energy levels
are changed by the fraction
= 0.99945
This represents an increase of 0.55 percent of energy.

Summary
In all situation of motion of nucleus, replace mass of electron by its reduced mass.

66