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FTC
Fluids
Fluids
Fluids in a reservoir
Description of the Hydrocarbon
Reservoir Pressure
Reservoir Temperature
Hydrocarbon phases
Fluid Production
Formation Volume factors
Surface tension forces
Wettability
Relative permeabilities
JJ Consulting 1997
Notes
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Definitions
Fluid Contacts
Oil in Place
OIP
Notes
Gas/Oil Ratio
GOR
API Gravity
API
Oil gravity.
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Fluids in a Reservoir
Other gases can be found in wells, these include, helium, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide. In most cases these occur as traces together with
the hydrocarbon and water normally found.
The formation water is uniquely described by its salinity. This varies from
500 ppm Chlorides to 250000ppm; a wide range.
The major rock property involved in production is the permeability.
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Hydrocarbon Structure
The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons
is paraffin.
Notes
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Hydrocarbon Composition
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6+
Dry gas
.045
.045
.01
.01
.01
Condensate .72
.08
.04
.04
.04
.08
.08
.05
.04
.03
.15-.2
Black oil
.41
.03
.05
.05
.04
.42
Heavy oil
.11
.01
.01
.04
.8
.88
Tar/bitumen
.03
Notes
1.0
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Hydrocarbon Classification
Oil is more complex than gas and has to be defined in a more complete
manner. The Gas-Oil Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of how much
gas is in the oil and hence how light it is. This is measured at a specific
pressure, for example the reservoir pressure.
API Gravity
Wet gas
100mcf/b
50-70
Condensate
5-100mcf/b
50-70
Volatile oil
3000cf/b
40-50
Black oil
100-2500cf/b
30-40
Heavy oil
10-30
Tar/bitumen
<10
Notes
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Gas specific gravity with respect to air should not be confused with the
specific gravity with respect to water.
Hydrocarbon Gas
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane, CH4.
Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen
Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific gravity
which is defined as:
Notes
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Reservoir Pressure
P = h*Gw
Notes
where
h - depth
Gw - water gradient
Gw, normally ranges from 0.43 - 0.5 psi/ft.
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Reservoir Pressure
The pressures in the oil and gas depend on the gradients (densities) of
these fluids. The difference in gradients with the water gradient depends
on the specific gravity with respect to water.
Calculations could be done using the oil and gas gradients, however it is
easier to use the regional gradient and the specific gravities.
Notes
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The pressure at the GOC is the pressure at the OWC minus the pressure
du to the oil column. This is given by the thickness of the oil column
times the water gradient times the specific gravity of the oil.
A similar calculation can be made for the gas zone.
Powc
Powc
Notes
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Notes
Water gradient
= 0.433 psi/ft
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Notes
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Salt domes occur in the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf and
several other places in the world. Pressures in the surrounding formations
can greatly exceed the expected values.
Overpressured Zones
Abnormal pressures can occur when the aquifer
is completely sealed and the tectonic forces
increase the pressure.
Salt domes exert an extra pressure as they have
pushed up from below.
Very high pressures are common in these
environments.
Notes
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Notes
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Fluid Phases
The pressure and temperature are two quantities that can be easily
measured. Thus it is useful to describe the fluids behaviour during
production in these terms. Experimentally it is easier to measure pressure
and volume hence the classical experiment is done using these parameters
at a constant temperature.
Notes
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PVT Experiment
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Notes
Liquid
Gas
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Liquid
Notes
Pressure
Critical Point
B
Bubble Point Curve
Separator Conditions
Gas
Dew Point Curve
Temperature
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somecondensates,
Gas
liquid. This as
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suggests,isstart
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This is the final diagram for the reservoir fluids. This is a dry gas which
never enters the envelope under any normal producing conditions.
Gas Reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A. Producing
the well to separator conditions B does not
change the fluid produced.
The point B is still in the "gas region" and hence
dry gas is produced.
Notes
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Downhole, pressures and temperatures are high, on surface they are much
lower hence the fluids will change in volume.
Gas come out of the oil depending on the gas-oil ratio.
Hydrocarbon Volumes
Water will only have dissolved gas in a gas well near the gas-water
contact.
Notes
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Fluid Sampling
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Notes
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The fluid in the reservoir will contain light fractions. The reference
conditions are surface temperature and pressure.
FVF Oil, Bo
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Notes
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Notes
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Gas Laws
In an ideal gas the equation links pressure and volume to the temperature,
T, and two constants, n and R. Hence two different states can be
compared, e.g. downhole and surface.
There are no ideal gases in the reservoir as they are all compressible,
hence the factor, z.
Ideal Gases
PV = nRT
or to compare two different states
P1V1
T1
P2V2
T2
Notes
P2V2
z2T2
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Notes
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FVF gas,Bg
The equation from the previous pages is rearranged to give the ratio of
volume downhole to the volume at reference. This leads to an equation
with pressure, temperature and z, all of which are easy to measure.
In this equation some terms already have values,
p1 = 14.7, T1 = 520 degrees R, z1 = 1.
p2 and T2 are the measured downhole figures. The only factor remaining
is z2 which can easily be found.
Bg is a very small number controlled mainly by the pressure. This figure
is often reversed to give 1/Bg.
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Calculating z
A typical chart is that of Standing and Katz.
This is entered with a value of pressure, Ppr the
pseudo-reduced pressure and a value of
temperature, Tpr, the pseudo-reduced
temperature.
These are given by the following formulae;
TPR=
T
Tpc
PPR =
Notes
P
Ppc
Where
T and P are the relevant temperatures and
pressure.
Tpc and Ppc are the critical temperature and
pressure.
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Fraction
Critical
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
i-C4H10
n-C4H10
i-C5H12
n-C5H12
C6H14
0.813
0.067
0.032
0.023
0.0086
0.022
0.0054
0.029
Pressure
343
550
666
735
765
829
845
913
Critical
Temp
668
708
616
529
551
490
489
437
Pseudo-critical pressure =
Notes
Pseudo-critical temperature =
Tpc =
y1Tc1 + y2Tc2
+ ....... = 410 R
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Example
Component
Fraction
Critical
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
i-C4H10
n-C4H10
i-C5H12
n-C5H12
C6H14
0.892
0.021
0.024
0.032
0.007
0.002
0.011
0.011
Pressure
343
550
666
735
765
829
845
913
Find Bg for this gas mixture at the downhole temperature and pressures
given.
(Remember add 460 to the temperature to convert to R)
Critical
Temp
668
708
616
529
551
490
489
437
T2 = 234F
p2 = 3467psia
Notes
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FVF water, Bw
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The porosity has to be split between the fluids occupying the pore space.
Saturation is the name given to the fraction of a given fluid.
The normal representation is as a percentage, in equations a fraction must
be used.
Saturation
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction of
its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a given
fluid.
Volume of a specific fluid
Saturation =
pore volume
Definitions
Sw = water saturation.
So = oil saturation.
Sg = gas saturation.
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg
Notes
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The graphical representation shows the simple porosity model split now
between water and hydrocarbon.
The volume of a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.
Saturation Definition
Notes
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Wettability
Notes
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Capillary Forces
Pc = capillary pressure.
= surface tension.
q = contact angle.
rcap = radius of capillary tube.
Notes
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In a reservoir the pore spaces act as capillary tubes pulling the water up
into the oil column.
Notes
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Notes
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Transition Zone
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Permeabilities
Absolute permeability
- a rock property
- measured with a fluid saturating 100%
of the pore space
Effective permeability
- a rock/fluid property
- the permeability of a fluid which does not
saturate the rock to 100%
Relative Permeability
- a rock/fluid property
- the ratio of the effective permeability to
the absolute permeability
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Note that there can only be a permeability for a specific fluid if there is a
flow of that fluid.
Effective Permeabilities
Notes
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Relative permeabilities
Notes
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The four stages are 100% water, oil and water mixture, residual oil and
irreducible water.
The first stage represents a water zone only. The last represents an oil
zone. The residual oil stage is a reservoir that has been completely
produced.
Relative Permeability
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Notes
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