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Energy conservation:
the application of standard energy conservation
techniques at Crabtree Electrical Industries
T.J. Hughes and G.A. Bohoris
How standard energy conservation techniques can reduce operating costs and energy consumption
Introduction
The current literature has based cost savings on loosely
estimated mean costs of electricity and only touches the
surface of the problem of auditing equipment. Work that
has been carried out at Crabtree Electrical Industries
(CEI), Walsall plant, a medium size, vertically integrated,
light engineering company, has produced a relatively
accurate model of the compressed air system by
considering its operating characteristics and integrating
the appropriate tariffs into the model. The model has also
allowed for the further development of cost savings to be
considered and analysed and payback periods readily
calculated. The model does have limitations, mainly
owing to the several necessary assumptions, but has
provided accurate results. The methodology that has
developed is readily applicable to similar companies. The
need for complex modelling has been avoided through the
analysis of the total system and the medium size subsystems, rather than calculating each machines
requirements and using statistical analysis of machine
usage. This would have taken too long and have been
expensive to complete.
The work also involved electricity tariff analysis, an
integral part of the model. A brief discussion of the
competitive electricity market is also given which
identifies the necessary requirements that will enable
competitive bids to be received from the qualified
suppliers of electricity.
The air compressors have been identified from the initial
audit as the single largest consumer of electricity at the
site. The systems analysis showed that the total energy
consumption was significantly larger than the first audit
has shown. This identified that the total system was
inefficient and could be significantly improved by
Industrial Management and Data Systems, Vol. 95 No. 9, 1995, pp. 9-16
MCB University Press Limited, 0263-5577
10
Energy consumer
Secondary energy
Bill
Electricity
Energy consumer 1
Gas
Energy consumer N
Water
Compressed air
Steam
Hydraulic power
Indirect cost
Direct cost
MondayThursday
Start
Finish
Press shop
Toolroom
Opposite toolroom
Press assembly Hare
Power press
Colour shop
Opposite colour shop
Special purpose
Next to office
(Old toolroom)
Opposite office A
Opposite office B
Autocapstan
Cold heading
Sheet metal
Pullmax
Main
Trimming
Trimming
Wheelabrator
Toolroom
Opposite I/M
Hilts
07:00
06:00
08:00
08:00
06:00
08:00
17:40
14:00
16:30
16:30
14:00
16:30
06:00
14:00
08:00
08:00
08:00
06:00
16:30
16:30
16:30
14:00
06:00
08:00
14:00
16:30
08:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
Friday
Start
Finish
07:00
06:00
08:00
08:00
06:00
08:00
17:40
12:00
14:45
14:45
12:00
16:30
06:00
14:00
08:00
08:00
08:00
14:45
14:45
14:45
06:00
14:00
16:30
14:30
08:00
06:00
14:45
12:30
18:00
16:30
07:00
08:00
18:00
14:45
14:00
17:00
22:00
21:00
14:00
22:00
14:00
22:00
14:00
22:00
14:00
22:00
Saturday
Start
Finish
14:00
17:00
22:00
21:00
14:00
22:00
14:00
22:00
14:00
22:00
07:00
12:00
12:00
16:00
08:00
06:00
08:00
12:00
12:00
12:00
07:00
14:30
Sunday
Start
Finish
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Tariff analysis
Electricity
Background the competitive market
The work carried out by OFFER, the electricity regulator,
has enabled companies whose maximum demand
exceeds 100kW to purchase electricity from a second tier
supplier or their host REC. A second tier supplier is one of
61 companies who have been granted a licence to sell
electricity and the Host REC is the local electricity
company. The regulator has left the purchasing manager
with a number of deadlines and requirements in order to
receive electricity from suppliers other than the Host
REC (Figure 2).
The first stage has been to ensure that the company has a
meter operator appointed, then the purchaser must
Approximate
rated input (kW)
Gas/electric
Quantity
3,400 (Total)
Gas
91
1,000 (Total)
Gas
Steam boiler
Compressors
Hydraulic pump motors
Injection mould presses
Automould bipal presses
855
178
33
22
4 (2)
Gas
Electric
Electric
Electric
Electric
11
1
3
3
31
56
Normally in use
(Standard hours)
Total
(kW)
Dependent on
weather
Dependent on
weather
1
2
2
15
28
3,400
1,000
855
356
66
330
112 (56)
12
Host REC
Purchase meter
Install meter
Meter operator/
maintenance
Contract
negotiations
One month notice
prior to second tier
supply
Remain with host
REC
Second tier
No communications
link required
Install communications
link
Responsibility of
UKDCS
Note: Crabtree Electrical Industries are charged, irrespective of supplier, 200 per annum
for communications by UKDCS. This forms part of the National Settlements Charge
ENERGY CONSERVATION
Compressed air
The compressed air system required several stages to be
carried out to provide a comprehensive model of how
much air is required around the plant. Further study is
being currently carried out into the pressure
requirements of the system as more savings may be
easily obtained through the reduction of pressure at
various times of the day.
The system
The system is as follows:
Generation how compressed air is generated and
its associated costs.
Layout location of compressor, air dryer and
cooling towers; pipe network; location and size of
valves and air receivers.
13
Generation
The current system comprises three approximately 1,000
cfm compressors, two BroomWade 1,000 reciprocating
compressors and an Alley compressor. The compressors
feed air into air dryers and this air is then stored in air
receivers. Water is used as the coolant for the air
compressors and after coolers, which is pumped from
cooling towers around a water circuit. The water is
continuously drawn from South Staffordshires water
main since there is evaporation at an estimated 1 per cent
of the total volume of the cooling towers. The water also
requires chemicals to maintain standards set by
parliament to minimize the risk of legionellas.
Layout
The compressors are situated at two sites, either end of
the main L pipework (5in). Feeds supply the different
factory areas at either 2in, 2.5 or 3in which receive air into
air receivers before use at machines. No analysis into the
optimal size of pipework has been carried out since there
is no significant pressure loss due to distribution.
Use
Air is used at the site for three major applications:
(1) to balance clutches on presses;
(2) at low pressure, less than 4 bar inside machines;
(3) to blow off or clean mould tools.
The major pressure has historically been set at a mean 90
psi; however only a few machines, which run between
06:00 and 22:00, use air at 80 psi or more. The next
pressure level is at 60 psi which is adequate for the vast
majority of uses. Significant saving due to a reduction in
generation cost and volume of air lost through leaks is
possible by generating the maximum pressure required
by the machines throughout the day.
Air leak quantification
Air leak quantification will enable a value to be put on the
volume of air wasted around the plant. Since the cost of
air is a large proportion of the electricity cost in a light
manufacturing plant, reducing the leaks will reduce the
cost of air per unit of production, and hence the electricity
bill, considerably. The layout of compressed air pipes
showing the location of valves has been used to assist in
developing a map of air leaks, which may be turned
off by the insertion of automatic valves.
Running the compressors with the valves open and then
selectively closing off areas will put a volume of air per
minute on to the areas. Then, either these areas can be
closed off when not in use to reduce the cost of
compressed air, or further analysis can be carried out into
14
t i ( on )
VT = Vri
t i ( on ) + t i ( off )
i =1
where
VT = Total volume of air (scfm).
Vri = Rated output (cfm) of the ith compressor.
ti(on) = Time that the ith compressor is on load.
ti(off) = Time that the ith compressor is off load.
The resultant chart may look similar to Figure 3. (This is
only applicable to reciprocating compressors.)
This profile is not a perfect model of the demand, but
shows the systems peaks that must be catered for. The
readings were also taken during the maximum
production period of the factory and should therefore be
considered near the maximum cfm usage required. The
system during certain periods would increase air
consumption by approximately 200 cfm while deflashing
machines were used in the production process. Post
analysis of the demand has shown the demand at the site
to be larger than that predicted. This has been due in part
to new machinery installed at the site and production
increases, but also to inaccuracy of the night time
measurements of the air demand.
The mean direct use kWh charges were also calculated,
from a years historical pool price data, according to
related periods of the day that the compressors load
changes, so that a more accurate running cost could be
calculated (see Table IV).
The current tariff pool contains two other charges; kWh
yearly maximum demand and kVA triad charge. The
total kWh used by the compressors during the time that
the charge occurs, i.e. when the site historically used the
maximum kWh, is multiplied by the charge to calculate
the cost attributable to the compressors. Likewise the
same method is used to calculate the cost attributable for
the kVA triad charge, but an estimate of the compressors
power factor (80 per cent) is used to convert kWh to kVA.
The air dryers and water towers have been modelled
using the same methodology, measuring the time that
they are in use in order to calculate the yearly running
costs. The water towers also consume approximately 1
per cent of the total volume of the towers throughout the
year at a cost of 61p/m 3 and require the addition of
chemicals throughout the year.
Comparison with air cooled screw compressors
The major compressed air manufacturers machines
have been considered using the manufacturers own
published kilowatt consumption figures. The machines
have been compared against each other using the above
data, to find which manufactures machines best suited
ENERGY CONSERVATION
15
Time
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
12/07/94
12/07/94
12:04
14:32
12/07/94
04:10
13/07/94
09:00
13/07/94
15:43
14/07/94
10:20
14/07/94
11:25
Compressor
BroomWade VM1000 Alley
On
Off
Maximum Minimum
13
15
13
12
100
85
Off
Full
100
17
100
28
100
6
97
BroomWade VM1000
On
Off
13
12
12
13
Meter
Off
On
Maximum
Off
Minimum
Off
18
85
32
85
22
85
4
95
4
97
5
100
6
90
12
90
5
90
Scfm
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819 20 21 22 23
Time
08:00 to
12:00
12:30 to
13:00
Saturday
13:00 to
16:30
16:30 to 00:00
excluding Fridays
14:45 to 00:00
00:00 to
14:00
352
901
658
1024
352a
352
2.3746
3.6167
3.8887
3.2814
3.5393
2.9286
16
Economic analysis
The historical cost of parts, labour and oil for the current
system has also been compared against the estimated
cost of parts for the new system. The direct savings
calculated are approximately 4,000 per annum and the
indirect costs associated with stoppages should be
reduced to zero, since there is the spare capacity to cope
with one compressor breakdown.
Conclusions
The analysis showed that the optimal solution would be
three, 590 cfm, compressors, two would be used from
08:00 to 16:30, one used through the night, leaving one
compressor spare for emergencies or for use when and if
demand increases. The third compressor also enables the
compressors to be rotated on a time basis so that over a
year they are all used equally.
Significant annual running cost savings of approximately
20,000 were realized against a total cost of 61,000 for
the three compressors, one air dryer and one sequencer.
Conclusions
The article discussed the application of operations
research to produce accurate models of real systems. The
methodology developed has been used to predict how
Further reading
Best Practice Programme New Practice Final Profile 66,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Coker, A.J., Electric Motors, Midlands Rewind Group,
Heinemann, London.
Davidson, NC., Air Compressors Condensed Air Power Data,
Ingersol Rand, 1988.
Fuel Efficiency Booklet 4 Compressed Air and Energy Use,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Future Practice R&D Profile 50 Higher Efficiency Induction
Motors, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 136 Cost and Energy Savings
Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed Air System,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Guide 14 Retrofitting AC Variable Speed
Drives, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 88 Variable Speed Drives on Water
Pumps, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 89 Variable Speed Drives on
Cool ing Water Pumps, Energy Efficiency Office, West
Midlands Region, Birmingham, 1994.
T.J. Hughes is an Industrial Engineer at Crabtree Electrical Industries Ltd, Walsall, UK, and G.A. Bohoris is a Lecturer at
the University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.