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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO.

1, JANUARY 2006

425

Investigation of the Thermal Transfer


Coefficient by the Energy Balance of Fault
Arcs in Electrical Installations
Xiang Zhang, Gerhard Pietsch, Member, IEEE, and Ernst Gockenbach, Fellow, IEEE

AbstractIn order to determine the pressure rise due to fault


arcs in electrical installations, the portion of energy heating the
surrounding gas of the fault arc has to be known. The ratio of
the portion of energy to the electrical energy, the thermal transfer
coefficient, well known in literature as -factor, is adopted here.
This paper presents a theoretical approach to calculate the thermal
transfer coefficient and to determine the pressure rise in an electrical installation. It is based on the solution of the fundamental
hydro- and thermodynamic conservation equations taking into account melting and evaporation of metals as well as chemical reactions with the surrounding gas of the fault arc. The results for
closed arc chambers show that factors such as the kinds of insulating gas and of electrode material, the size of the test vessel, and
the gas density considerably influence the thermal transfer coefficient and thus the pressure rise. Furthermore it is demonstrated,
with an example of a short-circuit in a compact medium-voltage
station with heavy metal evaporation, that the mathematical approach is a reliable tool to assess the development of pressure.
Index TermsChemical reaction, electrical installation, energy
balance, fault arc, hydro- and thermodynamics, melting and evaporation, pressure, relative purity, theoretical approach, thermal
transfer coefficient.

I. INTRODUCTION

F a fault arc in an electrical installation occurs, it may endanger the maintenance personnel and seriously damage the
electrical equipment and even the building of the installation. One
of the main effects of fault arcs is the pressure stress on the mechanical parts of the installation and on the walls of the building.
, the portion of enIn order to determine the pressure rise
ergy heating the surrounding gas of the fault arc in an electrical
installation has to be known. To simulate the energy transfer from
the fault arc to its surrounding gas in the electrical installation, it is
assumed that the thermal transfer coefficient is the ratio of the
internal energy of the surrounding gas to the electrical energy
of the fault arc and can be expressed by [1][5]
(1)

where and are thevolume of the gas space under consideration


and the adiabatic coefficient of the surrounding gas, respectively.
Manuscript received September 21, 2004; revised March 14, 2005. Paper no.
TPWRD-00445-2004.
X. Zhang and E. Gockenbach are with the Institute of Electrical Power Systems, Division of High Voltage Engineering, University of Hanover, Hanover
30167, Germany (e-mail: zhang@si.uni-hannover.de).
G. Pietsch is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Gas
Discharge Technology, Aachen University of Technology, Aachen 52056,
Germany.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.852274

In the past, several calculation methods have been developed


to simulate the pressure rise in the surroundings of fault arcs
[2], [3]. In those approaches, the thermal transfer coefficient
has been experimentally determined in a closed vessel applying
(1). The application of the measured -values is limited to the
special boundary conditions of those experiments and to the assumptions of the gas model used in (1).
In the case of fault arcs, the thermal transfer coefficient and
the pressure rise depend on several parameters such as the
kinds of insulating gas and of electrode material, the size of
the test vessel, and the gas density. For a general estimation of
the pressure rise, the influences of all these parameters on the
pressure rise can be investigated by experiments, which are,
however, sometimes difficult to execute. In some cases, stations
are included in existing buildings without the possibility of
determining the pressure stress by tests on site.
In the following Section II the energy balance of a fault
arc in an electrical installation is generally described by the
correlative transfer coefficients, and the influences of each
energy transfer on the gas pressure are specified. In Section III
the term relative purity of the gas status is introduced and the
thermal transfer coefficient at relatively pure conditions is
measured to be constant for the insulating gases. Thus the thermal
transfer coefficient for any conditions can be characterized by
the thermal transfer coefficient at relatively pure conditions
together with other transfer coefficients related to melting and
evaporation as well as chemical reactions. In Section IV the
mathematical descriptions of the changes of gas density and
transfer energy which are related to melting and evaporation as
well as chemical reactions are given. In Section V the equation
of state and the conservation equations based on the hydroand thermodynamics are applied for calculation of the pressure
development. The change of density resulting from Section IV
concerning evaporation and chemical reactions is applied for
the continuity equation. With the special expression of melting
and evaporation as well as chemical reactions in Section IV the
general physical description of the energy balance in Section II
is changed into a mathematical energy equation. In Section VI
the thermal transfer coefficient and the development of pressure
are calculated for a closed test vessel and a medium-voltage
station, respectively. Section VII reaches a conclusion.
II. ENERGY BALANCE OF FAULT ARCS
If a fault arc in an electrical installation occurs, the electrical
energy of the arc plasma is transferred to its surroundings via

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426

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

the coefficients contributing to the surrounding gas of the fault


, can be assumed to be constant
arc, i.e.,
(3)
and thus (2) can be simplified by
(4)
III. CONCEPT OF RELATIVE PURITY

Fig. 1.

Simplified energy balance of a fault arc in an electrical installation.

different mechanisms of interaction (Fig. 1). The energy input


into the fault arc by Joule heat
is balanced by several
and radiation
energy exchanges like heat conduction
by the interactions of the arc column with the electrodes
and the walls of the electrical installation. They are absorbed
by the insulating gas outside the electrical installation and do
not contribute to the pressure rise in the electrical installation.
Furthermore, evaporated metal from the arc root points together
with chemical reactions play an important role in the energy
transfer from the fault arc to the surrounding gas. The metal
evaporation enhances the quantities of gas and further increases
for melting and
the pressure rise. The necessary energy
evaporation is to be considered in the energy balance [1], [6].
Due to chemical reactions between the evaporated materials
and the surrounding gas, the oxidation of the evaporated metals
with air leads to a decrease of particles in the surrounding gas
of the chemical reactions
around the fault arc and the heat
makes a considerable contribution to the energy balance of the
fault arc [1], [7]. If openings of the arc chamber (e.g., pressure
relief flaps in switchboards) are present, gas convection
has to be considered additionally. The convective transfer of
heat and the mass of the gas cause a change in the internal
heat of the surrounding gas and therefore a pressure rise, too
[2], [3], [8].
Based on the above discussions, an energy balance of the fault
arc can be formulated, dividing each energy portion by the electrical energy
(2)
where
, and
are the coefficients
representing the energy of heat conduction, radiation, convection, melting and evaporation as well as chemical reaction respectively (with the symbols + for an endothermic reaction and
for an exothermic reaction).
The internal energy
is composed of those energy portions contributing to the surrounding gas of the fault arc
), convection
by pressure relief flaps as well
and their chemical reactions
.
as metallic vapors
According to the experimental results from [1], [2], [3], [9]
for both closed and open vessels, the radiation coefficient
remains almost unaffected and the conduction coefficient
is relatively small, thus its value is negligible. For these reasons,

In order to understand the following, it is of advantage to


introduce the term relative purity of the gas status. If a gas
surrounding the fault arc in a closed vessel is not contaminated
by impurities from the electrodes or the interaction of the fault
arc with the walls of the vessel, it is named pure. If, at a given
electrical energy of the fault arc, the gas density in a closed
vessel is high enough so that the particle concentration of the
impurities generated by the fault arc is negligible, it is named
relatively pure.
is just the thermal transfer coFrom (4) we can find that
at relatively pure conditions because other coefefficient
ficients have no contribution to (4). The thermal transfer coeffiat relatively pure conditions can be determined from
cient
(1) by the measurement of the pressure in a closed vessel at high
gas densities, which means a fixed substance constituent and a
comparatively low average temperature of the surrounding gas.
at a relatively pure conThe thermal transfer coefficient
dition of an insulating gas, whose value depends on the kind of
insulating gas and is independent on the gas model to a large ex-value
tent, is found to be constant at high gas densities. The
as insulating gas is found to be [3]
of
(5)
With a relatively pure insulating gas, the thermal transfer
depends on the internal energy of the gas, which
coefficient
at constant volume of
is proportional to the specific heat
the insulating gas if the change of the temperature of the surrounding gas at high gas densities is low and the temperature
of the surrounding gas is accepted as the ambient temperature.
-values of another insulation gases can easily be
Thus the
[7]
determined by
(6)
Due to the heat transfer at the arc roots, metal electrodes
or walls of the test vessel may melt and evaporate to a certain extent. Metallic vapors can even dominate the gas compositions. In this case, the condition of relative purity will
not be fulfilled. The vaporized particles will directly influence
the pressure stress. Furthermore, the vapors may react with the
surrounding gas in endothermic or exothermic reactions, influencing the energy balance of the fault arc and the density of
the surrounding gas (if e.g., chemical reactions lead to powders
extracting particles from the surrounding gas). In this case, material evaporation and chemical reactions have to be considered
in the thermodynamic system because they will influence the
pressure development.
corresponding to the inThe thermal transfer coefficient
ternal energy of the gas impurities is characterized by the mu-

ZHANG et al.: INVESTIGATION OF THE THERMAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

tual dependency of the coefficients


, and
described by (4), whereas
is obtained by (6) and the energy
is derived from the well-known hydrodyof convection
namics (see Section V).
In order to determine the internal energy and the pressure
of the surrounding gas as well as their corresponding
rise
thermal transfer coefficient , the processes of melting and
evaporation
as well as chemical reactions
must
be investigated particularly.

427

V. GOVERNING EQUATIONS
With the considerations of melting and evaporation as well
as chemical reactions, the relevant mathematical models are developed, for which the equation of state and the conservation
equations (i.e., continuity-, momentum- and energy equations)
based on the hydro- and thermodynamics [7] are applied.
Continuity equation

IV. EVAPORATION AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

(11)

During a fault arc, additional particles resulting from metal


vapors (e.g., copper, aluminum or iron) lead to a change in the
density of the surrounding gas in an electrical installation [1]
(7)
where is time, the effective value of the short-circuit current,
the order number,
the components of the gas mixture,
the density for
, corresponding to various comof the -th
ponents, and the specific mass loss per charge
component, which is proportional to the
-coefficient [1],
[6].
for melting and evaporation is to be conThe energy
sidered in the energy balance, i.e., [6]
Me solid state

Me gaseous state

(8.0)

where Me is a symbol for different metals, e.g., Al, Cu, and Fe


etc.
If metals (Al, Cu or Fe) are evaporated in air, the following
chemical reactions have to be considered
(8.1)
(8.2)
(8.3)
(8.4)
(8.5)
Due to chemical reactions, a change of the gas density results
from the contribution of the reaction rates [7]
(9)
where is the order number, the chemical reactions,
the stoichiometric coefficient of the -th component in the -th
the molecular weight for
,
chemical reaction,
corresponding to various components, and the chemical reaction rate for
, corresponding to various chemical
reactions.
for melting and evaporation and the heat
The energy
of the chemical reaction can be represented by the density and the specific enthalpy of the generated or consumed
[7]
gases for
(10)
It is reasonable to suppose that the rate of chemical reactions
is faster than that of metal evaporation.

and
are the diffusion coefficient and the turbulent
where
are the vePrandtl number of the -th components, and
is the mass fraction of the
locity and the turbulent viscosity,
-th component by the gas mixtures
(12)

Momentum equation
(13)
with the bulk viscosity and the dynamic viscosity .
With the special expression of melting and evaporation as
well as chemical reactions, the general physical description of
the energy balance (4) is changed into a mathematical energy
equation

(14)

with the thermal conductivity and the temperature .


of the -th component
In (11), the density gradient
from gas compositions, which participate in material melting
and evaporation as well as chemical reactions described by (7)
and (9), appears in (11) as the source term of the density change.
of the -th components from
The enthalpy gradient
gas compositions is considered as the source term of (14),
which describes the change of the generated or consumed enor
characterized by (10).
ergy
According to thermodynamics [7], the change of the internal
energy per volume unit can be specified by the gradient of
and of the pressure in (14). Together with the
the enthalpy
other terms for the change of the internal energy
at relatively pure conditions in a volume unit, convection
and conduction
(its value is relatively small, thus negligible), (14) is in accordance with the energy balance (4) using
the transfer coefficients.
With the use of (5) to (14) and the equation of state
(15)
the pressure rise, the gas density, the temperature and the flow
velocity as well as other hydro- and thermodynamic items in the

428

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

TABLE I
TEST CONDITIONS

Fig. 3. Calculated (without test) and measured (with test) k -values for
Al-electrodes in displayed versus the gas density.

Fig. 2. Test container. 1, 2: connectors, 3: pressure transmitters, 4: fault arc,


5: electrodes.

electrical installation can be calculated with the sole assumption


of (5).
VI. SIMULATION RESULTS
In order to investigate the influences of some relevant parameters (e.g., electrode material, insulating gas, gas density and
the volume of the test vessel) on the pressure rise, a fault arc
with an electrical power of 100 kW during 80 ms has been provided for the experiment, which occurred inside a closed vessel
m and
m ) under
of different volumes (
the conditions given in Table I.
The four-flanged container illustrated in Fig. 2 was used as
a single-pole gas-insulated test vessel. During a flashover, the
fault arc was ignited between two electrodes 5 introduced into
the test vessel through covers. By removing the lateral cover of
the pressure transmitter 3, the volume of the container can be
varied. The test container is connected to a compressor via two
connectors 1 and 2. By activating the compressor, it is possible
to fill the test container and to set different initial pressures and
the corresponding filling densities in such an enclosure.
due to the energy of the fault arc has
First, the pressure rise
been experimentally measured. The measured thermal transfer
coefficient can be derived from (1). In the same way the calculated thermal transfer coefficient can be obtained by (1) as
well, after the development of pressure is calculated from (5)
to (15). By the comparison of the measured and the calculated
thermal transfer coefficients, the influences of the relevant parameters on the pressure rise can be investigated and the approach for the pressure calculation can be verified, too.

From (1), it is known that the thermal transfer coefficient


depends on the pressure rise
and also on the adiabatic
coefficient . In order to compare the -values without being
influenced by different -values (which depend on the temperature and on the kind of surrounding gas), instead of comparing
the pressure stresses from measurement and calculation, the
-values of different insulating gases at ambient temperature
(300 K) have been used for the assessment of the thermal
transfer coefficient .
Metal evaporation as well as the chemical reactions between
the insulating gas air and the electrode materials aluminum and
copper are considered in (7) to (10) respectively. When
is used as insulating gas, only metal evaporation is taken into
account.
The calculated and measured results of the thermal transfer
for the closed container are presented in Figs. 3
coefficient
to 6 as a function of the gas density (initial pressure). A rather
good agreement between both calculated and measured results
can be observed.
In Figs. 3 and 4 the results depict the insulating gas air and the
electrode materials aluminum and copper, respectively. For the
initial pressures of air above 0.1 MPa (corresponding to a density
of 1.2 kg/m ), the -values are in the range of 0.60 to 0.80. For
initial pressures below 0.1 Mpa (1.2 kg/m ), the -values decline
to about 0.30 to 0.50 with the falling pressure. In Figs. 5 and 6 the
are displayed for the insulating
thermal transfer coefficients
gas
and the electrode materials aluminum and copper. With
an initial gas pressure above 0.1 MPa (corresponding to a density
of 6.1 kg/m ), the calculated -values are almost constant at
about 0.50 to 0.70 in both test volumes of the container. Below the
initial pressure of 0.1 MPa (6.1 kg/m ), the -values rise up to
about 1.0 and 1.2 depending on the test volume of the container in
the case of aluminum electrodes. In the case of copper electrodes
the -values remain almost unchanged.
of metals per charge unit
Based on the specific mass loss
of the -th component in (7) and the test conditions given in
at the initial
Table I, the mass fractions of copper vapors in
pressure of 0.3 MPa (18.3 kg/m ) are 0.068% and 0.035% in the
test volumes of 0.07 m and 0.14 m , respectively. Calculating
the overpressure in the test container, the average temperatures
of 333 to 354 K of the surrounding gas have been found. That

ZHANG et al.: INVESTIGATION OF THE THERMAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Fig. 4. Calculated (without test) and measured (with test) k -values for
Cu-electrodes in air displayed versus the gas density.

Fig. 5. Calculated (without test) and measured (with test) k -values for
Al-electrodes in SF displayed versus the gas density.

Fig. 6. Calculated (without test) and measured (with test) k -values for
Cu-electrodes in SF displayed versus the gas density.

is why the surrounding gas of the fault arc is indeed relatively


pure in this case, i.e., the influences of the metal vapors and
chemical reactions are negligible.
On the other hand, in the case of aluminum electrodes the
mass fraction of aluminum vapors in air at the initial pressure
of 0.01 MPa (0.12 kg/m ) is 19.6% in the smaller test volume.
The calculated temperature of the surrounding gas under these

429

conditions has been found to be 3813 K. In such a case, the gas


status is far from the relative purity.
Comparing the shapes of the -curves versus the gas den, some differences are obvious. Whereas the
sity for air and
-factors in air decrease with falling density, they increase or
. These appearances result from the
are nearly constant in
rising importance of the consumption of O and Al particles in
chemical reactions, if air is used as the insulating gas. In the case
as insulating gas, such a consumption is not possible. On
of
the contrary, a strong evaporation of aluminum electrodes happens, which increases the pressure considerably. The evaporation of copper is less important.
Comparing the -values of air and
at high gas densities
the -values of air tend to increase. This behavior results from
the difference in the specific heat of the insulating gases at constant volume, which is higher for air.
The results for air as they are presented in Figs. 3 and 4 are
less different. The -values of copper electrodes at high gas
densities appear to be slightly lower than those of aluminum
electrodes. The reason lies in the higher specific heat at constant
volume of Al particles in air due to the evaporation of aluminum
compared to that of Cu particles.
The -values differ only slightly in the range of the low density depending on the test volume of the container. At an initial
pressure of 0.01 MPa (1.2 kg/m ) in the larger test volume, the
weight of O fraction is 3.26 g and the O molecules are so numerous that chemical reactions as they are initiated here will not
consume all of them. In this case the evaporated Al or Cu particles of 3.42 g or 1.71 g will consume the O molecules of 3.05 g
or 0.58 g respectively to meet the requirements of the chemical
reactions described by (8.1)to (8.3). In chemical reactions the
O particles are consumed, thus the thermal transfer coefficient
is smaller.
However, if chemical reactions are absent because of the lack
of O molecules (e.g., the weight of O fraction in the smaller
volume is 1.63 g only), the gas products may result from a
boosting evaporation of aluminum electrode material, which
may raise the -value as shown in Fig. 3.
At the smaller gas densities, the surrounding gas is heated to
a higher temperature by the same electrical energy of the fault
arc. In this case the mass fraction of the metal evaporation in
the surrounding gas is enlarged to raise the pressure on the one
hand. Chemical reactions on the other hand, which yield the
solid products of chemical reactions, lead to a consumption of
gas and by that to a decrease of the pressure. In general, the
additional density of generated or consumed particles plays a
decisive role.
The effect is important in electrical installations with pressure relief openings as well. By the gas stream through pressure
relief flaps, the density of the surrounding gas in the electrical
installation decreases. In order to take the decrease of density
into account for the pressure calculation the melting and evaporation as well as chemical reactions must be investigated by
the calculation models, that reflect on the variation of the actual gas density in electrical installations. It is expected that the
exact calculation of pressure depends on the amount of energy
released in electrical installations at least at low gas densities.

430

Fig. 7.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006

Compact medium-voltage station under consideration.

TABLE II
GEOMETRICAL CONDITIONS

As an example for the calculation of pressure, a fault arc in a


compact medium-voltage station with severe metal evaporation
is considered in Fig. 7. The relevant geometrical conditions are
given in Table II.
A short-circuit current of 16 kA was initiated in one of three
cable compartments - , and - , which were linked
with each other by the openings
- . Although the switch
was provided with a pressure relief opening, it
chamber
did not act as desired during the experiment. The fault arc
burned between the copper electrodes, which developed to a
three-phase fault arc with a duration of 1.0 s. The measured
electrical power during fault arc is displayed in Fig. 8.
During the fault arc, an iron sheet of the housing of about 1 kg
and copper electrodes of about 100 g in the cable compartments
were evaporated, as may be seen in Fig. 9. The set of chemical
reactions between air, iron and copper have been considered in
(8.1), (8.2), (8.4), and (8.5).
In Figs. 10 and 11 the calculated and measured curves of the
pressure in the middle of the cable compartment - and in
the middle of the transformer compartment
are depicted. A
rather good agreement between both calculated and measured
results can be reached.
The maximum pressures of about 120 and 105 kPa in the
middle of the cable compartment - and in the middle of the
are reached about 0.02 and 0.04 s,
transformer compartment
respectively, after the ignition of the fault arc. The pressure oscillation during the first pressure peak in the transformer comis believed to have resulted from the impact of the
partment
exterior environment on the opening of O . After the first pressure peak, the pressure relief opening O causes a strong decay
of pressure to about 103 kPa in both compartments.
After about 0.2 s, a smaller increase of the electrical power
occurs as may be seen in Fig. 8. This results from the burning-

Fig. 8.

Measured electrical power of a short-circuit current of 16 kA.

Fig. 9. Burned cable compartments of the compact medium-voltage station.


(a) Cable compartment R - . (b) Cable compartments R - and R - .

through of the housing of the cable compartments and is connected with the heavy evaporation of iron. About 90% of the gas
mixture in the cable compartments now consists of iron vapors.
The heavy evaporation follows an increase in the arc voltage and
in the pressure, which lasts about 0.35 s. After that, the ambient
pressure is reached up to the extinction of the fault arc.

ZHANG et al.: INVESTIGATION OF THE THERMAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

431

transfer coefficient are dependent on the kinds of insulating gas


and electrode material, the size of the test vessel, and the gas
density. In general, the proposed method can be used especially
in smaller arcing chambers, where melting and vaporization of
electrode materials as well as chemical reactions are important.
Furthermore it is demonstrated that the developed approach is
able to calculate the development of pressure accurately for an
example of a short-circuit in a compact medium-voltage station
with heavy metal evaporation. Thus, it is possible to calculate
the development of pressure in dependence on the gas density in
electrical installations with pressure relief openings in a reliable
way.
Fig. 10. Calculated (full line) and measured (dotted line) pressure
developments in the cable compartment R - .

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was finished at Aachen University of Technology,
Aachen, Germany.
REFERENCES

Fig. 11. Calculated (full line) and measured (dotted line) pressure
development in the transformer compartment R .

During the last 0.2 s a further pressure oscillation in measurement and calculation is detected, which belongs to an enforced
oscillation of energy resulting from the arc movement.
VII. CONCLUSION
In order to be able to predict the pressure rise in electrical installations due to fault arcs, it is necessary to know the portion
of electrical energy of the causative fault arc corresponding to
the thermal transfer coefficient , which causes the pressure
rise. With the determination of the thermal transfer coefficient
, it is possible to calculate the pressure rise in electrical installations (canceled), even for severe conditions under which
measurements cannot be performed.
In the evolution of the energy balance for the calculation of
the pressure in an electrical installation, the thermal transfer coat relatively pure conditions is introduced, which
efficient
has been experimentally proven to be constant for the insulating
. On the assumption of
, the thermal transfer cogas
efficient
for any conditions is then evolved. In the study of
melting and evaporation of
the thermal transfer coefficient
materials as well as chemical reactions which contribute to the
development of pressure, are taken into consideration.
It has been proven that a satisfactory agreement between both
calculated and measured results of the thermal transfer coefficient can be reached. The calculated and measured results show
that the development of pressure and its corresponding thermal

[1] A. Dasbach and G. J. Pietsch, Calculation of pressure wave in substation buildings due to arcing faults, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 5, no.
4, pp. 17601765, Oct. 1990.
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fault, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 365370, Apr. 1999.
[4] F. Lutz and G. J. Pietsch, The calculation of overpressure in metalenclosed switchgear due to internal arcing, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,
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[5] H. Kuwahara, K. Yoshinaga, S. Sakuma, T. Yamauchi, and T. Myamoto,
Fundamental investigation on internal arcs in SF gas-filled enclosure, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-101, no. 10, pp.
39773987, Oct. 1982.
[6] C. J. Smithells and E. A. Brandes, Metals Reference Book. London,
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[7] H. D. Baehr, Thermodynamik. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag,
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Xiang Zhang received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering
from Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China, in 1989 and 1992, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Aachen University of
Technology, Aachen, Germany, in 2002.
Currently, she is a Research Fellow on asset management of networks of
the Schering-Institute of High Voltage Technology, University of Hanover,
Hanover, Germany. From 1992 to 1997, she was a Research Engineer with
Xian High Voltage Apparatus Research Institute, Xian, China. Her main areas
of interest include high-voltage apparatus, gas discharge, arc modeling, and
asset management of network.
Gerhard Pietsch (M83) received the Diploma and Ph.D. degrees in physics
from the University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany, in 1967 and 1971, respectively.
From 1972 to 1974, he was with AEG High Voltage Laboratory, Kassel, Germany. Since 1975, he has been Professor of Electrical Engineering and Gas Discharge Technology at the Aachen University of Technology, Aachen, Germany.
Dr. Pietsch is a member of the German Association of Electrical Engineers
(VDE) and the German Physical Society (DPG).
Ernst Gockenbach (M83SM88F01) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany, in 1979.
Currently, he is Professor and Director of the Schering-Institute of High
Voltage Technology, University of Hanover, Hanover, Germany. From 1979 to
1982, he was with Siemens AG, Berlin, Germany. From 1982 to 1990, he was
with E. Haefely AG, Basel, Switzerland.
Dr. Gockenbach is a member of VDE and CIGRE, chairman of CIGRE Study
Committee D1 Materials and Emerging Technologies for Electrotechnology,
and a member of national and international Working Groups (IEC, IEEE) for
Standardization of High Voltage Test and Measuring Procedures.

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