Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BoardExaminations
The following material may be of particular importance on state and local board
examinations.
1.
All official dilute acids are 10%w/v, except acetic acid which is 6%
w/v. (Both)
Phenolphthalein gives colorless endpoint in acidic solution and red with
basic solution. (Local)
2.
PVT TIM HALL is the mnemonics of ten essential amino acids, which are
Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine,
Arginine, Leucine and Lysine. (Local)
4.
8.
10.
Tincture of potent drugs are 10%, while nonpotent drug tincture are
20%. (State)
14.
Fluidextracts
milliliter). (State)
15.
are
considered
100%
tinctures
(or
1g
of
drug
HLB stands for hydrophilic lipophilic balance and an HLB value of 3-6 will
give a w/o emulsion while an 8-18 value will give you o/w. (State)
16.
Insulin's packaging is color coded relative to the strength and type (e.g.,
red indicates 40units/ml, green 80units/ml, and orange 100units/ml). (State)
17.
In converting adult dosages to infant dosages, you may use one o the
following formulas:
A. Young's Rule (for patients two years and over):
{Age (in years)/[age (in years)+12]} x adult dose = child's dose
B. Fried's Rule (patients one year of age):
[age (in months)/150] x adult dose = child's dose
C. Clark's Rule (two years and older):
[weight (in lb)/150] x adult dose = child's dose
D. Surface area: Is the most accurate method since it uses a nomogram
composed of height and weight which is thought to correlate the
physiologic activity with the surface area. (State)
21.
22.
Cold
Cool
24.
Excessive
25.
Percentage strengths:
A. Percentage weight in weight (w/w) represents the number of grams of a
constituent in a 100g of a preparation.
B. Percentage weight in volume (w/v) represents the number of grams of
a constituent in 100 ml of a preparation.
C. Percentage volume in volume (v/v) represents the number of milliliters
of a constituent in 100ml of a preparation.(Both)
When using
shaken. (Both)
26.
calcium
hydroxide
(lime
water),
it
should
not
be
31.
StepsinDispensingPrescriptionorOTCDrugs
Pharmacy is also a business, money can be involved in every transaction. Sales
and profit are secondary main goals of a drugstore, which mean the more the
buyers and customers are, the more the sales revenue can accumulate per day.
Thus, once a customer stops to a drugstore, the establishment must see to it that
the customer's needs are available in them and must be given or satisfy, so that
another time that customer needs drugs again he shall go back to your
drugstore. Also the flow of the dispensing process should be fast but accurate,
and proper courtesy and respect must be shown to impress customer that
consequently achieving their loyalty. In the Philippines dispensing process is
done within 10-15 minutes depending on the number of prescribed drugs, volume
of people and the capacity of manpower a drugstore has.
Steps in Dispensing Drugs
1.
The customer will approach the pharmacy and call the attention of one of
the personnel.
2.
The pharmacist or pharmacy assistant will greet the customer and must
sustain good manners all through the transaction.
3.
The personnel will ask the patient about his/her prescription or drug
needs.
4.
After the presentation of prescription/s or details of drug/s needed, the
personnel shall check the availability of stock on the shelves, the price, the
expiration date and other generic equivalence of that brand or drug/s.
5.
The prescription/s or drug/s will be priced. Allow the customer to budget
his/her money to decide if he/she can afford the brand of that drug/s.
6.
Introduce to him/her other generic equivalence or other drugs that contain
the same generic name, strength, dosage form and alike, which can help him/her
to save money or budget his/her money.
7.
Take time to let the customer to decide what price of drug he/she will buy
and the quantities to be sold. Total the amount incurred by the customer and ask
for his/her payment. (If the patient is senior citizen, ask for requirements, and
deduct the respective percentage).
8.
If decision was made, prepare the decided drug/s (with the cheapest
price) to be bought by acquiring them from the shelves. Blistered or foiled
packaging will be cut in the pieces requested by the customer and/or if the
packaging is loose count the number of the drug needed in the tablet counter and
placing them into compact plastic bottle, wide-mouthed amber bottle or small
capsule cellophane that placing the information of the patient, information of the
drug and quantity of the drug. Check the drug before and after removing from the
shelf if it is the required drug. Check also for expiration of the drug and stability of
it.
9.
When the drug is prepared proceed to billing.
10.
Take back his/her change if there is and counter-check the drug's name,
count and quantities infront of him.
11.
Counsel the customer about the instruction given to him/her by the
physician, the storage condition, and other information about the drugs.
12.
End the transaction by speaking Thank you! and Come back again!.
The prescription shall be filed and kept.
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PharmaceuticalTablets
Tablets are solid dosage forms of medication prepared by compressing or
molding. Since the latter part of the 19th century up to the present time they are
the most popular of all kinds of medicinal preparation intended for oral use.
Advantages of Tablets:
1.
Accuracy and compactness of dosage
2.
Simplicity and economy in manufacturing
3.
Convenience in dispensing and shipping
4.
Simple to identify
5.
Blandness of taste to make it easily to swallow
6.
Available in special-release forms
7.
Most stable in all dosage forms
8.
Best suited to large-scale production
9.
Essential tamper-proof.
Disadvantages:
1.
Some drugs are incompatible to compress into tablets.
2.
Some drugs are hardly to reach the adequate bioavailability.
3.
Undesirable tastes and odor of some drugs cannot be masked.
Tablet Characteristics:
The different specifications by which compressed tablets are characterized
includes the diameter size, shape, thickness, weight, hardness and disintegration
time. The diameter and shape depend on the die and the punches used for
compression. In general, tablets are discoid in shape, however, they may be
oval, oblong, round, cylindrical or triangular. The upper and lower surfaces may
be flat, round, concave or convex to various degrees. The concave punches
maybe shallow, standard and deep cut.
2.
3.
Compressed Tablets
Tablet Ingredients:
1.
Active or therapeutic ingredients
2.
Additives or excipients are inert materials which can be classified
according to their function into:
Those which help to impart satisfactory compression characteristics like
diluents, binders and lubricants.
Those that help to give additional desirable physical characteristics to the
finished tablet like disintegrants, colors and flavors.
Tablet Excipients:
1.
Diluents These are inert substances added to increase the bulk in order
to produce a practical size for compression. Dicalcium phosphate, calcium
sulfate, lactose, kaolin, mannitol, sodium chloride, dry starch and powdered
sugar are some of the common diluents. Mannitol has a pleasant taste,
chemically stable and is not hygroscopic hence it is usually employed as a
diluent for chewable tablets. Most tablet formulators use only one or two diluents.
Care should be observed regarding incompatibilities between active ingredients
and diluents. Calcium salts interfere with the absorption of tetracycline from the
gastrointestinal tract. Amino bases with lactose and alkaline lubricant will produce
discolored tablets on aging.
Binders or Granulators These are substances added to the powdered
material to impart a cohesiveness to the formula which ensures the tablet to
remain intact after compression. Binders also improve the free-flowing qualities
by the formulation of granules of desired hardness and size. The most common
binders are starch, gelatin, and sugars like sucrose, molasses and lactose.
Natural and synthetic gums which have been used include acacia, sodium
alginate, extract of Irish mess, carboxymethylcellulose, methylcelluloses,
polyvinylpyrrolidone, veegum, and larch arabogalactan. Polyethylene glycol,
ethylcellulose, waxes, water and alcohol may also be considered as binders.
2.
Glidants They improve the flow properties of the granules in the food
hopper. Examples are talc, starch, lycopedium, calcium and magnesium stearate,
boric acid, sugar and sodium chloride.
4.
Processing Problems
1.
Capping is the partial or complete separation of the top or bottom crowns
of a tablet from the main body of the tablet. A remedy for capping is to dampen
the mixture slightly with water alcohol, a mixture of alcohol and water or glucose
solution prior to compressing, as long as there is no incompatibility involved.
Lamination is separation of a tablet into two or more distinct layers. Both
capping and lamination are problems usually result from air entrapment during
processing.
2.
3.
Quality Control
A. Tablet Hardness: Storage, transportation and handling requires tablets that
can resist chipping, abrasion or breakage. A usual rule of thumb test is to break
the tablet between the second and third fingers using the thumb as the fulcrum. It
is of proper hardness if it breaks with a sharp snap. When dropped on the floor,
however, it should not break.
To determine quantitatively the degree of hardness, an instrument, the Mensanto
or Stokes hardness tester is tablet when the force generated by a coil spring is
applied diametrically to the tablet. Another method of testing hardness is by the
use of the Roche friabilator. A number of tablets are weighed and placed in a
tumbling apparatus where they are exposed to rolling and repeated shocks
resulting form free falls within the apparatus. After a given number of rotations
the tablets are weighed. The loss in weight indicates the ability of the tablets to
withstand abrasion in packaging, handling and shipping.
B. Tablet Thickness: The density of the granulation and the pressure applied to
the tablets may change the thickness of the tablet without causing a change in
weight. This should not be tolerated to maintain identical appearance of the tablet
and to ensure that every production lot will be usable with a selected packaging
components. Thicker tablets may no longer be accommodated in the volume of a
given size bottle. Thickness is measured by a caliper like the Ames thickness
gauge which gives reading in millimeters. Depending on the size of the tablet, a
plus or minus 5% may be allowed.
C. Tablet Weight: The weight of the compressed tablet, determined by the
volumetric fill of the die cavity, is the quantity of the granulation which contains
the labeled amount of the therapeutic ingredients. After the tablet machine is in
operation, the weight of the tablets are checked routinely to ensure that the
tablets have the proper weights. This is done by weighing 20 capsules
individually and the average weight is calculated. The weight of not more than
two of the tablets should not differ from the average weight by more than the
percentage, no tablet differ by more than double that percentage.
D. Tablet Disintegration: The in vitro disintegration test uses not necessarily
bear a relationship to the in vivo action of a solid dosage form. Regardless of the
lack of significance as to the tablets in vivo action, the test provides a means of
control in assuring that a given tablet formula is the same as regards
disintegration from the product batch to another.
Methods of Preparation
A. Wet Granulation Method
This is the most widely used and most general method of tablet preparation
because the granules formed usually meet the physical requirements for the
compression of food tablets. However, this method presents certain
disadvantages: the number of separate steps involved and the time and labor
needed to carry out the procedure especially on large scale.
The steps in the wet method are:
1.
Weighing
2.
Mixing
3.
Granulation
4.
Screening the damp mass
5.
Drying
6.
Dry screening
7.
Lubrication
8.
Compression
B. Dry Granulation Method
Dry granulation, precompression, or the double-compression method is
employed when the tablet ingredients are affected by moisture, elevated
temperature due to drying, and when the ingredients have sufficient inherent
binding or cohesive properties. The is shorter.
The steps involved are:
1.
Weighing
2.
Mixing
3.
Slugging
4.
Dry screening
5.
Lubrication
6.
Compression
The active ingredient, diluent (if necessary) and part of the lubricant are blended.
The active ingredient or the diluent must have cohesive properties. Since
powdered material contains considerable amount of air which when expelled
under pressure forms a fairly dense tablet, more time should be allowed for this
air to escape to produce a better tablet or slug.
HintsonAnsweringBoardExamQuestions
Most candidates of board exam practically aim the right answer to each question.
Sometimes the right attitude in answering a question is needed to fully
understand and choose the correct answer. Probably the candidate who is able
to review well pass the board exam; unless luck is with you no matter what
happens you will pass. Hints, as it is not connected to the questions and
answers, maybe helpful to choose the right answer. Following
the guidelines given down list might save you from failing.
1.
Answer all questions. Do not leave it blank.
2.
Your first choice is usually your best answer.
3.
Do not change your answer unless you are convinced that your first
choice is wrong.
4.
It is a good practice to read every question prudently and mark your
answer before going on to the next question. If you are doubtful of the answer,
avoid staying and reading the question over and over again. Leave it out and go
on to the next question. Put an asterisk mark in the margin to remind you that the
question was left unanswered.
5.
When you have finished the examination, go back to the unanswered
questions. Do not reread those questions that you believe you have already
answered correctly this might confuse you and eventually convince you to
change your answer.
6.
When reviewing the questions that you went back, you can usually do
elimination for several choices immediately as being correct. On a multiplechoice question, this will leave you with two or three selections. Make the most
logical choice, even with two possible choices you have a 50:50 chance of
getting it right. This is much better than guessing from five selections where your
chances of guessing correctly are only one in five. Once you have marked your
selection leave it alone and go on to the next unanswered question. If you have
no idea of which answer is correct, do not guess either the first or last choice.
7.
Whenever a problem solving or calculation is being asked put in mind that
ratio and proportion is the general formula for almost drug solving problems. If
possible familiarize the weights and volumes conversion table and some
important pharmaceutical formulas.
8.
For calculations, rounded off or exact answers are usually the choices.
Solving needs the correct formula to lead you to the correct answer, wrong
formula's answer may be one of the choices and you able to choose it. The
examinee should be aware in this case and be prepared when taking board
exam.
However, most of the given guidelines are only applicable for those questions
that are not familiar to you or guess at an answer. When you know the answer do
not hesitate to choose it. Never mind the tricks of the question. Because there is
only one best answer that you looking for. Avoid too much interpretation of the
answer or look for hidden meanings. Best answer can be picked through simple
selection.
Hints:
Clang association: repetition of a word, phrase, or sounding the question and in
the choice.
Example: