Techniques

Complex heat treating schedules, or "cycles," are often devised by metallurgists to optimize an
alloy's mechanical properties. In the aerospace industry, a superalloy may undergo five or more
different heat treating operations to develop the desired properties. This can lead to quality
problems depending on the accuracy of the furnace's temperature controls and timer.

[edit] Annealing
Main article: Annealing (metallurgy)
Annealing is a rather generalized term. Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific
temperature and then cooling at a rate that will produce a refined microstructure. Annealing is
most often used to soften a metal for cold working, to improve machinability, or to enhance
properties like electrical conductivity.
In ferrous alloys, annealing is usually accomplished by heating the metal beyond the upper
critical temperature and then cooling very slowly, resulting in the formation of pearlite. In both
pure metals and many alloys that can not be heat treated, annealing is used to remove the
hardness caused by cold working. The metal is heated to a temperature where recrystallization
can occur, thereby repairing the defects caused by plastic deformation. In these metals, the rate of
cooling will usually have little effect. Most non-ferrous alloys that are heat-treatable are also
annealed to relieve the hardness of cold working. These may be slowly cooled to allow full
precipitation of the constituents and produce a refined microstructure.
Ferrous alloys are usually either "full annealed" or "process annealed." Full annealing requires
very slow cooling rates, in order to form coarse pearlite. In process annealing, the cooling rate
may be faster; up to, and including normalizing. The main goal of process annealing is to
produce a uniform microstructure. Non-ferrous alloys are often subjected to a variety of
annealing techniques, including "recrystallization annealing," "partial annealing," "full
annealing," and "final annealing." Not all annealing techniques involve recrystallization, such as
stress relieving.[17]
[edit] Normalizing
Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and composition throughout
an alloy. The term is often used for ferrous alloys that have been heated above the upper critical
temperature and then cooled in open air.[17] Normalizing gives harder and stronger steel, but with
less ductility for the same composition, than full annealing.
[edit] Stress relieving
Stress relieving is a technique to remove or reduce the internal stresses created in a metal. These
stresses may be caused in a number of ways, ranging from cold working to non-uniform cooling.
Stress relieving is usually accomplished by heating a metal below the lower critical temperature
and then cooling uniformly.[17]

[edit] Aging
Main article: Precipitation hardening
Some metals are classified as precipitation hardening metals. When a precipitation hardening
alloy is quenched, its alloying elements will be trapped in solution, resulting in a soft metal.
Aging a "solutionized" metal will allow the alloying elements to diffuse through the
microstructure and form intermetallic particles. These intermetallic particles will nucleate and
fall out of solution and act as a reinforcing phase, thereby increasing the strength of the alloy.
Alloys may age "naturally" meaning that the precipitates form at room temperature, or they may
age "artificially" when precipitates only form at elevated temperatures. In some applications,
naturally aging alloys may be stored in a freezer to prevent hardening until after further
operations - assembly of rivets, for example, may be easier with a softer part.
Examples of precipitation hardening alloys include 2000 series, 6000 series, and 7000 series
aluminium alloy, as well as some superalloys and some stainless steels. Steels that harden by
aging are typically referred to as maraging steels, from a combination of the term "martensite
aging."[17]

[edit] Quenching
Main article: Quenching
Quenching is a process of cooling a metal very quickly. This is most often done to produce a
martensite transformation. In ferrous alloys, this will often produce a harder metal, while nonferrous alloys will usually become softer than normal.
To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated above the upper
critical temperature and then quickly cooled. Depending on the alloy and other considerations
(such as concern for maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with
forced air or other gases, (such as nitrogen). Liquids may be used, due to their better thermal
conductivity, such as water, oil, a polymer dissolved in water, or a brine. Upon being rapidly
cooled, a portion of austenite (dependent on alloy composition) will transform to martensite, a
hard, brittle crystalline structure. The quenched hardness of a metal depends on its chemical
composition and quenching method. Cooling speeds, from fastest to slowest, go from polymer
(i.e.silicon), brine, fresh water, oil, and forced air. However, quenching a certain steel too fast can
result in cracking, which is why high-tensile steels such as AISI 4140 should be quenched in oil,
tool steels such as ISO 1.2767 or H13 hot work tool steel should be quenched in forced air, and
low alloy or medium-tensile steels such as XK1320 or AISI 1040 should be quenched in brine or
water.
However, most non-ferrous metals, like alloys of copper, aluminum, or nickel, and some high
alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel (304, 316), produce an opposite effect when these
are quenched: they soften. Austenitic stainless steels must be quenched to become fully corrosion
resistant, as they work-harden significantly.[17]

[edit] Tempering
Main article: Tempering
Untempered martensitic steel, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for most applications. A
method for alleviating this problem is called tempering. Most applications require that quenched
parts be tempered. Tempering consists of heating a steel below the lower critical temperature,
(often from 400 to 1105 F or 205 to 595 C, depending on the desired results), to impart some
toughness. Higher tempering temperatures, (may be up to 1,300 F or 700 C, depending on the
alloy and application), are sometimes used to impart further ductility, although some yield
strength is lost.
Tempering may also be performed on normalized steels. Other methods of tempering consist of
quenching to a specific temperature, which is above the martensite start temperature, and then
holding it there until pure bainite can form or internal stresses can be relieved. These include
austempering and martempering.[17]

Topics Covered
The Softening Processes
Annealing
Normalising
The Hardening Processes
Hardening
Tempering
Thermochemical Processes
Carburising
Nitriding
Boronising
Processing Methods

The Softening Processes

Annealing
Used variously to soften, relieve internal stresses, improve machinability and to develop
particular mechanical and physical properties.
In special silicon steels used for transformer laminations annealing develops the
particular microstructure that confers the unique electrical properties.
Annealing requires heating to above the As temperature, holding for sufficient time for
temperature equalisation followed by slow cooling. See Curve 2 in Figure 1.

Figure 1. An idealised TTT curve for a plain carbon steel.

Normalising
Also used to soften and relieve internal stresses after cold work and to refine the grain
size and metallurgical structure. It may be used to break up the dendritic (as cast)
structure of castings to improve their machinability and future heat treatment response
or to mitigate banding in rolled steel.
This requires heating to above the As temperature, holding for sufficient time to allow
temperature equalisation followed by air cooling. It is therefore similar to annealing but
with a faster cooling rate. Curve 3 in Figure I would give a normalised structure.

The Hardening Processes

Hardening
In this process steels which contain sufficient carbon, and perhaps other alloying
elements, are cooled (quenched) sufficiently rapidly from above the transformation
temperature to produce Martensite, the hard phase already described, see Curve 1 in
Figure 1.
There is a range of quenching media of varying severity, water or brine being the most
severe, through oil and synthetic products to air which is the least severe.

Tempering
After quenching the steel is hard, brittle and internally stressed. Before use, it is usually

necessary to reduce these stresses and increase toughness by 'tempering'. There will
also be a reduction in hardness and the selection of tempering temperature dictates the
final properties. Tempering curves, which are plots of hardness against tempering
temperature. exist for all commercial steels and are used to select the correct
tempering temperature. As a rule of thumb, within the tempering range for a particular
steel, the higher the tempering temperature the lower the final hardness but the
greater the toughness.
It should be noted that not all steels will respond to all heat treatment processes, Table
1 summaries the response, or otherwise, to the different processes.
Anneal

Normalise

Harden

Temper

Low Carbon <0.3%

Medium Carbon 0.3-0.5%

yes
yes

yes
yes

no
yes

no
yes

High Carbon >0.5%

Low Alloy

yes
yes

yes
yes

yes
yes

yes
yes

Medium Alloy
High Alloy

yes
yes

yes
maybe

yes
yes

yes
yes

Tool Steels
Stainless Steel (Austenitic eg 304, 306)

yes
yes

no
no

yes
no

yes
no

Stainless Steels (Ferritic eg 405, 430 442)

Stainless Steels (Martensitic eg 410, 440)

yes
yes

no
no

no
yes

no
yes

Thermochemical Processes
These involve the diffusion, to pre-determined depths into the steel surface, of carbon,
nitrogen and, less commonly, boron. These elements may be added individually or in
combination and the result is a surface with desirable properties and of radically
different composition to the bulk.

Carburising
Carbon diffusion (carburising) produces a higher carbon steel composition on the part
surface. It is usually necessary to harden both this layer and the substrate after
carburising.

Nitriding
Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) and boron diffusion (boronising or boriding) both produce
hard intermetallic compounds at the surface. These layers are intrinsically hard and do
not need heat treatment themselves.

Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) is often carried out at or below the tempering temperature
of the steels used. Hence they can be hardened prior to nitriding and the nitriding can
also be used as a temper.

Boronising
Boronised substrates will often require heat treatment to restore mechanical properties.
As borides degrade in atmospheres which contain oxygen, even when combined as CO
or C02, they must be heat treated in vacuum, nitrogen or nitrogen/hydrogen
atmospheres.

Processing Methods
In the past the thermochemical processes were carried out by pack cementation or salt
bath processes. These are now largely replaced, on product quality and environmental
grounds, by gas and plasma techniques. The exception is boronising, for which a safe
production scale gaseous route has yet to be developed and pack cementation is likely
to remain the only viable route for the for some time to come.
The gas processes are usually carried out in the now almost universal seal quench
furnace, and any subsequent heat treatment is readily carried out immediately without
taking the work out of the furnace. This reduced handling is a cost and quality benefit.
Table 2 (Part A). Characteristics of the thermochemical heat treatment processes.
Process

Carburising

Temp

Diffusing

(C)

Elements

900-1000

Carbon

Methods

Processing
Characteristics

Gas.

Care needed as high temperature may cause

Pack.

distortion

Salt Bath.
Fluidised Bed.
Carbo-

800-880

nitriding

Nitriding

Nitro-

500-800

560-570

carburising

Boronising

800-1050

Carbon

Gas.

Lower temperature means less distortion than

Nitrogen

Fluidised Bed.

carburising.

mainly C

Salt Bath.

Nitrogen

Gas.

Very low distortion.

Plasma.

Long process times, but reduced by plasma and other

Fluidised Bed.

new techniques.

Nitrogen

Gas.

Very low distortion.

Carbon

Fluidised Bed.

Impossible to machine after processing.

mainly N

Salt Bath.

Boron

Pack.

Coat under argon shield.

All post coating heat treatment must be in an oxygen

free atmosphere even CO and CO2 are harmful.
No post coating machining.

Table 2 (Part B). Characteristics of the thermochemical heat treatment processes.

Process

Carburising

Case

Suitable

Characteristics

Steels

Medium to deep

Mild, low carbon and low alloy steels.

Applications

High surface stress conditions.

case.

Mild steels small sections <12mm.

Oil quench to

Alloy steels large sections.

harden case.
Surface hardness
675-820 HV (5762 HRC) after
tempering.
Carbo-

Shallow to

nitriding

medium to deep

Low carbon steels.

High surface stress conditions.

Mild steels large sections >12mm.

case.
Oil quench to
harden case.
Surface hardness
675-820 HV (5762 HRC) after
tempering.
Nitriding

Shallow to

Alloy and tool steels which contain

Severe surface stress conditions.

medium to deep

sufficient nitride forming elements eg

May cinfer corrosion resistance.

case.

chromium, aluminium and vanadium.

Maximum hard ness and temperature

No quench.

Molybdenum is usually present to aid

stability up to 200C.

Surface hardness

core properties.

675-1150 HV
(57-70 HRC).
Nitro-

10-20 micron

Many steels from low carbon to tool

Low to medium surface stress conditions.

carburising

compound layer

steels.

Good wear resistance.

at the surface.

Post coating oxidation and impregnation

Further nitrogen

gives good corrosion resistance.

diffusion zone.
Hardness
depends on steel
type carbon &
low alloy 350-

540 HV (36-50
HRC) high alloy
& toll up to 1000
HV (66 HRC).
Boronising

Thickness

Most steels from mild to tool steels

Low to high surface stress conditions

inversely

except austenitic stainless grades.

depending on substrate steel.

proportional to

Excellent wear resistance.

alloy content
>300 microns on
mild steel 20
microns on high
alloy.
Do not exceed 30
microns if part is
to be heat
treated.
Hardness >1500
HV typical.

Techniques and Practice

As we have already seen this requires heating to above the As temperature, holding to
equalise the temperature and then slow cooling. If this is done in air there is a real risk
of damage to the part by decarburisation and of course oxidation. It is increasingly
common to avoid this by bright or close annealing using protective atmospheres. The
particular atmosphere chosen will depend upon the type of steel.

Normalising
In common with annealing there is a risk of surface degradation but as air cooling is
common practice this process is most often used as an intermediate stage to be
followed by machining, acid pickling or cold working to restore surface integrity.

Hardening
With many components, hardening is virtually the final process and great care must
taken to protect the surface from degradation and decarburisation. The seal quench
furnace is now an industry standard tool for carbon, low and medium alloy steels. The
work is protected at each stage by a specially generated atmosphere.
Some tool steels benefit from vacuum hardening and tempering, salt baths were widely
used but are now losing favour on environmental grounds.

Tempering
Tempering is essential after most hardening operations to restore some toughness to
the structure. It is frequently performed as an integral part of the cycle in a seal quench
furnace, with the parts fully protected against oxidation and decarburisation throughout
the process. Generally tempering is conducted in the temperature range 150 to 700C,
depending on the type of steel and is time dependent as the microstructural changes
occur relatively slowly.
Caution : Tempering can, in some circumstances, make the steel brittle which is the
opposite of what it is intended to achieve.
There are two forms of this brittleness
Temper Brittleness which affects both carbon and low alloy steels when either, they are
cooled too slowly from above 575C, or are held for excessive times in the range 375 to
575C. The embrittlement can be reversed by heating to above 575C and rapidly
cooling.
Blue Brittleness affects carbon and some alloy steels after tempering in the range 230
to 370C The effect is not reversible and susceptible steels should not be employed in
applications in which they sustain shock loads.
If there is any doubt consult with the heat treater or in house metallurgical department
about the suitability of the steel type and the necessary heat treatment for any
application.

Martempering and Austempering

It will be readily appreciated that the quenching operation used in hardening introduces
internal stresses into the steel. These can be sufficiently large to distort or even crack
the steel.
Martempering is applied to steels of sufficient hardenability and involves an isothermal
hold in the quenching operation. This allows temperature equalisation across the
section of the part and more uniform cooling and structure, hence lower stresses. The
steel can then be tempered in the usual way.
Austempering also involves an isothermal hold in the quenching operation, but the
structure formed, whilst hard and tough, does not require further tempering. The
process is mostly applied to high carbon steels in relatively thin sections for springs or
similar parts. These processes are shown schematically in the TTT Curves, (figures 2a

and 3b).

Figure 2. Temperature vs. time profiles for (a) austempering and (b) martempering.
Localised hardening sometimes as flame hardening, laser hardening, RF or induction
hardening and electron beam hardening depending upon the heat source used. These
processes are used where only a small section of the component surface needs to be
hard, eg a bearing journal. In many cases there is sufficient heat sink in the part and
an external quench is not needed. There is a much lower risk of distortion associated
with this practice, and it can be highly automated and it is very reproducible.

Topics Covered
The Softening Processes
Annealing
Normalising
The Hardening Processes
Hardening
Tempering
Thermochemical Processes
Carburising
Nitriding
Boronising
Processing Methods

The Softening Processes

Annealing

Used variously to soften, relieve internal stresses, improve machinability and to develop
particular mechanical and physical properties.
In special silicon steels used for transformer laminations annealing develops the
particular microstructure that confers the unique electrical properties.
Annealing requires heating to above the As temperature, holding for sufficient time for
temperature equalisation followed by slow cooling. See Curve 2 in Figure 1.

Figure 1. An idealised TTT curve for a plain carbon steel.

Normalising
Also used to soften and relieve internal stresses after cold work and to refine the grain
size and metallurgical structure. It may be used to break up the dendritic (as cast)
structure of castings to improve their machinability and future heat treatment response
or to mitigate banding in rolled steel.
This requires heating to above the As temperature, holding for sufficient time to allow
temperature equalisation followed by air cooling. It is therefore similar to annealing but
with a faster cooling rate. Curve 3 in Figure I would give a normalised structure.

The Hardening Processes

Hardening
In this process steels which contain sufficient carbon, and perhaps other alloying

elements, are cooled (quenched) sufficiently rapidly from above the transformation
temperature to produce Martensite, the hard phase already described, see Curve 1 in
Figure 1.
There is a range of quenching media of varying severity, water or brine being the most
severe, through oil and synthetic products to air which is the least severe.

Tempering
After quenching the steel is hard, brittle and internally stressed. Before use, it is usually
necessary to reduce these stresses and increase toughness by 'tempering'. There will
also be a reduction in hardness and the selection of tempering temperature dictates the
final properties. Tempering curves, which are plots of hardness against tempering
temperature. exist for all commercial steels and are used to select the correct
tempering temperature. As a rule of thumb, within the tempering range for a particular
steel, the higher the tempering temperature the lower the final hardness but the
greater the toughness.
It should be noted that not all steels will respond to all heat treatment processes, Table
1 summaries the response, or otherwise, to the different processes.
Anneal

Normalise

Harden

Temper

Low Carbon <0.3%

Medium Carbon 0.3-0.5%

yes
yes

yes
yes

no
yes

no
yes

High Carbon >0.5%

Low Alloy

yes
yes

yes
yes

yes
yes

yes
yes

Medium Alloy
High Alloy

yes
yes

yes
maybe

yes
yes

yes
yes

Tool Steels
Stainless Steel (Austenitic eg 304, 306)

yes
yes

no
no

yes
no

yes
no

Stainless Steels (Ferritic eg 405, 430 442)

Stainless Steels (Martensitic eg 410, 440)

yes
yes

no
no

no
yes

no
yes

Thermochemical Processes
These involve the diffusion, to pre-determined depths into the steel surface, of carbon,
nitrogen and, less commonly, boron. These elements may be added individually or in
combination and the result is a surface with desirable properties and of radically
different composition to the bulk.

Carburising

Carbon diffusion (carburising) produces a higher carbon steel composition on the part
surface. It is usually necessary to harden both this layer and the substrate after
carburising.

Nitriding
Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) and boron diffusion (boronising or boriding) both produce
hard intermetallic compounds at the surface. These layers are intrinsically hard and do
not need heat treatment themselves.
Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) is often carried out at or below the tempering temperature
of the steels used. Hence they can be hardened prior to nitriding and the nitriding can
also be used as a temper.

Boronising
Boronised substrates will often require heat treatment to restore mechanical properties.
As borides degrade in atmospheres which contain oxygen, even when combined as CO
or C02, they must be heat treated in vacuum, nitrogen or nitrogen/hydrogen
atmospheres.

Processing Methods
In the past the thermochemical processes were carried out by pack cementation or salt
bath processes. These are now largely replaced, on product quality and environmental
grounds, by gas and plasma techniques. The exception is boronising, for which a safe
production scale gaseous route has yet to be developed and pack cementation is likely
to remain the only viable route for the for some time to come.
The gas processes are usually carried out in the now almost universal seal quench
furnace, and any subsequent heat treatment is readily carried out immediately without
taking the work out of the furnace. This reduced handling is a cost and quality benefit.
Table 2 (Part A). Characteristics of the thermochemical heat treatment processes.
Process

Carburising

Temp

Diffusing

(C)

Elements

900-1000

Carbon

Methods

Processing
Characteristics

Gas.

Care needed as high temperature may cause

Pack.

distortion

Salt Bath.
Fluidised Bed.

Carbo-

800-880

nitriding

Nitriding

Nitro-

500-800

560-570

Carbon

Gas.

Lower temperature means less distortion than

Nitrogen

Fluidised Bed.

carburising.

mainly C

Salt Bath.

Nitrogen

Gas.

Very low distortion.

Plasma.

Long process times, but reduced by plasma and other

Fluidised Bed.

new techniques.

Nitrogen

Gas.

Very low distortion.

Carbon

Fluidised Bed.

Impossible to machine after processing.

mainly N

Salt Bath.

Boron

Pack.

carburising

Boronising

800-1050

Coat under argon shield.

All post coating heat treatment must be in an oxygen
free atmosphere even CO and CO2 are harmful.
No post coating machining.

Table 2 (Part B). Characteristics of the thermochemical heat treatment processes.

Process

Carburising

Case

Suitable

Characteristics

Steels

Medium to deep

Mild, low carbon and low alloy steels.

Applications

High surface stress conditions.

case.

Mild steels small sections <12mm.

Oil quench to

Alloy steels large sections.

harden case.
Surface hardness
675-820 HV (5762 HRC) after
tempering.
Carbo-

Shallow to

nitriding

medium to deep

Low carbon steels.

High surface stress conditions.

Mild steels large sections >12mm.

case.
Oil quench to
harden case.
Surface hardness
675-820 HV (5762 HRC) after
tempering.
Nitriding

Shallow to

Alloy and tool steels which contain

Severe surface stress conditions.

medium to deep

sufficient nitride forming elements eg

May cinfer corrosion resistance.

case.

chromium, aluminium and vanadium.

Maximum hard ness and temperature

No quench.

Molybdenum is usually present to aid

stability up to 200C.

Surface hardness

core properties.

675-1150 HV

(57-70 HRC).
Nitro-

10-20 micron

Many steels from low carbon to tool

Low to medium surface stress conditions.

carburising

compound layer

steels.

Good wear resistance.

at the surface.

Post coating oxidation and impregnation

Further nitrogen

gives good corrosion resistance.

diffusion zone.
Hardness
depends on steel
type carbon &
low alloy 350540 HV (36-50
HRC) high alloy
& toll up to 1000
HV (66 HRC).
Boronising

Thickness

Most steels from mild to tool steels

Low to high surface stress conditions

inversely

except austenitic stainless grades.

depending on substrate steel.

proportional to

Excellent wear resistance.

alloy content
>300 microns on
mild steel 20
microns on high
alloy.
Do not exceed 30
microns if part is
to be heat
treated.
Hardness >1500
HV typical.

Techniques and Practice

As we have already seen this requires heating to above the As temperature, holding to
equalise the temperature and then slow cooling. If this is done in air there is a real risk
of damage to the part by decarburisation and of course oxidation. It is increasingly
common to avoid this by bright or close annealing using protective atmospheres. The
particular atmosphere chosen will depend upon the type of steel.

Normalising
In common with annealing there is a risk of surface degradation but as air cooling is
common practice this process is most often used as an intermediate stage to be
followed by machining, acid pickling or cold working to restore surface integrity.

Hardening
With many components, hardening is virtually the final process and great care must
taken to protect the surface from degradation and decarburisation. The seal quench
furnace is now an industry standard tool for carbon, low and medium alloy steels. The
work is protected at each stage by a specially generated atmosphere.
Some tool steels benefit from vacuum hardening and tempering, salt baths were widely
used but are now losing favour on environmental grounds.

Tempering
Tempering is essential after most hardening operations to restore some toughness to
the structure. It is frequently performed as an integral part of the cycle in a seal quench
furnace, with the parts fully protected against oxidation and decarburisation throughout
the process. Generally tempering is conducted in the temperature range 150 to 700C,
depending on the type of steel and is time dependent as the microstructural changes
occur relatively slowly.
Caution : Tempering can, in some circumstances, make the steel brittle which is the
opposite of what it is intended to achieve.
There are two forms of this brittleness
Temper Brittleness which affects both carbon and low alloy steels when either, they are
cooled too slowly from above 575C, or are held for excessive times in the range 375 to
575C. The embrittlement can be reversed by heating to above 575C and rapidly
cooling.
Blue Brittleness affects carbon and some alloy steels after tempering in the range 230
to 370C The effect is not reversible and susceptible steels should not be employed in
applications in which they sustain shock loads.
If there is any doubt consult with the heat treater or in house metallurgical department
about the suitability of the steel type and the necessary heat treatment for any
application.

Martempering and Austempering

It will be readily appreciated that the quenching operation used in hardening introduces
internal stresses into the steel. These can be sufficiently large to distort or even crack

the steel.
Martempering is applied to steels of sufficient hardenability and involves an isothermal
hold in the quenching operation. This allows temperature equalisation across the
section of the part and more uniform cooling and structure, hence lower stresses. The
steel can then be tempered in the usual way.
Austempering also involves an isothermal hold in the quenching operation, but the
structure formed, whilst hard and tough, does not require further tempering. The
process is mostly applied to high carbon steels in relatively thin sections for springs or
similar parts. These processes are shown schematically in the TTT Curves, (figures 2a
and 3b).

Figure 2. Temperature vs. time profiles for (a) austempering and (b) martempering.
Localised hardening sometimes as flame hardening, laser hardening, RF or induction
hardening and electron beam hardening depending upon the heat source used. These
processes are used where only a small section of the component surface needs to be
hard, eg a bearing journal. In many cases there is sufficient heat sink in the part and
an external quench is not needed. There is a much lower risk of distortion associated
with this practice, and it can be highly automated and it is very reproducible.