Engineering Technology A

1.
Basic R.C. Structures
1.
Reinforced Concrete (R.C.)
There are various types of construction materials, among which reinforced

concrete is the most common one used in Hong Kong. Reinforced concrete is
composed of concrete and reinforcement, where reinforcement is in the form of steel
bar.
1.1
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate and water.
Concrete sets to a
rock-like mass due to the chemical reaction (hydration) which takes place
between cement and water, resulting in a paste or matrix which binds the other
constituents together.
The quality of a concrete is denoted by its compressive strength. For example,

a concrete that has a compressive strength of 40 MPa is known as Grade 40
concrete (or G40).
Plain concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. The actual ratio
varies but roughly the compressive strength is about ten times of the tensile
strength.
If a plain concrete beam is bent, the upper part of the beam will be set in
compression while the lower part will be in tension.
It can be expected that the beam will fail in tension at a relatively small loading.
If this weakness in tension is reinforced in such a manner that the tensile

resistance is raised to a similar value as its compressive strength, the reinforced
beam will be able to support a load ten times that of the plain concrete beam.
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Load
Compression in
upper fibres
simply supported plain concrete beam
The beam will crack

break at low loading
Tension in
lower fibres
Loading a plain Concrete Beam
Load
Compression in
upper fibres
Simply supported R.C. beam
Tension in
lower fibres
The reinforcement
helps to resist tension
Loading a Reinforced Concrete Beam
1.2
Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars (rebar) are made of high carbon steel.
They are manufactured by
hot rolling and therefore also known as Hot rolled steel bar. Two types of rebar
are used for construction:
1.2.1 Plain round steel bar

A plain round steel bars is made of mild steel.
It is classified as Grade 250.
means that the characteristic yield stress shall not be less then 250 MPa.
It
Common
nominal sizes (bar diameter in mm) are: 10, 12 and 16. Plain round steel bars are
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named with a prefix R.
For example, R10 denotes a plain round steel bar of 10
mm diameter.
Plain round steel bar
Deformed high tensile steel bar
1.2.2 Deformed high tensile steel bars

A deformed high tensile steel bar is rolled on the surface with ribs to increase the
bond strength with concrete.
It is classified as grade 460.
are: 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40.
Common nominal sizes
They are named with a prefix T.
(Formerly it
is name as high yield steel bar with a prefix Y.)
2.
Reinforced concrete structures
Beam
Wall
Superstructure
Column
Floor slab
Substructure
Foundation
A typical reinforced concrete building
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2.1
Major structural elements of a R.C. framed building

Columns are vertical members which carry the loads from beams and transfer
the loads down to the foundations.
Main beam
Span
Column
Secondary beams
Typical R.C. Framed Structure
Beams are horizontal member supporting floor slabs.
They are further
subdivided into main beam and secondary beam.

Main beams span between columns and transfer the loads placed upon them to
the columns.
Secondary beams span between main beams and transfer their loadings to the
main beams.
Their primary function is to reduce the spans of the floor slabs.
Floor slabs provide platforms on which people can circulate and furniture can
be placed.
Walls wall can be classified into external walls and internal walls:
External walls are the envelope of the building to exclude rain, wind, sunlight,
etc.
Internal walls (partitions) are used to subdivide the floor space in a storey of
different uses.
Some walls also help to take loadings.
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2.2
R.C. Beam
When a beam is subjected to loading, the upper part pf the beam will be in
compression while the lower part is in tension.
Therefore, main reinforcements should be placed at the bottom side to resist

tension.
Top reinforcements are often used as carriers for links.
For heavily loaded beams, top bare also help resist compressive stress.
Even though compressive and tensile strengths of the beam are not exceeded,
cracks may still appear in the web of the beam near the supports. These cracks
are in fact shear failure lines at an angle of approximately 45 to the horizontal,
and sloping downward toward to the supports.
Flexural cracks
Shear crack
R
R
Crack Pattern of Loading a R.C. Beam
Shearing stress may be resisted by bent up bars at 45 to the horizontal and

positioned to cut the anticipated shear failure plane at right angles.
These are
in fact the main bars from the bottom of the beam which are no longer required
to resist tension which can be bent up to the top and carried to the support.
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B
Top bars 03
Bent up bar 02
03 02 03
03
03
04
Main bars 01 & 02
01
Link 04
A
01
01 02 01
Section
B-B
Section
A-A
Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement
More often, links (also called stirrups or binders) are provided in close centres
about the position at which shear is likely to occur to replace the bent up bars.
Several stirrups may cut the shear plane and therefore the total area of steel
crossing the shear plane is sufficient to offer the tensile resistance to the shearing
force.
Links at close centres
Links at nominal centres
Links at close centres

02
02
03
Main bars 01
Top bars 02
A
Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement
Link 03
01 01 01
Section
A-A
Even where shear resistance is not required, nominal links are provided in
beams for hanging up the top bars.
They also help to minimize shrinkage
cracks of the concrete.
For cantilever beams, main bars should be placed at the top as tension is
appeared at the top of the beam.
Main bars
Link
Fixed
support
Bottom bars
Typical Reinforcement Details of Cantilever Beam

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2.3 R.C. Column

Since concrete is strong in compression, it may be concluded that no reinforcement
will be required in columns provided the compressive strength of the concrete is not
exceeded.
However, rebars are often added in a column.
The major reasons are to
increase its compressive capability of the column and to resist bending.
Bending
may be induced in columns in the following conditions:
Buckling of slender column when subject to axial load (a column is considered

to be slender if the ratio of effective height to thickness exceeds 12).
Reaction to beams upon the column, as the beam deflects it tends to pull the
column towards itself thus inducing bending in the column.
Wind loading acting on high-rise buildings, the columns on the windward side
may be subject to tension.
Wind
Buckling of
Slender Column
Reaction to beam
upon the column
Wind Loading acting on

High-rise Building
The minimum number of the main bars in a column should not be less than four
for rectangular columns and six for circular columns.
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To prevent the slender main bars from buckling

due to compression and hence causing spalling
of the concrete, links shall be provided at
A
suitable centres as restraints.
main
bar
Main bar
link
link
Section B - B
Section A - A
Typical R.C. Column Reinforcement
2.4
R.C. Slabs
Top reinforcement
(to resist hogging over support)
Main bars
(at top for cantilever structures)
Slab
Canopy
Main bars of slab

Beam
Distribution bars
Typical Slab Reinforcement
Slabs are spanning members and they behave very similar to beams.
Main bars should be placed at the bottom side of the slab to resist sagging.
Normally, top reinforcement is not required except for heavily loaded slabs.
However, a hogging moment will occur above supports which necessitating top
reinforcements.
For cantilever slab such as canopies, the main bars shall be place near the top of
the slab to resist top tensile stresses.
The slab thicknesses of most domestic buildings are about 100 mm to 150 mm.
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There are three basic forms of floor slab systems:
Beam and slab system
Flat slab system
Ribbed slab system
Slab
Beam
Beam and
slab system
2.4.1 Beam and slab system
In this system the slab are supported on beams.
Most beam and slab systems are designed to span in one way but some are in
two ways.
Slabs
Beams
Columns
Beam & slab spanning one-way
Beam & slab spanning one-way
2.4.2 Flat slab system
A flat slab is a slab supported on columns directly without beams.
In fact, a fact slab is divided into columns strips and middle strips while the
reinforcement are concentrated in the column strips.
Therefore, a column strip can be viewed as a beam with the same thickness as
the slab.
Structurally, flat and shallow beams are inefficient but have the advantage of
giving a clear ceiling height.
Moreover, the most labour intensive element,
beam, is eliminated which makes the construction much easier.
Flat slabs are normally designed to span in two ways.
Sometimes dropped
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panels are added at the supports to resist punching shear around the column
heads.
Column strip
Middle strip
Slabs
Drop panel
Columns
Flat slab with drop panels
Flat slab (Two ways slab)
2.4.3 Ribbed slab system (Waffle slab)
A ribbed slab is also known as waffle slab or honeycomb floor (or roof).
It is cast over lightweight moulds or pans made of glass fibre, or polypropylene.
Ribs in both longitudinal and transverse directions are formed in close centres
and tied with each others.
Ribbed slabs can resist great bending moment in both longitudinal and
transverse directions.
They are used for large span slabs and require less concrete and less
reinforcement than other slab systems.
Slab
Ribs
Column
Waffle slab
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2.5
R.C. Walls
2.5.1 External walls

An external R.C. wall should contain a mat of reinforcement in each of two faces.
The horizontal reinforcement of each mat should be evenly spaced in the outer layer
to contain the vertical compression bars.
Additional horizontal restraining links
should be provided.
Minimum thickness of a R.C. wall as an external wall is 100 mm.
Horizontal bar
Vertical bar
Restraining link
Typical wall reinforcement (plan view)
2.5.2 Shear walls
Shear walls are thick R.C. walls to increase the lateral stability of a building.
Strong wind tries to cause a high-rise building frame to sway. Shear walls are
ideally suited for bracing tall buildings because of their very high in-plane
stiffness and strength.
Therefore, shear wall is also known as wind wall.
Shear walls also carry gravity loadings.

columns.
They replace part of or even all
Shear walls are arranged as external walls and partitions. Grouped
shear wall may also be used to form services cores, elevator shaft and stairwells.
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2.5.3 Non-load bearing walls
Most partitions are non-load bearing.
They may be made of reinforced concrete, brick or block.
Non-load bearing R.C. walls contain only minimum steel.
Bricks are made of hard well-burnt clay while block are made of cement sand
mortar or concrete.
They are bond together by cement sand mortar of approx 1:3 (by volume) to
form a wall.
Brick or block walls are seldom used as loading walls in HK.
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3.
Basic construction process of R.C. structures
Namely, the basic construction process of R.C, structures are:
Formworking
Steel fixing
Concreting
3.1 Formwork
Concrete when first mixed is a fluid. Formwork is the temporary moulds for casting
concrete members where the fresh concrete can be placed to retain its shape, size and
position as it sets.
3.1.1
Formwork materials
A lot of materials can be used as formwork materials, such as timber, steel,

aluminium, glass reinforced plastic, etc.
(Only timber formwork will be discussed here.)
Timber plank
Various sizes of timber planks are available but the most common one used in
Hong Kong is 2 x 4 (50 mm x 100 mm) planks.
Plywood
Most common type of plywood used in Hong Kong is 4 x 8 x 3/4 (1.2 m x 2.4
m x 19 mm) 7 plies plywood.
Some plywood is resin coated (sealed plywood). It is more expensive but the
board life is extended (typically 5 to 10 reuses) and it gives good concrete finish.
Advantages if using timber as formwork material
Timber can be easily cut and fabricated into different sizes and shapes.
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Using timber to form formwork is more flexible and is economical in small

projects.
Not much machinery is needed. (Basically one or two carpenters can complete
the work with simple hand tools, such as hammers, hand saw and nails.)
Disadvantages if using timber as formwork material
Constructing timber formwork is a labour intensive work. It is uneconomical

in large scale projects.
Mechanization usually cannot be employed.
The reusability of timber formwork is low, only two to five times.
Considerable amount of timber waste produced which increase the cost to treat
the solid waste.
3.1.2
Considerable amount of hardwood consumed which destroys our rain forest.

Soffit form
Bearers of suitable size shall be placed on top of the U-heads / prop cap plate.
Bearers shall be fixed by wedges / nails centrally to prevent eccentricity and

dislodgement.
Joists shall be placed at suitable centres on top and at right angle to the bearers.
Plywood can then be placed on top of the joists and fixed by nails.
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Soffit form
3.1.3
Column Form
Clamps
Studs
Plywood
Front view
Plan
Timber Column Formwork
Column forms are commonly formed by using four plywood panels backed with
vertical studs.
To resist lateral hydrostatic pressure caused by the wet concrete, clamps shall be
placed at suitable centres.
3.1.4
Beam Form
This is basically a three sided box supported and propped in the correct position
and to the desired level.
The beam formwork also has to resist lateral hydrostatic pressure of the wet
concrete, sufficient braces shall be provided.
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Beam side plywood
Slab soffit form
Raking strut
Stud
Kicker
Joist
Bearer
Beam soffit
plywood
Falsework
Front view
Section A-A
Beam formwork
3.1.5
Wall formwork
Wall forms are constructed from the following basic parts:
plywood panels to retain concrete until it hardens,
studs which supports the plywood panels,
wales to support the studs and align the forms
ties resist lateral hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete
Tie
Double
wales
Studs
Plywood
Kicker
Vertical waler wall formwork
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3.2 Steel Fixing

Steel bars are cut to correct lengths, bent to desired shapes and then fixed to positions
with steel wires.
3.2.1
Reinforcement Schedules and detailing
Reinforcement on detail drawings is annotated by a coding system to simplify

preparation and reading of the details, for example:
A
03
03
01
01
5R 1004-100
2T 1003
6R 1004-200
03
02
Section A-A
5R 1004-100
01 02 01
02
2T 2001 & 1T 1602
03
Section B-B
Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement Details
Legend
centre to centre spacing
total number of bars in the group

250
5R10-04-100
plainbar
round
typesteel
diameter in mm
bar mark number
Typical R.C. Beam Bending Schedule
Member Bar
mark
Beam1
Type No.
and of
size mbrs
T20
3
No. Total
in
No.
each
2
6
Length
of each
bar
2600
Shape
2300
2
3
4
T16
T10
R10
3
3
3
1
2
16
3
6
48
1400
2300
1000
straight
Straight
250
150
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3.2.2
Hooks and Bends
To prevent bond failure hooks or bends can be used at the ends of bars.
Bend sand Hooks for R-bars
Bends and Hooks for T-bars

(Source: R. Chudley)
3.2.3
Bending Radii (r)
Too small a bending radius will weaken the steel
Too large a bending radius may cause problems such as:

- lack of anchorage,
- create difficulties in keeping other steel bars in the correct place.
Standard bend radii (r)

Grade 250 bars - 2 for all bars
Grade 460 bars - 3 for bars up to and including 20 mm diameter
- 4 for bars over 20 mm diameter
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3.2.4
Lengthening
bar are commonly lengthened by lapping
lap lengths range from 20 - 120 , which depends on

-
3.2.5
bar type
concrete strength
whether the bar in tension or compression state
Concrete Cover
Concrete cover is the thickness of concrete measured from the concrete surface
to the outer face of the reinforcing bar.
The concrete cover provides corrosion protection and fire protection to the steel.
Normally, concrete cover is between 20 to 40 mm.
In very severe condition concrete cover may be increased to 100 mm.
3.3 Concreting
Instead of batching and mixing on site, most concrete are produced in central
plants and delivered to site by mixer trucks.
This type of concrete is called
ready mix concrete.

The concrete can then be further distribute to its destination by the following
means:
-
Chutes
Hoist and wheel barrows
Crane and skip
Pump and pipelines
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3.3.1
Chutes
The truck mixer chute is the initial means of delivering concrete on site, either to
another method of distribution.
Sometimes the concrete may be distributed directly to its final position,

provided:
- truck access to within chute radius is available;
- the structure is below truck tray level.
The concrete shall not be allowed to fall freely exceeding two metres because it
may cause segregation of the concrete.
3.3.2
In this case a long chute shall be used.
Hoists
In case the concrete has to be lift to the upper floor level, hoist may be use.
However, further distribution of from the hoist to the placing points relies upon
wheel barrows which is very slow and labour intensive.
Hoist and wheel barrows
3.3.3
Crane and bucket
Crane and bucket

If tower crane is available, the use of crane and bucket is and efficient mean of
concreting.
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3.3.4
Buckets of 0.5 to 2 m3 capacity are most commonly used on building sites.
Pump and pipelines

Concrete pumps and pipelines are perhaps the most widely used method of
moving concrete on building sites.
The ready availability of mobile pumps, and their relative reliability, makes
them an efficient and economical means of transporting concrete, even on quite
small sites.
Moreover, concrete for high-rise building is normally very suitable for pumping
because most high-strength concrete has high cement content and small
maximum size aggregate.
A wide range of pump types are available, generally trailer or truck mounted.
Fixed pumps generally have the highest pumping capacity and are the usual
choice for major projects.
3.3.4.1 Pumping Operation
Pump and pipelines
Pipelines must be adequately supported and fixed in position since quite

substantial forces can be generated as the concrete is forced along the lines.
Before actual pumping of concrete, the pump and pipelines must be lubricated
by pumping through the pipes with a cement slurry or mortar.
Once commenced, concrete pumping must be continuous to avoid blockages in

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the pipeline.
After pumping is completed, the pipelines must be cleaned out as soon as

possible to prevent mortar residue which will increase pipe friction and cause
blockage.
3.3.5
Compaction
Concrete must be fully compacted
when placing to achieve its potential
strength.
Compaction is done on site with probe

vibrators.
In condition when compaction is

difficult to carry out, self-compacted concrete (high workability concrete of
slump >150 mm) may be used.
Reference
Construction Technology Vol. 2 (1991), R. Chudley, Longman

Civil Engineering Construction IV, S.A.R. Jurfi & R.J. Wellmen, Hong Kong Polytechnic.
Advanced Construction Technology 3rd edt (2000), R. Chudley, Person Education Ltd.
Tall Building Structural Analysis and Design (1991), G.S. Smith & A. Coull, John Wiely &
Sons, Inc.
Formwork, a practice guide (1997); P.S. McAdam and G.W. Lee; E & FN Spon.
Guide to concrete construction (1994), Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and
Standard Australia
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2 - Earthwork
1
Site Formation
Site formation works include:
site clearance
reshaping of land profile - cut and fill
road works
road drainage works and laying of services & utilities
1.1 Site clearance

This may involve:
felling trees, grubbing out of bushes and stripping,
demolition of existing building
1.1.1
Felling trees:
Chain saws can be used for cutting down trees.
The roots of trees and shrubs which have been cut down shall be grubbed up.
Tree roots can be removed by backactors or rippers.
For deep tree roots, blasting may be necessary.
1.1.2
Stripping:
About 300 mm of the top soil will contain plant life and decaying vegetation and
should be stripped off.
Stripping can be best performed by bulldozers.
Topsoil is unsuitable for backfilling but will be valuable for finishing off
embankments and general areas to be grassed.
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Reshaping of land profile - cut and fill
Very few sites are level and therefore re-shaping works have to be carried out before
any construction work can be taken place.
A site may be leveled by: cutting, filling, or both.
Cut: - It has the advantage of giving undisturbed soil over the whole of the site
but would increase the cost of disposing the spoil
Fill:- Filling materials must be available and compaction must be properly

performed to prevent settlement.
Cut and fill: - if properly carried out, the amount of cut will be equal to the
amount of fill.
battered face
original ground level

cut
formation level
formation level
fill
formation level
cut
fill
Leveling slopping sites
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Bulk Excavation
There are various kinds of excavation plants.
Suitable choices of plants increase the
efficiency and reduce the cost.
3.1 Backactor / Backhoe
Designed for digging below track level
Also digs above track level but in reduced efficiency.
Suitable for trench and bulk excavating.
For trench excavation, using a bucket width equal to the trench width can be
very accurate with a high output rating.
3.2 Loader Shovel
Designed for loading loose materials such as aggregate and loosened soil.
Other tasks: spreading soil and rough grading
Require a level working platform when operating.
3.3 Bulldozer
Mainly designed for excavating, spreading or pushing soil from one position to
another.
Excavation is carried out by lowering the mould board or blade into the soil and
pushing the soil in front of the machine.
Other tasks:
clearing vegetation
stripping topsoil
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excavating and opening up pilot roads
maintaining haul roads
as tractor for towing other plants
3.4 Face Shovel (Front Shovel)
Designed for digging above track level.
Extensively used in quarries and pits and on construction sites and is useful in
excavation blasted rock in cuttings, etc.
3.5 Multipurpose Excavator
Both backhoe and loader shovel attached in one machine.
Multi-function.
Useful in confined site.
The two components cannot be operated at the same time.
3.6
Road Lorries
For hauling on public roads.
Sizes up to about 38 tonnes gross vehicle weight.
Loaded by other plant but unloaded by side or rear tipping.
3.7
Unlicensed Lorries
They are often old and with no license.
Caution! Running on or traversing public roads are illegal.
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3.8
Dump trucks and dumpers.
Vary in size from 1 to about 80 tonnes capacity.
Large capacity machines are generally used in large mines or quarries.
The speed of tipping is increased over a road lorry by the absence of a tailgate.
Small dumper units are available for work on small sites and commonly have
the load carried in front of the driver.
Rock Excavation
The techniques of breaking and excavating rock or other hard material depend on the
type of material, the quantity involved and the conditions on site.
Such techniques
include:
4.1 Pneumatic breakers

Pneumatic breakers may be used to break the rock into small fragments.
The power
supply to this type of breaker is from an air compressor. Small pneumatic breakers
are hand-held while giant breakers are hung on excavators.
4.2 Drill and blast

Holes of 25 150 mm can be formed in rocks by rock drilling methods.
The
rocks can then be further broken down by explosives.

There are basically two methods of producing holes in rock.
Rotary-percussive drilling
Rotary drilling
These are:
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4.2.1
Rotary-percussive drilling
For medium to hard rock, the rotary-percussive drilling method is often favoured
because the rig is light and provides good rates of penetration up to 50 m deep and
150 mm diameter.
The method is used for blast holes, rock anchors, grouting holes,
etc.
In rotary-percussive drilling the drill bit is supplied with both a percussive and a
relatively slow rotary action.
compressed air or water.
4.2.2
The broken rock fragments are flushed out with either
Various types of bits are available for different conditions:
Rotary drilling
For larger diameters boreholes, or when boring to greater depths and accuracy are
required, or where soil or soft rock are encountered, rotary drilling methods are
preferred.
Rotary drilling relies on a high feed thrust applied down the drill stem, to force the
edges of the bit into the rock surface.
High torque and rotation of the drill shaft then
cause cracking and chipping, and rock fragments are broken away.
drill hole may be carried out with water or compressed air.
Flushing of the
Various bits are
available for different conditions:
4.2.3
Blasting
Blasting is a specialist operation not to be discussed here.
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Filling
5.1 Fill material

Earthworks fill material may consist of soil, rock, or inert construction and
demolition material. (Inert construction and demolition material shall mean rock,
rubble, earth, soil, concrete, asphalt, brick, tile and masonry generated from
construction and demolition works.)
Fill material shall be capable of being compacted to form stable areas of fill. Fill
material shall not contain any of the following.
Material susceptible to volume change, such as marine mud and swelling clays
Peat, vegetation, timber, organic, soluble or perishable material
Dangerous or toxic material or material susceptible to combustion,
Metal, rubber, plastic or synthetic material
The different types of fill material shall have the particle size distributions within the
ranges stated in Table 6.1.
(Source: General Specification for Civil Engineering Works)
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5.2 Compaction
Earthwork fill materials when deposited are normally loose and bulked.
It is
therefore necessary to compact the materials so as to prevent softening, dislodgment

and settlement of the earth.
Fill material shall be compacted in layers to a stable condition. The thickness of
each layer shall be 150 mm to 300 mm which depends of the capacity of the
compaction plant used.
The amount of compaction attained is measured by dry
density of the fill. Generally, the fill material shall be compacted to obtain a
relative compaction of at least 95% of the maximum dry density of that material.
Compaction plant
5.2.1
Vibrating Rollers
Beside the weight of the machine, vibration greatly improves compaction
performance.
They are suitable for compacting granular soil
Various size available:
manually guided tandem roller (1 tonne baby roller)
up to 20 tonnes vibrating roller
5.2.2
Vibrating plate
manually guided
for light compaction
useful in utility trenches, confined space

and awkward situations
maximum compaction thickness: 150mm

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5.2.3
Power Rammers
manually operated
suitable for compacting soil in narrow

trenches and around foundations
effective compacted depth about 200mm
6. Trenching
6.1 Impact to existing utilities
According to Hong Kong statutory requirement, all utilities must be laid not less than
0.9 m below ground surface.
Normally, small diameter utilities pipes and lines are
laid under pedestrian payment while large diameter pipes are laid under carriageway.
It must be noticed that there may be a lot of utility pipes and lines exist under the
ground.
Breaking of these utilities not only causes inconvenience to citizens, incurs
expenses for reinstatement but also is dangerous especially for electric cables and gas
pipes.
Therefore, these pipes and lines must be located and their alignments clearly
marked on the ground before digging.

As-built drawings are available from utility companies and government departments.
However, total reliance should not be placed on them, as some of these drawing are
not accurate.
High voltage cables and gas pipes shall be located by magnetic
detector to ascertain their alignment and depth.

If under ground utilities are encountered while, they shall be carefully unearthed,
preferably by hand, to prevent damages. Once exposed, suitable supports such as
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props or hangers shall be placed to prevent excessive deflection of the utilities.
6.2 Digging
For paved area, both sides of the trench shall be cut by a diamond disc or an abrasive
disc then the paving further broken down by pneumatic breakers.
For digging trenches, backhoe would be the best choice.
A backhoe using a bucket
with width the same as the trench could result an accurate and efficient work.
6.3 Timbering
The most important factor in trench excavation is the stability against the collapse of
the trench sides.
6.3.1
Caution, even a trench of 1.2 m deep can kill!
Trenches remained unsupported
For trenches of less then 1.2 m and in firm soils, they may remain unsupported
(self-supported).
6.3.2
Trenches of depth between 1.2 to 2 m and in firm soils
These trenches shall be excavated progressively and poling boards shall be installed
immediately after digging.
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Typical timbering in firm soil
6.3.3
Trenches in weak soils or deeper than 2 m
For deep trenches or in weak soils, runners, or more often sheet piles, shall be driven
along both sides of the trenches before excavation.
Typical timbering in weak soil
11 of 24
Slope Stability and Protection
7.1 Common factors affecting slope stability
12 of 24
7.2 Slope protection methods

The stability of slope can be increased by the following methods:
a.
cutting back of steep slopes
b.
re-compaction of existing loose fill slopes
c.
rock scaling, removal/trimming of rock masses
d.
installing soil nails, rock dowels and rock bolts

(details to be discussed in the topic prestressed concrete)
e.
dentition to rock joints
Various Methods of Stabilizing Rock slopes
(Source: G.E.O)
13 of 24
f.
surface protection
vegetated Surface (hydroseeding)
shotcrete surface
chunam Surface
Stone-pitched surface
(Source: G.E.O.)
14 of 24
(Source: G.E.O.)
g.
ground water control methods
surface channel
raking drain
weepholes to release the hydrostatic pressure
(Source: G.E.O.)
h.
retaining walls
7.3 Routine maintenance inspections of slops

Typical features of slope that require maintenance are illustrated in the figure below.
As a minimum, it is recommended that routine maintenance inspections are carried
out to ascertain the need for basic maintenance work items, including:
a.
clear accumulated debris from drainage channels and slope surface
b.
repair cracked or damaged drainage channels or pavement

15 of 24
c.
repair of replace cracked or damaged slope surfacing
d.
unblock weepholes and outlet drain pipes
e.
repair missing or deteriorated pointing masonry walls
f.
remove any vegetation causing severe cracking of slope surface cover the
drainage channels
g.
re-grass bare slope surface areas
h.
remove loose rock debris and undesirable vegetation from rock slopes or around
boulders
i.
investigate and repair buried water-carrying services where signs of possible

leakage are observed
Slope Maintenance Inspections
(Source: G.E.O.)
16 of 24
8.
Retaining Walls
A retaining wall is a structure designed to maintain a difference in the elevation of the

ground surface on each side of the structure.
8.1 Possible modes of failure of retaining walls
overturning
overstressing of the material in the wall
forward sliding
settlement
circular slip
Possible modes of failure in retaining walls
8.2 Releasing of hydrostatic pressure

Except for retaining walls which are designed to resist water pressure, e.g. basement
wall, hydrostatic pressure should not be allowed to build up behind the walls.
The hydrostatic pressure can be released by including a subsoil drainage system
behind and / or through the wall.
Adequate weep-holes, filter layers and preferably
back drains behind the wall should be provided, together with adequate channels and
paving at the top and toe of the wall to prevent infiltration of water into the back of
the wall.
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8.3 Type of retaining walls
Types of Retaining Walls
(Source: GeoGuide 1)
18 of 24
8.4 Gravity Retaining Walls

Gravity retaining walls rely upon their own mass together with the friction on the
underside of the base to overcome the tendency to side or overturn.
8.3.1
Mass concrete retaining walls
Mass concrete retaining walls are one of the simplest forms of retaining wall and are
usually trapezoidal in cross-section.
heights of less than 3 m.
They are particularly suitable for retained
They can be designed for greater heights, but it is not
economic.
Mass Concrete Retaining Wall (Source: GeoGuide 1)
8.3.2
Crib walls
Crib walls are assembled of individual prefabricated units to form a series of crib-like
structures containing suitable free-draining granular infill.
The crib units together
with the infill are designed to act together as a gravity retaining wall.
Low crib walls may be built vertical.
Walls higher than 2 m are usually built to a
back batter and with a tilted foundation to improve stability and even out ground
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bearing pressures.
Crib walls are very sensitive to difference settlements and problems may arise for
walls which are higher than about 7 m.
They are generally not suitable to be used
on ground which is liable to settle, nor should they be used for supporting heavy
surcharge.
Crib Wall
8.3.3
Gabion walls
Gabion walls are made up of rows of orthogonal cages or baskets (gabions) which are
filled with rock fragments and tied together.
Their permeability and flexibility make
them particularly suitable for use at sites which are liable to become saturated and
where the foundation is composed of relatively compressible materials.
Hence,
gabion walls are widely used in river works. They are also used as retaining walls
on dry land, especially in rugged terrain.
Gabion walls are relatively simple to construct.
Where suitable rock is readily
available, the use of gabion walls is particularly attractive for reasons of economy
and speedy construction. A variety of cage sizes can be produced using suitable
materials to suit the terrain.
The gabions are normally in modules of 2m x 1m x 1m.
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Detail of Hexagonal Woven-mesh Gabions
Typical Gabion Walls
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8.3.4
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
A reinforced concrete retaining wall resists earth pressure from the back.
The earth
rests on the base slab of the retaining wall which provides part of the stabilizing
weight.
The wall and the earth acts together as a semi-gravity structure.
A shear
key is sometimes provided below the base of the retaining wall to improve sliding
resistance.
The following are the main types of wall:
1. L-shaped or inverted T-shaped cantilever retaining walls, which have a vertical or
inclined slab monolithic with a base slab.
The stem is subject to bending and
the economical height is about 8 m.

2. For greater heights, the stem of the retaining wall may be braced with
counterforts at the back in suitable spacings.
A counterfort is a triangular slab
or a tapered beam in vertical tied to the stem of the retaining wall.

3. A buttressed retaining wall is similar to a counterfort retaining wall but with the
triangular slabs placed in the front of the wall.
However, due to its out looking,
buttressed retaining wall is seldom used in urban areas.
Typical Drainage Scheme of R.C. Retaining Walls
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Types of R.C. Retaining Walls (Source: GeoGuide 1)
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8.3.5
Bored pile or caisson wall
Cantilevered retaining walls in Hong Kong are sometimes formed by constructing a

row of bored piles.
(Hand-dug caissons had been wildly used in the past but were
banned in 1980s.) The wall formed by this method are called soldier pile wall.
Piles of soldier pile wall are normally contiguous (i.e. they are touching each other or
adjoining).
Adequate weepholes shall be installed for the releasing of hydrostatic
pressure behind the wall.
Soldier pile wall
(Source: S.A.R. Jufri)
Weep holes in soldier pile wall
Reference:
Modern Construction and Ground Engineering Equipment and Methods (1994) 2nd edition,
Frank Harris, Longman.
Guide to retaining wall design (GeoGuide 1) 1993, Geotechnical Engineering Office.
Laymans Guide to Slope Maintenance 1997, Geotechnical Engineering Office.
Trenching Practice (CIRIA Report 97) 1992, D.J. Irvine & R.J.H. Smith, Construction
Industry Research and Information Association
24 of 24
3 Basic Substructures
Substructures are structure below ground. Foundations and basements are the
most common type of structures.
1
Shallow Foundation
A foundation is structure designed and constructed to be in direct contact with

and transmitting loads to the ground
Shallow foundations are found at a depth of less than 3 m below the finished
ground level.
1.1
Pad footing
A pad footing is an isolated foundation

to spread and transfer a concentrated
load to the earth.
The plan shape of a pad footing is
usually square, but if the column is
close to the site boundary it may be
necessary to use a rectangular plan
shape of equivalent area.
Blinding concrete layer
Pad footing (Source: R. Chudley)
Reinforcement of pad footing
1 of 17
(Blinding concrete is a layer of non-structural concrete of about 50 mm thick

laid on the earth. It functions are to provide a flat and clean platform for steel
fixing, formwoking and to prevent contamination of the fresh concrete by the
earth.)
1.2
Strip Foundation
A strip foundation is a foundation

providing a continuous longitudinal
ground bearing.
Strip foundation (Source: R. Chudley)
Column
FRONT
VIEW
Blinding
concrete
Strip foundation
PLAN
Strip foundation supporting closely spaced columns
Strip foundations are used to transfer the load from a wall, or from a
succession of closely spaced piers or columns, to the ground.
They consist of a continuous ribbon-shaped strip formed of reinforced

concrete.
Main bars are placed transversely to resist bending while
longitudinal bars are used for the continuity of the strip foundation and to
bridge soft spots in the soil.
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1.3
Raft foundation
A raft foundation is a foundation continuous in two directions, usually
covering an area equal to or greater than the base area of the structure.
The structure moves together with the raft foundation when ground
movements occur such that cracking or damage can be prevented.
A raft foundation is also called a floating foundation.
Raft foundations are useful in the following cases:

1. where buildings have to be erected on soils susceptible to excessive
shrinkage, swelling or frost heave;
2. where differential settlements are likely to be significant.
3. for structures where the column loads and/or soil conditions are such that
the resulting footings occupy most or the site.
1.3.1 Solid Slab Raft

Solid slab rafts are suitable for lightly loaded structures such as small houses.
A solid slab raft consists of a reinforced concrete slab, usually slightly larger
than the area of the building. Reinforcement in the form of a mesh fabric is
provided on both the top and bottom faces of the slab.
Solid slab Raft (Source: R. Chudley)

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1.3.2 Beam and Slab Raft

There may be variations in ground stiffness and cause differential settlement.
The solid slab raft may be further reinforced with:
The slab is stiffened under the peripheral walls with edge beams.
Solid slab raft with edge beam (Source: R. Chudley)
The beams and slab raft provide stiffness and prevent the distortion of the
building.
Beam and slab raft with downstand beams (Source: R. Chudley)
4 of 17
1.3.3 Cellular Raft

This type of foundation consists of two reinforced concrete slabs linked by
internal walls which divide the void into cells. The walls help to spread the
load over the raft. Openings can be formed in the cell walls allowing the voids
to be utilised for the housing of services, as storerooms or for general
accommodation.
With cellular raft foundations, the columns shall be positioned at the
intersection of the internal walls.
The cellular raft foundation provides a great stiffness against the differential
settlement.
Cellular Raft foundation (Source: R. Chudley)
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1.4
Combined foundation
Rectangular footing is used for two

closely spaced columns.
Balanced base footing is used for
eccentrically load column.
This often
happen in perimeter column where the

footing is limited by site boundary.
Balanced base footing (Source: R. Chudley)
Shallow foundations
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2.
Shallow basement
A basement can be defined as a storey with a floor which at some point is more
than 1.2 m below the highest level or ground adjacent to the outside walls.
The structural walls of a basement below ground level are in fact retaining walls
which have to offer resistance to the soil and ground water pressures as well as
assisting to transmit the superstructure loads to the foundations.
Considerations of basement construction
Excavation methods.
Surface and ground water control
Lateral stability of basement excavation.
Stability of adjoining building.
2.1
Surface and ground water control
For basement construction, water may come from the rain or the infiltration of ground
water when excavated below the ground water table. Problems caused by ground
water are:
Water logging of the ground which may restrict the carrying out of works.
Reduction in the shear strength of the soil which may lead to collapse of
excavation side.
Overloading or collapse of the temporary support to the excavation caused by

hydrostatic pressure.
Consolidation or loss of ground under adjacent structures due to dewatering

which would cause settlement.
2.1.1 Surface water control
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Adequate surface channels, usually in the form of U-channels, should be placed in

suitable locations on the site to drain away the rain water. If the channel is laid
around the perimeter of the site, it is termed as garland drain.
Where poling boards or sheet piling are provided
sealed with
soil cement
as support for excavation, they should be

extended 200-300 mm above existing ground
level and the edges sealed with soil cement. This
also effectively prevents the surface water from
poling board
or
sheet piling
excavation
entering the excavation.
2.1.2 Dewatering
Intercepting surface water
Suitable dewatering outside a cofferdam reduces the hydrostatic pressure acting on

the cofferdam, but significantly draw down of ground water table would cause
settlement in surroundings
2.1.2.1 Open Sump Pumping

An open sump should be excavated below the formation level of the excavation and
preferably be sited in a corner position. The water seeped into the excavation is led
into the sump, either by sloping the ground towards it or by using shallow garland
drains that feed the water into the sump. The water can then be pumped away by a
submersible pump.
A submersible pump
Open sump pumping (Source: CIRCA)

8 of 17
2.1.2.2
Wellpoint System
This method is suitable for lowering water in non-cohesive soils, e.g. sand or gravel
soils of average permeability
Before excavation, a series of small diameter wells are jetted (or drilled) into the
ground in suitable positions and at predetermined centres e.g. from 600 to 1800 c/c.
The wellpoints are connected in series to pumps with header pipes.
Header pipe of well point system
Wellpoint (Source: R. Chudley)
9 of 17
The wellpoints may be arranged as a ring system enclosing the area to be excavated,
or as a progressive system alongside a long trench or similar excavation (to one or
both sides according to the width of the excavation).
Ring wellpoint system (Source: CIRCA)
Progressive wellpoint system (Source:CIRCA)
The standard equipment will lower the water level up to a depth of between 5 and 6 m
under average conditions. Where the depth of excavation exceeds 6 m then a multistage wellpoint system is required.
10 of 17
Multi-stages wellpoint system (Source: R. Chudley)
2.1.2.3
Deep-Bored Well System
This system can be used as an alternative to

a
multi-stage
wellpoint
dewatering
installation where the ground water needs to

be lowered to a depth greater than 9 m or
where a suction pump cannot be used.
Large diameter boreholes or wells are
formed by sinking a 300 to 600 mm
diameter steel lining tube into the ground to
the required depth and at spacings to suit the
subsoil being dewatered.
A submersible
pump is set at a suitable depth to extract the

water. The annular space is filled with a
suitable media such as sand and gravel to act
as a waterway as the outer steel lining tube
is removed.
Deep bored well (Source: R. Chudley)

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Lateral stability for basement excavation
There are various kinds of methods for basement construction and maintaining
the stability of the ground.
The choice depends on the nature of ground
condition and the depth of basement.
3.1
Open Excavations
Open excavation
Open excavation (Source: R. Chudley)
Temporary support is often needed to the sides of the excavation for stability. These
temporary members can be intrusive when the actual construction works of the
basement is carried out. One method is to use battered excavation sides that cut back
to a safe angle of repose thus eliminating the need for temporary support.
This method is suitable for shallow basement only because the extra volume of
soil needed to be excavated increases rapidly with depth increased. Another
limitation is that large amount of free space around the site must be available.
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3.2
Sheet piling cofferdam
The term cofferdam can be defined as a structure, usually temporary, built for the
purpose of excluding water or soil sufficiently to permit construction to proceed
without excessive pumping, and to support the surrounding ground.
There are a lot of methods and materials for forming cofferdams. Among which steel
sheet piling cofferdam is the most common on Hong Kong. It has the following
advantages:
a.
Steel sheet piles have high structural strength
b. They can be driven deep into most types of ground.

c.
Cofferdams can be constructed to a depth of about 15 m below existing ground

level.
d. The sheet pile interlocks provide an almost completely watertight enclosure.

e.
The sheet piles can be withdrawn and reused.
Sheet piles are normally driven into the ground by drop hammers or vibration
hammers to form an enclosure prior to excavation. To ensure that the sheet
piles are pitched and installed vertically a driving trestle or guide frame is used.
Driving of sheet piles
Sheet pile cofferdam
When excavation is taken place inside the cofferdam, adequate support must be
provided for the lateral stability.
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3.2.1 Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts

This method is suitable for a depth up to 5 m. After the sheet piles has been driven
around the perimeter of the site to form an enclosure, the centre of the basement is
excavated down to the formation level but leaving a wedge of soil at the perimeter to
support the cofferdam. Raking struts are installed to support the cofferdam. Finally
the wedge of soil is trimmed away.
battered slope
base slab
waling
wedg
oef soil
sheet pile wall

Stage I
base slab
Stage II
Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts
raking struts
Stage III
14 of 17
3.2.2 Cofferdam supported with strut and waling
In deeper excavation, the sheet pile cofferdam can be supported with layers of
bracing frame. Each bracing frame is formed with struts and walings. For wide
cofferdams, king posts (vertical supports) are installed to support the bracing
frames. This method is suitable for excavations up to about 10 m deep.
king post
Cofferdam supported with struts and walings
Cofferdam supported with struts and walings

Work sequence of basement construction (Bottom-up method):

1.
Sheet piles are driven into the ground in predetermined location to enclose the
area to be excavated. Meanwhile, piles are installed at suitable positions.
2.
The earth inside the cofferdam is excavated to about 1 m below the first bracing
level.
3.
The first bracing frame (struts and walings) is installed by welding to support
the cofferdam.
4.
The processes of excavation and bracing frame installation are repeated until the
desired depth is reached
5.
The pile caps and the base slab of the basement are constructed.
6.
The construction of the basement is continued upward until the lowest bracing
frame is lowest bracing frame is encountered.
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7.
The cofferdam is shored to the basement wall by short struts, and the original
struts are then removed.
8.
The above process is repeated until the basement is constructed to the ground
level.
9.
The space between the basement and the cofferdam is backfilled with soil and
compacted in layers. The short struts are removed progressively and finally the
sheet piles are withdrawn.
Bottom-up basement construction
16 of 17
3.2.3 Cofferdam support with ground anchors
After the sheet piles have been driven around the perimeter to form an enclosure,
the centre of the cofferdam is excavated to about 1m below the first bracing
level.
Holes at suitable spacings and in the same level are drilled into the ground at an
inclination of 30-45 below the horizontal penetrating through the sheet piles.
Prestressing wires are inserted in to the holes and the ends are grouted with
cement grout.
Walings and anchorage heads are installed and the wires are prestressed to hold
the cofferdam.
The process is repeated for the subsequent bracing levels until down to the final
formation level.
This method is suitable for wide and deep basement. It also provides a clear working
area within the cofferdam. However its use is often limited by the site boundary.
Cofferdam support with ground anchors
17 of 17
Precast Concrete
Precasting means casting a concrete member at a place other than where it will be
used and then moving it to the place where it will be installed.
1.
Precast yard
Most precast units are produced in factories or casting yards. Fundamental factors
that contribute to the success of a factory/casting yard for the precasting include:
proximity to the place where the precast unit will be installed
good access such as road, rail or pier
sufficient area for the storage of materials, bending and fabrication of steel
reinforcement, casting, curing and storage of finished products
availability plants such as batching plants and lifting facilities
availability of materials and labour supply
Techniques to improve the production
2.1 Fabrication of reinforcement

Reinforcement fixing is labour intensive on site.
For precasting, mechanization is
possible for the fabrication of reinforcement because of mass production. Cutting,

bending and fixing the reinforcement can have high degree of automation.
The
reinforcement can also be fixed by spot welding. (Normally, welding for T-bars is
not permitted on site as poor temperature control on welding lowers the strength of
high tensile steel.)
Automatic cage fabrication machine

1 of 14
2.2 Prestressing
The technique prestressing greatly improve the strength of precast units.
pre-tensioning is used for precasting.
Usually,
Sometimes, post-tensioning is also used for
non-standard units or where curved tendons are required.

2.3 Concrete moulds
Steel moulds are usually used for precasting which have the following advantages:
easy assembling and demoulding
durable - can be reused up to a

thousand times for percasting works
hard and smooth surfaces of the

moulds can be cleaned easily and
Steel Mould for Precast Staircase
give good concrete finishes
2.2 Compaction of concrete
Centrifugal Spinning
2.2.1
Hydraulic Pressing
External vibrators - which mounted on the moulds reduce the labour works
for compacting the concrete.
2.2.2
Hydraulic pressing - which can be employed to compact low slump concrete

of small precast units, such as paving blocks and concrete drainage pipes.
The units can also be demoulded immediately without breaking.
2 of 14
2.2.3
Centrifugal spinning - In the production of some precast concrete pipes and

prestressed tubular pile (e.g. Daido Pile), the centrifugal spinning process
effectively compacts the zero slump concrete.
It produces a uniform hollow
tube without the need of a void former.
2.3 Accelerated curing

An increase in the curing temperature of concrete increases its rate of development of
strength. It reduces the curing time hence reduces the cycling times of concrete
moulds and prestressing bed.
2.3.1
Steam curing (at atmospheric pressure and below 100C)
Steam curing is normally applied in special chambers or in tunnels through which

the concrete members are transported on a conveyor belt.
Alternatively, portable boxes or plastic sheet covers can be placed over precast
members; steam is supplied through the connections of flexible hose.
Plastic sheet cover for steam curing
2.3.2
Autoclaving
Autoclaving (high pressure steam curing)
Precast units are placed into an autoclave (a pressure vessel) and steam of high
pressure and temperature (about 177C and 0.8MPa above atmospheric pressure)
are applied.
Usually the 28-day strength on normal curing can be reached in about 24 hours.
3 of 14
Handling of precast units
Since precast concrete unites are bulk and heavy, lifting equipments are required for
the lifting. Lifting fittings should also be cast into units for easy handling.
3.1 Lifting fittings
lifting hook
lifting hooks
threaded sockets
lifting plates
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3.2 Lifting devices
mobile cranes
tower cranes
4.
derrick
Launching Girder
Application and installation of precast units
There are various applications of precast concrete, and the precast units can be
installed by different methods.
5 of 14
4.1 Column to foundation connection

1.1 Pocket connection
A pocket is reserved in the foundation.
The column is set into the reserved
pocket in the foundation and the spaces
between the column and the socket is
filled with cement grout.
1.2 Bolting connection
Pocket connection
The main bars of the precast column are connected to the steel base plate / channels
by welding.
The precast column can then be connected to the foundation by bolting.
precast column
steel channel
grout or dry pack
column reinforcement
welded to channel
holding down bolt
Column-foundation bolting connection
Column-foundation bolting connection

1.3 Dowel and sleeve connection
Grout-sleeves are cast into a precast unit.
precast
column
sleeve
grout hole
The sleeves fit over reinforcement

dowel
projecting from the mating part.
The sleeves are grouted and the gap
filled with
dry pack or
grout
foundation
between the units is filled with dry-pack

or non-shrink grout
Dowel and sleeve connection
6 of 14
4.2 Beam to column connection

2.1 Simply supported joint and hinge joint
The beam usually sits on a corbel or the column head.
For a heavy structure, it is
important to place a resilient pad, which is commonly called a bearing, between the
two structural components to transfer the load uniformly so as to prevent localized
stress. If the horizontal translation is restrained, say by a dowel, it becomes a hinge
joint.
Simply
supported
Hinge
Simply Supported joint and hinge joint
Beam-column dowel sleeve connection
2.2 Bolting Connection

For bolting connection, steel brackets have to be shop welded to the main bars of the
precast units.
The precast units can then be connected to the main structure on site
rapidly by bolting.
Beam to Column connection by Bolts and Brackets
7 of 14
2.3 Exposed reinforcement connection
The exposed reinforcements of the precast column and the precast beam are
lapped together.
The joint is then completed with insitu concrete.
The joint provides good moment resistance.
It is also called composite moment connection.

Precast column
Exposed
reinforcements
of beam and
column
Joint completed
with insitu concrete
Precast beam
Beam column exposed reinforcement connection
3. Column Splicing
3.1 Welding connection
A steel shoe is fixed to the end of each precast column by welding to its main
reinforcements.
The columns are butted against each other and the joint is
completed by butt welding.
Welding Connection
8 of 14
3.2 Dowel and sleeve connection

Grout-sleeves can be cast into a precast unit, then the sleeves fit over reinforcement
projecting from the mating part.
The sleeves are grouted and the gap between the
units is filled with dry-pack or non-shrink grout.
Grouted sleeve connection
3.3 Insitu concrete connection
The exposed reinforcements of the columns are lapped together.
The joint is completed with insitu concrete.
It provides good moment resistance.
Column Splicing with insitu concrete

9 of 14
4. Precast Slab
4.1 Planks and blocks
A precast slab can be formed by placing long planks at suitable centres

supported on main beams or loading bearing walls
The intermediate spaces are then filled with smaller block units to complete the
slab.
Normally, a structural topping is not required but the upper surfaces of the units
are usually screeded to provide the correct surface for the floor finishes.
This method eliminates the requirement of falsework during the construction

period.
Planks and blocks
4.2 Hollow core slab

Prestressed tendon
Assimilated I-beam
Hollow core slabs can be used for most

building floor or roof systems.
The voids greatly reduce the dead load of

the slab and the material cost.
The
assimilated
I-beam
sections
provide efficient moment resistance.
Prestressed hollow core slabs are available.
Hollow core slab
This means long spans, shallow
depth and the ability to carry heavy loads are easily accommodated.
Hollow core slabs may be simply supported on beams or load bearing wall.
10 of 14
To resist hogging moment at the support, steel dowel are can be provided.
Filled with cement grout
Dowel
Min. 75mm
Hollow floor installation
4.2 Double Tee Slabs
Double tee slabs are prestressed.
Double tee slabs can be used for most applications requiring a long span floor or
roof system (10m to 30+ m) and/or additional load carrying capability.
Steel bracket welded to

the main reinforcements
Steel bracket welded to
the main reinforcements
Min. support
width 150 mm
Double Tee Slabs (Source: CPCI)

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External Wall
Faade Panel is the most widely used precast concrete wall in Hong Kong.
Various installed methods had been used.

Building
structural
frame
Joint filled
with cement
grout
Fixing of Facade Panel
Cast with
insitu
concrete
(Source: City University)
The prevailing installation method:
Erection of the faade panel with temporary plumbing guide
Fixing of reinforcement of adjoining walls lapping with the dowel of the faade
panel
Shuttering of wall formwork and casting of concrete
Fabric reinforcement for wall construction after installing precast faade

12 of 14
Composite Construction / Permanent Formwork
Precast units are placed underside to serve as formwork for concreting.
They also
become integral parts of the permanent structure. The major advantage of using
permanent formwork is that it eliminates or minimizes the temporary works such as
formwork and falsework. In addition, there is no need for stripping.
5.1 Composite Floor Slab
top reinforcement
Insitu concrete
binder
precast slab
Solid Planks for Composite Slab
5.2 Composite Beam
Shell beam & Precast Slab

13 of 14
6. Advantages and disadvantages of Precast Concrete

6.1 Advantages of precast concrete
The units can be mass-produced and are therefore cheaper.
Cost of formwork can be reduced.
Easier to fix reinforcement and place concrete which to be done on ground and
under cover.
Units can be cured by accelerated techniques.
The quality of units can be strictly controlled.
Units can be cast before the site becomes available hence the construction time
can be reduced.
Temporary supports such as falsework and scaffolding are reduced to minimum.
Precast units can be structurally load tested if required.
Precast units can be pre-tensioned.
Precasting produces less construction waste than insitu works and therefore more
environmental friendly.
6.2 Disadvantages of precast concrete
Uneconomical if only a small number of units are required.
Waterproofing of joints may be expensive.
The transportation of long units may be difficult.
Cranes may be required to load and unload the units on site.
Reference:
Construction of Prestressed Concretes 2nd Edt., Ben C. Gerwick, Jr. (1993), Wiley Inter.
Science.
Modern Prestressed Concrete Design Principles and Construction Methods 4th Edt., James R.
Libby (1990), Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Post-tensioning in Building, VSL
Construction Technology Vol. 3 2nd Edt., R. Chudley (1991), Longman.
Civil Engineering Construction IV Vol. 4, S.A.R Jufri & R.J. Wellman (1992), Hong Kong
Polytechnic.
Precast Concrete Material, manufacture, properties and usage, M. Levitt (1982), Applied
Science Publishers
Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast Concrete, PCI Erectors Committee (1983), PCI
http://www.cpci.ca/
14 of 14
5 Structural Steelwork
1.
Structural Steel Sections

Structural steel sections can be classified into various groups according to their
shapes.
A steel section is designated by the serial size in millimeters (mm) and the mass
per unit length in kilograms per metre (kg/m), i.e. h x b x mass.
For example, a universal beam of 920.5mm x 420.56 mm at 388 kg/m is

designated 914 x 419 x 388 beam.
1.1
Universal Beam (UB)
Universal beams are rolled with parallel flanges.
The depth of section is about double of the width

of the flanges.
Universal Beam
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1.2
Universal Column (UC)
Universal Columns are rolled with parallel flanges.
Generally, the depth of the section and the width of the

flanges are approximately equal.
Universal Column
1.3
Joist
Joists are rolled with 8 tapered flanges.
They provide a useful range of sections smaller than those

in the universal beam
Joist
1.4 Channel Section

There are two types of channel sections:
Parallel flange channels
Taper flange channels with 5 tapered

flanges.
Tapered flanges
Parallel flanges
Channel
1.5
Structural Tee
Structural tees may be cut from

universal beams or universal columns.
They are designated by their nominal

width of flange, depth of stalk and mass
Cut from UB
Cut from UC
Structural Tee
per metre, i.e. b x A x mass.

1.6
Angle
Angles are designated by their nominal leg lengths and thickness (in mm),
e.g. 50 x 30 x 5
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There are two types of structural

steel angles :
a. equal leg angles
b. unequal leg angles
Equal leg angle
1.7
Unequal leg angle
Hollow Sections
Available hollow sections are round, square and rectangular.
Hollow sections are specified by their size and thickness.
2.
Fabrication
Fabrication is carried out in a fabrication workshop, where the steel sections undergo
the following stages of treatments:
1.
The steel sections are first cleaned to remove dirt, mill-scales and any corrosion
by sand blasting. They are then painted with a priming coat of paint within 2
hours.
2.
The sections are cut to the correct length by sawing or cropping.
3.
Holes are drilled or punched on the workpiece for bolted connections.

Sometimes the edge of a workpiece is machined for welded connections.
4.
Jointing accessories (fittings), such as angle cleats, plates, bases, etc., are
manufactured by drilling, punching and cropping machines at the same time.
5.
To reduce the site works, the main components and the fittings are then
assembled into modules. The size of each module should be convenience for
lifting and transportation.
6.
The components are then transferred to the dispatch bay to await transport to
site.
Sand Blasting (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
3 of 19
3.
3.1
Connection
Steelwork can be connected by bolting or welding

Bolting connection
3.1.1 Black bolt
Black bolts are made of mild steel, unpolished and the least expensive.
They are used in clearance hole, i.e. the hole diameter is 2 mm larger than
the bolt, or 3 mm larger if the bolt diameter is 24 mm or above.
3.1.2 High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt
HSFG bolts are made of high tensile steel.
They are used in clearance holes as black bolts.
Bolts are always tightened to a predetermined shank tension.
This enables shear loads to be transferred by friction between the

interfaces.
HSFG bolts may be tightened by three methods:

a. Torque control - e.g. by torque wrench
b. Part turn method
waist
c. Direct tension indication
H.S.F.G bolt
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3.2
Welding Connection
3.2.1 Methods of welding

Gas welding
In gas welding, an oxy-acetylene flame provides the heat needed to melt

the steel interfaces and the weld metal.
Metal-arc welding equipment
Gas welding equipment
Metal-arc welding (Electric-arc welding)
A metal filler rod is connected to an electrode of a power supply while the

work piece is connected to the other electrode.
When the metal filler rod is placed near the work piece, an electric arc is
formed which heats and melts the interfaces and the end of the filler rod.
3.2.2 Types of Welds

Fillet Welds
Fillet welds are used to join

plates at an angle (usually
90) to each other.
Fillet weld (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)

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Butt Weld
Before butt welding, the ends of the work pieces have to be machined to
receive the weld.
The work pieces are then butt against each other and are welded together.
Butt weld (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
4.
Erection
4.1
Connection of steel column to foundation
In base connection, a steel base plate is required to spread the load of the
column on to the foundation.
The base plate and column can be connected together by using cleats or by
fillet welding.
Gusset plates can be used to increase the stability.
The base plate is then fixed to the foundation by holding down bolts.
Welded Bloom Base (Source: R. Chudley)

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Connection of steel column to foundation (Source: R. Chudley)
Welded Gusset Base (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
4.2
Beam to Column Joints
4.2.1 Double web cleats connection
The UB and the UC are connected by bolting with two web cleats.
The joint allows some degree of rotation and is considered as a semi-rigid

joint.
Double web cleats connection

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4.2.2 Header plate / End plate connection
A header plate /end plate is shop welded to the end of the universal beam.
The connection is completed by bolting on site.
The size of the header plate may be smaller, the same or larger than the
section of the UB and the rigidity of the joint increases with using larger
end plate.
HEADER PLATE
SHOP WELDED
Header plate connection semi-rigid joint
End plate connection rigid joint
4.2.3 Welded connection
A fully rigid connection, which gives the greatest economy on section, can
be achieved by welding the beam to the column on site.
The quality control of site welding is difficult and the testing of weld
quality is expansive, on site welding is rarely used except for very large
scale projects.
Welded connection rigid joint

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4.3
Beam to Beam Joints
The top flange of the secondary beam is cut away (notched) so that the tops
of both beams are all level with one another, ready to receive the floor or
roof decking.
The secondary beam can then be connected to the main beam by web
cleats, header plate or to the stiffeners of the main beam.
Double web cleat connection (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
Stiffener connection
Header plate connection
9 of 19
4.4
Column Splices
For the connection of equal sections, fish plates are used for the splicing.
Column with equal sections
For the connection of unequal sections, a cap plate is shop welded to the
top of the lower column.
The connection is then completed by bolting with web cleats or site

welding.
Column with unequal sections
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6.
Fire Protection
Though structural steel does not promote spread of fire, it does not behave well
under fire conditions.
If steel is heated to 550C, it will lose most of its useful strength.
6.1 Methods of fire protection

According to Code of practice for fire resisting construction, Building Authority,
fire protection to structural steel can be classified into:
Hollow protection - means there is a void between the protective material and
the web of the steel section, such hollow protection to columns should be
effectively sealed at each floor level.
Solid protection - means casing which is bedded close to the steel without any
intervening cavities and with all joints in that casing made full and solid.
6.2
Fire Protection Materials
Concrete not inferior to grade 20
Solid bricks of clay, concrete or sand lime
Plaster (Portland cement plaster, Portland cement-lime plaster or gypsum

plaster) on metal lathing
Gypsum plaster on gypsum plaster board
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12 of 19
6.3
Example of fire protection
6.3.1 Solid protection
Solid brickwork encasement to column
Concrete encasement to Column
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6.3.2 Hollow protection
Hollow protection using plasterboard and plaster
Hollow protection with metal lath and plaster coating
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6.3.3 Sprayed vermiculite-cement
Vermiculite is natural mineral that expands to about 10 times when heated to

200-300C. The expansion process is called exfoliation.
A mixture of exfoliated vermiculite and Portland cement is sprayed onto the

steel structure.
Wire reinforcement is tied around the steel before spraying if required.
The advantages of sprayed vermiculite-cement are that it is lightweight and can

be applied to any configuration of steel.
Sprayed vermiculite-cement encasement
6.3.4 Intumescent Coating
Intumescent paints are plastic polymers containing nitrogeneous catalyst, which
When exposed to extreme heat, will expand by as much as 50 times to form a

thick carbonaceous foam.
This foam insulated the treated steelwork against the heat of the fire.
The advantages of intumescent coatings are that they are light in weight, available
in many colours as decorative paint and simple to apply.
The main disadvantage is its high cost.
15 of 19
7.
Composite Construction
Composite construction consists of using two different or similar structural materials

which interact together in resisting the external loadings.
The number of
combinations is almost endless: steel and concrete, timber and concrete, precast and
cast in-situ concrete, timber and steel ..etc..
(In this section, only composite
construction of steel and concrete is considered.)
7.1
Composite structure versus non-composite structure

For non-composite situation, the load will be shared between the two sections.
Slip will occur between the two contact surfaces.
For composite construction, the two sections are connected such the combined
sections will act as a single unit to resist the applied moment.
It is clear that the composite section is more structurally efficient than that of the
non-composite section.
If both sections are of same material, the composite beam deflection would be
only 25% of those of the non-composite beam.
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7.2
steel concrete construction,
In Steel-concrete composite construction, shear connectors are used to connect the

two materials so that they can interact with composite action.
Shear stud
The function of the shear studs are:
To transfer the shear stress between the steel and the concrete, thus limiting the
slip at the interface so that the two materials can act as a unit.
To prevent an uplift between the steel beam and concrete slab, i.e. to prevent
separation of the steel and concrete at right angles to the interface.
7.2.1 Composite beams

Composite beams comprise steel beams, usually of I section which are designed to
act compositely with concrete by use of shear connectors.
Composite beam
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7.3
Composite column
Concrete is placed around the steel core to provide a composite column, or
Square or round steel sections with infill concrete.
Steel-Concrete Composite column
Steel-concrete composite columns
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7.4
Composite slabs
Composite slabs comprise underside profiled steel decking and reinforced concrete
topping.
The steel decking serves to take tension and acts as the permanent
formwork for concrete casting.
Profiled Steel Decking
Top layer of
slab reinforcement
Insitu
concrete
Profiled steel decking

Composite Slab
Reference:
Construction Technology Vol 2 (1991), R. Chudley, Longman
Civil Engineering Construction IV, S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen, Hong Kong Polytechnic.
Advanced Construction Technology 3rd Etd (2000), R. Chudley, Pearson Education Ltd.
Tall Building Structural Analysis and Design (1991), G.S. Smith & A. Coull, John Wiely & Sons, Inc.
Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers (1999), Micheal S. Mamlouk and John P. Zaniewski, Addison-Wesley
Longman, Inc.
19 of 19
6 Safety and Health in Construction

1. Introduction
The construction industry has a poor record in safety. No matter counted in terms of
number of accidents, or in term of accident rate, the construction industry is one the
most dangerous industry in Hong Kong. All site personnel should therefore aware the
potential hazards on site and be conversant the preventive measures.
3. Potential hazards of various construction activities and preventive measures
3.1 Hazardous nature of construction site
a.
Variable nature of construction sites (a construction site changes everyday).
b. Construction activities involves different trades, they have different characteristics

but work in the same area and influence each other.
c.
High turnover of labours so that to build up a general safety consciousness on site

is difficult to carry out.
d. Large working frontage within a construction site where unsafe conditions often
exist.
e.
Requiring to work on high level, under poor working conditions or in places where
access is difficult to provide.
f.
Requiring to handle very bulky or heavy materials (e.g. soil, concrete, timber, steel,
prefabricated components, etc.)
g.
Temporary nature of site facilities and site works (e.g. electricity, scaffoldings).
3.2 Working at height

3.2.1
Risks of working on scaffolds/working platforms:

1/23
fall of persons from height
struck by objects falling from scaffolds or working platform
collapse of scaffolds or working platform.
3.2.2
a.
Prevention of falls:
Take adequate steps to prevent any person on a construction site from falling a
height of 2 m or more.
b. Adequate steps include the provision, use and maintenance of :

working platforms,
guard-rails, barriers, toe-boards and fences;
coverings for openings;
gangways and runs.
3.2.3
Safety requirements for working platforms and gangways
Width of working platforms,
gangways and runs
not less than 400 mm

not less than 650 mm for gangway or run used for
movement of materials
Construction
platforms
runs
of
working
gangways
and
close boarded or planked

(a working platform, gangway or run a.
consisting of open metal work having

interstices none of which exceeds 4000 mm2 ;
b.
the boards or planks forming it are secured to

prevent movement and the space between
adjacent boards or planks does not exceed
25mm
need not be closely boarded or planked if there is no

2/23
risk of persons below it from being struck by

materials or articles falling through the platform,
gangway or run)
boards or planks forming platforms etc.:

-
of sound construction, adequate strength and free

from defect
not less than 200 mm in width and not less than 25

mm in thickness, or not less than 150 mm in width
when the board or plank exceeds 50 mm in
thickness
not protruding beyond its end support to a distance

exceeding 150 mm
Coverings for opening
rest securely and evenly on its supports
rest on at least 3 supports

so constructed as to prevent the fall of persons,
materials and articles
clearly and boldly marked as to show its purpose or

securely fixed in position
Height of toe-boards
not less than 200 mm in height

(toe-boards are not required for stairs)
Height of guard rails
The height of a guard-rail above any place of work on a

working platform, gangway, run or stairway shall be:
top guard-rail: not less than 900 mm and not more

than 1150 mm
intermediate guard-rail: not less than 450 mm and

not more than 600 mm
3/23
3.2.4
a.
Use of safety Harness
In special circumstances where it is impractical to provide the above means of fall

prevention, safety nets and safety harnesses/belts shall be provided.
b. Wear safety harness or belt and attach it to a suitable anchor point; the lanyard shall
be left with the minimum free length.
Proper Installation of
Scaffolding / Working Platform
Safe Use of Ladder
4/23
Full Body Harness (Recommended)
Safety Harness and Safety Belt

(Source: Works Bureau)
3.3 Using of electricity

Quite a number of tools and plants on site require electricity. Remind that electricity
can kill.
3.3.1
a.
Precautions
Portable and hand-held tools and temporary site lighting shall be of 110V or less.
b. Before using an electric tools / equipment, its wire and plug should be checked.
Frayed wires and loose plug should not be used.
c.
Use approved type weatherproof socket/adaptor for extension of power cable.

Makeshift connections and taped joints are not permitted.
d. Never overload the circuit by using a multi-socket adaptor.

e.
Never use portable equipment without earth protection unless it is identified to be

double-insulated.
f.
Never handle equipment, power points, switches and plugs with wet hands.
5/23
g. Inspect /maintain the electric tools / equipment regularly by a competent

electrician.
Safe Use of Electricity

3.4 Using powered tools / machinery

Powered tools / machinery are often used to carry out construction works, such as
woodworking machinery, abrasive wheels, welding machines, etc.
3.4.1
a.
Common accidents caused by powered tools / equipment:
Hurt by the blade or drill bit of certain machines.
b. Caught / hurt by moving parts of the machine.

c.
Hit by flying objects / fragments from the materials being cut / machined.
d. Hit by flying fragments of broken blade, drill bit, abrasive wheel, etc.
e.
Twisted of wrist / hit by the machine in case of failing to grip the hand-held
machine.
f.
Electrocution.
3.4.2
Precaution
6/23
a.
Examine and maintain the machines regularly by a competent person
b. Check the machine before use.

c.
When using hand-held machine, select the correct type, weight, size of machine
for the job.
d. Ensure the operator is trained to operate the machine.

e.
Ensure the operator is physically fit to operate the machine.
f.
Ensure the moving parts of the machine are covered with safety shields.
g. Wear appropriate protective clothing such as goggles, gloves, ear muffs, etc.
h. Do not wear gloves if there is a risk of being caught by the rotating blades, drill bits,
etc.
i.
Never use undue pressure on the blade / drill bit while operating.
(Refer to Safe Use of Electricity.)
7/23
3.5 Using heavy mechanical plants (other than lifting appliance)

Construction sites often employ a great number of mechanical plants in carrying out
the works, for example:
earthwork plants
piling plants
3.5.1
a.
Common accidents caused by using the plants
stuck by moving plants;
b. overturning of plants when work on slopes or near excavation sides;

c.
injury caused by moving parts of the plants
3.5.2
a.
Precautions
Ensure the plants are operated by competent persons who have been adequately
trained.
b. Ensure that roll over protection structure (ROPS) and seat belts are provided and
used.
c.
Before slewing the plant, the operator shall check that the slewing path is clear of
persons.
d. When reversing or in case the operator's view is restricted, banksman shall be

provided.
e.
Avoid operating the machine too close to excavation sides, overhangs, openings or
on steep slopes,
f.
Do not use an excavation plants to carry passengers or use as a crane.
g. Inspect and maintain the plants regularly by a competent person.
8/23
3.6 Manual Lifting

3.6.1
a.
Potential Hazards
Back injury (the most common accident)
b. Injury of hands, arms and/or feet

c.
Other persons stuck by the moving load.
3.6.2
a.
Precautions
Use mechanical equipment in place of manual handling as far as possible.
b. Assess the weight of the object to be handled. Get help if it is beyond your ability
to lift it safely.
c.
Always use proper protective equipment such as gloves, safety shoes, etc.
d. Ensure the route of removal is not obstructed.

e.
Keep correct posture while lifting.
f.
When moving long objects, consider the presence of other persons as well.
3.6.3
a.
Correct procedures of manual lifting
Stand close to the object. Have a firm footing with feet spread on either side of the
load;
b. Bend the knees and keep your back as straight as you can;
c.
Grasp object firmly. Be sure grip will not slip;
d. Breath-in and throw shoulder backward;

e.
Straighten the legs, continuing to keep the back as straight as you can;
f.
Hold object firmly close to the body;
g. Always lift smoothly. Avoid jerky motions.

h. Turn with feet instead of twisting back.
9/23
Safe Posture for Manual Lifting
Manual Handling
3.7 Lifting operation using lifting appliance and gears

3.7.1
a.
Common accidents
Injury caused by the falling off of the transporting materials.
b. Persons stuck by moving loads.

c.
Accidents caused by defective/overloaded sling.
d. Breaking of jib / overturning of the machine due to overloading / out-rigger not

properly supported.
e.
Poorly maintained machine that causes break down or accident.
3.7.2
a.
Safe use of sling and slinging
Ensure that the slings be examined every 6 months by a competent examiner.
b. Inspect the condition of the slings before use and do not use defective slings.
c.
Never overload a sling. Before lifting, find out the weight of the load and the safe
working load of the sling.
d. Secure the load safely.

e.
Fence off the working area to prevent persons enter/stay under the suspended load.
10/23
Defective Wire Pope Slings
Correct Use of Wire Rope Slings

3.7.3
a.
Safe use of cranes and lifting appliances
Cranes/lifting appliances shall be periodically examined by a competent examiner.
b. The crane shall be equipped with an automatic safe load indicator and it shall be
inspected at least once a week by the operator.
c.
The operator must be competent and hold a valid certificate to operate the crane.
d. Beware of overhead power lines. Keep the jib a distance of at least 6 m from the
power line.
e.
The outriggers for the supporting the carne shall be fully extended and secure on
sleepers resting on firm ground before any lifting work.
f.
Provide banksman if the view of the crane operator is restricted.
g. When there are more than one crane with operating spaces overlap with each other,
special operating system shall be arranged to prevent crashing.
11/23
Safe Operation of Crane
Lifting Adjacent To Tower Line

3.8 Excavations
3.8.1
a.
Hazards in excavations
Soil is bulky and falling soil can produce great momentum and damage.
b. Behaviour of soil varies with its water content.

c.
Behaviour of soil varies when under load.
d. Soil pressure increases with the depth of excavation increased.

3.8.2
a.
Safety precautions
Inspect the excavations by a competent person weekly.
b. Ensure the timbering and shoring are properly installed.

c.
Provide suitable ladder for access into /egress from the excavated trench.
d. Ensure that the stacked spoils, plants or loads are not placed near the edge of
excavation.
12/23
e.
Locate and mark out all underground services before the commencement of
excavation.
f.
The underground services encountered should be carefully unearthed and securely

supported and protected once they are exposed.
g. Erect adequate fencing and warnings at the edge of excavation when the depth is
greater than 2 m.
h. Provide stop blocks for vehicles at edge of excavation.
Protection of Excavation
Work Near Excavation Side
3.8 Gas welding and arc welding

3.8.1
Potential hazards
1. Electrocution
2. Skin burn by flying sparks
3. Eyes or skin burn by strong glare
4. Inhalation of fumes
5. Catching fire
Safety on Welding (Source: Works Bureau) 13/23
3.8.2
Preventive measures
1. Wear suitable face shield with filter to protect the face and eyes.
2. Wear thick and long gloves to protect the hands and forearms against sparks and
heated metal.
3. Screen off the workplace to shield the strong glare.
4. The workplace must be well ventilated.
5. Ensure that there is no flammable material in vicinity.
6. Ensure suitable and adequate fire extinguishers are available in the workplace.
7. In case of welding at height, the flying sparks shall be well shielded to prevent
them from falling beneath.
8. Place air hoses and welding cables in such positions that others will not trip over
them.
9. Check to ensure the tools, welding cable or gas hose are in good condition before
use.
10. Inspect the welding machine, gas valves etc. by competent person regularly.
3.9 Work in Confined Spaces

A confined space is an enclosed place which arises a reasonably foreseeable risk.
Examples of confined spaces: chamber, tank, vat, pit, well, sewer, tunnel, pipe, flue,
boiler, pressure receiver, hatch, caisson, shaft or silo.
3.9.1
a.
Risks in confined spaces:
fire or explosion;
b. loss of consciousness arising from an increase in body temperature;

c.
asphyxiation arising from gas, fume, or lack of oxygen; vapour

14/23
d. drowning arising from an increase in level of liquid;

e.
asphyxiation arising from a free flowing solid.
Safety Precautions for Work in Confined Spaces

3.9.2
a.
Precautions of working in confined spaces
Obtain permit-to-work issued by an Authorised Person
b. Carry out a risk assessment by a competent person before works.

c.
Only employ certified workers in confined space.
d. Employ a banksman to guard the opening and keep a close watch at the entrance.
e.
Ventilate the space and keep ventilation continuous until the work is finished.
f.
Equip with the following equipment:
breathing apparatus,
safety lamp or torch,

15/23
safety harnesses and lifelines,
stretcher and reviving apparatus, and
walkie talkie, etc.
g. Provide audio and visual alarm for alerting others outside confined space.
h. Keep emergency breathing apparatus available.
i.
Check with a multi-gas detector for oxygen content and hazardous/combustible

gases.
j.
Do not smoke or lit a fire in confined space.
k. All electrical equipment used in confined spaces shall be either of explosion-proof

type or intrinsically safe type.
3.10
Work under noisy environment
Some kind of construction works produce tremendous noise, e.g.:

a.
breaking of rock or concrete using pneumatic drill
b. sawing, blasting or using abrasive machines

c.
testing of building services (especially in plant rooms /confined spaces)
3.10.1 Hazards
a.
Cause disturbance to adjacent residents.
b. Workers work in noisy environment may have some side effect, such as:
easily getting tired;
headache;
loathing;
loss of concentration;
disrupt accuracy of judgement,

16/23
as a result, this may increase the chance of accidents.

c.
When exposed to continual noisy environment, permanent damage of hearing

would be caused. (Exposure to 90 dB(A) for eight hours per day for thirty years
would result in hearing damage to approx. 25%).
d. The following tables gives a general guide on noise levels and exposure time:
Permissible Noise Exposure
Sound level dB(A)
Duration (hours/ day)
90
92
(air compressor)
95
(air drill)
97
100
2.5
1.6
(machine shop)
102
e.
0.8
0.5
105
(circular saw)
0.25
115
(diesel engine)
0.025
When exposed to tremendous noise:
noise exceeding 100 dB will cause hearing discomfort,
noise exceeding 120 dB will cause pain,
noise exceeding 140 dB will cause immediate damage to hearing.
3.10.2 Precaution
a.
Carry a noise assessment for noisy workplaces and plants by a competent person.
b. Whenever possible, reduce noise at sources such as replacing noisy machines with
quieter ones, screening the noise with insulating materials, making changes to the
construction processes, etc.
c.
Workers shall wear ear protectors when work in noisy environment

17/23
Noise Assessment
Ear Protection Zone

3.11
Work in dusty environment
Some kind of works may produce a great amount of dust, such as:
a.
cutting of stone, brick or concrete
b. batching of concrete
c.
working with bentonite
d. plastering
e.
demolition works
3.11.1 Hazards
Continuously exposed to dusty environment may suffer from certain respiratory
decease, such as Pneumoconiosis.
18/23
3.11.2 Precautions
a.
Workers work in dusty environments shall wear appropriate respiratory protection

equipment. (Nevertheless, respirators are not an effective means of protection for
persons doing heavy manual work.)
b. Dust control:
3.12.
having material precut off-site;
isolating dusty works;
removing the dust at sources using vacuum cleaner/watering;
clean up mud and slurry spills before they dry up and become airborne;
use vacuum instead of an airline to clean out formwork;
screen or cover loose materials.
spray water on soils or dusty materials
Fire Prevention
3.12.1 Common causes of outbreak of fire on site:

1. Short circuit, overload or poor contact of electric circuit.
2. Damaged electric tools, equipment or wire.
3. Keeping too much or improper storage of flammable liquid.
4. Accumulating debris or waste materials.
5. Smoking or improper use of fire.
3.12.2 Preventive Measures

1. Keep flammable materials in Dangerous Goods Store which complied with the fire
regulation.
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2. All flammable liquids should be labeled and marked with the words
FLAMMABLE LIQUID and .
3. Display the No Smoking and sign where flammable material exist
and personnel must straightly complied with at all time.
4. The use of flammable liquids in workplace should be done in a well-ventilated
environmental.
5. Any work process that will generate sparks or make use of naked flame should not
be done in the same room in which flammable liquids are being used.
6. Clear accumulated debris and waste materials to prevent them from catching fire.
7. All electrical tools and equipment, wire, sockets and switches must be checked by
competent person regularly.
8. Switch all electric tools or equipment before finish work, never leave any
energized parts being unattended.
9. Keep suitable and adequate fire fighting equipment in workplace for emergency
use, and they must be kept in proper condition.
10. Post sufficient escape rout maps prominently on workplaces.
11. Inspect regularly to ensure the fire escape routes are unobstructed.
12. Provide sufficient exit signs at prominent locations for directing people to the
escape staircases and routes.
13. Provide sufficient and appropriate fire extinguishers on site.
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Personal Protective Equipment
4.1 General
a.
Consider the provision of personal protective equipment only after all measures
for removing or controlling safety or health hazards have been proved reasonably
impracticable.
b. Employers shall provide sufficient personal protective equipment.

c.
The personal protective equipment shall provide adequate protection and comfort
for continuous use.
d. Provide instruction and training in the proper use of any specific protective
equipment where necessary.
e.
Where personal protective equipment is provided, do not willfully and without

reasonable cause remove personal protective equipment to endanger yourself or
others.
f.
Keep the protective equipment issued in good condition. Report immediately any
damage to the management for replacement.
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Ear Protectors
Eye Protectors
Masks
Breathing Apparatus
22/23
4.2 Personal Protective Equipment

Eye protection
Safety spectacles, goggles, face shields
Head protection
Safety helmets
Hearing protection
Ear plugs, ear muffs
Fall protection
Safety belts, safety harness
Respiratory
equipment
protective Facemask - for dust and non-toxic sprays

Cartridge respirator - for low concentration of certain
relatively non-toxic gases
Canister respirator - for low concentration of certain
toxic gases
Breathing apparatus - for toxic gases and in an oxygen
deficient environment
Foot protection
Safety shoes with steel toe caps, non-slip and

penetration resistant soles.
Hand protection
Wear suitable gloves when appropriate

(Do not wear gloves where there is a risk of them
becoming entangled in moving parts of machinery.)
Body protection
Overalls, aprons, etc.
Reference
1. Construction Site Safety Handbook for Public Works Progammme, Works Bureau
(May 2000)
2. Construction Site Safety Manual, Works Bureau (Nov 2000)
3. A Brief Guide to the Provisions for Safety Places of Work under Part VA of the
Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations
4. Safety Manual, Vocational Training Council
5. http://www.justice.gov.hk/Home.htm
23/23

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Engineering Technology A

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1.

Basic R.C. Structures

Reinforced Concrete (R.C.)

There are various types of construction materials, among which reinforced

The quality of a concrete is denoted by its compressive strength. For example,

If this weakness in tension is reinforced in such a manner that the tensile

simply supported plain concrete beam

The beam will crack

Loading a plain Concrete Beam

Simply supported R.C. beam

Loading a Reinforced Concrete Beam

Reinforcing bars (rebar) are made of high carbon steel.

They are manufactured by

1.2.1 Plain round steel bar

It is classified as Grade 250.

named with a prefix R.

For example, R10 denotes a plain round steel bar of 10

Plain round steel bar

Deformed high tensile steel bar

1.2.2 Deformed high tensile steel bars

It is classified as grade 460.

are: 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40.

Common nominal sizes

They are named with a prefix T.

is name as high yield steel bar with a prefix Y.)

Reinforced concrete structures

A typical reinforced concrete building

Major structural elements of a R.C. framed building

Typical R.C. Framed Structure

Beams are horizontal member supporting floor slabs.

They are further

subdivided into main beam and secondary beam.

Their primary function is to reduce the spans of the floor slabs.

Therefore, main reinforcements should be placed at the bottom side to resist

Top reinforcements are often used as carriers for links.

Shearing stress may be resisted by bent up bars at 45 to the horizontal and

Main bars 01 & 02

Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement

Links at close centres

Links at nominal centres

Links at close centres

They also help to minimize shrinkage

cracks of the concrete.

Typical Reinforcement Details of Cantilever Beam

2.3 R.C. Column

However, rebars are often added in a column.

The major reasons are to

increase its compressive capability of the column and to resist bending.

may be induced in columns in the following conditions:

Buckling of slender column when subject to axial load (a column is considered

Wind Loading acting on

To prevent the slender main bars from buckling

suitable centres as restraints.

Typical R.C. Column Reinforcement

Main bars of slab

Typical Slab Reinforcement

There are three basic forms of floor slab systems:

Beam and slab system

Flat slab system

Ribbed slab system

2.4.1 Beam and slab system

In this system the slab are supported on beams.

Beam & slab spanning one-way

2.4.2 Flat slab system