TECHNICAL BULLETIN

INTERFEROMETRY:
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
OF TWO-BEAM AND MULTIPLEBEAM INTERFEROMETRY
By Prof. Hiroshi Komatsu
Institute for Materials Research
Tohuku University, Sendai, Japan

INTERFEROMETRY:
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF
TWO-BEAM AND MULTIPLE-BEAM
INTERFEROMETRY
By Prof. Hiroshi Komatsu
Institute for Materials Research
Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
Applications of optical interference have already been studied for several hundred
years. The principles of interferometry are well established, and varied types of
interferometric apparatus have been devised. Moreover, even now, new measurement
techniques employing interference phenomena are under development. Interferometric
apparatus, although comparatively simple and easy to operate, permits high precision
measurement and is therefore in wide use.
The present exposition will be principally concerned with the use of two-beam and
multiple-beam interferometry for the measurement of minute differences in elevation on
material surfaces, as illustrated by practical examples. Explanations of basic principles will
be limited to those aspects necessary for the use of interferometry; more details may be
found in textbooks of optics or in Nikon Technical Bulletin No. 4, entitled Fundamentals of
Optics, by Yutaka Takenaka. Those readers who wish to delve into more specialized
aspects of interferometry may consult the three textbooks by Tolansky cited at the end of the
present Bulletin.

CONTENTS

TWO-BEAM INTERFEROMETRY: .............................................................................................. 4

NEWTONS RINGS ......................................................................................................................................................4
APPLICATIONS OF CONTACT METHOD .............................................................................................................6
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER .........................................................................................................................8
NONCONTACT INTERFEROMETRIC INSTRUMENTS......................................................................................9
(1) Watson interference objective................................................................................................................................9
(2) Linnik interferometer...........................................................................................................................................10
(3) Mirau interference objective ...............................................................................................................................10
(4) Nikon low magnification interference objective ..................................................................................................11
POINTS REQUIRING ATTENTION IN APPLICATIONS OF INTERFEROMETRY ......................................12
MEASURING DIFFERENCES OF ELEVATION...................................................................................................13
ABSOLUTE LEVEL DIFFERENCES AND LIMITS OF MEASUREMENT .......................................................15

MULTIPLE-BEAM.......................................................................................................................... 17
INTERFEROMETRY:..................................................................................................................... 17
CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTIPLE-BEAM INTERFERENCE PATTERNS.................................................17
CONDITIONS FOR HIGH PRECISION MEASUREMENT .................................................................................18
OPTICAL SYSTEMS FOR MULTIPLE-BEAM INTERFEROMETRY ..............................................................19
PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN ..............................................................................................................................20
(1) Cleaning of specimen and reference plate ...........................................................................................................20
(2) Vacuum deposition ...............................................................................................................................................21
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF MULTIPLE-BEAM INTERFEROMETRY ................................................21

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 25
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................. 25

PART I.
TWO-BEAM INTERFEROMETRY:
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
Among the various forms of
interferometry, two-beam interferometry is
especially simple and straightforward in
principle as well as practice, and is therefore
used in a broad range of applications. This
method will be described below, with
principal reference to applications devised
for the measurement of topography of
material surfaces.

NEWTONS RINGS

The distance corresponding to one

period of the light wave, say, between one
crest and the next one, is called 1
wavelength, and is conventionally denoted
by . Newtons rings successively appear as
the air gap between the glass plate and the
lens surface increases by half a wavelength.
Therefore, if one uses incident light of
different wavelengths, corresponding, say,
to red and green, then the interval between
successive rings will be wider for red light
than for green.

The interference phenomenon which

one first encounters in high school physics is
that of Newtons rings, which constitute the
localized concentric interference fringes
observed in the neighbourhood of the point
of contact when a plano-convex lens with a
large radius of curvature is placed on a flat
glass plate. These interference rings were
first studied by Isaac Newton. Interference
phenomena cannot be explained by merely
regarding light as composed of rays which
propagate along straight lines, as is assumed
in geometrical optics. Subsequent to
Newton, Young, proceeding from the
viewpoint of wave optics, explained
Newtons rings as a light interference
phenomenon. That is, light is a wave
motion possessing crests and valleys; if
crests are superimposed upon crests and
valleys upon valleys, then the waves will be
mutually reinforced, whereas if crests are
superimposed upon valleys, then the two
will mutually cancel. Consequently, an
alternately bright and dark interference
fringes will arise.

Figure 1(a) shows the Newtons rings

formed when an evaporating dish of
diameter 10cm was placed on a slide glass
on the stage of an inverted microscope,
photographed from below with reflected
light. The order of the interference fringes,
counted from the dark disk at the centre in
the pattern, is denoted by N (N = 0, 1, 2, ).
When dealing with optical interference, it is
important to note that the light waves are
superimposed in the medium through which
the light propagates (i.e., considering
interference in terms of optical distance). If
the gap between the lens and the glass plate
is in a vacuum or in air, then the refractive
index (n) of the medium is 1. On the other
hand, if this gap is filled with water, then
n=1.333, thus, when traversing this medium,
the velocity of the light is diminished, hence,
the wavelength is essentially shortened, and
therefore the distances between successive
rings are reduced. Conversely, this fact can
be utilized for the purpose of measuring the
refractive index of the medium.
4

If the angle of incidence of the light

waves is denoted by and the thickness is
(i.e., distance) between the glass plate and
the lens by t, then interference fringes will
appear when the condition
N = 2nt cos
is satisfied. In the case illustrated by Figure
1, the angle of incidence = 0, cos = 1 (as
would always be the case for perpendicular
incidence), and therefore the above relation
becomes
N = 2nt,
hence, we obtain
t= N/n /2,
Thus, in a vacuum or in air, since n = 1, the
relation reduces to
t= N /2,
where N = 1, 2, 3, can be any positive
integer. Thus, each time the thickness of the
gap changes by /2 (i.e., by half a
wavelength), an interference fringe appears.

Now, let us examine Figure 1(a) once

again. The interference fringes appear like
contour lines on the surface of the
evaporating dish at intervals corresponding
to height differences of half a wavelength.
This is equivalent to the contour lines
formed by Newtons interference fringes at
intervals of half a wavelength on the surface
of an object.
In the case of a map, the sea level
constitutes the reference plane, while in the
case of the interference fringes, the glass
plate is the reference. In optical
interferometry, this reference plate is known
as the reference plate (or reference mirror).
Also, this type of interference pattern is
known as fringes of equal thickness.
Figure 2 illustrates the relation
between the spacing of the interference
fringes and the angle of the air wedge
formed by a reference plate (reference
mirror) and the surface of the specimen. In
this case, from the above discussion, the
interference fringes are obviously not
circular like Newtons rings, but form
straight lines.

As the angle increases, the spacing

between the interference fringes diminishes.

Figure 3 shows the intensity

distribution of the interference fringes of the
Newtons rings in Figure 1 (a) measured
with a microphotometer. We see here broad
contour lines. In a topographic map, the
finer the contour lines, the more delicate the
details which can be represented. Similarly,
the breadth of the interference fringes
governs the precision obtainable in the
interferometric measurement of the
irregularities of a surface. The present
method has the disadvantage that the
specimen must be placed in contact with the
reference plate (reference mirror).

APPLICATIONS OF CONTACT
METHOD
Figure 4 (a) shows a natural diamond
with edges 0.8mm in length, examined by
the Newtons rings method which was
illustrated above for the case of a lens. The
specimen was illuminated with light of
wavelength =546nm (green), obtained by
means of a multilayer filter. Using this
simple method, half wavelength (273nm)
contour lines can be visualized on the
specimen. Since the horizontal distances are
known immediately from the magnification
or the scale, the angle of inclination of the
surface can be calculated. Furthermore, it is
possible to obtain the cross-sections which
will appear when the diamond is cut in
various directions. Since light of accurately
known wavelength is used, height can be
measured with extremely high precision.
The protuberance of this diamond surface is
12 high, i.e., approximately 6.5 m, and
the inclination of the surface is measured
approximately 1 16'.

Figure 4 (b) shows the microstructure

of the surface, ignoring quantitative
measurement. This sort of image can be
obtained if the angle of the wedge indicated
in Figure 2 is close to zero. This has the
effect of broadening the interference fringe
of the zeroth order, which then covers the
entire field of view. If the wedge angle is
completely reduced to zero, the surfaces of
the crystal and the reference plate become
completely parallel. This method of
broadening a single interference fringe to
attain high contrast is known as the high
dispersion method, and permits the
visualization of height differences as small
as 2 nm.
The high dispersion method utilizes
the fact that a single interference fringe
actually possesses a continuous intensity
distribution in terms of the air gap, as shown
in Figure 5. Corresponding to an
infinitesimal height difference dt, the
intensity within a single interference fringe
changes by dI, as depicted in Figure 5. by
using the portion of curve with a relatively
large value of dI/dt, one can observe detailed
surface structure with high sensitivity.

Moreover, in this method, halos of the kind

seen in phase contrast microscopy do not
occur, and the entire surface can be
visualized with high contrast from any
direction. The disadvantage of this method
is extreme sensitivity to mechanical
vibration and consequent difficulty in
maintaining the same contrast over an
extended period of time.
Figure 6 shows etch pits on a (111)
surface on a diamond; after etching by an
oxidant, a high dispersion fringe was
visualized by two-beam interference. The
image clearly shows two types of etch pits;
flat bottomed and point bottomed. The flatbottomed pits are extremely shallow, with
depths of about one fourth of a wavelength
(137nm) or less. On the other hand,
calculating from the number of interference
fringes, the deepest point-bottomed pits are
about 3 wavelengths (1.64 m) deep. Also,
the interference fringes on the rim of the
crystal (on the right-hand edge of the
picture) show that the edge of the crystal has
been rounded by the action of dissolution.
Moreover, since the length of the sides of
the pits can be measures, the gradient of the

pits can be calculated. The inclination of the

deepest pit, in the direction from a vertex to
the centre, is approximately 8 50'. Thus,
the slope of the pits, as determined
quantitatively, are in fact considerably more
gentle than would appear from casual
inspection. Figure 6 illustrates an example
where both observation and measurement
can be made with a single photomicrograph.
We have now seen examples of
surface microstructure resulting from crystal
growth and dissolution visualized by twobeam interferometry. Finally, let us
consider an example of a fracture surface
produced by physical destruction. Figure 7
shows a two-beam interferometric
photomicrograph of the cleavage plane
produced in a diamond by a giant pulse laser,
with the two sides of the plane matched for
comparison. The fact that the two sides are
not completely identical indicates that some
fragments, albeit minute, were lost when the
crystal was cleaved. A triangular depression
appears at the centre of the left-hand margin
of the photograph; this is the point where the
laser beam was focused by the lens. The
traces on the surface show that the light
instantaneously traversed the diamond and
was partially reflected at the opposite wall;
the depression in the centre of the
photograph was produced when this
reflection occurred. Also, one can discern
that the fracture was initiated within the
crystal at a point about 100 m from the
reflecting surface.
So called fractography consists in
examining fracture surfaces by light or
scanning electron microscopy and analyzing
the fracture mechanism on the basis of the
observed patterns. In this analysis, twobeam interferometry can be applied to obtain
quantitative information concerning the
topographic irregularities of the fracture

surface and the stream-like configuration

known as the river pattern.

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
All the interference patterns
described above are created by methods
whereby the surface of the specimen is
placed nearly in contact with the reference
disk. However, in the case of specimens
such as semiconductors, which are
extremely sensitive to contamination, or soft
and easily deformed specimens, it is
desirable to form an interference pattern
without contact. One such method consists
in using a Michelson type interferometer.
This device has several variants.
The principle of the Michelson
interferometer, as illustrated by Figure 8, is
quite simple. The essential points are as
follows. A beam emitted by the light source
(L) is split into two beams of nearly equal
8

intensity by a half mirror (A), one of these

beams being directed onto a flat reference
mirror (M2) and the other onto the specimen
surface (M1). The light produced by
reflection of these two beams is then made
to interfere. Viewed at point E, interference
occurs between the image M2' of the
reference mirror and the image of the
specimen surface M1. Since the light waves
reflected by M1 and M2 originate from the
splitting of a beam emitted by the same light
source, these waves are mutually coherent,
and consequently a two-beam interference
pattern is obtained. The object C inserted
between A and M2 is a glass plate of the
same composition and thickness as A.
Owing to the presence of this plate, the two
divided light beams arrive at E after
propagating through the same optical
distance (i.e., refractive index x thickness).
Note that in this type of
interferometer, A and M1 are separated by
and appreciable distance, thus, an
interference pattern is obtained without
contact.

NONCONTACT INTERFEROMETRIC
INSTRUMENTS
A two-beam interferometer functions
by dividing originally coherent light into
two beams of equal intensity, directing one
beam onto the reference mirror and the other
onto the specimen, and measuring the
optical path difference (i.e., difference in
optical distances) between the resulting two
reflected light waves. In order to implement
this method, various types of instruments
have been devised, employing several
devices to split the light wave and to provide
the appropriate optical paths.
(1) Watson interference objective.
This instrument, manufactured by the
Watson Company (Great Britain) is a
compact variant of the Michelson
interferometer, designed to be installed on a
microscope. The construction of the
instrument is shown in Figure 9. As one
sees by comparing this drawing with the
schematic illustration in Figure 8, an
objective lens is interposed close to the half
mirror, permitting the measurement of
minute specimens.
In this interferometer, the inclination
of the reference mirror with respect to the
optical axis is equivalent to using a
reference plate which is not parallel to the
surface of the specimen and thus creating an
air wedge as indicated in Figure 2. The
greater the inclination of the reference
mirror relative to the specimen surface, the
narrower the spacing between the
interference fringes. The direction of the
individual interference fringes is the same as
the direction of the line of intersection of the
planes M1 and M2. Shifting the reference
mirror in the left or right direction has the
effect of varying the distance between the
specimen surface M1 and the image M2 is
9

shifted away from M1 by a distance of half a

wavelength, the respective orders of the
interference fringes are changed by 1. A
shift through one fourth of a wavelength
inverts the pattern by transforming bright
fringes to dark fringes and vice versa.
(2) Linnik interferometer
This instrument is designed for the
purpose of using a high magnification
objective lens in order to apply the
interference technique to the observation of
minute details. The principle employed is
just that of the Michelson interferometer.
Figure 10 shows the basic arrangement,
comprising a light source L, a collimator C,
a prism D, and Eyepiece E, uniform
objective lenses O and O with completely

identical optical distances, a specimen

surface S which gives rise to an image F,
and a reference mirror M which gives rise to
a reflection image M. Since uniform
objective lenses are difficult to manufacture,
only a small number of such instruments
have been marketed.
(3) Mirau interference objective
This is an interference
objective with comparatively high
magnification (10x, 20x or 40x) used in
instruments produced by the Nikon
Corporation. The principle of the device, as

10

illustrated in Figure 11, consists in placing a

reflection reference mirror in the centre of
the objective lens, and interposing a half
mirror between the objective lens and the
specimen. These components are so
arranged that an interference pattern will
appear if the system is focused upon the
specimen. If the specimen (S) is inclined,
localized interference fringes will appear as
previously explained in the description of
two-beam interferometry. Of course, noncontact measurements can be performed
with this instrument.
(4) Nikon low magnification interference
objective
Figure 12 shows the design of the
new type of low magnification interference
objective (T.I., 2.5x and 5x) recently
developed by Nikon. The use of a low
magnification objective has two advantages.
First, the working distance is comparatively
long (11.1mm for the 2.5x objective and
9mm for the 5x objective). Secondly, a
wide field of view can be observed with a
large depth of focus. The outstanding
feature of this interference objective is the
fact that the centre of the reference mirror
lies on the optical axis of the objective lens.

In order to realize this feature, the reference

mirror is located on the plane surface of a
hemisphere. The angle of the mirror is
adjusted by means of two screws behind the
hemisphere. Bright field observation can
also be performed immediately by inserting
a light-blocking shield in front of the mirror.
In actual use, since the centre of the
reference mirror coincides with the optical
axis, the interference pattern immediately
appears a the centre of the field of view.
When using the above-mentioned Watson
interferometer or Mirau objective,
displaying the interference pattern at the
centre of the field of view often requires
troublesome manipulation, and this tends to
prevent more widespread use of
interferometry. Also, since the present lens
is suitable for the number of field of view up
to 20, and the maximum diameter of the
actual field is equal to the number of field of
view divided by the magnification,
specimens of diameters up to about 8mm
(for magnification 2.5x) or 4mm (for
magnification 5x) can be interferometrically
measured by a single observation.

11

If graduations are inscribed on the

reference mirror, then the scale can be
conveniently recorded on the
photomicrograph. In the Watson
interferometer, special illumination is
required for the interference objective, but
this is not necessary for the Nikon TI or
Mirau instruments; the same light path is
used for bright field observation and
interferometric measurement.

fringes are easily recognized if one observes

the red fringes. Up to six orders of red
fringes appear on the right side and up to
five orders of red fringes on the left side of
the zeroth order fringe.

POINTS REQUIRING ATTENTION IN

APPLICATIONS OF
INTERFEROMETRY
In the preceding discussion, several
examples of practical two-beam
interferometry have been described referring
to a conventional classification into contact
and non-contact methods. However, there is
actually no essential difference in the nature
of the interference fringes between these two
methods, and obviously both low and high
spread patterns are obtainable by either
method. The non-contact method clearly
possesses a wide range of applicability. In
the contact method, the order of the
interference fringes increases from the
zeroth, first and second, etc., in a
unidirectional manner, since the reference
surface and the specimen are separated by a
wedge-like air gap. On the other hand, in
the non-contact method, the intersections
between the images of the reference mirror
and the specimen form the fringes of zeroth
order, on both sides of which first order,
second order and higher order fringes appear.
This sort of pattern is shown in Figure 13 (b),
which was deliberately taken without a filter,
using white light, and therefore the orders of
the fringes are readily distinguished. A
zeroth order dark fringe is visible in the
centre of the field, flanked on both sides by
higher order fringes. The orders of the

If this pattern were photographed

with monochromatic light, the interference
pattern would be displayed with almost the
same contrast, but the continuity of the
12

fringes would become obscure at the sides

of abrupt changes in level. Consequently, in
any type of interferometry, the continuity of
the fringes should first be ascertained with
white light in order to avoid substantial
errors. Identification of the orders of
interference fringes under monochromatic
light is particularly difficult when using high
grade interference filters with narrow halfband width.

determination of the roughness of the

mechanically finished surface.

Precision of measurement is
improved by creating finer interference
fringes. Formerly, light sources such as low
pressure sodium lamps were used for this
purpose. Now, however, high grade
interference filters are available, and
therefore halogen lamps are often used in
combination with interference filters. In
such case, two points should be noted. First,
unlike the use of sodium light, the maximum
transmitted wavelength usually varies to
some extent according to the particular
interference filter being used. Therefore, it
is most important to precisely ascertain the
characteristic wavelength of the filter.
Secondly, the filter must be inserted
perpendicular to the optical axis, since even
a slight obliquity will cause a shift toward
shorter wavelengths.

MEASURING DIFFERENCES OF
ELEVATION
The measurement of vertical surface
irregularities and topography using contour
lines has already been discussed and
illustrated in Figures 4 and 6. Here, we shall
describe an example wherein such
irregularities are measured using tree
interference fringes. Figure 14 shows
differential interference (a) and two-beam
interference (b) photomicrographs of the
edge of a razor blade, which permit the

Here also, the relation between the

reference mirror and the specimen is similar
in principle to the case of Figure 2, the
interference fringes successfully appear as
the height changes by half a wavelength.
Suppose that, corresponding to an abrasion
groove of depth t in Figure 14, interference
fringes appear as shown in Figure 15. If the
photomicrograph is enlarged, then both d
and l can be measured. Using these values,

13

the depth t can be calculated from the

formula
t = d/l /2
The spacing of interference fringes
shown in Figure 14 is somewhat narrow,
which could make measurement difficult.
Using the same specimen, suppose that the
dispersion of the interference fringes is
altered. Figure 16 shows the spiral growth
of magnetoplumbite (a hexagonal ferrite),
with the angles of the hexagonal spiral
displaying a zigzag form. The dispersion in
Figure 16(b) is small, and the shifts in the
interference fringes are not evident except at
the thickest steps, but nevertheless the
orders of the fringes can be enumerated. If
the dispersion is increased to the extent of
Figure 16(c), then the characteristics of the
irregularities at the thin as well as the thick
steps become visible. The fringes at the

centre of the image are particularly

interesting. Since the pattern is due to spiral
growth, the fringes should uniformly shift in
the same direction, but here, the individual
fringes are not only rectilinear but also
display a minute transverse oscillatory
pattern. This can be interpreted as
indicating a cross section of the form
illustrated in Figure 17. The levels indicated
by the broken lines represent the spiral steps
formed immediately after the growth of the
crystal, the successive level differences
being of the order of 1.2nm. This is due to
the crystal undergoing quasi-two
dimensional dissolution, resulting in the
present cross-section represented by the
crosshatching in Figure 17, analogous to the
ridges now remaining in the Colorado
plateau after a period of erosion. In the
present case, the ridges are of the order of
60nm in height. When the dispersion is

14

increased still further, as in Figure 16(d),

the image becomes more suitable for
qualitative observation than for
measurement. Steps are well visualized,
although only at the sites where the
interference fringes have expanded. On
the other hand, when this specimen is
viewed by bright field microscopy, only
the thickest steps are visualized.

The point to be noted when measuring

such steps is, first of all, that the
interference fringes should be adjusted so
as to run perpendicular to the steps which
are to be measured, which facilitates the
subsequent procedure. Also, if colour
photographs cannot be taken, the specimen
should first be observed with white light
and the continuity of the interference
fringes must be confirmed in order to
facilitate subsequent measurement.
When using a high dispersion, a
single interference fringe becomes
relatively broad and therefore steps can be
measured by comparing the width of the
fringes themselves. In such cases, the
width of the light and dark fringes
becomes nearly equal, as shown, for
example, in Figure 16(c). In other words,
a single broad interference fringe in itself
represents a level difference of 1/4.

ABSOLUTE LEVEL DIFFERENCES

AND LIMITS OF MEASUREMENT
In both Figures 4(a) and 6,
triangular contour lines appeared, but were
interpreted ab initio as representing
elevations in one case and depressions in
the other. However, this distinction is by
no means self-evident, and was decided
only on the basis of the a prior assumption
that crystal growth results in elevations
while etching results in depressions. Thus,
one is faced with the problem of how to
perceive the absolute distinction between
depression and elevation. If the level
differences are relatively large, then these
can be distinguished by adjusting the focus
of the objective, but if the level differences
are of the order of the wavelength of the
light used in the observation, then this
cannot be done. One possible method,
however, is the use of a phase-contrast
microscope. By interchanging positive
and negative phase-contrast, one can
reverse the contrast of the halo appearing
at the high side of a step and thus
definitely distinguish between high and
low.* However, this can, in fact, be
accomplished by two-beam interferometry
even without a phase-contrast microscope.
Using white light to examine the surface of
a convex object, the interference fringes
are arrayed in increasing order from the
vicinity of the reference plate (reference
mirror) toward the periphery of the object.
As shown in Figure 13(b), the order of the
fringes can be determined from their
colour arrangement. Conversely, in the
case of a concave object, the order of the
fringes increases from the periphery
toward the centre. That is, it suffices to
perform the measurements while bearing
in mind the sequence of colours in the
interference fringes and the size of the air
gap.
15

The limit of measurement of level

differences depends upon the extent to
which the breadth of the interference
fringes (i.e., the skirts of the intensity
peak) can be defined. If measurement
down to 1/10 of a fringe can be performed,
then the limit of measurement should be of
the order of /10, or roughly 25nm.

* Details can be found at H. Komatsu,

Optical Characterization of Crystal
Surfaces, in Crystal Growth of
Electronic Materials, edited by E. Kaldis
(North-Holland), 1985 p. 359-370

16

PART II
MULTIPLE-BEAM
INTERFEROMETRY:
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTIPLEBEAM INTERFERENCE PATTERNS
The method of multiple-beam
interferometry consists in situating two
surfaces of high reflectivity in close
proximity and using a lens to converge
beams which have undergone multiplereflection between the surfaces. The case
where the two opposed surfaces are parallel
is utilized in Fabry-Perot interferometer. If
the two planes are not parallel, then
interference fringes appear localized in the
wedge space. The situation is essentially the
same as that encountered in the wedge space
in two-beam interferometry. However, in
multiple-beam interferometry, the breadth of
the interference fringes becomes extremely
narrow. That is, the contour lines on the
map become narrow and precision of
measurement of surface topography
improves accordingly. When the optimal
conditions are satisfied, the breadth of the
fringes in multiple-beam interferometry is of
the order of 1/50 of the corresponding
breadth in the two-beam method, and hence
the precision is improved by a factor of
about 50. Since, as mentioned above, the
limit of measurement of level differences in
two-beam interferometry is about 25nm, the
limit of measurement in multiple-beam
interferometry is therefore of the order of
0.5nm (5 Angstroms).

As shown in Figure 19, when the

incident light enters the wedge space,
multiple-reflection within the opposing
surfaces occurs. The beams arriving at point
X in the figure include the unreflected beam
1, the twice-reflected beam 2, the fourfold
reflected beam 3, etc. At each reflection, the
intensity drops in accordance with the
reflectivity of the surface, and therefore the
quantity of light of multiple-beams finally
collected by the lens is governed by the
reflectivity. The greater the number of
multiple reflections of the beams
contributing to the interference, the finer and
sharper the fringes. Figure 2 show the
relation between the breadth of the
interference fringes and the reflectivity for
the case where the reflectivities of the
specimen surface and the reference plate

17

(reference mirror) are identical. Thus the

reflectivity determines the breadth of the
interference fringes.

tends to become unavailable.

CONDITIONS FOR HIGH PRECISION
MEASUREMENT
Proceeding from the Airy formula for
multiple reflection between parallel plane
surfaces, Tolansky performed a detailed
analysis of the intensity distribution of the
multiple-interference fringes appearing in a
wedge space, and from the results of this
study deduced the conditions for obtaining
the highest measurement precision, as
summarized by the following five points:

A comparison between the intensity

distributions of two-beam interference
fringes and multiple-beam interference
fringes corresponding to 90% reflectivity is
shown in Figure 21(a). The two-beam
interference fringes are of the form (cosq)2,
and the breadth of the ridges and valleys is
nearly the same. On the other hand, as
shown in Figure 21(b), the multiple beaminterference fringes display a sharply peaked
intensity distribution. As in the case of twobeam interferometry, successive interference
fringes appear localized at every level
change of half a wavelength. However,
since the fringes are narrow, information
concerning the regions between the fringes

(1) Coating the surface of the

reference plate with a film of high
reflectivity and low absorption.
(2) Coating the specimen with a
uniform film of high reflectivity,
faithfully conforming with the
original topography of the
specimen.
(3) Making the distance between the
two surfaces (t in Figure 19) as
small as possible, i.e., at most
10m, and preferably of the order
of the wavelength of the light.
(4) Collimating the incident light
beam to a parallelism within 3.
(5) Making the incident light as
closely perpendicular to the
reference plate as possible.
Conditions (4) and (5) are
comparatively easy to satisfy provided (3) is
satisfied. In other words, the surfaces of the
reference plate and the specimen should be
brought into close proximity, reducing as far
as possible the distance t in Figure 19, and
the surface of reference mirror should be
coated with silver vapour deposition or
multi-layer film of low absorption.
18

OPTICAL SYSTEMS FOR MULTIPLEBEAM INTERFEROMETRY

The basic function of optical systems
for multiple-beam interferometry is merely
to permit observation of the interference
pattern appearing in the wedge space formed
by two surfaces. Observation of the fringes
produced by reflection can be performed
with a microscope in two possible ways.
Figure 22 shows an optical system
appropriate for the measurement of film
thicknesses, etc., using a low power
objective lens. Since the working distance
of the low power objective is relatively long,
a half mirror can be inserted between the
objective and the specimen. Also, the low
power objective possesses the advantage of
a large depth of focus, which permits
observation over a wide field of view.
However, a high magnification
objective lens is necessary for measurement
of the minute topography and relief features
of the specimen. Then, since the working
distance is reduced to less than 1mm, an
optical system of the type depicted in Figure

23 must be used. This is the optical system

of an ordinary reflecting microscope. It is
ideal to converge the light at the rear focal
point of the objective i, so that the light
beam is directed perpendicularly to the
specimen surface. Commercially available
objective lenses are tolerably suitable for
this purpose.
Low pressure mercury lamp of the
type used for spectroscopy was formerly
employed as light source in such
interferometric system. Using this type of
lamp, sharp spectral lines can be obtained,
moreover, the spectral arrangement of
colours can be used to identify the
sequential order of the interference fringes.
The disadvantage of these lamps is dimness.
Recently, however, bright halogen
lamps combined with interference filters
have come into general use for this purpose.
With achromatic objectives, 546 green
monochromatic light is the least expensive
type of illumination, and also provides
excellent results.

19

PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
(1) Cleaning of specimen and
reference plate
Adequate preparation of the specimen is
essential in order to obtain the highest
precision in multiple-beam interferometry.
Since level differences of atomic dimensions
are to be measured, contaminants must be
removed from the surface. Therefore, the
surface should be thoroughly cleaned,
except for cases where the surface is
mechanically weak or the specimen is
chemically unstable. This also applies to
cleaning of the reference flat. Commercially
marketed multiple-beam interferometric sets
provide a selection of multilayer optical flat
with various reflectivities matched to the
reflectivity of specimens (cleaning of these
plates may erode the coating and therefore
requires great care). This also permits the
formation of multiple-beam interference
fringes, but nevertheless, as illustrated in
Figure 20, the sharpness of the fringes
depends upon the reflectivities of the

specimen and the reference plate, therefore,

imparting a high reflectivity to both surfaces
is the most effective means of ensuring the
formation of a distinct pattern.
Especially small specimens should be
cleaned after first being mounted on a slide
glass with Canada balsam, etc. Chemically
and mechanically robust materials such as
glass and quartz should be cleaned by the
following procedure:
c Apply a small quantity of a
suitable surfactant (such as a detergent of
the type used for kitchen utensils) to a wad
of absorbent cotton, and remove the dirt
from the specimen by vigorous scrubbing.
Ultrasonic cleaning is also suitable for this
purpose. However, grease is not easily
removed without scrubbing.
d Wet a wad of absorbent cotton
with hydrogen peroxide and clean in the
same manner as described in c.
e Next, clean the specimen in the
same manner with distilled water.
20

f Wipe the surface thoroughly with

dry absorbent cotton until the fog disappears
instantly after breathing onto the surface.
(2) Vacuum deposition
Specimens with low reflectivity
should be coated with a material such as
aluminum, silver or gold by vacuum
deposition. Silver is particularly easy to
apply, and is also of high reflectivity.
A vacuum-deposited silver film of
thickness 50-100nm is appropriate. Coating
should be performed by rapid vapour
deposition so as to be completed in 20 to 30
seconds. In order to accomplish this, a
sufficient quantity of silver is placed in a
vapour deposition boat, and a shutter is
interposed between the specimen and the
boat. After the silver is white hot, the
shutter is opened and then closed, providing
a simple means of controlling the thickness
of the coating by varying the shutter time.
In this setup, the distance between the
specimen and the boat should be 20-30cm or
more.
If the thickness of the silver film is
roughly 50-100nm, then the film will appear
bluish-violet when viewed against a bright
light source. If the film is excessively thick,
then the surface will behave like a mirror,
and will not transmit light.

The quality of the silver film on the

reference plate can be evaluated as follows.
If the silvered surfaces of two such plates
are opposed and subtend a wedge as in
Figure 24, and a bright light source is
viewed through the wedge, then a sequence
of similar images of the light source will
appear. If one counts the number of these
images, then the presence of 25 or more
indicates a satisfactory vapour-deposited
film, with a reflectance of at least 90%. As
a rough criterion, the more slowly the colour
of the images shifts from blue to red, the
better the quality of the film.
Vapour-deposited silver films can be
easily removed with organic solvents
(alcohol, benzene, xylene, acetone, etc.).
Hydrogen peroxide is suitable for removing
vapour-deposited silver films from mounted
crystal specimens without affecting the
balsam mounting. Used photographic plates,
etc., may be employed as optical flats. In
many commercial products, reflectivity is
increased by a multilayer coating, and a
comparatively hard coating is applied to the
surface of the reference flat. Silver vapour
deposited reference flats are discarded after
use, but plates with multilayer coatings can
be used repeatedly. However, if surfaces are
even slightly scratched or otherwise
damaged, then the plates cannot be used for
interferometry.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
MULTIPLE-BEAM
INTERFEROMETRY
When surface topography is
measured by multiple-beam interferometry,
then the specimen and the reference plate
make contact at some point. Hence, this
method is not appropriate for specimens
which are sensitive to contamination or for
21

very soft specimens. Moreover, specimens

which for some reason cannot be coated
with silver are not suitable.
As already mentioned in the above
discussion of conditions for sharpness of
interference fringes, the closest possible
proximity of the specimen and the reference
plate is essential. In order to realize this, the
specimen and reference flat are clamped in a
jig with three screws and one must adjust
while observing the interference fringes
through a microscope. As in the case of
two-beam interferometry, the pattern must
be adjusted so that the fringes appear
perpendicular to the step to be measured,
and the dispersion of the fringes is also
adjusted. Measurement can be performed if
at least three fringes appear in the view field.

The method of measuring the level

difference from the amount of shift
displayed by the fringes is similar to that
described in the preceding discussion of
two-beam interferometry and illustrated in
Figure 15. However, in the case of multiplebeam interferometry, the spacing of the
interference fringes is not necessarily
equidistant, and therefore height is
calculated by the following method. In
Figure 25(b), for example, the height h of a
step can be determined by the following
formula:

Likewise, in the case of Figure 25(c), the

appropriate formula is:

The continuity of the interference

fringes can be ascertained from the colour
arrangement of the fringes formed under
illumination by white light, as in two-beam
interferometry. For example, suppose that
the interference pattern is observed using a
546nm filter with a low pressure mercury
lamp of the type used for spectroscopy, and
that a shift of the fringes appears as shown
in Figure 25(a). Obviously, the upper and
low rows of fringes have been mutually
displaced by a step on the surface, but the
original manner of continuity of the fringes
is not evident. If the monochromatic filter is
removed, interference fringes with a yellow
and orange spectral fringes appear, and the
proper connection of the fringes can be
ascertained by comparing the arrangement
of the coloured fringes. In Figure 25(b), BB represents a sequence of interference
fringes of the same order, while in Figure
25(c), the fact that B-C represents
interference fringes of the same order is also
obvious by inspection of the arrangement of
the coloured fringes.
22

Figure 26 shows a multiple-beam

interferometric photomicrograph of the pits
called trigons in a natural diamond. The
larger depressions are 10-20nm in depth,
while those of the smaller ones are of the
order of 2-4nm.
Figure 27 shows a multiple-beam
interference pattern formed with transmitted
light, which can be observed in this case
since the diamond itself transmits light.
Transmitted multiple-beam interference

shows bright fringes. This contrasts with the

opaque specimens which show dark fringes.
Light transmitted in specimens which
possess double refractive indices forms
exceedingly complicated interference
patterns and therefore such specimens are
not suitable for measurement by means of
transmitted light. In such cases, reliable
measurement of topographic irregularities
can still be obtained by interference of
reflected light.

23

As already mentioned in connection

with two-beam interferometry, high
dispersion interference permits the
utilization of intensity variations due to
extremely minute differences in height.
This is illustrated by the example of the
trigons of a natural diamond shown in
Figure 28. The surface shown here is almost
the same as that shown in Figure 26, but in
Figure 26 the surface of the specimen and
the reference plate subtend a wedge, so that
a few number of interference fringes are
formed. However, in the present case, the
two surfaces are positioned almost in
parallel, thereby spreading single fringe over
a large area to facilitate detailed observation.
The contrast displayed by minute level
changes can be enhanced to an even greater
extent that is possible in the case of twobeam interferometry. As shown in Figure
29, an elevation difference dt gives rise to an
intensity difference dI. The gradient of the
intensity distribution of a multiple-beam
interference fringe is far more abrupt than
that of a two-beam interference fringe, and
the contrast due to minute level variations
displays correspondingly greater sensitivity.

24

Figure 30 shows a hexagonal ferrite

crystal (magnetoplumbite). This is the same
crystal as shown in Figure 16. Here, Figure
30(a) is a portion of the multiple-beam
interference pattern photographed at high
magnification. Figure 30(b) is a phasecontrast photomicrograph of the same
portion, superimposed upon an interference
pattern. In this manner, level differences
can be displayed quantitatively on a single
photograph, moreover, one can compensate
for the loss of information on the
intermediate regions between fringes which
results from excessive spacing between the
fringes in the multiple-beam interference
pattern.

CONCLUSION
The examples given constitute just a
mere fragment of the vast field of
applications of interferometry. However,
the author hopes that these examples have
served to illustrate the fact that the
application of interferometry to various
material phenomena such as synthesis,
dissolution, fracture, deformation and film
formation permits the acquisition of
information which would be difficult to
obtain by other means.
To summarize, interferometry is an
extremely simple and high precision method,
and therefore can be used constantly with
the same convenience as an ordinary ruler
on ones desk. In fact, a conventional
microscope can immediately be converted
into an interferometer at any time by merely
mounting an attachment.
REFERENCES
y

S. Tolansky: Multiple-beam
Interferometry of Surfaces and Films,
(Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1948)

S. Tolansky: An Introduction to
Interferometry (Longmans, 1955)

S. Tolansky: Multiple-beam Interference

Microscopy of Metals (Academic Press,
1970)

25

Nikon Instruments Inc.

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Reprint of document originally printed in Japan (1991).
26