Interpretation of Results

A. To identify the terminals of bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

using a DMM.
A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor
device consisting of two p-n junctions which is able to amplify or
magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three
terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector and the emitter. A
signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is available in the
amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the
amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an
external source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification
process.
Bipolar transistors are constructed of a three-layer semiconductor
sandwich either PNP or NPN. As such, transistors register as
two diodes connected back-to-back when tested with a
multimeters resistance or diode check function. Low
resistance readings on the base with the black negative (-) leads
correspond to an N-type material in the base of a PNP transistor.
On the symbol, the N-type material is pointed to by the arrow of
the base-emitter junction, which is the base for this example. The
P-type emitter corresponds to the other end of the arrow of the
base-emitter junction, the emitter. The collector is very similar to
the emitter, and is also a P-type material of the PN junction.
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN
transistor, with both PN junctions facing the other way. Low

resistance readings with the red (+) lead on the base is the
opposite condition for the NPN transistor.
If a multimeter with a diode check function is used in this test,
it will be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a
slightly greater forward voltage drop than the collector-base
junction. This forward voltage difference is due to the disparity
in doping concentration between the emitter and collector
regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily
doped piece of semiconductor material than the collector,
causing its junction with the base to produce a higher forward
voltage drop.
Knowing this, it becomes possible to determine which wire is
which on an unmarked transistor. This is important because
transistor packaging, unfortunately, is not standardized. All
bipolar transistors have three wires, of course, but the positions
of the three wires on the actual physical package are not
arranged in any universal, standardized order.

B. Determine the voltage-current relationship in a transistor.

The relationship between the voltages and the currents
associated with a bipolar junction transistor under various
operating conditions determine its performance. These

relationships are collectively known as the characteristics of the

transistors. The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and
base. Before knowing about the bipolar junction transistor
characteristics, we have to know about the modes of operation
for this type of transistors. The modes are: i) Common Base (CB)
mode; ii) Common Emitter (CE) mode; and, iii) Common Collector
(CC) mode.
When the mode is in common base, for p - n - p transistor, the
input current is the emitter current (IE) and the input voltage is
the collector base voltage (VCB). As the emitter - base junction is
forward biased, therefore the graph of IE Vs VEB is similar to the
forward characteristics of a p - n diode. I E increases for fixed VEB
when VCB increases. However, The output characteristics shows
the relation between output voltage and output current IC is the
output current and collector base voltage and the emitter
current IE is the input current and works as the parameters. The
figure below shows the output characteristics for a p - n - p
transistor in CB mode. As we know for p - n - p transistors I E and
VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB are negative. These are three
regions in the curve, active region saturation region and the cut
off region. The active region is the region where the transistor
operates normally. Here the emitter junction is reverse biased.
Now the saturation region is the region where both the emitter
collector junctions are forward biased. And finally the cut off
region is the region where both emitter and the collector junctions
are reverse biased.

When the mode is in common emitter, IB (Base Current) is the

input current, VBE (Base - Emitter Voltage) is the input voltage for
CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input characteristics for CE
mode will be the relation between IB and VBE with VCE as
parameter. The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that
of a forward biased of p - n diode. But as V CB increases the base
width decreases. However, Output characteristics for CE mode is
the curve or graph between collector current (IC) and collector emitter voltage (VCE) when the base current IB is the parameter.
Like the output characteristics of common - base transistor CE
mode has also three regions named (i) Active region, (ii) cut-off
regions, (iii) saturation region. The active region has collector
region reverse biased and the emitter junction forward biased. For
cut-off region the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and
the collector current is not totally cut-off. And finally for saturation
region both the collector and the emitter junction are forward
biased.

C. To be able to plot the load line of a 2N2219A transistor and

determine its quiescent operating point and to verify the
result using the multimeter.
Q-point is an acronym for quiescent point. Q-point is the operating
point of the transistor (ICQ,VCEQ) at which it is biased. The concept
of Q-point is used when transistor act as an amplifying device and
hence is operated in active region of input output characteristics.

To operate the BJT at a point it is necessary to provide voltages

and currents through external sources.
Normally whatever signals we want to amplify will be of the order
milli volts or less. If we directly input these signals to the amplifier
they will not get amplified as transistor needs voltages greater
than cut in voltages for it to be in active region. Only in active
region of operation transistor acts as amplifier. So we can
establish appropriate DC voltages and currents through BJT by
external sources so that BJT operates in active region and
superimpose the AC signals to be amplified.The DC voltage and
current are so chosen that the transistor remains in active region
for entire AC signal excursion. All the input AC signals variations
happen around Q-point.
Q-point is generally taken to be the intersection point of load line
with the output characteristics of the transistor. There can be
infinite number of intersection points but q-point is selected in
such a way that irrespective of AC input signal swing the
transistor remain in active region.
The dc load line is the locus of I C and VCE at which BJT remains in
active region i.e. it represents all the possible combinations of
IC and VCE for a given amplifier
To plot DC load line of a transistor we need to find the saturation
current and cutoff voltage. The saturation current is the maximum
possible current through the transistor and occurs at the point
where the voltage across the collector is minimum. The cutoff

voltage is the maximum possible voltage across the collector and

occurs at zero collector current.
The biasing and blocking capacitors acts as open circuit for DC
signals hence can be represented by open circuit terminals .

D. To define the relationship between the collector current and

the base current.
The current flowing between emitter and collector of a transistor
is much greater than that flowing between base and emitter. So a
small base current is controlling the much larger emitter collector
current. The ratio of the two currents, ICE / IBEis constant, provided
that the collector emitter voltage VCE is constant. Therefore, if the
base current rises, so does collector current.
As the base current increases the transistor may operate at points
along the load line. In the limit, the base current B3 I results in the
largest current CI .This is the saturation current and when the
transistor operates at this point it is said to be biased in the
saturation mode. In saturation, the base-collector junction is
forward biased and the relationship between the base and the
collector current is not linear.
This ratio is the CURRENT GAIN of the transistor and is given the
symbol hfe. A fairly low gain transistor might have a current gain
of 20 to 50, while a high gain type may have a gain of 300 to 800

or more. The spread of values of hfe for any given transistor is

quite large, even in transistors of the same type and batch.

Conclusion:
Bipolar transistors are so named because the controlled
current must go through two types of semiconductor
material: P and N. The current consists of both electron and
hole flow, in different parts of the transistor.
Bipolar transistors consist of either a P-N-P or an N-P-N
semiconductor sandwich structure.
The three leads of a bipolar transistor are called
the Emitter, Base, and Collector.
Transistors function as current regulators by allowing a small
current to control a larger current. The amount of current
allowed between collector and emitter is primarily
determined by the amount of current moving between base
and emitter.
In order for a transistor to properly function as a current
regulator, the controlling (base) current and the controlled

(collector) currents must be going in the proper directions:

meshing additively at the emitter and going against the
emitter arrow symbol.

The base and collector current are positive if a positive

current goes into the base or collector contact. The emitter
current is positive for a current coming out of the emitter
contact. This also implies that the emitter current, IE, equals
the sum of the base current, IB, and the collector current, IC.

Tested with a multimeter in the resistance or diode check

modes, a transistor behaves like two back-to-back PN (diode)
junctions.
The emitter-base PN junction has a slightly greater forward
voltage drop than the collector-base PN junction, because of
heavier doping of the emitter semiconductor layer.
The reverse-biased base-collector junction normally blocks
any current from going through the transistor between
emitter and collector. However, that junction begins to
conduct if current is drawn through the base wire. Base
current may be thought of as opening a gate for a certain,
limited amount of current through the collector.

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