Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SESSION 2010-2014
Project Supervisor
Dr. Muzaffar Ali
Submitted by:
Aitazaz Ahsan
(10-ME-04)
Naeem Nawaz
(10-ME-28)
M. Umer
(10-ME-36)
Umair Masood
(10-ME-82)
ABSTRACT
In order to satisfy the rising energy demands of global consumption, a new cleaner and
renewable power source needs to be explored, conceptualized, and developed. Solar energy is a
free and clean energy resource which can be used to generate power without damage to humans or
the local ecosystems. To efficiently capture this solar energy as a feasible power source, a Stirling
engine is developed and will use sunlight as a source via a solar concentrator. This project
intends to utilize methods of gathering solar energy that have not yet been commercially
implemented, and modifications to the external heating of the receiver will be made in order
to maximize the efficiency of solar Stirling engines via hybrid mechanism. These modified
solar Dish Stirling engines can produce power for a wide variety of applications. The nature
of the engine allows for both the scalability to create a solar farm as well as use for producing
power in remote areas and disaster relief. Concentrating solar power (CSP) is a unique renewable
energy technology. CSP systems have the ability to provide electricity, refrigeration and water
purification in one unit. This technology will be extremely helpful in improving the quality of life
for many people around the world who lack the energy needed to live a healthy life.
DEDICATIONS
We dedicate this project to all those humble human beings who have aided us in
any way to become what we are today, whose sacrifices seeded us success,
especially our parents who felt our pain beyond us and showered with never ending
prayers and support
We deem them as a divine source of inspiration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all thanks to ALLAH ALMIGHTY who has guided us through every step and it is only
because of His blessings that we gathered enough audacity and will to accomplish this project.
Then we would like to thank Dr. Muzaffar Ali for showing us the path of learning. He spread his
valuable time to guide us in the selection and implementation of knowledge to practical work. His
guidance is inevitable part of our successful project. Naturally, we would also like to thank our
family for giving us the gift of education. Finally, we would like to take this opportunity to
express our thanks and gratitude to all the persons who have directly or indirectly availed us in
guiding our project.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 11
1.1 Energy Crises in Pakistan: ................................................................................................................ 11
1.2 Causes Of Energy Crises: ................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.1 Aging of the Equipment: ............................................................................................................ 11
1.2.2 Wastage of Energy: .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 High Cost of Fuel: ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4 Mismanagement and Monopoly in Business: ............................................................................ 12
1.2.5 Wastage of Energy: .................................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Motivation and Justification: ............................................................................................................ 12
1.3.1 Energy Mix of Pakistan: ............................................................................................................ 13
1.4 Solar Potential of Pakistan: ............................................................................................................... 14
1.4.1 Government Policy: ................................................................................................................... 15
1.4.2 Annual Insolation: ...................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Solar Technologies: .......................................................................................................................... 15
1.5.1 PV/Solar Cells:........................................................................................................................... 15
1.5.2
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Pakistan's Direct Normal Solar Radiation (Annual) .................................................................... 14
Figure 1.2 Anatomy of Solar Cell................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 1.3 Working of PV Cell ..................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of the component parts of solar thermal power plants ........................ 18
Figure 2.2 Parabolic Trough System............................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2.3 Fresnel Trough ........................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.4 Central Receiver System ............................................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.5 10 MW PS10 central receiver plant in Spain.............................................................................. 22
Figure 2.6 Solar Dish Engine System ........................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2.7 Solar Dish Engine System Prototype (25 kW) ............................................................................ 23
Figure 2.8 Solar Updraft Tower Schematic ................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2.9 Solar Updraft Tower ................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2.10 Technology Comparison .......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2.11 Strong and Weak points of Solar Thermal Technology ............................................................ 25
Figure 3.1 Dish Engine Systems .................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 3.2 Dish Engine System Schematic ................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.3 Pifre's 1878 Sun-Power Plant Driving a Printing Press............................................................... 30
Figure 3.4 Basic Configuration of Dish Engine System ................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.5 Schematic of Solar 1 ................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.6 Concentrator Assembly for Receiver 1 ...................................................................................... 33
Figure 3.7 Receiver Assembly for Solar 1 .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.8 Stirling Energy Systems Stirling Power Units ............................................................................. 35
Figure 3.9 Stirling Engine System - SunCatcher .......................................................................................... 35
Figure 3.10 Dish Engine Power Plant .......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 5.1 The Original Stirling Engine Patent of 1816 ............................................................................... 46
Figure 5.2 Automotive Stirling Engine ........................................................................................................ 47
Figure 5.3 Brayton Rotating Unit (BRU) ...................................................................................................... 48
Figure 5.4 Stirling based Fission Surface Power System ............................................................................. 48
Figure 5.5 Cut-away diagram of a rhombic drive beta configuration Stirling engine design ..................... 49
Figure 5.6 Ideal Stirling Cycle ...................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 5.7 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine (Displacer at lower dead centre) ................................ 53
Figure 5.8 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine (Displacer at lower upper dead centre) ..................... 53
Figure 5.9 Expansion Driving the Power Piston Upwards ........................................................................... 55
Figure 5.10 Transfer of warm gas to the upper cool end ........................................................................... 55
Figure 5.11 Contraction (Driving the Power Piston Downward) ................................................................ 56
Figure 5.12 Transfer of Cooled Gas to the Lower Hot End) ........................................................................ 56
Figure 5.13 Alpha Stirling Engine ................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 5.14 Beta Stirling Engine ................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 5.15 Gamma Stirling Engine ............................................................................................................. 58
Figure 5.16 Gamma Stirling Engine ............................................................................................................. 58
Figure 5.17 Solar Stirling Schematic .......................................................................................................... 59
Figure 5.18 Non-dimentional output power, LSmax* as a function of non-dimentional engine speed,
nmax*.......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 5.19 Non-dimentional engine speed, nmax* as a function of non-dimentional non-dimentional
engine specification, S* .............................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 5.20 Online Design Calculations 1 .................................................................................................. 65
Figure 5.21 Online Design Calculations....................................................................................................... 66
Figure 6.1 Solar Concentrator (Dish Type) ................................................................................................ 67
Figure 6.2 The ANU 400m2 Solar Concentrator Dish.................................................................................. 68
Figure 6.3 The Focus of ARUN160 on focus plate at the receiver mouth .................................................. 69
Figure 6.4 ARUN160, installed at Latur for milk pasteurization - June 2005 .............................................. 69
Figure 6.5 Parabolic Dish Schematic ........................................................................................................... 70
Figure 6.6 Parabolic Dish Schematic Showing the Design Terms ............................................................... 71
Figure 6.7 Parabolic Dish Calculator ........................................................................................................... 72
Figure 6.8 Parabolic Trough Schematic....................................................................................................... 73
Figure 6.9 SGES(Solar Energy Generating Systems) Plant in California ...................................................... 73
Figure 6.10 SGES(Solar Energy Generating Systems) Plant in California .................................................... 74
Figure 6.11 Parabolic Trough Design .......................................................................................................... 74
Figure 6.12 Parabolic Trough Animation .................................................................................................... 75
Figure 7.1 Statistical Distribution of Global Solar Radiation ....................................................................... 78
Figure 7.2 Input parameter for estimation of monthly Global Solar radiation at Taxila, Pakistan (Table-1)
.................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 7.3 Calculated Solar radiation data for Taxila .................................................................................. 79
Figure 7.4 A plot of the monthly variation of total direct and diffuse solar Radiation for Taxila, Pakistan
.................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 7.5 Shows the variation of direct and diffuse radiation for Taxila, Pakistan ................................... 80
Figure 7.6 Behaviour of the cloudiness index Kt,D/H and D/H0 during a year for Taxila, Pakistan. .......... 80
Figure 8.1 Parabolic Geometry ................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 8.2 Fabricated Model of Dish Engine System .................................................................................. 86
Figure 8.3 Fabricated Gamma Type Stirling Engine .................................................................................... 87
Figure 9.1 Multi Mirror Collectors .............................................................................................................. 90
Figure 9.2 Coil for Circulating Hot Fluid (Hybrid Mechanism) .................................................................... 92
Figure 9.3 Temperature Sensor .................................................................................................................. 92
Figure 9.4 Battery to Provide Electricity during the Night ......................................................................... 92
Figure 9.5 Charge Controller ...................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 9.6 The Project Setup ....................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 9.7 Parabolic Trough Setup .............................................................................................................. 94
Figure 9.8 Project Schematic ...................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 9.9 Relationship between Time of the day & Rpm .......................................................................... 95
Figure: Dish Engine System Animation on Pro-E...................................................................................... 106
Figure: Parabolic Trough Animation on Pro-E ......................................................................................... 106
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the hot endof the engine. The highest
level of deflection is expected to be 11.7 m. .......................................................................................... 107
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the body of engine. The highest level of
deflection is expected to be 3.0 mm ........................................................................................................ 108
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the base of the displacer piston. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 1.8 mm. .............................................................................. 108
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on power piston rod for the engine. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 26 m ................................................................................. 108
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on displacer piston rod for the engine. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 17 m ................................................................................. 108
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the crankshaft for the engine. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 96 m ................................................................................. 108
Figure: The resulting deflection from the expected loading on engine bolts/ linear shaft. The highest
level of deflection is expected to be 45 m .............................................................................................. 108
10
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Energy Crises in Pakistan:
An adequate and reliable supply of energy is a prerequisite for development. The energy demand
is expected to grow rapidly in most developing countries over the next decades. For Pakistan,
population and energy demand has been increasing day by day. Most of the power generation of
Pakistan is based on fossil fuel sometimes which is playing a negative impact on finance in the
long run operation. The burning of fossil fuels has given rise to global warming with the increasing
amount of greenhouse gases. For meeting the expected energy demand as the population will rise
and to sustain economic growth, alternative form of energy renewable energy needs to be
expanded. In future fossil fuel will not be able to supply the electricity to the user as it will be
finished & not environment friendly also.
Owing to the existing energy crises, incorrect energy mix and the aging of the equipment it has
become important that we change our energy system and move towards sustainable renewable
energy sources. Solar power is perceived as an environment-friendly, low-cost source of electricity
that relies on proven technology. In order to satisfy the rising energy demands of global
consumption, a new cleaner and renewable power source needs to be explored, conceptualized,
and developed. Solar energy is a free and clean energy resource which can be used to generate
power without damage to humans or the local ecosystems.
11
12
natural disasters, but the deaths that occur after disaster hits. The lack of clean water, food,
and electricity can sometime cause more deaths than the actual disastrous event. Creating
a technology that provides power to such disastrous areas can provide much needed clean
water, and desperately needed electricity for life saving operations such as medical equipment,
communications, and food preparation. Remote power can provide a real survival opportunity
for disaster victims who have been left without a home, food, water, or power.
1.3.1 Energy Mix of Pakistan:
Total installed capacity of electricity :22477MW
Total production of electricity : 11362 MW
Total Demand of electricity : 16814 MW
Shortfall :5000 6000 MW (approx.)
Thermal Installed Capacity (Fossil Fuels) : 15000MW (approx.) : 62% share. (Oil 35.1%
& Gas 27%)
Hydropower : 6595MW (33% share in summers) and 2300 MW in winters
*(In 1995 the energy mix of hydro-thermal was 50-50%)
Nuclear : 462 MW (3.9% share)
Coal : 0.16 MW
Renewables: 42 MW (Solar/Wind)
Annual Increase in demand 8 10%
*These figures are not exact and may vary depending upon season and energy demand, policies
Industrial Users
7.50%
11.60%
46.50%
Agriculture Sector
27.50%
Commercial Sector
13
The energy consumption share pie chart shows that 46.5% of the users are domestic putting a
significant amount of load on the national grid so it is important to use decentralized energy for
domestic use so that the load on the national grid can be reduced and more share can be given to
industrial sector contributing in national development.
14
15
Photons in the sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.
Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms allowing them to flow
through the material to produce electricity.
An array of solar cell converts solar energy into usable amount of DC electricity.
16
17
Solar thermal power generation systems capture energy from solar radiation, transform it into heat,
and generate electricity from the heat using steam turbines, gas turbines, Stirling engines, or
pressure staged turbines.
Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of the component parts of solar thermal power plants
The four main types of solar thermal power plants developed and tested so far are:
Parabolic and Fresnel trough, central receiver, and dish-engine systems concentrate the sunlight to
gain higher temperatures in the power cycle. The primary resource for concentrating solar power
(CSP) technology is the direct solar irradiance perpendicular to a surface that is continuously
tracking the sun (direct normal irradiance, DNI). CSP systems have their highest potential in the
"sun belt" of the earth, which is between the 20th and 40th degree of latitude south and north. Solar
updraft towers do not concentrate the sunlight. They use the direct fraction of the sunlight as well
as the diffuse fraction. As a consequence, the working temperature is much lower than those of
concentrating systems, and thus the efficiency.
The electricity is produced by different ways:
18
Troughs and central receivers usually use a steam turbine to convert the heat into
electricity. As heat transfer fluids oil, molten salt, air, or water can be used. Central
receivers can achieve very high operating temperatures of more than 1,000 C enabling
them to produce hot air for gas turbines operation combined with downstream steam
turbine operation resulting in high conversion efficiencies.
Dish-Stirling systems can use an engine at the focus of each dish or transport heat from an
array of dishes to a single central power-generating block.
Solar updraft towers work with a central updraft tube to generate a solar induced
convective flow which drives pressure staged turbines.
In general, parabolic trough systems using thermo oil can be considered as most mature CSP
technology. Further developments of the original system are aiming at the replacement of the
synthetic heat transfer oil with direct steam or with molten salt. Direct steam generation (DSG)
allows the collection of energy at higher temperatures as well as the elimination of one heat
exchange step which increases the overall efficiency of the plant. Furthermore it avoids the need
19
to replace the heat transfer fluid as it is necessary in case of thermo oil and it avoids the use of
energy intensive manufactured and toxic oil. Both improve the plants economic and ecological
balance. The first DSG plant commercially being built will be the 50 MW project Andasol 3 in
Spain. The utilization of molten salts as primary fluid shows similar advantages like the increase
of the solar field operating temperature and therefore a better efficiency, and the elimination of the
heat exchanger in case of using a molten salt storage system. On the other hand, the solar field and
the heat transfer fluid require continuous heat tracing to avoid refreezing of the salt. Currently
there are only few studies concerned with this innovation.
The Fresnel trough simplifies the concentration system by using a plain surface of nearly flat
mirror facets, which track the sun with only a single axis and approximate the classic parabolic
mirror. The efficiency is smaller than with a classic parabolic mirror. The idea is that the lower
costs over-compensate the energy losses in the final economic assessment.
20
temperatures of more than 1,000 C can be reached. This rises the conversion efficiency and allows
for advanced energy conversion systems (combined cycle instead of steam cycle). Figure 2.2
shows the 11 MW PS 10 tower power system operated near Sevilla. One of the newest
developments is the "beam-down" concept proposed and tested partly by the Weizmann Institute
of Science in Israel. Rather than converting the concentrated solar energy at the top of the tower,
a hyperbolically shaped secondary mirror directs the converging radiation vertically downward to
a focal point at the bottom of the tower.
One of the newest developments is the "beam-down" concept proposed and tested partly by the
Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. Rather than converting the concentrated solar energy at
the top of the tower, a hyperbolically shaped secondary mirror directs the converging radiation
vertically downward to a focal point at the bottom of the tower.
The largest central receiver solar system formerly realized was the 10 MW "Solar Two" plant in
southern California. In February, 2007 the 11 MW solar thermal power plant PS10 started its
operation in Southern Spain as the first central receiver which has been built for the last years.
Currently being built in Spain is the 15 MW power tower SolarTres equipped with a 16 hours
thermal storage. Worldwide projects with a total capacity of 566 MW are planned, therein the 2 x
20 MW power tower PS20 as a successor of PS10 and a 400 MW power tower announced by
Bright Source Energy for California.
21
22
23
Continuous 24 hour operation can be achieved by placing tight water-filled tubes or bags under
the roof. The water heats up during day-time and releases its heat at night. Thus solar radiation
causes a constant updraft in the tower (although this storage system has never been installed or
tested up to now). The energy contained in the updraft is converted into mechanical energy by
pressure-staged turbines at the base of the tower, and into electrical energy by conventional
generators.
An experimental plant with a power of 50 kW was established in Manzanares (Spain) in 1981/82.
For Australia, a 200 MW solar updraft tower, shown in Figure 2.4, was planned but cancelled in
summer 2006. Currently a 40 MW updraft tower project is announced in Spain (Campo3 2006).
Due to the uncertain perspectives of this technology, the absence of a reference project, and
therefore the lack of cost and material data the solar updraft tower is not considered furthermore
in this study.
24
25
26
added value also promotes socio-economic stability. Solar thermal power stations belong to the
technologies with a high potential for local added value. They have a little fraction of high-tech
components, and about 50% of the investment is expended for steel, concrete, mirrors, and labor
which creates high local value.
2.8.7 Aiming at Conflict Neutral Technologies:
The fossil fuel energy supply system and nuclear energy technologies are increasingly involved in
military conflicts and instable political environments. The discussion is concentrated on the
possible transition from peaceful nuclear energy use to the production of weapon relevant material
(Iran). Moreover, proliferation of weapons-grade plutonium is a latent threat. STP technologies do
not incorporate conflict relevant materials. Even more important, the solar resource is abundant
and inexhaustible, and thus wont give rise to conflicts about using rights. This may reveal as an
important pushing factor for STP technologies, even more as STP addresses the same market
segment as fossil and nuclear power plants.
27
A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish (similar to a very large satellite dish).
The dish-shaped surface collects and concentrates the sun's heat onto a receiver, which
absorbs the heat and transfers it to fluid within the engine.
The heat causes the fluid to expand against a piston or turbine to produce mechanical
power.
The mechanical power is then used to run a generator or alternator to produce electricity
by an electric generator or alternator.
Dish/engine systems use dual-axis collectors to track the sun.
The ideal concentrator shape is parabolic, created either by a single reflective surface or
multiple reflectors.
There are many options for receiver and engine type, including Stirling engine and
Brayton receivers.
Dish/engine systems are not commercially available, although ongoing demonstrations
indicate good potential.
Individual dish/engine systems currently can generate about 25 kilowatts of electricity.
More capacity is possible by connecting dishes together.
These systems can be combined with natural gas and the resulting hybrid provides
continuous power generation.
The dish-Stirling system works at higher efficiencies than any other current solar
technologies, with a net solar-to-electric conversion efficiency reaching 30%.
One of the systems advantages is that it is somewhat modular, and the size of the
facility can be ramped up over a period of time.
That is compared to a traditional power plant or other large-scale solar technologies that
have to be completely built before they are operational.
28
29
The early twentieth century brought many new concentrating projects varying from solar pumps
to steam power generators to water distillation. A 50 kW solar pump made by Shuman and Boys
in 1912 was used to pump irrigation water from the Nile. Mirrored troughs were used in a 1200
m2 collector field to provide the needed steam [15]. In 1920 J.A. Harrington used a solar-powered
steam engine to pump water up 5 m into a raised tank. This was the first documented use of solar
30
storage. The water was stored for continual use as power for a turbine inside a small mine.
Concentrating technology had made a huge leap from the nineteenth century but was halted by
World War II and the resulting explosion of cheap fossil fuels. The advantages of solar power lost
their luster and the technology would merely inch forward for nearly five decades.
Starting in the late seventies and early eighties, solar power came back to the forefront of
researchers' agendas with oil and gas shortages. In 1977 in Shenandoah, GA, 114 7-meter parabolic
dishes were used to heat a silicon-based fluid for a steam Rankine cycle. The plant also supplied
waste heat to a lithium bromide absorption chiller. The plants total thermal efficiency was 44%,
making it one of the most efficient systems ever implemented. More modern systems like the
Department of Energy's Dish Engine Critical Components (DECC) project, which was built at the
National Solar Thermal Test Facility, consisted of a 89 m2 dish with a peak system electrical
efficiency of 29.4%. This system utilizes the high. The efficiency of the stirling engine to convert
the heat generated into electricity. This efficiency is unmatched by any concentrator that utilizes a
steam cycle, with one or two working fluids.
31
one addressed in this paper, which is to provide 1 kW of electrical energy for an installation cost
of only $1000 dollars. A parabolic concentrator reflected solar radiation to a central receiver. The
receiver produced intermittent steam that was injected into a steam turbine. The turbine was
connected to an electric generator that produced electricity.
The concentrator used was a fiberglass Channel Master satellite dish with an aperture diameter of
3.66 m. Solar 1 pivoted on a steel alt-azimuth type frame. Two independent linear actuators move
the dish throughout the day. The actuators were controlled automatically by a set of photo-sensing
modules. The modules consisted of light sensing LEDs that sent signals to the actuators when the
module was not oriented normal to incoming solar radiation. The power for the sensors and
actuators was provided by 2 small thin film photovoltaic panels, which charged two 24 V deep cell
batteries. The reflective material used to coat the fiberglass surface was aluminized mylar, which
has an optical reflectivity of 76%.
The system utilized an external type receiver that had an absorber diameter of 15 cm. The absorber
was coated with a high temperature black paint, which has an absorptivity and emissivity both
equal to 90%. The receiver was filled with draw salt to act as a heat storage and heat transfer
medium. Draw salt is a 1:1 molar ratio of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate. The melting
temperature of this eutectic mixture is 223oC.
The heat exchanger in the receiver consisted of an abbreviated water tube boiler, which consisted
of copper tubes coiled around the outer rim of the salt bath. They connected to a water drum in
contact with the flat absorber at the base of the receiver. The steam in the water drum exited
through copper tubes in the center of the receiver. Figure 21 shows the Solar 1 receiver assembly.
The maximum steady state thermal output for the system was 1 kW. The resulting thermal
conversion efficiency was estimated at 9.03%.
32
To produce electricity, water was held in the receiver where it pressurized and released in intervals
at a 6.67% duty cycle. The maximum electrical conversion efficiency was estimated at 1.94%,
which equated to a turbine efficiency near 15%. The maximum gross electricity production by
Solar 1 was 220 W.
The majority of the thermal losses for Solar 1 are believed to be from three major factors. First,
the concentrator efficiency was extremely poor. The reflected focal area was much larger than the
receiver. Much of the radiation was reflected onto the side of the receiver, which was heavily
insulated and thus lost. Second, the reflective material had incredibly poor weathering abilities. In
the few months before testing the surface was exposed to the elements and pollution in the
atmosphere. During final testing the mylar was visibly cloudy and turning yellow, clearly
indicating a greatly reduced reflectivity.
The last major factor hurting system efficiency was the absorber. The at plat absorber, although
compact, was extremely exposed and lost tons of energy to the environment through convection
and radiation. This type of receiver is extremely sensitive to wind, and the results show dramatic
drops in receiver temperature with any wind at all. These three factors are primarily responsible
for the low thermal conversion energy and must be improved in the second concentrator if it is to
be successful.
33
34
35
36
3.5.3 Advantages:
The main advantages of Stirling dish CSP technologies are that:
The location of the generator - typically, in the receiver of each dish - helps reduce heat
losses and means that the individual dish-generating capacity is small, extremely modular
(typical sizes range from 5 to 50 kW) and are suitable for distributed generation.
Stirling dish technologies are capable of achieving the highest efficiency of all types of
CSP systems.
Stirling dishes use dry cooling and do not need large cooling systems or cooling towers,
allowing CSP to provide electricity in water-constrained regions.
Stirling dishes, given their small foot print and the fact they are self-contained, can be
placed on slopes or uneven terrain, unlike PTC, LFC and solar towers.
These advantages mean that Stirling dish technologies could meet an economically valuable niche
in many regions, even though the levelised cost of electricity is likely to be higher than other CSP
technologies. Apart from costs, another challenge is that dish systems cannot easily use storage.
Stirling dish systems are still at the demonstration stage and the cost of mass-produced systems
remains unclear. With their high degree of scalability and small size, Stirling dish systems will be
an alternative to solar photovoltaic in arid regions.
37
3) Convection heat loss from cavity receiver in parabolic dish solar thermal power
system:
This paper aims to present a comprehensive review and systematic summarization of the state of
the art in the research and progress in the convection heat loss from cavity receiver in parabolic
dish solar thermal power system can significantly reduce the efficiency and consequently the cost
effectiveness of the system.
Conclusion:
It is believed that this comprehensive review will be beneficial to the design, simulation,
performance assessment and applications of the solar parabolic dish cavity receivers.
Reference: Shuang-Ying Wua,*, Lan Xiao a, Yiding Cao b, You-Rong Li a
38
39
objective optimization could yield results with a relatively low deviation from the ideal solution
in comparison to the conventional single objective approach.
Reference: Mohammad Hossein Ahmadi, Hoseyn Sayyaadi , Saeed Dehghani, Hadi Hosseinzade
19 June 2013 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering-Energy Division, K.N. Toosi University of
Technology, P.O. Box 19395-1999, No. 15-19, Pardis Str., Mollasadra Ave., Vanak Sq., Tehran
1999 143344, Iran
8) An experimental study on the development of a b-type Stirling engine for low and
moderate temperature heat sources:
In this paper the beta type Stirling engine is used and cylinder displacer is modified by integrating
the receiver. Actually they have provided the three cavities (receiver) of Aluminum, copper and
stainless steel. The best results are obtained by Aluminum followed by stainless steel and then
copper respectively.
Reference: Fatih Aksoy a, Halit Karabulut b, 2 August 2013, Department of Automotive
Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Afyon Kocatepe University, 03200 Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
9) Performance of a low cost solar parabolic dish generating system:
Indian students have worked on low cost steam generating system using innovated material and
design of dish concentrator. Preliminary field measurements and cost, as well as performance
analyses of the system, indicate a solar to steam conversion efficiency of 70-80% at 450oC and a
collector system cost of Rs 8000-9000/m2 .
Reference: N.D. Kaushika, K.S. Reddy, 17 August 1999, Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute
of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110 016, India.
10) A parabolic dish/AMTEC solar thermal power system and its performance
evaluation:
In this paper researchers have modified the collector and have used an alkali metal thermal to
electric converter AMTEC. For assessing the overall performance efficiency of the system a
theoretical analysis have been undertaken along with the parametric investigation. Results show
that the efficiency can reach up to 20.6% with an power output of 18.54kW corresponding to
operating temperature of 1280 K. optimal condenser temperature is found out to be 600 K. The
parabolic dish/AMTEC solar power system exhibits a great potential and competitiveness over
other solar dish/engine systems.
Reference: Shuang-Ying Wu a, Lan Xiao a, Yiding Cao b, You-Rong Li a, 27 August 2009,
Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Florida International University, Miami,
FL 33174, USA.
40
11) Techno Economic Study of the Utilization of Solar Dish Stirling Technology for
Electricity Generation at the Algerian Sahara:
Students of Algeria have undertaken the research on solar to electric energy generation using
100MW Stirling engine in Africa desert as it have very large amount of wasteland suitable for
solar energy utilization. Hydrogen is used as working gas. They have used SAM (Solar Advisor
Model) to evaluate the monthly energy production, annual energy output and localized cost of
energy (LCOE). Tamanrasset is found out to be suitable place for installation of solar thermal
power plant among Algeria, Sahara and Tamanrasset with lowest LCOE of 11.5 c$/kWh and
highest annual energy output of 221 GWh/y.
Reference: Mohamed Abbas, Bousaad Boumeddane, Noureddine Said, Ahmed Chikouche 23
December 2010, Center of Renewable Energy Development (CDER), Road of Observatory,
Bouzareah, Algiers, Algeria.
12) A Methodology of Computation, Design and Optimization of Solar Stirling Power Pla
nt:
In this paper the researchers have developed a methodology has been devised to find out no of
houses that can be fueled using Stirling modules. Minimum area of fuel cell is determined to
facilitate each user for daily use of energy. Fuel cell efficiency as a function of electric current
density is determined. Stored hydrogen is used as working fluid in stirling engine. An example
illustrates all the parameters in detail.
Reference: Stoian Petrescu a, Camelia Petre a, Monica Costea a, Octavian Malancioiu a, Nicolae
Boriaru a, 28 October 2009, Department of Engineering Thermodynamics, University
POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania.
13) Analysis and design consideration of mean temperature differential Stirling engine
for solar application:
This article presents design and analysis of a mean temperature differential stirling engine for solar
application. The target power source is solar dish which will supply a source temperature of 320oC.
The system is designed for a temperature difference of 300oC with sink at 20oC. In the analytical
model during the design stage the critical parameters of engine design are determined with energy
losses and pressure drop in the heat exchangers. The heat exchangers are designed to be of high
effectiveness and low pressure drop. The optimal swept volume at which the power is maximum
is 75 cm3 for operating frequency of 75Hz with the power 250W and the dead volume is 370cm3.
Reference: (Iskander Tlili, Youssef Timoumi, Sassi Ben Nasrallah, Laboratoire dEtude des
Syste`mes Thermiques et Energetiques Ecole Nationale dIngenieurs de Monastir, Rue Ibn El
Jazzar, 5019 Monastir, Tunisie)
41
14) An Analysis of Beta Type Stirling Engine with Rhombic Drive Mechanism:
The aim of the study is about the design methodology of beta-type stirling engine with rhombic
drive mechanism to provide a clear understanding of system design considerations, the
optimization of phase angle, considering the effect of overlapping volume between compression
and expansion spaces. It is also noticed that variation of compression space volume with phase
angle remains sinusoidal for any phase difference. The aim of the present work is to find a feasible
solution which should lead to a design of a single cylinder, beta type Stirling engine of 1.5 kWe
capacity for rural electrification.
Reference: (D.J. Shendage, S.B. Kedare, S.L. Bapat, Department of Energy Science and
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India)
15) Dynamic simulation of a beta-type Stirling engine with cam-drive mechanism via the
combination of the thermodynamic and dynamic models:
The aim of study is the dynamic simulation of a beta-type Stirling engine with cam-drive
mechanism used in concentrating solar power system. A dynamic model of the mechanism is
developed and then incorporated with the thermodynamic model so as to predict the transient
behavior of the engine in the hot-start period. The transient variations in gas properties inside the
engine chambers and the dynamic behavior of the engine mechanism should be handled
simultaneously via the coupling of the thermodynamic and dynamic models. An extensive
parametric study of the effects of different operating and geometrical parameters has been
performed, and results regarding the effects of mass moment of inertia of the flywheel, initial
rotational speed, initial charged pressure, heat source temperature, phase angle, gap size, displacer
length, and piston stroke on the engine transient behavior are investigated.
Reference: (Chin-Hsiang Cheng, Ying-Ju Yu, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, Ta-Shieh Road, Tainan, Taiwan 70101, R.O.C)
16) Prediction and optimization of the performance of parabolic solar dish concentrator
with sphere receiver using analytical function:
The aim of the research is to optimize the performance of parabolic solar dish concentrator with
sphere receiver using analytical function. The results indicate that the intercept factor is related to
the rim angle of reflector and the ratio of receiver angle to the optical error when the optical error
is larger than or equal to 5 mrad, but is related to the rim angle, receiver angle and optical error in
less than 5 mrad optical error. Also the research includes a quick process to optimize the system
to maximum solar energy to net heat efficiency of solar dish concentrator with sphere receiver
which is 20% more than solar trough and tower system including higher cosine factor and lower
heat loss of the receiver.
42
Reference: (Weidong Huanga, Farong Huang, Peng Hu, Zeshao Chen, Department of Earth
Chemistry and Environmental Science, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai
Road, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China)
43
Collector:
This paper presents mathematical modeling of thermoelectric power generator driven by solar
parabolic dish collector. The system is modeled by set of mathematical equations from the first
law of thermodynamics for the subcomponents of solar parabolic dish collector and thermoelectric
power generator. The model is solved analytically for the a set of operating and design parameters.
Modeling results can be useful for further development of the system to study it economic viability.
Reference: S. Shanmugam, A. R. Veerappan, Dec08,2010, Faculty of mechanical engineering,
National Institute of Received Technology, Trichirappalli 620015, India.
22) Why working on Solar Energy Conversion? Benefits of solar systems?
In this paper a survey of the various types of solar thermal collectors and applications is presented.
Initially, an analysis of the environmental problems related to the use of conventional sources of
energy is presented and the benefits offered by renewable energy systems are outlined. The results
showed that solar system are proved to be useful for various applications which include solar water
heating, which comprise thermo syphon, integrated collector storage, direct and indirect systems
and air systems, space heating and cooling, which comprise, space heating and service hot water,
air and water systems and heat pumps, refrigeration, industrial process heat, which comprise air
and water systems and steam generation systems, desalination, thermal power systems, which
comprise the parabolic trough, power tower and dish systems, solar furnaces, and chemistry
applications and therefore, they should be used whenever possible because they are economically
feasible.
Reference: Soteris A. Kalogirou, 10 February 2004, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Higher Technical Institute, P.O. Box 20423, Nicosia 2152, Cyprus
44
23) Numerical model for predicting thermodynamic cycle and thermal efficiency of a
beta-type Stirling engine with rhombic-drive mechanism:
The purpose is to develop a numerical model for a beta-type stirling engine with rhombic-drive
mechanism. The energy equations for the control volumes in the expansion chamber, the
compression chamber, and the regenerative channel are derived and solved. A fully developed
flow velocity profile in the regenerative channel, in terms of the reciprocating velocity of the
displacer and the instantaneous pressure difference between the expansion and the compression
chambers, is derived for calculation of the mass flow rate through the regenerative channel. The
internal irreversibility caused by pressure difference in the two chambers and the viscous shear
effects due to the motion of the reciprocating displacer on the fluid flow in the regenerative channel
gap are included. Periodic variation of pressures, volumes, temperatures, masses, and heat transfers
in the expansion and the compression chambers are predicted. A parametric study of the
dependence of the power output and thermal efficiency on the geometrical and physical
parameters, involving regenerative gap, distance between two gears, offset distance from the crank
to the center of gear, and the heat source temperature, has been performed.
Reference: (Chin-Hsiang Cheng, Ying-Ju Yu, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, Ta-Shieh Road, Tainan 70101, Taiwan R.O.C)
45
46
In 1972 Ford Motor Company teamed up with Philips to develop an automotive Stirling engine,
and gage its potential for automobiles. What was produced was a four cylinder, 170 Horse Power
Stirling engines which used a swash plate to transfer the power from the Stirling engines
into torque that could be connected to a traditional transmission. The engine ended up having
little potential for use in automobiles due to the nature of external combustion engines inability to
produce immediate power.
There is however concepts to revive the automobile Stirling engine for use in hybrid electric
vehicles because of its higher power to weight ratio and overall efficiency.
Beginning in the 1970s NASAs Glenn Research Center began investigations and development
of high efficiency Stirling engines to be used in space applications. The decision to use
Stirling engines was centered on their relative reliability compared to other mechanical
engines, simplicity, low noise (audible, E&M), essentially nonexistent vibration (when convertors
were paired), and most importantly high power to weight ratio. The Brayton Rotating Unit
(BRU) Project aim at obtaining higher efficiency power conversion system for isotope, reactor,
and solar receiver hear sources.
47
NASA is now taking a serious interest in Stirling engines for their potential use on other planetary
bodies. One of the most prominent possibilities is the use of a Stirling based Fission Surface Power
System which can generate power of about 50kWe per unit. This form of power generation is
a viable solution to the monumental problem of attempting a manned mission to the Lunar
and Martian Surfaces for extended periods of time. This type of system could be used to
provide power for rovers, remote science experiments, or as a utility power source for an outpost
in any of our celestial orbiting bodies.
48
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
*Not shown: Heat source and heat sinks. In this design the displacer piston is constructed without a
purpose-built regenerator.
49
Designing Stirling engine heat exchangers is a balance between high heat transfer with low viscous
pumping losses and low dead space (unswept internal volume). With engines operating at high
powers and pressures, the heat exchangers on the hot side must be made of alloys that retain
considerable strength at temperature and that will also not corrode or creep.
5.2.2 Regenerator:
In a Stirling engine, the regenerator is an internal heat exchanger and temporary heat store placed
between the hot and cold spaces such that the working fluid passes through it first in one direction
then the other, taking heat from the fluid in one direction, and returning it in the other. It can be as
simple as metal mesh or foam, and benefits from high surface area, high heat capacity, low
conductivity and low flow friction. Its function is to retain within the system that heat which would
otherwise be exchanged with the environment at temperatures intermediate to the maximum and
minimum cycle temperatures, thus enabling the thermal efficiency of the cycle to approach the
limiting Carnot efficiency.
The primary effect of regeneration in a Stirling engine is to increase the thermal efficiency by
'recycling' internal heat which would otherwise pass through the engine irreversibly. As a
secondary effect, increased thermal efficiency yields a higher power output from a given set of hot
and cold end heat exchangers. It is these which usually limit the engine's heat throughput. In
practice this additional power may not be fully realized as the additional "dead space" (unswept
volume) and pumping loss inherent in practical regenerators reduces the potential efficiency gains
from regeneration.
The design challenge for a Stirling engine regenerator is to provide sufficient heat transfer capacity
without introducing too much additional internal volume ('dead space') or flow resistance. These
inherent design conflicts are one of many factors which limit the efficiency of practical Stirling
engines. A typical design is a stack of fine metal wire meshes, with low porosity to reduce dead
space, and with the wire axes perpendicular to the gas flow to reduce conduction in that direction
and to maximize convective heat transfer.
The regenerator is the key component invented by Robert Stirling and its presence distinguishes a
true Stirling engine from any other closed cycle hot air engine. Many small 'toy' Stirling engines,
particularly low-temperature difference (LTD) types, do not have a distinct regenerator component
and might be considered hot air engines, however a small amount of regeneration is provided by
the surface of the displacer itself and the nearby cylinder wall, or similarly the passage connecting
the hot and cold cylinders of an alpha configuration engine.
5.2.3 Cooler / Cold Side Heat Exchanger:
In small, low power engines this may simply consist of the walls of the cold spaces, but where
larger powers are required a cooler using a liquid like water is needed in order to transfer sufficient
heat.
50
51
In a Stirling engine, a fixed amount of a gas is sealed inside the engine. The Stirling cycle involves
a series of events that change the pressure of the gas inside the engine, causing it to do work. There
are several properties of gases that are critical to the operation of Stirling engines:
If you have a fixed amount of gas in a fixed volume of space and you raise the temperature of that
gas, the pressure will increase.
If you have a fixed amount of gas and you compress it (decrease the volume of its space), the
temperature of that gas will increase.
5.3.1 The Stirling Engine Cycle:
The Stirling cycle engine consists of four thermodynamic process cycles as show in Figure
12 Constant Volume Heat Addition
23 Isothermal Expansion
34 Constant Volume Heat Rejection
41 Isothermal Compression
52
53
Because the Stirling engine is a closed cycle, it contains a fixed mass of gas called the "working
fluid", most commonly air, hydrogen or helium. In normal operation, the engine is sealed and no
gas enters or leaves the engine. No valves are required, unlike other types of piston engines. The
Stirling engine, like most heat engines, cycles through four main processes: cooling, compression,
heating and expansion. This is accomplished by moving the gas back and forth between hot and
cold heat exchangers, often with a regenerator between the heater and cooler. The hot heat
exchanger is in thermal contact with an external heat source, such as a fuel burner, and the cold
heat exchanger being in thermal contact with an external heat sink, such as air fins. A change in
gas temperature will cause a corresponding change in gas pressure, while the motion of the piston
causes the gas to be alternately expanded and compressed.
The gas follows the behaviour described by the gas laws which describe how a gas' pressure,
temperature and volume are related. When the gas is heated, because it is in a sealed chamber, the
pressure rises and this then acts on the power piston to produce a power stroke. When the gas is
cooled the pressure drops and this means that less work needs to be done by the piston to compress
the gas on the return stroke, thus yielding a net power output.
The ideal Stirling cycle is unattainable in the real world, and the actual Stirling cycle is inherently
less efficient than the Otto cycle of internal combustion engines. The efficiency of Stirling
machines is linked to the environmental temperature; a higher efficiency is obtained when the
weather is cooler, thus making this type of engine less interesting in places with warmer climates.
As with other external combustion engines, Stirling engines can use heat sources other than from
combustion of fuels.
When one side of the piston is open to the atmosphere, the operation is slightly different. As the
sealed volume of working gas comes in contact with the hot side, it expands, doing work on both
the piston and on the atmosphere. When the working gas contacts the cold side, its pressure drops
below atmospheric pressure and the atmosphere pushes on the piston and does work on the gas.
To summarize, the Stirling engine uses the temperature difference between its hot end and cold
end to establish a cycle of a fixed mass of gas, heated and expanded, and cooled and compressed,
thus converting thermal energy into mechanical energy. The greater the temperature difference
between the hot and cold sources, the greater the thermal efficiency. The maximum theoretical
efficiency is equivalent to the Carnot cycle, however the efficiency of real engines is less than this
value due to friction and other losses.
54
piston Stirling engine later in this article, shows how a device called a regenerator can improve the
power output of the engine by temporarily storing heat.
5.5.2 Decrease Power Usage in Stage Three:
In part three of the cycle, the pistons perform work on the gas, using some of the power produced
in part one. Lowering the pressure during this part of the cycle can decrease the power used during
this stage of the cycle (effectively increasing the power output of the engine). One way to decrease
the pressure is to cool the gas to a lower temperature.
The four phases of the cycle are explained in a clear manner as follows:
Expansion: The majority of the gas is in contact with the warmer plate. The gas heats and expands,
driving the power piston upward
Transfer: Flywheel momentum carries the displacer downward, transferring the warm gas to the
upper, cool end of the cylinder
Contraction: Now the majority of the gas is in contact with the cool plate. The gas cools and
contracts, drawing the power piston downward.
Transfer: Flywheel momentum carries the displacer up, transferring the cooled gas back to the
lower, hot end of the cylinder.
56
57
The stirling engine what we have utilized in our project is Gamma Stirling Engine, due to its
simple design and easy availability of the components.
58
The hot cylinder is heated by the solar concentrator which provides the necessary heat for the
stirling engine to operate whereas the cold cylinder in insulated from the heat of the solar
concentrator.
59
Thus, nonlubricated, lowcoefficient of friction materials (such as graphite), with low normal
forces on the moving parts, are preferred, especially for sliding seals. At times sliding surfaces
are avoided altogether by using diaphragms for sealed pistons. These are some of the factors that
allow Stirling engines to have lower maintenance requirements and a longer life than internal
combustion engines.
5.7.2 Pressurization:
In most high power Stirling engines, both the minimum pressure and mean pressure of the working
fluid are above atmospheric pressure. This initial engine pressurization can be realized by a pump,
or by filling the engine from a compressed gas tank, or even just by sealing the engine when the
mean temperature is lower than the mean operating temperature. All of these methods increase the
mass of working fluid in the thermodynamic cycle.
60
side heat exchanger is often at very high temperature, so the materials must resist the
corrosive effects of the heat source, and have low creep.
61
specification, S*, and the non-dimentional engine speed, nmax*. Experimental equations which are
shown in the figures are estimeating the characteristics of the engines well.
62
As the former simple performance prediction methods for the Stirling engines, Beale number,
BN, or West number, WN is used.
where:
63
Bn = 0.07
P = 0.8 MPa
F= 25 Hz
Wo= (0.07)*(0.8)*(36)*(25) = 49.8 ~ 50W
64
65
66
6 SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
A solar concentrator uses lenses, called Fresnel lenses, mirrors or aluminium foil which take a
large area of sunlight and direct it towards a specific spot by bending the rays of light and focusing
them. A solar concentrator dish converts energy from the sun and can be used to boil water into
steam to drive a steam engine or steam turbine. It can also be used to concentrate the sun onto a
solar cell, like the ones produced by Boeing-Spectrolab who claim a conversion efficiency of 40.7
percent.
The ANU 400 m2 solar concentrator dish system, seen below is a prototype and was completed in
1994. It is a prototype high performance solar concentrator intended for use in large arrays for
multi-megawatt scale electric power generation. Since its completion, the prototype has been
operated experimentally and been the subject of ongoing design refinement and research and
development.
A second dish prototype was sold and installed at the Ben Gurion University in Israel by
ANUTECH Pty Ltd. The prototype on the ANU campus is currently configured to produce
superheated steam at 500C, 4.5MPa. The campus unit drives a small reciprocating steam engine
with a grid connected generator. The intention for commercial scale solar thermal power
generation, is that an array of dishes would feed steam via a steam line network to a single high
efficiency central power block using standard turbine or engine technology.
67
The solar concentrator dish system below, named ARUN [Trademark Registered] is a Fresnel
Paraboloid Concentrating Solar Collector System, with two-axes tracking flat reflector dish of 160
sq.m aperture area having 800 mm diameter cavity receiver at focal point. This one was installed
at Latur (India) to supply thermal energy (heat) to a milk pasteurization plant, and reduces costs
incurred from normal power sources.
It is a solar device providing medium range temperatures for industrial thermal applications. The
dish and support structure are made up of mild steel (MS). The reflectors made up of flat mirrors
are inclined at pre-calculated angle. They reflect and concentrate the solar beam radiation at its
focus having about 500 mm diameter area and generate high temperature heat energy. It is
absorbed by hat-shaped downward facing cavity receiver designed for minimum thermal loss This
receiver has low view factor of about 0.1 that reduces radiative losses.
The ARUN Solar Concentrator Dish System can be used in ADD ON mode and can be retrofitted
to the existing boiler or heater system in many industries. This mode delivers energy whenever
beam radiation is available and saves fuel used. This uses minimum storage capacity. The thermal
energy generated can also be stored in thermal storage to supply energy requirements during
evening and night. Pressurized water system is used for evacuation and storage of thermal energy.
The unit is best suited for the industrial applications using thermal energy from electricity or liquid
fossil fuels. The thermal medium can be high or low pressure process steam, hot water, hot air, hot
thermic fluid or oil.
68
It can be used for providing process heat for a wide range of industries and chemical processing
plants using boilers or heaters, textile mills, sugar mills, vegetable oil mills, agro and food
processing industries, timber industry, milk processing, drying of horticultural, food and fruits
products, drying of chemicals as well as units using vapour absorption refrigeration for space
cooling. It is also suitable for hotels and hospitals for providing hot water, steam and cooling.
A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that concentrates
light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two
axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250700 C (523973 K (4821,292 F) and
then used by a Stirling engine to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-toelectric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability.
The world record for solar to electric efficiency was set at 31.25% by SES dishes at the National
Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) . The SES installation in Maricopa, Phoenix was the largest
Stirling Dish power installation in the world until it was sold to United Sun Systems. Subsequently,
larger parts of the installation have been moved to China as part of the huge energy demand.
A wide variety of solar concentrators are currently commercially available in order to
concentrate solar rays for the purpose of power generation. There are many forms of solar
concentrators, but the most common forms are those which utilize curved, parabolic mirrors and
those which use Fresnel lenses.
69
When Sun light (parallel rays) falls onto a correctly aligned parabolic mirror it will be reflected
back towards a single point known as the focus. The parabolic mirror therefore directs the energy
arriving over its surface to a 'hot spot' at the focus. You can use this energy to heat something.
The basic shape of a parabola is derived from the equation:
y = 4ax--------- [1]
Where y represents the distance away from the mirror Centre and x represents the 'height above'
the center. The constant a is known as the focal length - the distance from the origin to the focus
point.
The basic geometry of a parabola mirror. Light rays coming from infinity will tend to be reflected
towards a point called the focus.
As we want to make a parabolic reflector to our own particular specification i.e. in terms of its size
D (i.e. having maximum y = D/2), height h and focal length a, then equation 1 becomes:
a = D/16h------------------------- [2]
D= 1.82 m, h=0.3048
Focal length=a= (1.82)2/16(0.3048) = 0.679 m
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Where as
D-length, h-height, a-focus and j (an offset used to make the template version
I chose to design the mirror surface height (h) to be the same value as a - the focus distance above
the canter of the mirror (so a = h in this example 0.3048 m). In this case finding the focus is simple
- imagine a line going across the top of the device, the centre of this line is where the focus is.
Rearranging equation 2 we get the diameter / length of the solar heater D to be:
D = 16ah, so using h = a = 0.679m we get:
D = (16x0.679 x0.3048) = (3.31) = 1.82 m=6 ft=6/3.2808=1.82 m Linear Dia of our dish for
50 W stirling.
We have y = 4ax and a = 0.679 m= 2.23 ft approx.
For our solar dish shown above we get x = y/12ft
71
Whereas the y axis represents the distance away from the mirrors Centre while x represents the
'height' above the base, the lowest point of the mirror (its Centre).
Linear Diameter
06.42 ft
Diameter
06.00 ft
Depth
01.00 ft
Focal Length
02.25 ft
Volume
14.14 ft
Area
28.27 ft
X
-3.00
-2.63
-2.25
-1.88
-1.50
-1.13
-0.75
-0.38
0.00
0.38
0.75
1.13
1.50
1.88
72
Y
1.00
0.77
0.56
0.39
0.25
0.14
0.06
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.06
0.14
0.25
0.39
The receiver is a tube positioned directly above the middle of the parabolic mirror and filled with
a working fluid. A working fluid (e.g. molten salt) is heated to 150350 C (423623 K (302
662 F)) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation
system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The Solar Energy Generating
Systems (SEGS) plants in California, the world's first commercial parabolic trough plants.
In UET Taxila we already have the facility of parabolic trough, which is coated with aluminium
sheet. This is used as secondary source of heating for our hybrid mechanism. In the parabolic
trough we use cooking oil as working fluid which is heated in the pipe along the central axis of
parabolic trough.
73
74
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(1)
Where n is the monthly mean daily no. of sunshine hour and N is the day length at particular
location and a and b are the climatological determined regression constant. n/N is also called
the possible percentage of sunshine hour The regression constant a and b have been
obtained from the relationship given as (6) and also confirmed by Frere et.al method (Fere et.al
1980) as given below:
a= -0.110+0.235 cos +0.323(n/N)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where ISC is the solar constant, is the latitude of the area, is the solar declination and
ws is the sunset hour angle.
d= 23.45 sin[360*248+n/365]
(5)
Cos w = -tantan
(6)
(7)
Hd /H =1.390-4.027K+5.53(K) 2-3.108(KT)3
(8)
Where Hd is the monthly mean of daily diffuse solar radiation and K = Hd/H is the clearness index.
76
(9)
Where KT is the clearness index. H is the global solar radiation and Ho the extraterrestrial
insulation. The Taxila is very clear throughout the year except July.
7.1.5 Statistical Distribution:
Statistical distribution of global solar radiation indicates that the availability of global solar
radiation at Taxila is 65% during the month of May-June and 68% during the month of September
to December. In monsoon period it is 60%.
77
Figure 6.2 Input parameter for estimation of monthly Global Solar radiation at Taxila, Pakistan (Table-1)
78
Figure 6.4 A plot of the monthly variation of total direct and diffuse solar Radiation for
Taxila, Pakistan
79
Figure 6.5 Shows the variation of direct and diffuse radiation for Taxila, Pakistan
Figure 6.6 Behaviour of the cloudiness index Kt,D/H and D/H0 during a year for Taxila,
Pakistan.
80
81
A parabola is the locus of a point that moves so that its distances from a fixed line and
a fixed point are equal. This is shown on figure where the fixed line is called the directory
and the fixed point F, the focus. Note that the length FR equals the length RD. The line
perpendicular to the directory and passing through the focus F is called the axis of the
parabola. The parabola intersects its axis at a point V called the vertex, which is exactly
midway between the focus and the directrix.
Geometric Concentration Ratio (CRg). The area of the collector Aperture Aa divided by the
surface area of the receiver Ar
Optical concentration ratio relates directly to lens or reflector quality; however, in many
collectors the surface area of the receiver is larger than the concentrated solar image
Directory. If the origin is taken at the vertex V and the x-axis along the axis of the parabola,
the equation of the parabola is
where f, the focal length, is the distance VF from the vertex to the focus. When the origin
is shifted to the focus F as is often done in optical studies, with the vertex to the left of
the origin, the equation of a parabola becomes
In polar coordinates, using the usual definition of r as the distance from the origin and the
angle from the x-axis tor, we have for a parabola with its vertex at the origin and symmetrical
about the x-axis
82
Often in solar studies, it is more useful to define the parabolic curve with the origin at F
and in terms of the angle ( )in polar coordinates with the origin at F. The angle is measured
from the line VF and the parabolic radius p, is the distance from the focus F to the curve.
Shifting the origin to the focus F, we have
The parabolic shape is widely used as the reflecting surface for concentrating solar collectors
because it has the property that, for any line parallel to the axis of the parabola, the angle p
between it and the surface normal is equal to the angle between the normal and a line to the focal
point. Since solar radiation arrives at the earth in essentially parallel rays and by Snell's law the
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, All radiation parallel to the axis of the
parabola will be reflected to a single point F, which is the focus. Careful inspection of the
geometry described in Figure (3) will show that the following is true:
The general expressions given so far for the parabola define a curve infinite in extent.
Solar concentrators use a truncated portion of this curve. The extent of this truncation is usually
defined in terms of the rim angle ( ) or the ratio of the focal length to aperture diameter f/d.
The scale (size) of the curve is then specified in terms of a linear dimension such as the
aperture diameter d or the focal length f. This is readily apparent in Figure (2) which shows
various finite parabola having a common focus and the same aperture diameter.
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In a like manner, the rim angle (B) may be found in terms of the parabola dimensions:
Another property of the parabola that may be of use in understanding solar concentrator
design is the arc lengths. This may be found for a particular parabola from Equation (3) by
integrating a differential segment of this curve and applying the limits x = h and y= d/2 as
pictured in Figure(2). The result is
where d is the distance across the aperture (or opening) of the parabola as shown in Figure
(2) and h is the distance from the vertex to the aperture. The cross sectional area of the
space enclosed between a parabola and a line across its aperture and normal to the axis is
given by
this area should not be confused with the reflecting surface area of a parabolic trough or
dish or their aperture areas[10]
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All are constants dependent on the materials used and the structure accuracy of the collector.
These constants are nominally lumped into single constant term.
Etta: the optical efficiency of the collector Thus, the quantity of thermal energy produced by the
solar collector is described by
85
= 0.018 m
=
0.679 m
= 45
86
receiver design give more chance to absorb the internal reflected photons. The dimensions
of conical cavity are (200 )mm depth and (170)mm a aperture diameter .the length of the
coil (4m) consisting of (13) windings of reduced diameter serially, with tube diameter of
(12.5) mm.
Otherwise study the temperature with time for receiver inlet and outlet and ambient, in
clear day where ambient temperature semi constant and inlet ,outlet temperature increasing
with the time the aperture diameter of the cylindrical receiver is chosen according to the
diameter of the focus of the dish. Two thermocouples of k-type were used for measuring
in inlet and outlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid(HTF).
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9 PROJECT INNOVATION
High temperature can be achieved by concentrating solar radiation. Using concentrating systems
solar power plants produce electric power by converting the sun's heat energy into mechanical
energy via EC heat engines. A dish/engine system uses a reflective surface dish (similar to a very
large satellite dish).The dish-shaped surface collects and concentrates the sun's heat onto a
receiver, which absorbs the heat and transfers it to fluid within the engine. The heat causes the
fluid to expand against a piston or displacer to produce mechanical power. The continuous
expansion and contraction of working fluid helps in producing output work to rotating shaft. The
mechanical power is then used to run a generator or alternator to produce electricity by an electric
generator or alternator.
In our project we basically tried to concentrate solar energy by using aluminum foil type parabolic
dish collector on a gamma stirling engine. We have tried to implement this technology on small
scale for the first 50 W electricity and we have tried to run it on hybrid mechanism.
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All the work which has done on solar concentrators is based upon single heat source but we are
utilizing two sources at the same time which are:
(i) Heat Energy from Sun
(ii) Heat energy from cooking fluid (hot water) which can be used as a secondary
for night timings. Also it helps in improving efficiency of solar system.
source
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in one unit. This technology will be extremely helpful in improving the quality of life for many
people around the world who lack the energy needed to live a healthy life.
Few difficulties which we have faced during development of our project are as follows
When we have tried to implement hybrid technology by using coil with concentrator point
section this coil act as a extended surface so convection heat loss took place. Due to heat
loss by extended surface heat transfer by secondary fluid is not proved very effective on
this scale.
If we will try to implement this research on large scale solar power plants by using
secondary fluid as a liquid having high thermal heat capacity like cooking oil or nano fluids
then this research will prove to be very effective. Typical efficiency of solar dish stirling
unit is 30% approx. But by implementing secondary source mechanism we can minimize
exergetic loss and efficiency can increase up to 40%.
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The major constraint of Stirling engines is the ability to generate enough heat on the hot
end while cooling the cold end in order to produce the necessary change in
temperature so that power generation in feasible. Therefore, the main constraint of this
design is its ability to concentrate enough sunlight on the hot end while chilling the cold
end.
The amount of sunlight that can be concentrated is dependent on a few factors, some of
which can be controlled by the design and some of which are outside of the
engineering design scope. Such factors that are outside of our control are the position of
the engine relative to the Earth and the climate of that region. However, these
environmental factors can be improved by ensuring that there is no aerial coverage near
the engine such as trees and buildings so that the solar concentrator can optimize the solar
rays in that region. Due to the constraints of the sunlight in the operating region, the most
important consideration when conceptualizing the engine is the optimization of the solar
concentrator.
In the event of low solar heat throughout the day, season, or location, the efficiency of the
engine could be optimized by the following factors which work to counteract the loss due
to the availability of the sun.
The efficiency of the engine can be improved significantly by selecting effective
extended finned surfaces to assist in the heat dissipation from the cold end. This
will cause the cold end temperature to be significantly lower than the heat on the hot end
and increase the change in temperature. Another way to increase efficiency is to select a
working fluid within the cylinder which can adequately transfer heat.
The Stirling engine will be a gamma configuration with a power capacity equal to the
amount the solar collector harvests at peak hours of the day. This power capacity will be
achieved via the use of a solar concentrator large enough to supply the hot end
with sufficient heat and by generating a cold end which can efficiently dissipate heat into
the atmosphere or working fluid in order to produce the needed change in temperature
to create the volume changes in the cylinder. The efficiency of the engine can be maximized
by selecting appropriate fins and extended surfaces as well as accurately focusing
sunlight on the hot end.
Other important consideration when designing a solar Stirling engine is to take into
account the locations of where the engine will be placed, since the sunlight reaching the
engine is dependent on its location on the globe. Along the same lines, allotting
adequate space without coverage from trees and building so that the sunlight reaching the
engine is not blocked.
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9.5.7 Results:
The results indicate that hybrid mechanism has increased the rpm at peak solar hour from 240
to 301.
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APPENDEX A
DETAILED ENGINEERING DRAWINGS OF ALL PARTS AND PRO-E
ANIMATIONS
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
APPENDIX B
DEFLECTION ANALYSIS OF PARTS
The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the hot end of the engine. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 11.7 m.
107
The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the base of the displacer
piston. The highest level of deflection is expected to be 1.8 mm.
The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the body of engine. The
highest level of deflection is expected to be 3.0 mm
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The resulting deflection from the expected loading on displacer piston rod for the
engine. The highest level of deflection is expected to be 17 m
The resulting deflection from the expected loading on power piston rod for the
engine. The highest level of deflection is expected to be 26 m
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The resulting deflection from the expected loading on engine bolts/ linear
shaft. The highest level of deflection is expected to be 45 m
The resulting deflection from the expected loading on the crankshaft for the
engine. The highest level of deflection is expected to be 96 m
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CONCLUSION:
By utilizing hybrid mechanism we have witnessed an increase in rpm and hence the output. The
hybrid concentrated solar thermal power plants around the world use fossil fuels as their hybrid
mechanism. We have for the first time not only used a renewable hybrid source but also have
combined two technologies of Dish Concentrator and Parabolic Trough. The results obtained are
satisfactory. The rpm of the engine has increased from 240 to 300. The nature of this technology
allows for both the scalability to create a solar farm as well as use for producing power in remote
areas and disaster relief. As Pakistan is often struck with natural disasters like earthquakes, floods,
famine etc. so this technology can prove very vital. The operation Zrb-e-Azb going is on in North
Waziristan these days. This technology can be helpful in providing electricity to the displaced
inhabitants in this hot climate. Also Pakistan geography makes it one the best place to utilize solar
energy. This is the first dish stirling system to be ever made in UET Taxila and it could prove very
helpful in study the characteristics of this technology for future students. This could be one the
most important feat towards renewable energy technology and its significance in the university
and as a stepping stone for future students.
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