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    Surveying Kavanagh 5th Ed.

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    surveying

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    SURVEYING _ Principles and Applications Barry F Kavanagh Bsa me Coca syicel ABBREVIATIONS AASHTO CSM ae BM Dez PERSP GES PEO SEPS ERS E RAR EES 2 ggagras x a GENERAL Anton Asoelatin of Stat Highway and Tensporaton Ofte ‘Amaia Congress 00 Surveying and Mapping Beans _Backsigh (rod reading in leveling ine sighting in transit wor) Comper Assit Drafting (or Design) ‘Compute: Assstet Dating and Design Caters ‘Canadas Insta of Geomatics ‘Conecton due oeroneous length of tape ‘Corecton du o nonstandard tension ‘Conecton due oefoas of a5 ‘Conetons de to nonssodaréemperatire Conarie monument or in ine of it dato combined effet of curate and efastion Desee Deparure Departmen of Defense leenonie inane measurement leven leeuonie TacheometerInsruneat (nore poplsly known 8 Tea Staton) Foresight rod reading in leveling tne sighting nant woe) (Geographic Information Stem. (Global Posiining System High Accuracy Reference Nework ph of nsment hove a date sight ofinemoment stove the instrument son Hiabon ungent loon bar Insrument Iroapipe needa sight, used in leveling snd wal ston activites (aso IS, intermedi oesigh) ade Longin Ler Mozument ‘Naootl Sci of Professional Surveyors Occupied sain reference (Original ground Offer Pars permiion Reference azimuth pont Rigi of way Reference pint Ros resding Rit ‘emporay Beachnark Tarsing point ‘ovnship ‘Univers Taneerse Mercator prejeton Cross sesion negog £0898 5 RQRTEEAELER ROR EEY AATSBPZSERRREL TZ BO . ene CURVES DBepionng ofeare {C) Peto curve (Foy Tangent to cane Beginning of veel carve ‘chord ‘Cave ro spiral Degoeef eure Deflection angle between angers; tip cel angle ofc cue Enteral distance End ofcurve (Point of tngency (CH careto tangent End of veraal eure Length of eure Length of pital Miderioa distance Point of exe Point of compound cure Point of intersection Pein fevers curve Point engency ‘Point of veel nterseeton (grade ines) Radius Spit eure Spiral 0 angent Tangest ‘Tangent o cure ‘Taageat to spin ‘CONSTRUCTION Aspalt Baterourd Building Boulevard Ccten basa (Checked Concrete culvert CCongaed sel pipe Diameter Drawing Fondation Footing Highway ygast Exe ‘Manhole (maintenance hoe) (Original ground Rout Sanitary sever Slope sake Soom sewer “BARS R RET ESO IMPERIAL UNITS Barel (Cubic foot, Coie inch handed weit Footr fet ‘Feo board esse allots) Inebles) Linear footie) se) Miles per owe Poames per uae inch Square foot eed ‘Square incves) Square yarts) ‘Thousand footboard measure Yea) METRIC UNITS ‘casas ‘Kogrmis) Kilmer) Kilonewtont) Lier) Mates) Squse meter ‘Cabie ete Minster) SURVEYING Principles and Applications Fifth Edition Barry F. Kavanagh S. J. Glenn Bird (1933 - 1989 ) Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kavanagh, Barry F. ‘Surveying : principles and applications / Barry F. Kavanagh, S.J Glenn Bird —Sth ed. Pp. om. ISBN 0-13-022733-1 (he.) 1. Surveying. I. Bird, S.J.Glean. 1. Title. TAS4S.K37_ 2000 526.9—de21 99-32112 cr Editor: Ed Francis Production Editor: Christine M: Buckendabl Production Coordination: Clarinda Publication Services Design Coordinator: Kartie Converse-Jones Cover Designer: Mark Shumaker Insert Designer: Rod Harris Production Manager: Patricia A. Tonneman Marketing Manager: Chris Bracken ‘This book was set in Times Roman by The Clarinda Company, and was printed end bound by RR, Donnelley & Sons Company. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corp, © 2000, 1996, 1992, 1989, 1984 by Prentice-Hall, Inc, Pearson Education ‘Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 ‘All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without ‘permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 10987654 ISBN: O-13-022733-2 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall of Canada, Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S. A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Prentice-Hall (Singapore) Pre. Lid., Singapore Fditora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janiero Preface “With all the technological advances, surveying is becoming easier and more efficient to perform. Many aspects of surveying are coming into the realm of push-button technology. ‘The danger, of course, in a push-button world is that because almost anyone can obtain results, the results—in some cases—could well be suspect. This edition recognizes the need to present surveying principles clearly, together with a good selection of problems ‘that illuminate and reinforce presented concepts, as well as introducing the latest in tech- nological innovations. A clear understanding of surveying principles is still a requirement for subject mastery—especially so in this new push-button world. Many recent innovations have resulted from advances in electronics and computer technology—as with total stations, plotters, and Global Positioning System (GPS) re- ceivers. Other innovations have come from new statistics-based software algorithms, such as in the initial cycle ambiguity determination of GPS measurements and in the analysis of scantied aerial photographs in digital (Softcopy) photogrammetry. Using statistical infer- cence introduces the concept of the degree of certainty (probability) to individual position ‘measurements (GPS) and selected data analysis in digital photogrammemy. We can all probably live with 90% or 95% probability when it comes to mapping and air photo analy- sis, but when it comes to engineering reliability in GPS measurements, such certainty may not be good enough. Wise surveyors have always double-checked key measurements; using GPS in layout surveys will require a continuation of such vigilance. ‘Topographic surveys using pre-electronic techniques are identified as such in Chapter 7,,with the more modem and more efficient electronics techniques covered in Chapter 8. Chapter 8, Electronic Surveying Measurement, has been revised to reflect the ad vances both in instrumentation and in related field techniques. Chapter 8 includes a new section on motorized total stations, which describes the innovations of automatic target recognition (ATR) and remotely controlled surveying. Additionally, eight typical pro- ‘grammed total station operations are described along with illustrations designed to aid in { student comprehension. The use of guide lights to help prism holders to move quickly on- line has also been added to this edition. Chapter 12, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), has been completely rewritten and expanded for this edition, Point positioning and differential positioning are covered using both code measurement and cartier phase measurements. This chapter also provides cov- erage on differencing techniques, errors, continuously operating reference stations (CORS), survey planning, static and kinematic surveys, real-time kinematic (RTK) surveys, field procedures, applications, and vertical positioning. Chapter 15, Hydrographic Surveys, has been updated to reflect the use of differential GPS (DGPS) surveys utilizing radio beacons. Chapter 16, Photogrammetry, has been ‘updated to include the introduction of digital (softcopy) photogrammetry along, with related illustrations. Appendix E has been added to give students a comprehensive list of surveying, mapping, GPS, and photogrammetric Internet reference sites. Finally, Appen- dix F (and its corresponding color insert at the back of the book) has been added to illus: trate examples of emerging technology in the digital (soficopy) photogrammetry field and in real time and precise GPS measurements Barry F. Kavanagh, 1999 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘The author appreciates the comments and suggestions received from many of you who have adopted the text for class use. Tn addition, particular thanks are due to Professor Lynn Wallace of Brigham Young University, Utah; Dr. Joe Senne and Dr. Richard Elgin, Rolla, Missouri; Professor Carlos J. Lara of SIAST, Saskatchewan; and Professor David Zenk, Dunwoody Institute, Min- neapolis, Minnesota, for their asistance with the fifth edition text and Solutions Manual ‘The author also wishes to acknowledge the continued assistance and support generously given by the faculty and staff of the School of Civil/Resources, Seneca College. The following surveying, engineering, and equipment manufacturing companies have provided us with generous assistance: ‘The American Association of State Highway and transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington, D.C. ‘American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Bethesda, Maryland AGA Geodimeter of Canada, Ltd., Ontario Berntsen, Inc., Wisconsin ID. Bames Ld., Surveyors, Markham, Ontario Bird and Hale Ltd., Toronto Canadian Hydrographic Service, CCIW, Burlington, Ontario Canadian Institute of Geomatics, Ottawa Cansell Surveying Equipment Co., Toronto Corvallis MicroTechnology Inc., Corvallis, Oregon Cooper Tool Group (Lufkin Tapes), Barrie, Ontario CST Corp., Watseka, inois Elgin, Knowles, and Senne, Inc., Fayetteville, Arkansas iv Preface David Evans and Associates, Inc., Portland, Oregon International Systemap Corp. (ISM), Vancouver, B.C. Laser Alignment, Inc., Grand Rapids, Michigan Leica Geosystems Inc., Norcross, Georgia Leica, Switzerland Leica, Canada Ltd., Toronto, Ontario LH Systems, Dr. A. Stewart Walker, San Diego, California ‘Marshall, Macklin, Monaghan, Surveyors and Engineers, Markham, Ontario MicroSurvey International, Kelowna, British Columbia ‘National Geodetic Survey (NGS), Rockville, Maryland ‘Nikon Inc, Melville, New York Pacific Crest, Santa Clara, California Pentax Corporation, Englewood, Colorado Position Inc., Calgary, Alberta Sokkia Corp., Overland Park, Kansas Sokkia Canada, Markham, Ontario ‘Topcon Instrument Corporation, Paramus, New Jersey ‘Trimble Navigation Ltd., Sunnyvale, California ‘Tripod Data Systems, Corvallis, Oregon Carl Zeiss, Thomwood, New York Preface Contents RTI SURVEYING PRINCIPLES 1 Basics of Surveying 2 11 Surveying Defined 2 12 Typesof Surveys 2 13° Classes of Surveys 3 14 Definitions 5 1.5. Surveying Instrumentation 5 1.6 Survey Geographic Reference 5 17 Survey Grid Reference 6 1.8 Survey Legal Reference 8 19 Survey Vertical Reference 9 1.10 Distance Measurement 9 1.1L Units of Measurement 1 1.12 Location Methods 13, 1.13 Accuracy and Precision 13 14 Eros 14 11S Mistakes 15 1.16 Accuracy Ratio 15 1.17 Stationing 16 1.18 FieldNotes 16 1.19 Field Management 18 1.20 Evolution of Surveying 19 2° Tape Measurements 24 2.1 Methods of Linear Measurement 24 2.2 Types of Measurement 24 . 2.3 Gunter’s Chain 26 24 Fiberglass Tapes 26 25 26 27 28 29 2.10 2.0 2.12 2.13 2.14 215 216 247 Steel Tapes 27 ‘Standard Conditions for Use of Steel Tapes. 30 Taping Accessories 30 Taping Methods 34 Taping Corrections 37 Slope Corrections 38 Erroneous Tape Length Corrections. 41 ‘Temperature Comections 42 Tension and Sag Corrections 43 Random Errors Associated with Systematic Taping Errors. 47 Random Taping Errors 49 Techniques for Ordinary Taping Precision 50 ‘Mistakes in Taping 51 Problems 52 3 Leveling 55 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 3a 3.12 3.13 3.14 31S 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 321 3.22 3.23 3.24 41 Definitions 55 Theory of Differential Leveling 55 Curvature and Refraction 57 DumpyLevel 59 Tilting Level 62 AutomaticLevel 65 Precise Level 67 Digital Level 67 Leveling Rods 69 Rodlevels 69 Leveling Operations Definitions 72 Leveling Procedure 73, Leveling Operations 75 Signals 78 Benchmark Leveling (Vertical Control Surveys) 78 Profile and Cross-Section Leveling 79 Reciprocal Leveling 84 PegTest 84 ‘Three-Wire Leveling 87 Trigonometric Leveling 88 Level Loop Adjustments 90 Suggestions for Rod Work 91 Suggestions for Instrument Work 92 Mistakes in Leveling 92 Problems 93 4 Angles and Directions 104 General 104 Reference Directions for Vertical Angles 104 42 Contents vil 43° Meridians 104 4.4 Horizontal Angles 106 45° Azimuths — 107 46 Bearings 107 4.7 Relationship Between Bearings and Azimuths 109 4.8 Reverse Directions 110 49° Azimuth Computations 110 4.10 Bearing Computations 116 4.11 Comments on Bearings and Azimuths 117 412 Magnetic Direction 120 Problems — 126 5 Transits/Theodolites 127 5.1 Introduction 127 52 Repeating Optical Theodolites 129 53° Theodolite Setup 131 5.4 Angle Measurement with an Optical Theodolite 133 55. Electronic Theodolites 133 56 Direction Optical Theodolites 138 5.7 Angles Measured with a Direction Theodolite 140 58 Geometry of the Transit 141 5.9 Adjustment of the Transit 142 5.10 The Engineers’ Transit 146 Sil Circles and Verniers 148, 5.12 Telescope 151 5.13, Leveling Head 152 5.14 PlateLevels 152 5.15 Transit Semp 153 5.16 Measuring Angles by Repetition (Vernier Transit) 153 S17 Laying Off Angles 155 3.18 Prolonging a Straight Line 157 5.19 Interlining (Balancing In) 157 5.20 Intersection of Two Straight Lines 158 5.21 Prolonging a Measured Line by Triangulation over an Obstacle 158 5.22 Prolonging a Line Past an Obstacle 159 6 Transverse Surveys 162 61 General 162 62 Open Traverse 162 63 Closed Traverse 163 64 Balancing Angles 164 6.5 Latitudes and Departures. 166 6.6 Computation of Latitudes and Departures to Determine the Error of Closure and the Accuracy of a Traverse: Example6.1 168 Contents 67 68 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 617 Traverse Precision and Accuracy 174 Traverse Adjustments 176 Compass Rule Adjustment 176 Effects of Traverse Adjustments on the Original Data 179 Omitted Measurements 180 Rectangular Coordinates of Traverse Stations 183, Geometry of Rectangular Coordinates 188 Mlustrative Problems in Rectangular Coordinates 190 ‘Area of a Closed Traverse by the Coordinate Method — 201 ‘Area of a Closed Traverse by the Double Meridian Distance Method — 204 ‘Summary of Traverse Computations 209 Problems 210 7 Topographic Surveys Using Traditional (Pre-electronic) Techniques 213 1 12 13 74 1S 16 11 18 79 7.10 Tal 72 General 213, Scales and Precision 214 Location by Right-Angle Offsets 216 Cross Sections and Profiles 217 Stadia Principles 220 Inclined Stadia Measurements 222 Examples of Stadia Measurements 226 Precision of Stadia Measurements 229 Stadia Field Practice 230 Establishing Control by Stadia Methods 232. Self-Reducing Stadia Theodolite 235 Summary of Stadia Field Procedure: Conventional Instrument 236 Problems 237 8 Electronic Surveying Measurement 240 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8.10 811 8.12 Contents General 240 Principles of EDM Measurement (EDM) 242 EDM Characteristics 245 Prisms 245 EDM Accuracies 247 EDM Operation 247 Geometry of EDM Measurements 251 EDM Without Reflecting Prisms 254 Total Stations 256 Field Procedures for Total Stations in Topographic Surveys 266 Construction Layout Using Total Stations 276 Motorized Total Stations 280 8.13 Overview of Computerized Surveying Data Systems 284 8.14 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 290 8.15 The New Information Utility 291 Problems: 293 9° Survey Drafting and Computations 295 9.1 General 295 9.2 Maps and Plans 295 93° Plotting 297 9.4 Contours 299 9.5 Summary of Contour Characteristics 306 9.6 Profiles 307 9.7 Cross Sections, End Areas, and Volumes 309 9.8 Prismoidal Formula 313 9.9 Construction Volumes 313, 9.10 AreaComiputations 315 9.11 Area by Graphical Analysis 316 Problems — 319 PARTIT SURVEYING APPLICATIONS — 323 10 Highway Curves 324 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 10.7 108 109 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 Route Surveys 324 Circular Curves: General 324 Circular Curve Geometry 325 Circular Curve Deflections 331 Chord Calculations 333 Metric Considerations 334 Field Procedure 334 Moving Up onthe Curve 335 Offset Curves 337 Compound Circular Curves 344 Reverse Curves 345 Vertical Curves: General 347 Geometric Properties of the Parabola 348 Computation of the High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 349 Procedure for Computing a Vertical Curve 350 Design Considerations 353 Spiral Curves: General 355 Spiral Curve Computations 356 Spiral Layout Procedure Summary 365 Approximate Solution for Spiral Problems 372 Superelevation: General 374 Contents 10.22 Superelevation Design’ 374 Problems 383 UL Control Surveys 387 ud 2 3 4 us 6 17 8 9 10 uu m2 11.13 a4 mas 1.16 47 1.18 General 387 Universal Transverse Mercator Grid System 393, Modified Transverse Mercator Grid System 395 State Plane Coordinate Grid Systems 398 Lambert Projection 398 Computations for the Lambert Projection 400 Computations for the Transverse Mercator Secant Projection 401 Use of Grid Coordinates 402 Examples 411 Horizontal Control Techniques 417 Project Control 421 Control Survey Markers 429 Direction of a Line by Observation on Polaris 432 Time 437 Polaris 440 Procedure for Observing Polaris 440 Computation Techniques for Azimuth Determination—Tabular Solution: Example 11.5 445 Direction of a Line by Gyrotheodolite 447 Problems 449 12 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 450 124 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 12.10 2.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 Background 450 Global Positioning 452 Receivers 453 Satellites 457 Satellite Signals 459 Position Measurements 460 Errors 467 Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) 468 Canadian Active Control System (ACS) 469 Survey Planning 470 GPS Field Procedures 475 GPS Applications 480 Vertical Positioning 482 Conclusion 487 13° Construction Surveys 490 13.1 13.2 Contents General 490 Accuracy and Mistakes 490 es 13.3 Construction Control 490 13.4 Measurement for Interim and Final Payments 491 13.5 Final Measurements for As-Built Drawings 491 13.6 Municipal Roads Construction 492 13,7 Highway Construction 506 13.8 Sewer and Tunnel Construction S15 13.9 Bridge Construction 529 13.10 Building Construction 540 13.11 Other Construction Surveys 543 Problems 545 14° Land Surveying 546 14.1 General 546 14.2 PublicLand Surveys 549 14,3 Property Conveyance 369 14.4 Rural Land Surveys 575 14.5 Urban Land Surveys 584 14.6 Cadastral Surveying 589 Problems 589 15 Hydrographic Surveys 591 15.1 General 591 15.2 Objectives of Hydrographic Mapping and Electronic Charting 592 153 Plaming 592 15.4 Survey Vessels 593 15.5 Vertical Conttol: Depth and Tidal Measurements 593, 15.6 Position-Fixing Techniques 597 15.7 Sounding Plan 614 15.8 Horizontal Control 616 15.9 Processing and Presentation of Data 617 Problems 619 16 Photogrammetry 621 16.1 Introduction 621 16.2 Camera Systems 621 16.3 Photographic Scale 627 164 Flying Heights and Altitude 630 16.5 Relief (Radial) Displacement 631 16.6 Flight Lines and Photograph Overlap 632 16.7 Ground Control for Mapping 635 168 Mosaics 638 16.9 Stereoscopic Viewing and Parallax 640 16.10 Photogrammetric Stereoscopic Plotting Techniques 646 xi Contents Contents 16.11 Orthophotos 653 16.12 Photogrammetric Mapping: Advantages and Disadvantages 656 16.13 Application of Air Photo Interpretation for the Engineer and the Surveyor 657 Problems 660 Appendix A: Random Errors and Survey Specifications 661 Al RandomErrots 661 A2 Probability Curve 663 ‘A3 Most Probable Value 664 A4, Standard Emor 665 AS Measures of Precision _ 666 A6 Illustrative Problem 667 AT Propagation of Errors 668 A.B Weighted Observations 670 A Principle of Least Squares 673 A10 Two-Dimensional Errors 673 ‘ALLL Specifications for Horizontal Control Surveys: Canada 678 A.12 Specifications for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys: United States 681 A13. Vertical Control 681 A.14 Modern Control Specifications 681 ‘A.15 Minimum Standards and Specifications for Land Title Surveys 681 ‘A.16 Computation of Positional Uncertainty 689 Appendix B: Trigonometric Definitions and Identities 690 Appendix C: Glossary 694 Answers to Selected Chapter Problems 701 Appendix Surveying and Mapping Internet Websites 707 Appendix Appendix F: Examples of Emerging Technology 709 Index Tm xt INDEX FOR FIELD NOTES Page Figure smumber number Description 7 3.19 Level notes, with athmeti ebeck 80 321 Profile feld notes 7 8 3.28 Cross-section notes (municipal format) 83 3.25 Cross-section notes (highway format) 88 3.31 Survey notes for dree-wire leveling iat 5.1 Fiold nots for directions 154 521 Field notes for angles by repetition 164 63 Field notes for open taverse 218 7.2 Topographic field notes for single baseline; split baseline 230 740 Stadia Held notes 234 713. Stadia feld notes, incleding extension of control 236 TAS Stadia notes using a sel-educing theodolite 23 8.27 Field nots for Total Station graphics descriptor. 425 11.25. Conto point directions and distances 426. 11.26 Prepared polar coordinate layout notes 43 1139 Field notes for Polaris observation 4741219 Station visibility gram 477 12.20 GPS field Jog 498 13.5.——_Property markers used to establish center line 568 «1411 Original township notes (chains) 588 16.16 Tide, or mortgage survey notes xiv Contents Chapter | Basics of Surveying 1.1 Surveying Defined Surveying is the art of measuring distances, angles, and positions, on or near the surface of the earth. Itis an atin that only a surveyor who possesses a thorough understanding of sur- veying techniques will be able to determine the most efficient methods required to obtain ‘optimal results over a wide variety of surveying problems. Surveying is scientific to the degree that rigorous mathematical techniques are used. to analyze and adjust the field survey dats, The accuracy, and thus reliability, of the survey depend not only on the field expertise of the surveyor, but also on the surveyor's under. standing of the scientific principles underlying and affecting all forms of survey measure~ ‘ment, Figure 1.1 is an aerial photo of undeveloped property. Figure 1.2 is an aerial photo of the same property after development. The straight and circular lines that have been added to the postdevelopment photo, showing modifications and/or additions to roads, buildings, highways, residential areas, commercial areas, property boundaries, and so on, are all the direct or indirect result of surveying. 1.2 Types of Surveys Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the surface of the earth is considered to bbe aplane for all X and ¥ dimensions. All Z dimensions (height) are referenced to the mean spherical surface of the earth (mean sea level). Most engineering and property surveys are Plane surveys, although some of these surveys that cover large distances (eg., highways and railroads) will have corrections applied at regular intervals (e.g., | mile) to comect for the earth’s curvature. Geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the surface of the earth is con- sidered to be spherical (acwally an ellipsoid of revolution) for X and Y dimensions. As in plane surveying, the Z dimensions (height) are referenced to the mean surface of the earth (mean sea level). Traditional geodetic surveys were very precise surveys of great magni- ‘ude (eg, national boundaries, control networks, etc.). Modem surveys (data gathering, 2 FIGURE |.1 Aerial photograph of undeveloped property. control, and layout) utilizing the Global Positioning System (satellite surveying) are also based on the geometric shape of the earth, Such measurements must be mathematically translated to be of use in leveling and other local surveying projects. 1.3 Classes of Surveys ‘The preliminary survey (data gathering) is the gathering of data (distances, position, and angles) to locate physical features (eg., trees, rivers, roads, structures, ot property markers) so that the data can be plotted to scale on a map or plan. Preliminary surveys also include the determination of differences in elevation (vertical distances) so that elevations and contours may also be plotted Sec. 1.3 Classes of Surveys 3 FIGURE 1.2 Aerial photograph of same property after development. Layout surveys involve marking on the ground (using wood stakes, ron bars, au- Tha my and concrete monuments, nails, spikes, etc.) the features shown on a design plan ‘The layout can be for property lines, asin subdivision surveying, or it can be for a vide Nariety of engineering works (e.g. roads, pipelines, bridges); the later group is known ag Fouatuction surveys. In addition to marking the proposed horizontal (X and ¥ dimensions) location ofthe designed feature, reference will also be given tothe proposed elevations (2 dimensions). Control surveys are used to reference both preliminary and layout surveys, Horizone telcontrol can be arbitrarily placed, butitis usually ted directly to property lines, roadway center lines, or coordinated control stations. Vertical control is a series of benchmarks © Permanent points whose elevation above mean sea level have been carefully determined 4 Chap. 1 Basics of Surveying It is accepted practice to take more care in control surveys with respect to precision and accuracy; great care is also taken to ensure that the control used for a preliminary survey can be readily reestablished at a later date, whether it be needed for further prelim- inary work or for a related layout survey. 1.4 Definitions 1. Topographic surveys: preliminary surveys used to tie in the natural end man-made surface features of an area. The features are located relative to one another by tying them all into the same control lines or control grid, 2. Hydrographic surveys: preliminary surveys that are used to tie in underwater fea- ‘tures to a surface control line. Usually shorelines, marine features, and water depths are shown on the hydrographic map. 3. Route surveys: preliminary, layout, and control surveys that range over a narrow, but Jong strip of land. Typical projects that require route surveys are highways, railroads, transmission lines, and channels 4. Property surveys: preliminary, layout, and control surveys that are involved in deter- ‘mining boundary locations or in laying out new property boundaries (also known as, cadastral or land surveys). 5. Aerial surveys: preliminary and final surveys using aerial photography. Photogrammet- ric techniques are employed to convert the aerial photograph into scale maps and plans. 6. Construction surveys: layout surveys for engineering works. 7. Final (“as built”) surveys: similar to preliminary surveys. Final surveys tie in fea- tures that have just been constructed to provide a final record of the construction and. to check that the construction has proceeded according to the design plans. 1.5 Surveying Instrumentation The simple instruments most often used in surveying are (1) the transit or theodolite— ‘used to establish straight or curved lines and to measure horizontal and vertical angles; (2) the level and rod—used to measure differences in elevation; and (3) the steel tape— used to measure horizontal and slope distances. See Figures 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5. Once the simpler instruments have been leamed, the student may then be introduced to more advanced instrumentation such as Total Station instruments (Chapter 8) and Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers (Chapter 12) Total Stations measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as horizontal and verti- cal distances—all data can be captured into electronic field books or on-board storage as the data are received. GPS receivers capture data from several NAVSTAR satellites in order to determine position coordinates (north, east, and elevation) of a survey station. See Figures 1.6a and 1.66. 1.6 Survey Geographic Reference It has already been mentioned that surveying involves measuring the location of physical land features relative to one another and relative to a defined reference on the surface of the Sec. 1.6 Survey Geographic Reference } 5 ec FIGURE 1.3 Optical theodolite and engineers’ (American) transit. arth, In the broadest sense, the earth’s reference system is composed of the surface divi- sions denoted by geographic lines of latitude and longitude. The latitude lines run ceast/west and are parallel to the equator. The latitude lines are formed by projecting the I itade angle out to the surface of the earth. The latitude angle itself is measured (90° maximum) at the earth’s center, north or south from the equatorial plane. The longitude lines all run north/south, converging at the poles. The lines of longi- tude (meridians) are formed by projecting the longitude angle out to the surface of the earth atthe equator. The longitude angle itself is measured at the earth’s center, east or west (180° maximum) from the plane of 0° longitude, which is arbitrarily placed through Greenwich, England (see Figures 1.7 and 1.8). Although this system of geographic coordinates is much used in navigation and geodesy, it is not used in plane surveying. Plane surveying uses either coordinate grid systems or the original township fabric as a basis for referencing. 1.7 Survey Grid Reference All states and provinces have adopted a grid system best suited to their needs. The grid itself is limited in size so that no serious errors will accumulate when the curvature of the 6 Chap. 1 Basics of Surveying Sighting device Vertical circle (enclosed) ‘Telescope focus (Gross hair focus Onjoft switch FIGURE 1.3b Electronic theodolit. 4 Level Rod (Foot | IE Eyepiece ‘Telescope Focus ‘Telescope a Tocus 4 5 9| 3 Tubuter Bubble Pr 7 é Leveling Serews (4 8 4 umpy Level 3 Tripod: eae 3) zi FIGURE 1.4 Level and rod. i FIGURE 1.5 Measuring to a water- main access frame using a steel tape. = a arth is ignored. Advantages of the grid systems are the ease of calculation (plane geome- ty and trigonometry) and the availability of one common datum for X and Y dimensions in a large (thousands of square miles) area. The coordinates in most grid systems can be ref- cerenced to the central meridian and to the equator so that translation to geographic coordi- nates is always easily accomplished. This topic is discussed in more detail in Chapter 11. 1.8 Survey Legal Reference Public lands in North America were originally laid out for agricultural use by the settlers. In the United States and parts of Canada, the townships were laid out in 6-mile squares; however, in the first established areas of Canada, a wide variety of township patterns exists—reflecting both the French and English heritage, ‘The townships themselves were subdivided into sections (Jots) and ranges (conces- sions), each uniquely numbered. The basic township lots were either 1 mile square or some fraction thereof. Eventually, the township lots were, and still are, further subdivided in real estate developments. All developments are referenced to the original township fabric, which has been reasonably well preserved through ongoing resurveys. This topic is dis- cussed in detail in Chapter 14, 8 Chap.1 Basics of Surveying 19 1.10 @ ) FIGURE 1.6 (2) Total Sation. (Courtesy of Leica, Heerbrugg) (b) Global postioning system receiver: (Courtesy of Leica Toronto) Survey Vertical Reference The previous sections described how the X and Y dimensions (horizontal) of any feature could be referenced for plane surveying purposes. Although vertical dimensions can be referenced to any datum, the reference datum most used is that of mean sea level (MSL). Mean sea level is assigned an elevation of 0.000 feet (ft) (or meters), and all other points on the earth can be described by elevations above or below zero. Permanent points whose elevations have been precisely determined (benchmarks) are available in most areas for survey use, See Chapters 1 and 12 for further discussion of this topic. Distance Measurement Distances between two points can be horizontal, slope, or vertical and are recorded in feet (foot units) or meters (SI units) (see Figure 1.9). Horizontal and slope distances can be measured with a fiberglass or steel tape or with an electronic distance measuring device, In surveying, the horizontal distance is Sec. 1.10 Distance Measurement 9 FIGURE 1.7 Sketch of earth showing lines of latitude and longitude. North Pole Line of Longitude = A° West Line of Latitude «6° N Line of 0° Longitude ‘(Through Greenwich) 100" Longitude FIGURE 1.8. Skesch showing locaton of point —® referenced by geographical coor- dates 10 1.11 Level Roa Diff. in Elev, Slope Angle (a Horizontal Distance Vertical FIGURE 1.9 Distance measurement. always required (for plan plotting and design purposes); if a slope distance between two points has been taken, it must then be converted to its horizontal equivalent, Slope dis- tances can be trigonometrically converted to horizontal distances by using either the slope angle or the difference in elevation (vertical distance) between the two points. Vertical distances can be measured with a tape, as in construction work, or, as is ‘more usually the case, with a surveyors’ level and leveling rod (see Figure 1.10). Units of Measurement Although the foot system of measurement has been in use in the United States from the early settler days up to the present, the metric system has been making steady inroads. The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 made conversion to this system largely voluntary, but sub- sequent amendments and government actions made the use of the metric system manda- tory for all federal agencies as of September 1992. By January 1994, the metric system was required in the design of all federal facilities; additionally, many states’ Departments of Transportation have already begun switching to the metric system for field work and highway design. ‘The completed changeover to the metric system will take many years—perhaps several generations. The impact of all this on the American surveyor is that, from now on, 721 d Example: Rod Reading (R.R.) @C = 7,21 ft eee fod Reading (R.R.) @ D = 2.63 ft Horizontal Cross Difference in Elev. 458 with Red Face FIGURE 1.10 Leveling technique. Sec. 1.11 Units of Measurement n a most surveyors will have to be proficient in both the foot and metric systems. Addi- tional equipment costs in this dual system are limited mostly to measuring tapes and lev- cling rods. SLunits were a modernization (1960) of the long-used metric units. This moderniza~ tion included a redefinition of the meter and the addition of some new units (e.g., newton; see Table 2.1). With the United States committed to switching to metric units, all industri- alized nations are now using the metric system. Table 1-1 describes and contrasts metric and foot units. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are used almost exclusively in both metric and foot systems for angular measure- ment, however, in some European countries, the circle has also been graduated into 400 Table 1.1 MEASUREMENT DEFINITIONS AND EQUIVALENCIES Linear measurements Foot units 1mile 5280 feet 1 foot 12 inches 1760 yards 1 yard 3 feet 320 rods Lrod 16} feet 80 chains Lchain = 66 feet Tehain = 100 links 1 acre 43,560 f2 = 10 square chains Linear measurement ‘Metric (S1) units 1 kilometer 1,000 meter 1 meter 100 centimeter 1 centimeter 10 millimeter 1 decimeter 10 centimeter 1 hectare (ha) 10,000 m2 1 square kilometer 1,000,000 m= = 100 hectares Foot-to-metric conversion Tit= 03048m (exactly) 1 inch = 25.4 mm (exactly) Lim = 0162137 miles (approx. ‘L hectare (ha) 2.471 actes (approx.) 1 km? = 247.1 acres (approx) Prior to 1959, the United States used the relationship 1 m = 39.37 in This resulted in a U.S. survey foot of 0.3048006 m (approx. ‘Angular measurement Lrevolution = 360° 1 degree = 0 I minute 60" (seconds) 12 Chap. 1 Basics of Surveying 8 8 ce . 6 ° Al A FIGURE 1.11 Location ties. (a) ) @ 1.12 1.13 gon (also called grad). Angles, in that system, are expressed to four decimals (e.g., aright angle = 100.0000 gon). Location Methods ‘A great deal of surveying effor is spent in measuring points of interest relative to some ref erence line so that these points may be shown later on a scaled plan. The illustrations (see Figure 1.11) show some common location techniques. Point P in Figure 1.11a is located relative to known line AB by determining CB or CA, the right angle at C, and distance CP. This is known as the right-angle offset tie (also mown as the rectangular tie) and is one of the two most widely used methods of locating a point, Point P in Figure 1.11b is located relative to known line AB by determining the angle (@) at A and the distance AP. This is known as the angle-distance tie (also known as the polar tie) and is the second of the two most widely used methods of locating a point. Point P in Figure 1.11c can also be located relative to known line AB by determining cither the angles at A and B to P or by determining the distances AP and BP. Both methods are intersection techniques. Accuracy and Precision Accuracy is the relationship between the value of a measurement and the “true” value (see Section 1.14 for “true” values) of the dimension being measured. Precision describes the refinement of the measuring process and the ability to repeat the same measurement with consistently small variations in the measurements (ie., no large discrepancies). The fol- lowing figure depicts targets with hit marks for both arrifle and a shotgun, which illustrates the concepts of precision and accuracy. ‘The concepts of accuracy and precision are also illustrated in the following example: ‘A building wall that is known to be 157.22 ftlong is measured by two methods. In the first ‘case the wall is measured very carefully using a fiberglass tape graduated to the closest 0.1 ft. The result of this operation is a measurement of 157.2 ft In the second case the wall is measured with the same care, but with a more precise steel tape graduated to the closest 0.01 ft. The result of this operation is a measurement of 157.23 ft. Sec. 1.18 Accuracy and Precision B Sight aligned Sight mis-aligned (low precision) 1.14 In this example, the more precise method (steel tape) resulted in the more accurate ‘measurement, “True” distance Measured distance Enor ‘Cloth tape 1572 Steel tape 157.22 However, it is conceivable that more precise methods can result in less accurate answers. In the preceding example, if the steel tape had previously been broken and then incorrectly repaired (say that an even foot had been dropped), the results would still be rel- atively precise but very inaccurate. Errors It can be said that no measurement (except for counting) can be free of error. For every measuring technique used, a more precise and potentially more accurate method can be found, For purposes of calculating errors, the “true” value is determined statistically after repeated measurements. In the simplest case, the true value for a distance is taken as the mean value for a series of repeated measurements. This topic is discussed further in Ap- pendix A, “ Chap.1 Basics of Surveying 1.15 1.16 Systematic errors are defined as those errors whose magnitude and algebraic sign can be determined. The fact that these errors can be determined allows the surveyor to eliminate them from the measurements and thus improve the accuracy. An exror due to the effects of temperature on a steel tape is an example of a systematic error. Ifthe temperature is known, the shortening or lengthening effects on a steel tape can be precisely determined. Random errors are associated with the skill and vigilance of the surveyor. Random (also known as accidental) errors are introduced into each measurement mainly because no human being can perform perfectly. The presence of random errors is the cause of low precision Some random errors, by their very nature, tend to cancel themselves; when survey- ors are skilled and careful in measuring, random errors will be of litte significance except for high-precision surveys. However, random errors resulting from unskilled or careless work do cause problems. As noted earlier, random errors, even large random errors, tend to cancel themselves mathematically—this does not result in accurate work, oaly in work that appears to be accurate. Even if the random errors cancelled exactly, the final averaged measurement may be imprecise. Mistakes Mistakes are blanders made by survey personnel, Examples of mistakes include transpos- ing figures (recording @ tape value of 68 as 86), miscounting the number of full tape lengths in a long measurement, measuring to or from the wrong point, and the like. Students should be aware that mistakes will occur. Mistakes must be discovered and, eliminated—preferably by the people who made them. All survey measurements are suspect until they have been verified. Verification may be as simple as repeating the measurement, or verification can result from geometric or trigonometric analysis of related measurements. As a rule, every measurement is immediately checked or repeated. This immediate repetition enables the surveyor to eliminate most mistakes and, at the same time, improve the precision of the measurement. Accuracy Ratio The accuracy ratio of a measurement or series of measurements is the ratio of error of closure to the distance measured. The error of closure is the difference between the mea- sured location and the theoretically correct location. The theoretically correct location can be determined from repeated measurements or mathematical analysis. Since relevant systematic errors and mistakes can and should be eliminated from all survey measurements, the error of closure will be composed of random errors. ‘To illustrate, a distance was measured and found to be 250.56 ft. The distance was previously known to be 250.50 ft. The error is 0.06 ft in a distance of 250.50 ft 006 1 1 250.50 - 4,175 4,200 accuracy ratio The accuracy ratio is expressed as a fraction whiose numerator is unity and whose denom- inator is rounded to the closest 100 units. Sec. 1.16 Accuracy Ratio 15 1.17 1.18 Survey specifications are discussed in Appendix A. Many land and engineering surveys have in the past been performed at 1/5,000 or 1/3,000 levels of accuracy. With the trend to polar layouts from coordinated control, accuracy ratios on the order of 1/10,000 and 1/20,000 are now often specified. It should be emphasized that for each of these spec- ied orders of accuracy, the techniques and instrumentation used must also be speci- fied. See Appendix A for survey specifications. Stationing Insurveying, measurements are often taken along a baseline and at right angles to the base- line. Distances along a survey baseline are referred to as stations or chainages, and dis- tances at right angles to the baseline (offset distances) are simple dimensions. The beginning of the survey baseline, the zero end, is denoted by 0 + 00; a point 100 ft (m) from the zero end is denoted as 1 + 00; a point 131.26 ft (m) from the zero end is, 1 + 31.26; and so on. Ifthe stationing is extended back of the 0 + 00 mark (rarely), the sta~ tions would be 0 — 50, ~ 1 + 00, and so on. In the preceding discussion, the full stations are 100 ft (m) and the half-stations would be at even 50-ft intervals. In the metric system, 20-m intervals are often used as partial stations, ‘With the changeover to metric units, most municipalities have kept the 100-unit station (ie., 1 + 00 = 100 meters), whereas many highway agencies have adopted the 1,000-unit station (ie., 1 + 000 = 1,000 meters). Figure 1.12 shows a building tied in to the center line (@) of Elm Street and shows the @ (baseline) distances as stations and the offset distances as simple dimensions. The sketch also shows that 0 + 00 is the intersection of the center Lines of the two streets. Field Notes - One of the most important aspects of surveying isthe taking of accurate, neat, legible, and complete field notes. After the survey has been completed, a plan is drawn from the survey notes, and the notes are then filed, often under lock and key. ‘Modern surveys, employing electronic data collectors, automatically store point po- sitioning angles and distances which will later be transferred to the computer. Surveyors have discovered that reliable field notes are also invaluable for these modem surveys. See Section 8.10 for more on this topic. 60.00 YG 3 8 Wf. a| g 6000 8 peu o x § FIGURE 1.12 Baseline stations 8s td and offset distances. 16 Chap.1 Basics of Surveying An experienced survey’s notes will be complete, without redundancies, well arranged to aid in comprehension, and neat and legible to ensure that the correct informa- tion is conveyed. The surveyor will use sketches whenever necessary to aid in comprehen- sion and in the ordering of data. ‘Students and inexperienced surveyors usually find at first that it is very difficult to make accurate and neat field notes. The first few attempts at note keeping can be quite em- barrassing to otherwise gifted students. There is a real temptation to scribble the notes on scraps of paper, and then later, in a quiet and peaceful environment, transcribe the scrib- bled notes neatly onto field note paper. This temptation must be resisted. Notes cannot be copied without the occurrence of mistakes. Copied notes are not field notes and, as such, are outlawed in the surveying profes- sion. Tt sometimes happens that property and engineering surveyors find themselves in court, testifying to the results of a survey. Ifthe notes referred to in court are copied notes, the surveyor would, no doubt, be quickly excused from further participation in the pro- ceedings. It may be a relatively rare occurrence to have to appear in court, but total reliance on the integrity of field notes is a daily requirement for surveyors and their associates. ‘When surveyors are found to be copying or otherwise “cooking” notes, they are soon working elsewhere Tris sometimes necessary to copy from field notes for other survey purposes; when notes are legitimately copied, they ate placed on different-colored notepaper ot similar notepaper with the word “copy” prominently placed on each page. The field notes themselves are placed in bound field books or in loose-leaf field binders. The pages in bound field books are usually lined and columned on the left leaf and squared on the right leaf. The loose-leaf pages can be lined and columned or squared or in fact in any format required by the surveyor. ‘A considerable advantage to using loose-leaf notebooks is that the notes for one project can be filed under that project heading. Ifa bound book is used for several projects, filing becomes difficult, as several cross-references are required just to locate one set of project notes. Bound books are used to advantage on large projects such as highways and other heavy construction operations. BOUND BOOKS 1, Name, address, phone number, in ink on inside or outside cover. 2. Pages numbered throughout, right leaf only (most bound books have about 80 pages) 3. Room is left at the front of each book for ttle, index, and diary. 4, Each project must show date, ttle, surveyors’ names, and instrument numbers. LOOSE-LEAF BOOKS ‘ame, address, phone number, in ink on the binder. Each page must be titled and dated, with identification by project number and sur- ‘veyors’ names, and instrument numbers. ALL FIELD NOTES 1. Entries are to be in pencil in the range 2H to 4H. The harder pencil (4H) is more dif- ficult to use but will not smear. The softer pencil (2H) is easy to use for most people Sec. 1.18 Field Notes a ‘but will smear somewhat if care is not exercised. Most surveyors use 2H or 3H lead. Pencils softer than 2H are not used in field notes. 2, All entries are neatly printed. Uppercase lettering can be reserved for emphasis, orit is sometimes used throughout. 3, All arithmetic computations are to be checked and signed. 4. Sketches are used to clarify the field notes. Although the sketches are not scale draw ings, they are usually drawn roughly to scale to help order the inclusion of details, 5, Sketches are not freshand. Straightedges and circle templates are used for all line work. 6. Sketches are properly oriented by the inclusion of a north arrow (preferably pointing up the page orto the left. 7, Avoid crowding the information onto the page. This practice is one of the chief causes of poor-looking notes. 8. Mistakes in the entry of measured data are to be carefully lined out, not erased. 9. Mistakes in entries other than measured data (e.g., descriptions, sums, or products of ‘measured data) may be erased and reentered neatly. 10. Show the word “COPY” at the top of copied pages. 11, Lettering on sketches is to be read from the bottom of the page or from the right side. 12, Measured data are to be entered in the field notes at the time the measurements are taken. 13, The note-keeper verifies all data by repeating them aloud as he or she is entering them in the notes. The surveyor who originally gave the data to the note-keeper will listen and respond to the verification call-out. 14. If the data on an entire page are to be voided, the word “VOID,” together with a di- agonal line, is placed on the page. A reference page number is shown for the location of the new data, 1.19 Field Management Survey crews (parties) often comprise a party chief, an instrument operator, and one oF Wo survey assistants. The party chief is responsible for the operation of the survey crew and for the integrity of the work performed. The instrument operator is responsible for the op- eration and care of the instruments being used. He or she should be vigilant to ensure that any instrument maladjustment is immediately noted and corrected, The survey assistant helps perform the taping (chaining) measurements and the rod or prism work and main- tains all equipment. In three-person crews, the party chief usually takes the lead in tape ‘measurements and directs the operations in all types of surveys. However, with the introduction of advanced electronic surveying techniques, the tra- ditional survey crew is being considerably downsized. For example, Total Station surveys (Chapter 8) require only a surveyor who operates the instrument and routinely “books” the survey data electronically and an assistant who holds the prism rod in the required loca tions, Additionally, “robotic” or motorized Total Stations can really be operated effectively with just one surveyor, who holds the prism rod and controls the motorized instrument 8 Chap.1 Basics of Surveying 1.20 with the remote controller. GPS surveys (see Chapter 12) can be effectively carried out using two surveyors, and in some applications, just one roving surveyor, Evolution of Surveying Surveying is a profession with a very long history. Since people first owned property, boundary ‘markers have been required to distinguish one property from another. Historical records dating back almost five thousand years show evidence of surveyors in China, India, Babylon, and Egypt. The Egyptian surveyor, called harpedonapata (rope-stretcher), was in constant demand: the Nile river flooded more or less continuously, destroying boundary markers in those fertile farm lands. The surveyors used ropes with knots tied at set graduations to measure distances. Ropes also were used to lay out right angles. The early surveyors discovered that the 3:4:5 ratio provided right-angled triangles. To lay out XZ at 90 degrees to XY (see Figure 1.13), a 12-mnit rope would have knots tied at 3- and 7-unit positions as shown in Figure 1.13. One surveyor held the 3-unit knot at X; the second surveyor held the 7-unit knot at ¥ ‘The third surveyor held both loose ends of the rope and stretched the rope tightly, resulting in the location of point Z, These early surveyors knew that multiples of 3:4:5 (eg., 30:40:50) would produce more accurate positioning, ‘Another ancient surveying instrument consisted of three pieces of wood in the form of an isosceles triangle, with the base extended in both directions (see Figure 1.14). A plumb bob suspended from the apex of the frame would line up with a notch in the mid- point of the base—but only when the base was level. These levels came in various sizes, depending on the work being done. Knotted Rope FIGURE 1.13 Rope knotted at 3:4:5 ratio—used to place point Zat 90 degrees to point X from line XY. Sec. 1.20 Evolution of Surveying 19 gPunb Bob a Noth & Midpoint FIGURE 1.14 Early Egyptian level, It is presumed that the great pyramids were laid out with knotted ropes, the levels de- scribed here, and various forms of water trough levels for the foundations. These Egyptian surveying techniques were empirical solutions that were field-proven. It remained for the Greeks to provide the mathematical reasoning and proofs to explain why the field tech- niques worked. Pythagoras was one of many famous Greek mathematicians; he and his school (about 550...) developed theories of geometry and numbers. They were also among the first to deduce that the earth is spherical by noting the shape of the earth's shadow cast on the moon. The word geometry derives from Greek, geomerria, meaning “to measure the arth" —clearly showing the relationship between mathematics and surveying. In fact, the history of surveying is closely related to the history of mathematics and astronomy. By 250 B.c., Archimedes had recorded in a book known as the “Sand Reckoner” that the circumference of the earth is 30 myriads of stadia (i.e., 300,000 stadia). He had received some support for this value from a friend, Bratosthenes, who was a mathematician and a i- brarian at the famous library of Alexandria in Egypt. According to some reports, Eratos- thenes' technique was as follows: Eratosthenes knew that a town called Syene (Aswan) was 5,000 stadia due south of Alexandria. He also knew that at summer solstice (around June 21), the sun was directly over Syene at noon—there were no shadows. The absence of shadows was demonstrated by noting thatthe sun’s reflection was exactly centered in the well water. Eratosthenes reasoned that at the summer solstice, the sun, the towns of Syene and ‘Alexandria, and the center ofthe earth all lay in the same plane (see Figure 1.15). Atnoon on the summer solstice, the elevation of the sun was measured at Alexandria at 82 4/5

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