FRP Strengthening of Metallic Structures

FRP composites
life extension and strengthening

of metallic structures
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ICE design a n d practice guides

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ICE design and practice guide
FRP c o m p o s i t e s
life extension and strengthening
of metallic structures
E d i t e d b y SSj M o y
"l Thomas Telford

1

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Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London
E14 4JD. URL: http://www.thomastelford.com
Distributors for Thomas Telford books are
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First published 2001
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 0 7277 3009 6
Institution of Civil Engineers, 2001.
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright,
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Produced by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow

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Contributors
Dr Stuart Moy, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Southampton, Southampton SO 17 1BJ
Dr Paul Hill, DML Composites, Devonport Royal Dockyard, Plymouth
PL1 4SG
Mr Jim Moriarty, London Underground Limited, 30 The South Colonnade,
London E14 5EU
Adrian Dier, MSL Engineering Limited, MSL House, 5-7 High Street,
Sunninghill, Ascot SL5 9NQ
Alan Kenchington, Structural Statics, Burntwood, Kings Worthy,
Winchester S 0 2 1 IAD
Brett Iverson, Defence Research Agency, Structural Materials Centre,
R178 Building, DERA Farnborough, Farnborough GU14 6TD
Acknowledgements
T h e research projects that provided the technical information on which this guide is
based were funded by the Department for the Environment and the Regions and the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council under the Partners in Technology
and Link Inland Surface Transport Schemes.

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Contents
Overview of fibre reinforced polymer composites for
strengthening
Introduction and experience of composites in other industries
Composites in construction
Materials
Manufacturing techniques
Performance
Adhesive bonding
1
1
2
3
5
7
9
1. General introduction
General
Scope
Applications of technique
Definitions
11
11
11
11
12
2. Design specification
Design loads
Load factors
Environment
13
13
13
14
3. Design process overview

Repair and strengthening
General design principles
Structural design
Materials selection
17
17
17
19
19
4. Composite design
Selection
Strain compatibility
Thermal compatibility
Ultimate strength capacity
Choice of manufacturing process
Determination of basic material properties
Accounting for long-term degradation
Design allowable strength and stiffness
Laminate design
Attachments and joints
Galvanic corrosion
23
23
23
24
25
25
26
27
29
30
33
35

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5.
Structural design
Design from first principles (hand calculations)
Design by finite element analysis
36
37
45
6.
Implementation
Manufacturing methods
Health and safety/COSHH
Storage of materials
Quality assurance
Non-destructive examination
Repair
48
48
51
52
52
53
54
7. Tests
Materials testing
Structural tests
57
57
57
8. Verification
59
9. Monitoring
60
10. References
61
Index
63

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Overview of fibre reinforced

polymer composites for
strengthening
Introduction and
experience of
composites in
other industries
The history of composite materials has been discussed widely in standard

textbooks. ~ Glass fibre reinforced materials were first used in aircraft radar covers
at the end of the 1930s. Their use spread rapidly through marine craft to the point
today where they are utilized in demanding services such as pressure vessels, pipes
and blast panels on offshore oil and gas platforms. Carbon fibres were developed by
the Royal Aircraft Establishment at the end of the 1960s and were seized upon for
the high strength and stiffness per unit mass they offered. They are now used in
applications as diverse as sports goods, stealth aircraft and pipework repairs and are
being used for structural upgrade and life extension in construction (Figure 1).
In all these applications, composites have been selected because they offer a
performance or cost-benefit over traditional solutions the saving can usually be
traced back to the generic benefits of using composites, namely:
low density and high mechanical properties, giving low mass components;
high durability, composite materials are extremely resistant to most common
environments;
ease of installation, derived from low mass and use of adhesive bonding
techniques.

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Composites, in the sense used here, are composed of fibres in a resin matrix. The
fibres are very strong and stiff, and the matrix enables them to work together and be
utilized in engineering components. There are a variety of materials and manu
facturing methods, which all lead to final components with different mechanical
properties. The selection of materials is therefore coupled with the selection of manu
facturing process and these must be completed concurrently with the structural design.
The aim of this introduction is to give a brief overview of the constituents of
composite materials, manufacturing methods and to familiarize the reader with some
of the common terminologies and generic properties.
Composites in
construction
There is considerable interest in the use of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites
in construction. There are some examples of all-composite structures such as the
Aberfeldy Bridge in Scotland and the Bonds Mill Bridge in England (see Figure 2).
The most common application has been in structural strengthening and upgrade and
it has been reported that approximately 150 bridges and buildings in the UK have
been strengthened using FRP. Figure 3 shows two examples.
4
Strengthening is usually carried out by bonding (gluing) FRP plates or strips to the
existing structure. The strips can be pre-stressed if necessary. In concrete structures
the FRP can be kept thin because of the very favourable stiffness of FRP compared to
concrete and also because the bond strength between FRP and concrete is limited by
the concrete rather than the adhesive.
In metallic structures the FRP strips have to be thicker because the stiffness of FRP is
less than double that of steel, for example. The forces developed in the FRP will be
high and these have to be transmitted across the adhesive. Old metal will often be in
figure 2
A view of Bonds MM
Bridge

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O v e r v i e w o f fibre r e i n f o r c e d p o l y m e r c o m p o s i t e s f o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g
poor condition, because of manufacturing imperfections, corrosion or the presence of

paint or other surface finishes. Consequently surface preparation of the metal substrate
is very important if a good bond is to be achieved between the metal and the FRP.
T h e choice of bonding method is also important. T h e obvious approach is to use a
suitable adhesive applied to one or both of the bonding surfaces. However the choice
of glue is critical to ensure that full cure is achieved on site. There are other methods
that produce the FRP strip at the same time as bonding it to the metal.
In certain circumstances it may be necessary to provide an alternative load path to
that provided by the existing structure. T h e new structure could be manufactured
entirely from FRP composite.
It can be seen that the choice of materials and the manufacturing process are inter
related and also affect the structural design. T h e purpose of this design and practice
guide is to set out guidelines for the design and execution of FRP strengthening
schemes for metallic structures. It is a Code of Practice based on experience gained
from two major research programmes and from various strengthening schemes. There
are no official standards for this type of work, so this represents a first attempt at
producing design recommendations.
Construction professionals considering the use of FRP composites, have to gain an
understanding of the physical make-up and material properties of FRP as well as
knowledge of the manufacturing techniques used. This introduction seeks to provide
this and also to outline the jargon of FRP.
It must be emphasized at the outset that FRP is more expensive than conventional
construction materials. However there are other factors which need to be taken into
consideration. FRP can be c o n n e c t e d simply; because of its light weight,
strengthening schemes require very little falsework so that disruption is minimal.
Thus in costing a strengthening scheme it is construction rather than material cost
which needs to be considered. Indeed the durability of FRP is such that whole-life
costing might be even more representative of relative value.
Materials
Engineering composites are commonly formed by the intimate mixing of two distinct
phases, a fibrous reinforcement, and a continuous medium (resin) termed the matrix,
which encapsulates the reinforcement. T h e fibre reinforcement generally has high
specific properties, i.e. high strength and stiffness at a relatively low density. T h e
matrix in comparison has lower strength and stiffness.
In simple
properties
the fibres,
associated
Fibres
terms, the fibres and their arrangement define the material's mechanical
and act to resist primary loads. T h e matrix acts to transmit the loads into
protects the surface of the fibres from damage and inhibits brittle fracture
with the 'brittle' fibres.
There are three types of fibre in general use, aramid (better known by the trade names
Kevlar^ and Twaron), glass and carbon. General properties of the different fibre types
are shown in Table 1.
Aramid fibres. Aramid fibres are manufactured from a synthetic organic compound
and are produced in low and high modulus grades. T h e main characteristics of aramid
fibres are their high strengths, moderate Young's moduli and low densities. Laminates
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FRP composites
Table I
Fibre
Typical properties of common reinforcing fibres

Tensile strength (MPa)
Young's modulus (GPa)
Density (kg/m )
C o s t (/kg)
Aram id
3150-3600
58-160
1390-1470
20
Carbon
2100-7100
220-900
1740-2200
10-200
Glass
3445-4890
72-87
2460-2580
2.5
formed from aramid fibres are known for their low compressive and shear strengths.
The fibres themselves are susceptible to degradation from ultraviolet (UV) light and
moisture. Aramid fibres are therefore used for structures requiring high tensile
strength (TS) and impact resistance but not shear or compressive strength (CS) and
are often used in combination with other fibres (hybridized) to provide improved
impact resistance.
Carbon fibres. Carbon fibres are produced from three different organic precursor
materials: - rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch. The manufacturing techniques
vary from precursor to precursor and are complex. They produce fibres with different
properties and in many grades. The main characteristics of carbon fibres are their high
strengths and Young's moduli, and their low densities and thermal expansivities.
Generally there is a play-off between strength and modulus; the higher the strength
the lower the modulus and vice versa. The wide range of fibres and properties that are
available provide the maximum possibility for optimization of the material to provide
properties specifically matched to a particular application. Carbon fibres are used for
structures that are weight sensitive, or which have high stiffness requirements. Carbon
fibres are generally the most appropriate for the strengthening of metallic structures.
Glass fibres. Glass fibres are used for the majority of composite applications. The
main forms are E-glass, most frequently used, and S2- or R-glass (trade names from
different manufacturers), which is a more expensive high strength version. The main
characteristics of glass fibres are their high strengths, moderate Young's moduli and
density, and their low thermal conductivity. Glass fibres are used for structures that
are not weight critical and which can be designed to accommodate their lower
Young's moduli.
Resins
The main structural resins are unsaturated polyesters and epoxies, with phenolics
used where there is a requirement for fire resistance. The main properties of these
resins are summarized in Table 2.
Unsaturated polyester resins. Unsaturated polyester resins are used for the majority of
composite structures. They consist of a relatively low molecular weight, unsaturated
Table 2
Resins
Typical properties of common resin systems

Tensile strength
Young's modulus
Strain at
Density
(MPa)
(GPa)
failure (%)
(kg/m )
Cost
(/kg)
Polyester
50-75
3.1-4.6
1.0-2.5
II10-1250
-2.5
Epoxy
60-85
2.6-3.8
1.5-8.0
11 10-1200
-5-10
Phenolic
60-80
3.0-4.0
1.0-1.8
1000-1250
4
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O v e r v i e w o f fibre r e i n f o r c e d p o l y m e r c o m p o s i t e s f o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g
polyester dissolved in styrene. Curing occurs by the polymerization of the styrene,

which forms cross-links across unsaturated sites in the polyester.
Polyester resins are relatively inexpensive, easy to process, allow room temperature
cure and have a good balance of mechanical properties and environmental or
chemical resistance.
The main issues relating to the use of polyester resins are:
moderate adhesive properties;
styrene vapour release during cure, now considered a health risk and subject to
emission regulations;
curing is strongly exothermic and can cause damage if processing rates are too
high;
shrinkage on cure of up to 8%.
Epoxy resins. Epoxy resins are used for the majority of high performance composite
structures. They are generally two-part systems consisting of an epoxy resin and a
hardener that is either an amine or anhydride. A wide variety of formulations are
available giving a broad spectrum of properties. The higher performance epoxies
require the application of heat during a controlled curing cycle to achieve the best
properties.
Epoxies have excellent environmental and chemical resistance. Compared to
polyesters, epoxies require more careful processing and are more expensive by a
factor of 1.53. However, epoxies demonstrate better mechanical properties, give
better performance at elevated temperature and exhibit a much lower degree of
shrinkage (23%). Their use incurs less waste and permits faster production rates;
they can therefore be competitive with polyester in terms of cost.
Phenolic resins. Phenolic resins are of particular interest in structural applications
owing to their flame-retardant properties, low smoke generation and high heat
resistance (up to 316C). Phenolic resins are produced by a condensation process that
involves reacting phenol with formaldehyde.
Phenolics exhibit good dimensional stability and resistance to acids. Undesirable
features of phenolics are their relatively low toughness and generation of water during
curing. This latter point is important, as a phenolic that is not fully cured will give off
water, in the form of steam, during a fire, which can cause failure of the laminate.
Manufacturing
techniques
Apart from the raw materials, the way in which a composite material is manufactured
will also affect its properties. This is because the manufacturing route dictates the
proportion of fibres to resin (called the fibre volume fraction), the amount of voids in
the material, and the overall consistency.
Hand lay-up
This process is also commonly known as contact moulding and wet lay-up. A rigid
mould is coated with liquid resin, dry reinforcement is laid onto the resin, and a roller
is used to press the reinforcement into the resin until the reinforcement is soaked with
the resin. This layer is called a ply. The process is repeated until the desired number of
plies has been added.
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V a c u u m bag m o u l d i n g
This process is similar to hand lay-up, but final laminate consolidation is achieved by
covering the component with a plastic film (vacuum bag) and drawing a vacuum over
the component. T h e pressure differential compresses the uncured composite, forcing
out excess resin and drawing out entrapped air. This results in a laminate of higher
fibre volume fraction and better consistency when compared to the hand lay-up
process.
Resin infusion u n d e r
flexible tooling/Resin
transfer moulding
For resin infusion under flexible tooling (RIFT), dry fabric reinforcement is first laid
into a mould. T h e reinforcement is covered with a vacuum bag, the edges sealed
and a vacuum drawn using a pump. T h e vacuum is used to suck resin into the
reinforcement thus forming the composite component. This process results in a
laminate of low void content and high volume fraction. T h e resin infusion process is
well suited to larger components or structures and where a closed mould process is
required to reduce emissions. It is used in the strengthening of metallic structures,
particularly when the metal surface is uneven or pitted. T h e resin takes up the surface
imperfections while bonding the composite to the metal. In manufacturing it is ideal
for producing small numbers of components.
W h e r e large numbers of components are required resin transfer moulding (RTM) is a
similar, but more suitable technique. Closed metal moulds are normally used (which
tend to be more expensive to make, but are more durable than the cheaper tooling for
RIFT), and the dry fibre preform is laid up within it. Resin is then injected under
positive pressure (sometimes with vacuum assistance), to form the final component.
T h e mould can also be heated to accelerate the cure of the resin and so reduce cycle
times.
Pre-preg
This method is used in both aerospace and motor racing industries because it gives
the most controlled form of component. Unidirectional fibres are pre-impregnated
with a resin (usually an epoxy) and these sheets are laid up individually in whatever
direction is desired to give fibres in the orientations required. T h e whole component is
cured in an oven under vacuum or in an autoclave. High control over fibre alignment,
fibre volume fraction and void content can be achieved. This approach is not practical
for construction applications.
Pultrusion
T h e above techniques are all labour driven. Pultrusion is an automated technique

that was designed to reduce the end-cost of components. It is similar to extrusion in
principle, in that the material is taken through a die to produce a component of
constant cross-section. Fibres are arranged to feed into a resin bath, and then into a
heated die, where they cure. T h e solid product emerges from the die and is pulled,
driving the whole process and giving it its name. There is no freedom to control the
fibre alignment as with other methods (fibres must be aligned predominantly to the
axis of the machine), or the volume fraction (the faster the running speed, the higher
the pull force and the higher the volume fraction of the composite).
Filament winding
Filament winding is another automated technique used to produce objects with

rotational symmetry. Pipes, tanks and pressure vessels are commonly produced in this
way. T h e fibres are impregnated with resin on line and wound on to a rotating
mandrel. T h e fibre placement is achieved using a computer controlled (CNC type)
arm, which can move along the length of the mandrel as the mandrel rotates. The
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O v e r v i e w o f fibre reinforced polymer composites f o r strengthening
fibre angle can therefore be controlled to a certain extent, however geometry of the
part most commonly dictates the angles that can be achieved (fibres naturally follow
the high points on the surface profile).
Performance
Design
The fibres give the final composite its strength and stiffness, so the main objective of
the design is to place the fibres in line with the loads to be carried. Fibres aligned in
one direction produce highly anisotropic materials with very high stiffness and
strength in the direction of the reinforcement. Away from this direction, properties
tend to fall away rapidly until at the orientation perpendicular to the fibres they
become similar to those of the matrix.
It is common for individual plies of unidirectional material to be combined to form a
more complex construction. Such a laminate may contain many individual layers,
each at different orientations with respect to one another, the sequence of plies being
determined by design considerations.
Reinforcements are available where tows or ravings (bundles of fibres) are stitched or
woven together to form a fabric containing fibres at set orientations. Such
reinforcements are characterized by the arrangement of the tows; common forms are:
unidirectional (UD), at least 95% of fibres in the 0 direction;

biaxial fabrics (BX), fibres in the 0 and 90 directions;
bias fabrics (XF), fibres in the +45 and - 4 5 directions;
quadraxial fabrics (QF), fibres in the 0, +45, - 4 5 and 90 directions.
Especially in woven fabrics, the 0 direction is called the warp and the 90 direction
the weft. Reinforcements with fibres in different directions are usually balanced, i.e.
they have equal number of plies in the plus and minus angle directions. Unidirectional
fabrics are the most highly anisotropic, whereas balanced, quadraxial, reinforcements
possess quasi-isotropic in-plane properties. Figure 4 shows some examples of rein
forcing fabrics.
Typical properties of resin-infused laminated epoxy composites are shown in Table 3.
General rules for designing laminates. These are based on good practice that has
evolved through experience:
Align fibres in the directions of all applied loads.
Even if a design requires only 0 plies, include at least 10% of the laminate weight
as 90 or 45 plies to accommodate unexpected loads.

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Table 3
Typical properties of composite materials produced using the RIFT method

Longitudinal (0)
Transverse (90)
TS
CS
Modulus
TS
CS
Modulus
Reinforcement
(MPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(GPa)
Aramid
Unidirectional
1280
290
70
39
150
0.34
1370
E-glass
Unidirectional
700
580
39
72
85
0.26
1920
E-glass
Quadraxial
380
312
23
383
324
23
0.28
1920
HS-carbon
Unidirectional
2003
797
1 12
50
85
0.26
1510
HS-carbon
Quadraxial
596
420
48
632
404
49
0.31
1510
HM-carbon
Unidirectional
1 157
346
310
24
75
0.30
1660
Fibre
I/|
p (kg/m )
TS, tensile strength; CS, compressive strength; HS, high strength; H M , high modulus.
Alternate ply orientations to prevent large matrix cracks forming.

Where possible, keep the difference in angular orientation between adjacent plies
to below 60.
Balance the laminate about the mid-plane to prevent bending effects reducing
in-plane properties.
Optimize the stacking sequence to maximize properties for a particular load case.
Taper thickness of laminates at edges to reduce peel stresses.
Codes. There are few codes for design of composite components. Certain products
have been standardized, such as tanks, vessels and pipework (e.g. BS4994 for GRP
tanks ). Given the variety of materials which can be used it is hard to know what
mechanical properties to use in design calculations. The aerospace industry has
completed thousands of materials tests to qualify specific materials but this then
prevents adoption of newer and better developments until more testing has been
carried out. Work is also underway in Europe to define a standard pultrusion that will
have certain specified mechanical properties, but the end markets for these materials
will be limited (though still significant). Recently the Concrete Society published
design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using composites.
5
The rest of the design and practice guide aims to fill the gap by covering strengthening
of metallic structures and also by considering the design of all-composite structures. In
the main, traditional hand-calculation methods will give a reasonable starting point,
but more detailed analysis may then be required, perhaps using finite element (FE)
type approaches. Most common FE packages now have composite modules, enabling
more accurate modelling. It may be that for critical components the designs will then
need to be validated by full-scale testing.
Durability. Durability can be defined as the ability of the material to continue to
meet the performance specification with time. The environments most commonly of
interest are water or chemicals, dynamic loading and fire.
Chemical resistance. In general composites are not greatly affected by common
chemicals. Strong oxidizing agents and bases are the usual exceptions, but their effect
varies with the resin matrix. Of the more common chemicals, water is usually the
most aggressive, and the one that needs to be considered. Epoxies are the most
resistant of the common matrices. Polyesters and phenolics are usually adequate.
Typically, glass reinforced composites show a loss in strength on exposure to water (of
up to 50% in some circumstances). The rate of degradation depends on the rate of
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O v e r v i e w o f fibre reinforced polymer composites f o r strengthening
moisture absorption, and so increases with temperature, concentration (relative

humidity) and area of material exposed. Carbon and aramid reinforcements show
excellent retention of properties during service (usually above 80% of short-term
strengths).
Fatigue performance. In general, fibre reinforced composites are more resistant to
dynamic loads than metals. The fatigue mechanism involves the accumulation of
cracks within the material, which in themselves are not critical. As the general level
of damage increases the strength and stiffness of the material reduces (properties away
from thefibreaxes show a greater change). Carbon fibres show the greatest resistance
to fatigue; glass and aramid show a greater reduction. Aramids in particular are
susceptible to tension-compression loading. As a rough indication, if the loads in carbon
reinforced composites are below half of the long-term strength then fatigue is unlikely to be a
problem.
Fire performance. Epoxy and polyester-based materials are flammable. However

glass-polyester composites are now commonly used in the offshore industry for fire
protection. The degradation of the material actually occurs at the surface first, and
then slowly proceeds through the thickness of the material. This gives excellent
protection to the rear face of the composite.
Phenolic resins are used primarily because they do have good performance in fires.
While polyesters protect the substrate underneath, they emit noxious fumes. The
smoke and toxicity of the smoke emitted by phenolics are much reduced compared to
other resins. Further, the rate of flame spread is also slower. Therefore in fire critical
applications phenolic resins are commonly selected, and it is possible to satisfy various
design standards, as set out in BS476.
6
Adhesive bonding
While there are a number of adhesive types available (epoxies, acrylics, polyurethanes, cyanoacrylates, etc.) the ones most suitable for connecting composite
components are epoxies. There is a wide range of epoxies available, and selection
must be made to suit the curing conditions. Those with the best properties usually
have to be cured at elevated temperature but systems are available that cure at
ambient temperature. Formulations suitable for structural strengthening are readily
available.
Adhesive bonds perform best in shear, and are not suitable for carrying tensile, peel or
cleavage loads. Presuming that shear joints can be achieved the first step in making
the bond is to ensure the surfaces to be joined are adequately prepared. The surfaces
must be of a suitable cleanliness and surface roughness. Any contaminants left on
the surface (oils from handling, etc.) will reduce the bond strength, and the surfaces
need to have a degree of roughness to ensure a good key is achieved. It is common
to prepare substrates to painting standards (e.g. SA2^), and while this gives
repeatability to the process it may not always guarantee the highest strength.
Once the surface is prepared the adhesive needs to be mixed. Manufacturers can
provide pre-weighed packs and automatic dispensers, or adhesives and hardeners can
be measured out as specified by the manufacturer. Careful batching and mixing is
essential to ensure the adhesive will cure.
The adhesive must be applied to the bonding surfaces. It is not always necessary to
apply to both surfaces, but the application must ensure no air is trapped when the
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surfaces are brought together. Some temporary support may be required, depending
on the components being bonded.
T h e development of strength in the bond will depend on the specific adhesive and
curing conditions. However, it is possible to get working strengths at ambient
temperature within a matter of hours.
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I. General introduction
General
This design and practice guide has been prepared by the participants in the LINK
Inland Surface Transport and the Partners in Technology (PIT) Programmes entitled
Carbon Fibre Composites for Structural Upgrade and Life Extension, Validation and
Design Guidance. T h e Participants were Devonport Royal Dockyard Limited, London
Underground Limited, MSL Engineering Limited, Defence Evaluation and Research
Agency (DERA), Southampton University, and Structural Statics Limited. This guide
constitutes part of the final report for the project and is based on the findings from the
projects and the experience of the participants in carrying out strengthening of
metallic structures.
Scope
T h e recommendations contained in this guide mainly cover t h e structural

strengthening or repair of metallic components of onshore structures, using carbon
fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP). T h e recommendations are concerned with
strengthening and repair schemes in which either the CFRP is bonded to an existing
structure, such that the existing structure and CFRP act together, or the new
composite structure provides an alternative load path to the existing structure. T h e
recommendations may be of limited application when applied to substrates other
than metallic substrates, as each may require unique bonding materials and surface
preparation techniques, and consideration of other potential failure modes.
T h e recommendations give advice on the selection of laminate materials, design of
strengthening and repair schemes, FE analysis of strengthening schemes, manufacture
of laminate, implementation of strengthening or repair, and remedial action to be
undertaken where there is damage to t h e composite material used for the
strengthening or repair.
Applications of
technique
T h e recommendations are applicable to the strengthening or repair of metallic

components using CFRP, and to the analysis and design of composite sections made
entirely from advanced composite materials.
These recommendations apply to both serviceability and ultimate limit state
requirements.
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Definitions
For the purposes of this guide the following definitions shall apply:
CFRP: Acronym for carbon fibre reinforced plastic a composite laminate
formed from carbon fibres embedded in a resin matrix.
RIFT: Acronym for resin infusion under flexible tooling a manufacturing
process involving (vacuum) differential pressure to compress the fibre mats and to
draw the resin through the fibres.
Reference material: The transformed properties (e.g. area, second moment of area,
etc.) of a steel or CFRP section will be evaluated in the units of one of the
materials, the so-called reference material.
CLT: Acronym for classical laminate theory.
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2. Design specification
A design specification should be prepared at the outset of a project. This should
include, as a minimum, a description of the structure or component to be repaired or
strengthened and a consideration of design loads, load factors, design life and the
environment. All limit states shall be defined within the specification. Design loads,
load factors and design life for the CFRP reinforced structure should be agreed with
the asset owner and the asset manager.
Design loads
Where CFRP is used for strengthening and repair, the material is only subject to
stresses due to changes in load effects following the application of CFRP.
Load effect changes may be due to the following:
changes in dead, superimposed dead load and live load;
temperature effects due to temperature changes after the application of CFRP
caused by external restraints on the reinforced member or by;
accidental load;
changes in geometry due to load effects (possibly non-linear);
partial failure of CFRP (which may leave a load bearing and possibly serviceable
structure);
time effects on the substrate (e.g. aerobic or anaerobic corrosion, fatigue cracking,
gas embrittlement, creep, chemical conversion, chemical expansion, wear);
time effects on CFRP (e.g. moisture uptake in matrix, UV radiation, fatigue
cracking, creep, corrosion at interface, electrolytic action between CFRP and
substrate, abrasion and wear, moisture attack on non-carbon fibres, chemical
attack by overcoating;
CFRP and substrate material property changes caused by elevated temperatures
during a fire.
Load factors
Partial load factors should take account of the following:
inaccurate load assessment;

poor structural or geotechnical data;
incomplete or inaccessible structural survey information;
imperfect structural modelling.
The magnitude of the factors should take account of the probability of occurrence,
the design life of the strengthening or repair and the consequences of failure.
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Environment
As with all materials, the environment to which a composite component is to be

exposed throughout its life must be considered at the design stage. The effects of
exposure on the mechanical properties of a composite material will vary according
to the nature of the environment and the constituents of the composite. The
environmental conditions to be expected must therefore form an integral part of
the design specification.
Environmental conditions are generally considered with respect to their effect on the
degradation of the mechanical properties of the composite material. However, the
environment may also impose additional indirect loads on the component that also
need to be considered. Thermal stresses due to variation between installation and
operational temperatures, or due to diurnal ambient temperature variation, can be
significant and must be considered.
The response of laminate to a given set of environmental conditions will depend on
the fibres, resin and manufacturing route. The effects of the following environmental
conditions are considered:
Temperature
temperature;
moisture;
chemicals including animal excreta;
UV radiation;
fire.
It is usual to limit the operating temperature to which a composite material is

subjected to 20C less than the glass transition temperature (t ) for an epoxy resin or
the heat distortion temperature (HDT) for a vinylester or polyester resin. At this
temperature there is an increase in rate of change of mechanical properties with
respect to temperature, meaning that the performance degrades more rapidly. For
cases where the composite material is also subjected to an aggressive environment,
e.g. for repairs to process pipework, the operating temperature is limited to t or HDT
less 30C.
g
The operating temperature will have very important indirect effects on the composite
component, and as such, must be included as a part of any design specification. At the
design stage, consideration should be given to the following temperature effects as a
minimum:
A higher operating temperature will increase the rate of creep or stress relaxation.
Higher temperatures increase the rate at which environmental degradation due to
moisture uptake will occur.
The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the composite material may not
match that of the structure to which it is applied. In this case, variation in
temperature away from that at which the composite was applied will lead to
thermal stresses. Thought should be given to the effect that this has on the design
allowable stresses in both the composite and the structure.
Thermal cycling can cause degradation of the laminate through matrix cracking.
This has been an area of research on supersonic aircraft where temperature
differences often range from +120 to 50C. Matrix cracking is more common
when there are a large number of rapid cycles and the structure experiences
extreme negative temperatures during each cycle.
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Design specification
Moisture
Any polymeric material in proximity to moisture, whether in the form of humidity or

complete immersion, will absorb a certain amount of water. Polymers will absorb
moisture until an equilibrium point is reached, this is known as saturation. In theory,
the polymer being used and level of moisture in the environment will determine the
saturation point. This saturation point will be different for a polymer and a composite
produced from the same material due to the effect of the fibres. This generally reduces
the amount of moisture absorbed. However, polymeric fibres such as aramid and
polyethylene, will also absorb moisture. This leads to additional problems because the
fibres swell as the moisture is absorbed, which can lead to internal stresses and fibre or
matrix disbonds.
It can be seen therefore that it is very important to specify ambient moisture level, in
order that the design allowable stress is reduced in line with the expected long-term
degradation of the composite. However, the mechanical degradation due to moisture
should not be viewed in the same way as moisture corrosion in metals. Once
saturation is reached there will be no further reduction in mechanical performance.
This is unlike steel, which will continue to corrode.
Chemicals
There are a whole host of chemicals that could come into contact with a composite
over its life-span, but it is important to characterize which chemicals it will see for
periods that could produce mechanical degradation. Characterizing a composite's
response to a chemical is often time-consuming and costly. It is therefore important to
do as much research as possible before testing. Materials suppliers will often be able to
provide information on what chemicals are likely to degrade the composite.
Organic solvents are known to attack the polymer matrix of a composite and degrade
its mechanical properties. However, as these solvents often evaporate quickly the
time it spends in contact with the composite would generally be small. This may not
give any significant degradation, but this would be highly dependent on the solvent
and the exposure time.
The molecular size of the chemical relative to the matrix will give an indication to
whether it will be absorbed by the composite. If it is too large no absorption will take
place and degradation, if any, will only be on the exposed surface. Ionic fluids such as
acid and alkalis can be absorbed by the composite and this could degrade the material.
The concern with acids and alkalis is that although the material will reach equilibrium
for fluid uptake, the ionic components of the fluids will continue to attack the fibres.
This means that the assumption that at equilibrium the ultimate mechanical property
degradation has been reached does not apply. For this reason it is very important to
specify the potential exposure to acids and alkalis so that account may be taken of this
when determining the design allowable stress for the composite material. In addition
to this, glass fibre reinforced plastics can show a catastrophic reduction in strength
when exposed to acidic solutions while the composite is under load (a phenomenon
known as stress corrosion). Principally this is due to the fibres cracking when attacked
by the acid.
Ultraviolet radiation
Glass and carbon fibres are very resistant to UV degradation. Aramid fibres are
susceptible to UV degradation. However, light is not transmitted through an aramid
laminate and so only the surface plies will be affected. It is also possible to eliminate
this by the addition of a protective layer. Aramid composites are successfully used on
satellites, where UV radiation is much greater, through this process. The resin matrix
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FRP composites
may degrade slightly as a result of U V exposure, although this may be designed out
through choice of appropriate resins and/or the inclusion of a pigmented gel coat.
W h e r e a composite is to be subject to direct sunlight it is important to specify this
so that the appropriate steps may be taken to guard against UV degradation.
Fire
Polymer composites are susceptible to degradation through fire. T h e organic polymer

matrix will, once a fire has taken hold, act as a fuel and promote fire growth. Along
side this, the by-products given off from the polymer as it burns are often highly toxic.
There are polymers that do not easily burn and composites containing phenolic resin
are often used in areas where there is a potential threat of fire. However, current
polymers that have good fire performance or contain fire retarding additives tend to
have reduced mechanical performance. There are materials being developed that will
solve this dilemma but they are several years away from full production. Currently,
where high mechanical performance is required it is possible to protect the composite
through the use of intumescent and fire retardant coatings. These react to the
presence of fire and either provide an insulating barrier for the composite or produce
by-products that reduce the energy of the fire.
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3.
Repair and
strengthening
Design process overview
Following strengthening or repair, a component is likely to be stiffer than before and

may consequently attract a greater proportion of load than hitherto, if the component
is part of a redundant structure. This may be dependent on the level of pre-strain at
the time of strengthening and the stress-strain curve of the parent component or
substrate. Furthermore, the nature of CFRP is such that total failure may be imminent
once first ply failure has occurred which may reduce the deformation capacity of the
component. These aspects must be considered during design, either explicitly or by
increasing factors of safety against CFRP failure.
When laminate is not placed symmetrically about the neutral axis of an unreinforced
section, it should be recognized that there will be a shift in the position of the neutral
axis. The stresses due to additional loads carried after the placement should be calcu
lated by reference to the shifted neutral axis. The total stresses may then be found by
superposition of the stresses due to pre-load and the stresses due to the additional loads.
Although laminates will generally enhance the performance of existing structures, the
placement of the reinforcement may induce a different failure mode. For buckling
considerations, the placement of the laminate should be such as to ensure that there
is an increase in flexural stiffness, without a proportionate increase in the slenderness
of the reinforced component. Thus, the position of the CFRP should be such that the
radius of gyration is increased.
When laminates are bonded to existing structures subject to changes in loads (with
no stress relief), the bond strength of the adhesive needs to be considered before full
cure, to ensure the composite action of the metallic substrate and laminate is
achieved. It may thus be necessary to allow some time for the resin to cure, so that the
full shear strength is developed before imposing additional loads.
General design
principles
Composites can be used in structures designed plastically in which a significant

amount of hinge rotation is allowed leading to redistribution of load. However, in
either elastic or plastic global analysis, the laminate shall always remain elastic. Thus,
when composites are used in combination with metallic alloys which may undergo
significant plastic deformations, reaching plastic strain values several times their
initial yield strain, the failure stress (strain) of the laminate may be the limiting
criterion to determine the load carrying capacity of the structure.
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W h e n a metallic structure or structural component is reinforced with a CFRP

laminate and then subject to loading, the differences between the mechanical
properties of the metal and the laminate will need to be considered, as this will
determine the load share between the laminate and the substrate. Furthermore, the
failure modes of the materials may differ significantly.
Figure 5 illustrates, in flowchart form, the logical steps involved in the design or
analysis process. Generally, the existing and additional loads will be known, as will
be the existing structural form and mechanical properties of the substrate material.
The only variable is the design of the laminate itself (fibre, type, resin, fibre architecture
or orientations and thickness). The designer is free to select and orient the fibres
to optimize the laminate properties in any direction (i.e. the properties can be
anisotropic) and hence the performance of the strengthening or repair scheme. In
many cases, such as beam flanges, the direction of the principal stress will be fairly
obvious and clearly the optimum laminate will have very nearly all the fibres so
oriented. There will be a small percentage of fibres laying in the orthogonal direction;
these hold the fibre mats together. However, in other instances, the principal stress
direction will not be known a priori and numerical analysis (i.e. FE analysis) may
be required. Unfortunately, the computed stresses in the laminate are themselves a
function of the laminate properties and it may be necessary to consider a number of
alternative laminate designs to establish the optimum one. This design loop is as
indicated by the broken lines in Figure 5.
It is necessary to ensure that no premature failure can occur in any component part of
a composite strengthening or repair scheme. This entails a consideration of the
original structure (the substrate), the CFRP laminate and the adhesive bond between
them. The stresses in each component are dependent on the structural interaction
between the substrate and the CFRP laminate and therefore, in turn, on the
mechanical properties of the component materials. Furthermore, recognition has to
be given to the different stress distributions arising from loads already existing in
the structure before implementing the scheme and those (additional) loads applied
Additional load
applied after
strengthening/
repair
Load in
substrate before
strengthening/
repair
Substrate
mechanical
properties
Stresses in
substrate
Design checks
Figure 5
Overview of design or
analysis process
OK
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Load share
between
substrate and
laminate
Laminate
mechanical
properties
Stresses in
laminate
Design of
laminate
Not OK
Design
loop
Design process
overview
afterwards. Note that sometimes it may be possible to reduce the existing loads before
scheme implementation by jacking, propping or removal of superimposed dead load.
Following the scheme implementation, the laminate will resist a proportion of the
reinstated load (plus any new additional loads).
In the development of a design concept, various load conditions should be considered,
as this will dictate possible failure modes and the choice of a suitable laminate.
Various strengthening and repair schemes should be considered before deciding on
the most appropriate solution. The concept design will normally be the result of a
prolonged assessment process.
Stress concentrations between substrate and laminate should be mitigated, to prevent
premature failure of the adhesive bond. This can be achieved by specifying a taper of
the laminate of between 1:10 and 1:4 at the ends of laminate used to reinforce
metallic sections, and also by avoiding sharp corners.
Structural design
The design analysis techniques that can be used for strengthening and those for repair
may differ. For instance, whereas it is possible to analyse an under-strength, though
otherwise intact column using existing codes of practice, the codes are not directly
applicable to a damaged (e.g. dented or out-of-tolerance bowed) column. Damaged
members, whether reinforced or not, require a more fundamental assessment of their
capacity. This may involve the use of advanced methods of analysis such as FE analysis.
The strength of members may be assessed in accordance with the relevant
requirements given in Codes of Practice [e.g. Refs 711]. Several modes of failure
may need to be considered. It should be noted that the use of Codes is restricted to
intact components.
For the design of columns susceptible to flexural-torsional buckling modes of failure
and more complex geometries, design of strengthening schemes using CFRP will of
necessity be based on the results of FE analysis or other numerical methods.
The detailed design stages of a strengthening or repair scheme using composites
should be based on laminate properties determined through testing. Testing allows for
the effects of raw materials variability, processing conditions and process variability,
and long-term effects. Although composite materials do not corrode, when using
laminates for strengthening or repair, particular attention should be given to the
effects of moisture, fatigue, creep and chemical exposure.
Consideration of the geometry of the component to be strengthened or repaired is
important, as this will affect the placement of the laminate for maximum effectiveness and efficiency. The addition of a laminate will also always result in enhancing
the stiffness of the component or structure. Since the weight-to-stiffness ratios of
laminates are very low, the presence of the CFRP will also invariably improve the
response of the structures to dynamic loads such as vibration.
Materials selection
Material selection is an important part of the design process. It is vital that the
materials selected are appropriate to the function that they will have to fulfil. The
materials and attributes that have to be selected are:
fabric reinforcement (i.e. the arrangement of the fibres);
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reinforcing fibre;
resin system.
When selecting the material type, consideration must be given to the following
factors:
structural and physical properties;
suitability for use in the intended environment;
suitability for use in the intended manufacturing process.
Fabric r e i n f o r c e m e n t
There are five common types of fabric reinforcement, which can be used, these being:
Unidirectional fabrics: These fabrics have all the reinforcing fibres in the 0
direction. Unidirectional fabrics usually have the lowest weight of reinforcing fibre
per ply and are usually narrower than other fabrics, therefore they require the
most labour to lay up a laminate of a given thickness.
Biaxial fabrics: These fabrics have reinforcing fibres in the 0 and 90 directions.
There are usually equal proportions of fibre in each direction (balanced).
However, fabrics can be produced with different proportions of fibre in each
direction.
Bias fabrics: These fabrics have reinforcing fibres in the +45 and 45
directions. There are usually equal proportions of fibre in each direction. These
type of fabrics are usually specified where shear loads are predominant.
Triaxial fabrics: These fabrics have reinforcing fibres in the 0, +45 and 45
directions. Typical arrangements will have 50% of fibre at 0, 25% at +45 and
-45, or 33% in each of the 0, +45 and -45 directions. Fabrics with different
proportions of fibre in each direction can be produced.
Quadraxial fabrics: These fabrics have reinforcing fibres in the 0, +45, 45
and 90 directions. Typically, the arrangement will have 25% of fibre in each of
those directions. Fabrics with different proportions of fibre in each direction can
be produced. Quadraxial fabrics usually have the highest weight of reinforcing
fibre per ply, therefore they require the least labour to produce a laminate of a
given thickness.
The primary strength and stiffness of a composite laminate is in the directions of the
fibres. This means that a composite component may be optimized by aligning fibres
in the directions of the applied loads. For example, where a tensile flange is to be
reinforced unidirectional fabric is appropriate for the direct stresses due to bending;
where a web is to be reinforced, a 45 directional fabric is appropriate to carry the
shear forces. It is common practice where unidirectional fabrics are used to include
a small percentage (a value of 5% by laminate thickness is commonly adopted) of
perpendicular fibres to accommodate unforeseen loading (such as may occur during
installation).
Reinforcing f i b r e
The type of fibre selected will alter the laminate strength, stiffness and coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE).
The laminate must have sufficient strength (specific to the direction in which loading
is applied) to allow the structural loads to be taken in a laminate of thickness
compatible with the geometry, weight and process constraints. The laminate must
also have sufficient stiffness (i.e. rigidity) to allow deflection and other serviceability
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Design process
overview
criteria to be met by the component. Note, the higher the rigidity of the laminate, the
greater are the shear stresses in the bond, see Strain compatibility in Chapter 4.
The CTE of a laminate will vary widely depending on the type of fibre selected and
the direction of the fibres. Where the CTE of the laminate differs from that of the
material to which it is to be bonded then thermal stresses will be induced. In this
instance, the thermal stresses arising from the worst credible temperature range must
be accounted for in design.
Both the stiffness and the CTE of a laminate may be calculated using classical
laminate theory (CLT). A brief overview of CLT is given in the section 'Accounting
for long-term degradation' in Chapter 4.
Common types of reinforcing fibres used for structural upgrade and life extension are:
E-glass: This is the most commonly used type of glass reinforcement for structural
applications. E-glass (E for electrical) draws well, and has good strength, stiffness,
electrical and weathering properties. It is used for components that are only lightly
loaded or for applications where low weight/high stiffness is not crucial. E-glass is
also used in conjunction with carbon fibres where insulating properties are required,
e.g. at the interface between a carbon fibre laminate and a metallic substrate.
E-glass also provides good resistance against impact and abrasion damage; for this
reason it is often used in surface plies to protect the main structural laminate.
High strength carbon: HS carbon offers higher strength and stiffness than E-glass
at a lower density. HS carbon is used for components subject to high levels of
stress, or where a high strength-to-weight or stiffness-to-weight ratio is required.
Compared to E-glass, HS carbon offers superior resistance to environmental
degradation.
High modulus and ultra-high modulus carbon: HM and ultra-high modulus (UHM)
carbon offer higher stiffness than HS carbon but at a reduced strength. UHM
carbon should be used where there is a requirement for very high stiffness or
stiffness-to-weight ratio. UHM carbon is commonly used to reinforce structural
members as it can remove the need for pre-stressing.
Aramid: Aramid fibres are produced in LM and HM grades. The main
characteristics of aramid fibres are their high strengths, moderate Young's moduli
and low densities. Laminates formed from aramid fibres are known for their
low compressive and shear strengths. The fibres themselves are susceptible
to degradation from UV light and moisture. Aramid fibres are therefore used for
structures requiring high tensile strength and impact resistance, but not shear or
compression strength. They are often used in combination with other fibres
(hybridized) to provide improved impact resistance.
Table 4 gives typical material properties for various fibres.
Table 4
Fibre
Typical material properties for fibres

2
Strength ( N / m m )
Young's modulus ( k N / m m )
Density ( k g / m )
1390-1470
Aramid
3150-3600
58-160
Carbon
2100-7100
220-900
1740-2200
Glass
3445-4890
72-87
2460-2580
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Resin system
T h e main functions of the resin system are:

to protect the fibres from environmental and mechanical damage;
to transfer loads between the fibres.
T h e choice of a resin system will have only a small effect on the laminate mecha
nical properties, as these are fibre dominated. Thus the important characteristics of
the resin system are its environmental stability and its adhesive properties (for transfer
of load).
C o m m o n types of thermoset resins (thermoplastic resins are used in composite
components although their use is not common in structural applications) are:
Phenolics: Phenolic resins have good performance in fire (low smoke and toxic
fume emission, low inflammability, heat release and surface spread of flame), good
retention of mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. Phenolic resins
should be used where these properties are of prime importance. Care must be
taken during manufacture to avoid problems due to residual acid catalyst, residual
water and microvoids resulting in reduced long-term mechanical properties of
laminates. In addition to this, the manufacture of phenolic laminates requires a
higher level of personal protective equipment than for manufacture using other
types of resin. Phenolic resins are generally only used to produce laminates with
glass fibre reinforcement rather than carbon or aramid.
Polyester: Polyester resins have good mechanical properties. Manufacturing
difficulties lead to problems when producing laminates with high fibre volume
fractions. This leads to the use of polyester resins being limited to moderately
loaded structural components. Polyester resin is generally only used to produce
laminates with glass fibre reinforcement rather than carbon or aramid.
Vinylester: Vinylester resins have good mechanical properties and excellent
chemical resistance. T h e drawbacks of vinylester resins are a high degree of
shrinkage during cure and a high styrene content, leading to concerns for use
in open mould manufacturing processes. Vinylester resins are normally selected
where good chemical resistance is required.
Epoxies: Epoxy resins have excellent mechanical properties and excellent chemical
resistance except to strong acids. Epoxies have low shrinkage during cure,
meaning that laminates produced with epoxies have low internal residual stress
levels. Precise control of the resin mixing operation is required in order to ensure
that no uncured material remains in the laminate. Uncured material would
reduce both initial laminate properties and affect the long-term durability of the
structure. Epoxy resins are selected where high structural performance is required.
In some instances it is possible to use a variety of resins within the same laminate, e.g.
a phenolic surface layer over an epoxy laminate for fire protection. Once a generic
type of resin has been selected, a specific resin system must be chosen. Consideration
must be given to the mechanical and physical properties, as well as the environmental
resistance and processing characteristics (viscosity, gel time, cure schedule and
shrinkage) of the resin.
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4. Composite design
Selection
Selection of the type of laminate to be used (fabric type, fibre type and resin type)
should be a concurrent activity with the structural design. Careful consideration
needs to be given to exactly what function the composite component is to perform
within the structure. Key considerations are strain and thermal expansion
compatibility between the laminate and the substrate material, and ultimate strength
of the laminate. Composite materials can be produced with a wide range of Young's
moduli, CTE and ultimate strengths, these properties may be arranged so that they
are direction specific or quasi-isotropic. This stage in the design process, tailoring
material properties to requirements, is the key difference between designing in
composites and designing in metals.
Strain
compatibility
When bonding a composite component to an existing structural member it is

important to consider the effects of strain compatibility; the shear stress in the
adhesive bond will place an upper limit on the stiffness or thickness of the composite
that can be applied. Table 5 indicates appropriate laminate types for given
applications. For example, the use of UHM carbon fibre reinforcement on a
concrete or timber structure would not be appropriate. The shear stress generated at
7-12
Table 5
Recommended laminate types for typical constructional materials

Substrate
2
Substrate
rigidity ( k N / m m )
Timber
Appropriate
Reinforcement
reinforcement
rigidity ( k N / m m )
4-22
E-glass/HS carbon
Concrete
18-38
E-glass/HS carbon
Cast iron, w r o u g h t iron, steel
90-205
UHM carbon
Table 6
23-112
23-112
310-360
Effect of fibre type on laminate stiffness
Fibre
Fabric
Fibre angles
Stiffness in 0 ( k N / m m )
HS carbon
Unidirectional
112
HS carbon
Quadraxial
0, + 4 5 , - 4 5 , 90
48
Values calculated using C L T and manufacturers' data for the fibre and resin.
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the interface between the substrate and the reinforcement would exceed the shear
strength of the substrate material.
The choice of fibre type is not the only factor that will influence the stiffness of the
produced laminate. As has been covered in the section on Fabric reinforcement, a
composite material possesses strength and stiffness primarily in the direction in which
the fibres are oriented. Table 6 gives an example of the effect of fabric type on the
composite stiffness.
13
Thermal
compatibility
When bonding a composite component to an existing structural member, it is also

important to consider the effects of differential thermal expansion. The CTE of a
composite material will vary according to the choice of fibre and resin system.
Furthermore, the CTE will also change dramatically according to the fibre orientation
within the laminate. All of the reinforcement fibres commonly in use exhibit markedly
different thermal expansion characteristics in the longitudinal and transverse
directions. Many carbon fibres exhibit the unusual characteristic of contracting, in
the longitudinal direction on heating.
Table 7 indicates typical CTE for a variety of fibre types laminated with epoxy resin.
- 6
- 1
The typical CTE for an epoxy resin is 60 x 1 0 K which, by the rule of mixtures,
means that in most cases the CTE of a laminate is positive even if the reinforcing
fibres contract on heating.
The testing required in order to determine the CTE is a specialized task. It is common
practice to calculate the CTE of a composite material from the data supplied for the
component materials using the following equation:
_ q ( l -f)E
m
a fE
f
(1-nEn+fEf
( i j
'
where a is the CTE for the composite material, a is the CTE of the resin matrix,
ctf is the CTE of the fibre reinforcement, / is the fibre volume fraction, E is the
Young's modulus of the resin matrix and Ey is the Young's modulus of the fibre
reinforcement.
c
The above equation relies on the fact that since there is no applied stress, the internal
stresses due to thermal expansion must counter balance each other. This method
supplies reliable results, although it is not entirely rigorous as the strains due to
differential Poisson's contraction are neglected.
Table 7
CTE for fibres

CTE in 0
(x
I0- K-')
CTE in 90
(x
Fabric
Fibre angles
E-glass
Unidirectional
Quadraxial
0, + 4 5 , --45, 90
Unidirectional
0.52
Quadraxial
0, + 4 5 , --45, 90
9.76
9.76
-0.07
25.68
9.6
9.6
HS carbon
UHM carbon
Unidirectional
Quadraxial
0, + 4 5 , - 4 5 , 90
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lO^KT )
Fibre
8.4
20.91
11.0
11.0
25.5
Composite
_ 6
design
_ 1
Given that the value of C T E for mild steel 12 x 1 0 K , the importance of

allowing for differential thermal expansion is clear. For example, consider an U H M
CFRP plate, which has been bonded to the tensile flange of a steel beam during a cold
day. During hot weather, the CFRP plate will be subject to additional tensile stress
and the adhesive bond subject to additional shear stress.
U l t i m a t e Strength
capacity
T h e ultimate tensile strength of a CFRP laminate used for rehabilitation must be

appropriate to the structural application. T h e reinforcement of structural members
using composite materials is often stiffness driven (e.g. where cast iron is reinforced on
a permissible stress basis). In this instance, the reinforcing laminate should be tailored
such that at the design stress an adequate material reserve factor exists.
It is also possible that in some structural upgrade schemes the design may be strength
driven. For example, if the structural member to be strengthened was designed such
that the formation of a plastic hinge were permitted (i.e. a blast wall support), then
the ultimate strength capacity of the reinforcing laminate would govern design.
Another case where a reinforcement scheme would be strength rather than stiffness
driven is if the composite plates are to be pre-stressed. Pre-stressing of composite
reinforcement may be used where the member to be strengthened is close to its
capacity due to dead load. In this instance the effects of dead load are overcome by
transferring existing stress from the member into the reinforcement, thus it is this
strength rather than the stiffness of the laminate which is important.
T h e following guidelines may assist in the selection of suitable laminate material
properties for the strengthening, modification or repair of an existing component:
High strength (HS) carbon laminates are usually the most cost-effective for
structural components.
Intermediate modulus (IM) carbon laminates should be used where there are very
high tensile strength requirements, which cannot be met by thicker, H S carbon
laminates because of geometry or weight constraints.
High modulus (HM) composites should be used where there are very high
stiffness requirements, such as when limiting bending deflections.
A layer of E-glass should be used between the carbon fibre and the steel to
prevent galvanic corrosion.
Choice of
manufacturing
process
T h e various manufacturing processes (see Chapter 6) for composite materials produce

laminates of different qualities, which will affect the mechanical properties of the
laminate produced. T h e key process controlled parameters affecting the mechanical
properties of the laminate are the fibre volume fraction and the void content.
Table 8 gives an example of the effects of different manufacturing processes on the
Young's modulus of a typical U H M carbon laminate.
Table 8
Effect of manufacturing process on elastic modulus

2
Process
Fibre v o l u m e fraction
Void content
Stiffness in 0 ( k N / m m )
Hand lay-up
RIFT
Pre-preg
0.4
0.54
U p t o 5%
<l%
1-2%
230
310
360
0.60
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The process related costs increase from simple hand lay-up to the more complicated
pre-preg process. The choice of manufacturing process needs to be made with careful
consideration as to the end use. For example, where E-glass has been chosen for a
laminate, as high strength or stiffness is not a requirement, it would be inappropriate
to manufacture the laminate using the pre-preg process.
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of
basic m a t e r i a l
properties
The determination of material properties for design purposes will be based on data
obtained through testing of the specific laminate to be used. Laminate testing
characterises the response of the composite material in a given laminate design. The
material properties' tests undertaken will be determined by the end-use of the
component that is required. For designers unfamiliar with the use of composites, it
should be pointed out that composites may not be treated as isotropic. Strengths and
stiffnesses can vary widely according to the direction of load application and whether
they are loaded in tension or compression. Even quadraxial fabrics, that are termed
quasi-isotropic, will respond very differently if loaded through thickness compared
with in-plane - as there are no fibres oriented in this direction.
When the material properties required have been identified, with careful consider
ation to the manner in which load will be applied to the composite, a testing matrix to
determine these properties should be defined.
Materials testing
Coupon testing provides an empirical means of determining intrinsic material

properties. These material properties are then modified to account for variability and
long term degradation before being used for the design of composite components. Test
methods developed specifically for composite materials must be used at all times, as
methods developed for metals or plastics are not applicable. Test methods must
account for the following requirements:
The need to evaluate properties in multiple directions.
The need to condition specimens to quantify and control moisture absorption and
de-absorption.
The increased importance of specimen alignment and load introduction method.
The heightened sensitivity to specimen preparation practices.
British Standards, ASTM and a number of other standards agencies cover composite
specific test methods. The applicable test standard used should be stated when
quoting the results of the testing.
Allowance for
variability
It is assumed that laminates will contain representative defects such as
voids;
fibre misalignment;
local fibre volume fraction variations;
resin micro-cracks due to curing stresses.
Test laminates should be manufactured using representative processes, under

representative environmental conditions, thus providing a test laminate representa
tive of that specified by design.
Design allowable material properties need to account for the inherent variability of
the composite material. A commonly used method of accounting for this variability
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Composite
design
is to apply a factor that characterises the material variability arising from a given
manufacturing process. This approach provides a qualitative assessment of variability
and should be used only where sufficient test data is not available. A more accurate
method of accounting for material variability is to apply a statistical analysis to the raw
test data. This approach is preferable to the earlier as it provides a quantitative
assessment of variability.
It is recommended that a statistical analysis of the test results be conducted in order
to determine strengths that account for material variability. There are a number of
different statistical analyses that may be applied. The simplest approach is given by
the following equation:
o~k
= cr m
where 0^ is the characteristic strength, a

results and s is the standard deviation.
2s,
(2)
is the mean strength given by the test
The statistical approach detailed above assumes that sufficient samples were tested to
ensure statistical relevance. The number of specimens required for statistical
relevance is not inherently specified. It is therefore recommended that this approach
be used only for non-critical components.
A slight variation on this technique is the B-basis analysis. This analysis assumes that
the test specimens belong to a common probability distribution. The probability
distribution is termed a population', of which the test specimens are a random
sample. A B-basis value is that which will be exceeded by 90% of results with 95%
confidence. The B-basis value is given by equation:
o~k
o~m
- hs,
(3)
where
is the characteristic strength, o~ is the mean strength given by the test
results, Icb is the tolerance limit factor for the normal distribution and s is the standard
deviation.
m
The value of kg can be obtained from statistical tables. The advantage of the B-basis
approach is that the number of samples required is not fixed. The greater the number
of test specimens which go to make up a sample, the lower the tolerance limit factor.
Seventeen test specimens would be required in order to achieve a kg value of 2, which
would give the same result as the simple approach described above.
Account of the variability in stiffness of a composite material can also be made using
this approach.
Accounting for
long-term
degradation
The importance of specifying the environment to which the composite material will
be exposed throughout its design life was covered in Chapter 2. The effect of longterm degradation on composite material strength is accounted for by the use of partial
factors. The overall partial factor applied to the material strength is comprised of subfactors defined for a number of degradation mechanisms. In this manner, the material
strength can be modified according to a detailed appraisal of the degradation
mechanisms to which the material will be exposed. Limits for the value of individual
degradation factors for epoxy resins reinforced with glass, carbon or aramid fibres are
given in Tables 914.
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Table 9
Degradation factors for laminates with E-glass reinforcement
Degradation mechanism
Suggested maximum
Suggested minimum
Moisture
0.9
0.5
Chemical e x p o s u r e
1.0
0.75
UV e x p o s u r e
1.0
0.95
Fatigue
1.0*
0.25f
Creep
1.0
0.4
Impact
1.0
0.75
Overall degradation \d
0.4
0.15
* T h e factor of unity applies only w h e r e there is no fatigue loading.

f Lower bound value due t o high amplitude, high frequency load cycles.
Table 10
Degradation factors for laminates with aramid reinforcement
Suggested maximum
Suggested minimum
0.8
Moisture
0.9
1.0
0.85
UV e x p o s u r e
0.9
0.75
Fatigue
1.0*
0.4f
Creep
1.0
0.6
Impact
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.25
* f Refer footnote of Table 9.
Table 11
Degradation factors for laminates with carbon reinforcement
Suggested maximum
Suggested minimum
Moisture
1.0
0.85
1.0
0.85
UV e x p o s u r e
1.0
0.95
Fatigue
1.0*
0.5f
Creep
1.0
0.8
Impact
1.0
0.5
0.65
0.33
*, f Refer footnote of Table 9.
Table 12
Typical partial factor using E-glass
Factor
Long-term environmental e x p o s u r e
0.4
Creep/stress corrosion
0.4
Overall degradation
0.16
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Composite
Table 13
Typical partial factor using CFRP
Factor
Moisture
0.85
0.85
UV e x p o s u r e
0.99
Fatigue
0.62
Creep
0.9
Overall degradation
0.4
Table 14
design
Recommended stiffness degradation factor
Material
Suggested degradation factor
Carbon FRP
0.91
Aramid FRP
0.91
Glass FRP
0.55
The 'impact' factor accounts only for accidental loading. If a component is to be

designed specifically to resist impact loading a more stringent approach should be
adopted. The 'overall degradation' row in the above tables sets limits on the partial
factor applied.
The following examples are taken from real applications:
(1)
(2)
E-glass structure, installed sub-sea and subject to a high static load.

CFRP plate used to reinforce bridge beam soffit subject to live loading and
indirect sunlight only.
The selection of suitable material partial factors is largely a question of experience and
engineering judgement, the factors proposed in this document are presented as a
guideline only. Current selection of material partial factors is based on 3040 years
of limited experience and is, of necessity, conservative. As experience in the use of
composites for structural applications grows, these material factors are likely to be
increased.
The stiffness of a composite material is a fibre-dominated property where the fibres are
oriented in the direction of the loading. In this instance, the environmental
degradation of the stiffness of a composite material is negligible unless the
environment is permitted to attack the fibre itself. Where multi-axial fabrics are to
be used, or the direction of loading does not coincide with the fibre direction, then
degradation of the stiffness of the matrix must be accounted for. It is good practice to
apply an environmental degradation factor to the stiffness values of all FRP
components to be used for structural rehabilitation. This gives an added degree of
conservatism in the case of on-axis loaded unidirectional laminates. The
recommended stiffness degradation factors are shown in Table 14 [Ref. 4, Table 5.4].
Design allowable
strength and
stiffness
The design allowable strength including variability and environmental degradation is

given by
\
n
A/
( A
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where
is the characteristic material strength from equations (2) and (3), and Xd is
the environmental degradation factor from Tables 914.
The design allowable stiffness may be calculated using the same approach, taking the
characteristic material stiffness (which allows for variability) and applying the
suggested degradation factor appropriate to the reinforcing fibre being used.
L a m i n a t e design
It is not practical to undertake material test programmes prior to the design of every
composite component. It is common practice to validate a range of composite
materials, based on different fibre, resin and fabric types, and to use the material
properties from these as validation for new designs. This approach may not however
provide the most cost-effective solution, due to the fact that composite materials can
be tailored specifically to the applied loads. For conceptual design work, it is common
practice to calculate the laminate properties to be used for design (the calculated
values would be confirmed by a test programme, prior to completion of the detailed
design). This concept of designing a material to give the desired set of properties is
one of the ways in which composite materials can deliver optimized designs.
The method used to determine the stiffness properties of laminates is known as CLT.
The laminates are usually considered to be formed from multiple layers of
unidirectional plies, arranged in the specified orientations. For example, a quadraxial
fabric is modelled as unidirectional plies at 0, + 4 5 , 45 and 90.
The properties of the unidirectional plies are calculated from knowledge about the
properties of the constituent materials and the process used to produce the laminate.
The principal elastic constants of a unidirectional ply are:
E i , composite elastic modulus in the fibre direction;
Ei composite elastic modulus transverse to the fibre direction in the plane of the
reinforcement;
E3, composite elastic modulus transverse to the fibre direction, normal to the
plane of the reinforcement, i.e. through thickness;
G12, composite shear modulus in the plane of the reinforcement;
1/12, major Poisson's ratio;
ui\ minor Poisson's ratio.
y
The following physical properties for the ply are also calculated:
a i , longitudinal CTE;
Oiiy transverse CTE;

t, thickness;
p, density.
Equations for the calculation of these properties are beyond the scope of this
document, but can be found in textbooks on the subject such as Ref. [14].
The properties of the unidirectional plies listed above, form the building blocks from
which more complex laminates may be constructed. The unidirectional plies have
three orthogonal planes of symmetry, the 1-2, 2 - 3 and 1-3 planes, which are
illustrated in Figure 6.
For the 'building block' unidirectional ply shown above, a simple two-dimensional
stress state is usually assumed for which the stress-strain relationship can be
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C o m p o s i t e design
Figure 6
Coordinate system
for a unidirectional laminate

(direction I - parallel to the
direction of the fibres, direction
2 - normal to the direction of
the fibres, parallel to the plane
of the laminae, direction 3 normal to the direction of the
fibres, normal to the plane of
the laminae)
Global
axis
Local
axis
Figure 7
Coordinate system
for a multidirectional laminate
denned as
S12
Sn
S22
^66.
'S
712
"
(5)
[ T12
where
Sn
>22
$66 = 7^
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In the analysis of laminates having fibres in multiple directions, i.e. where a number of
unidirectional plies have been built up at different angles, it is necessary to know the
stress-strain relationships for the laminate in the non-principal or off-axis coordinates.
Consider a ply that is rotated by an angle of 0 with respect to the original 1-2 axes.
T h e stress-strain relationships are found by transformation of the stress and strain
components from the local 1-2 axis to a newly defined L - T global axis. This is
illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 7.
In this manner the stress-strain response of a laminate with fibres oriented in any
direction may be calculated.
Using C L T it is possible to calculate the stresses or strains within the individual plies
that form a laminate under a given set of loads. Of interest to the designer is the load
required to cause first ply failure. T h e composite material will still have a load carrying
capacity beyond first ply failure. However, the ability of the composite to perform its
long-term service will be severely compromised in this condition. In order to deter
mine the loading required to cause first ply failure some failure theory must be applied.
There are numerous failure theories for composite material, all of which rely on the
use of uni-axial strength data to predict failure under multi-axial loads. The choice of
a failure criterion should depend on the complexity of the loading or geometry and
the end-use of the component. More complex failure criteria will allow for a more
efficient use of laminate strength. For initial conceptual design, a simple maximum
stress or maximum strain criterion (known as independent failure criteria) will be
appropriate. Many structural rehabilitation examples make use of unidirectional
laminates bonded to structural members. In this instance the laminate is only loaded
along the axis of the fibres, and so, a maximum stress or maximum strain failure
criterion may also appropriate for detailed design.
Considering a single unidirectional ply, or 'building block', with local coordinate
system as shown in Figure 6.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Maximum stress criterion. In this criterion, layer failure is said to occur when any
one of the three stresses a\, oi or r n , reaches the design allowable value as
defined in the section Accounting for long-term degradation. It should be noted
that the design allowable value would be different, depending on whether the
loading is applied in tension or compression.
Maximum strain criterion. This is applied in the same way as the maximum stress
criterion, failure being assumed to occur when any of the three strains e\, ei or
712 reaches the design allowable. T h e advantage of the maximum strain
criterion is that it is independent of units.
Tsai-Hill criterion. For more in-depth analysis, it may be appropriate to use a more
complex failure criterion (known as a fully interactive failure criterion). The
most commonly used fully interactive failure criterion is the Tsai-Hill criterion.
This criterion was developed from the more general Hill yield criterion for anisotropic
materials. T h e failure envelope is defined by the following equation:
(6)
Again it should be noted that the

values will be different according to whether
the laminate is loaded in tension or compression.
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Composite
design
A t t a c h m e n t s and
The advantages of adhesive joints are:
joints
distribution over a large area (avoiding load concentrations);

high joint efficiency index (relationship of strength and weight of the joint region);
low part count;
no strength degradation of basic adherent by use of cut-outs or machining
operations;
low cost potential.
The disadvantages of bonded joints are:
A d h e s i v e j o i n t design
difficult to inspect non-destructively;

require designs that avoid or minimize peel stresses;
bond is permanent and cannot be disassembled;
thermal cycling and high humidity can affect their strength;
require special surface treatments prior to bonding.
The design of joints for structural rehabilitation schemes is complex. Joints entail
interruptions to the geometry of the structure, and often, material discontinuities as
well, which almost always will result in local highly stressed areas.
The objective and function of an adhesive joint is to provide load transfer between
two adjacent components. Adhesive bonds between composite and existing structural
elements may be achieved by either:
secondary bonding: using an adhesive to join a pre-fabricated composite
component to a substrate, or
co-curing: using the adhesive property of the resin used in the manufacture of the
laminate formed in situ, as in the RIFT process.
Design of adhesively bonded joints must take into account the stiffnesses and CTE of
the two adherents being bonded, as well as the joint geometry.
For the analysis of lap shear samples, models (such as the Volkersen shear lag analysis)
have been developed to quantify the effects of shear stress concentrations at the ends
of the bonded region. In the case of a CFRP plate adhesively bonded to the tensile
flange of a beam the shear stress distribution is not the same as that for a lap joint.
This is due to the fact that the load is not applied at either end of the joint, but is
applied along the entire length as a result of the bending of the combined section. As
yet no model has been developed for analysing the effects of shear lag in the adhesive
bond between a reinforcing plate and a beam in bending. Current industry practice is
to design for the maximum shear stress calculated using the equation given in
Chapter 5. The factor of safety applied to the design allowable shear strength of the
adhesive is used to account for the effects of shear stress concentrations at the ends of
the reinforcing plates.
In addition to the shear strain variations, the ends of the CFRP plate will also be
subject to peel stresses. Peel stresses are through thickness extensional stresses in the
bond, which result from the unavoidable eccentricity of the joint geometry. Peel
stresses arise from the shear force transmitted through the bond acting at an
eccentricity from the neutral axis of the CFRP. This is illustrated in Figure 8.
F$h is the cumulative effect of the bond shear stress from half of the plate. The t/2
term is the distance from the neutral axis of the carbon plate to the bond line. The
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FRP
composites
111
Figure 8
Peel s t r e s s e s
in bond
Peel stresses in
adhesive bonds
force F S H acting through the distance t/2 combine to give a moment effect of shear
forces which is resisted by peel stresses in the bond. Various methods exist for the
assessment of peel stresses in an adhesive bond. Where FRP plates are used to
reinforce concrete members it is common practice to limit the permissible longitudinal
shear stress to less than 0.8 N/mm . Experience suggests that limiting the shear stress
between the FRP and the substrate in this way will prevent peel failure. Where FRP
reinforcement is to be bonded to a metallic substrate, the peel stresses could be
assessed by analytical methods and compared with design allowable tensile stresses
in the adhesive.
2
15
By including a taper at the ends of a reinforcing plate, the effects of shear stress
variations and peel stresses can be minimized. As the shear stress at a point is
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the laminate at that point, a reduction in
the thickness of the laminate leads to a corresponding reduction in the shear stress. In
addition to this, a reduction in the laminate thickness will also reduce the t/2 term
and further reduce the moment effects of shear forces. Industry standard is to include
a taper of at least 1 in 10 at the ends of composite reinforcing plates to be used for
structural rehabilitation, in order to mitigate against peel failure.
16
Differential thermal expansion (between the CFRP reinforcement and the substrate)
will also lead to stresses in the adhesive bond. For example:
6
CTE of cast iron (a ) = 10.5 x 10" ,

m
CTE of CFRP reinforcement (a ) = -0.07 x 10" .

c
Differential strain due to thermal expansion is given by e = A T ( a a ) where AT

is the change in temperature.
t
c y
Assuming that the substrate beam is of large cross-section in comparison to the

reinforcing laminate, then the expansion of the beam will put the laminate into
tension. The tensile stress in the laminate (due to thermal expansion) can be found
simply from the strain due to thermal expansion multiplied by the stiffness of the
laminate. If this stress is assumed to be constant through the thickness of the laminate
then the force due to thermal expansion can be obtained from the cross-sectional area
of the laminate. This force must be transmitted across the adhesive bond and must
34
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Composite
design
therefore be accounted for in design. In most bridge strengthening applications the

shear stress in the adhesive bond due to differential thermal expansion will be greater
than that caused by the traffic loading. T h e propensity for differential thermal
expansion, may be considerably reduced by painting white, any of the metal substrates
exposed to direct sunlight.
T h e value for the shear strength of an adhesive to be used for the manufacture of a
bonded joint should be selected carefully. Manufacturer's data will often supply
indicative shear strength values for adhesive bonds. In order to obtain an accurate
value for shear strength, testing must have been conducted on similar adherents,
using similar methods of surface preparation to those that will be used in situ.
T h e most common test method used to determine the shear strength of an adhesive is
the lap shear test. T h e point has been raised that the lap shear test does n o t provide
representative values of shear strength due to end effects (shear stress concentration
and peel stresses) dominating the result. T h e lap shear test however, remains the most
suitable test for the determination of adhesive shear strengths and should provide
conservative values for the purposes of structural rehabilitation.
Various partial safety factors have been put forward to determine long-term adhesive
bond strength. A review of previous recommendations would indicate that a factor of
5 applied to the measured lap shear strength of an adhesive would provide a
conservative design allowable shear strength.
Typical applications using composites for structural rehabilitation (e.g. the bonding of
composite plates to beam flanges) tend to result in low shear stresses in the adhesive
bond. W h e r e concern exists over the level of shear stress in an adhesive bond, it is
recommended that a more detailed analysis be conducted. Use may be made of finite
element analysis in the determination of adhesive bond shear stresses. However, the
material properties should be very carefully selected.
Galvanic corrosion
Metals used in construction, such as steel and cast iron, are removed from carbon in
the reactivity series. Concern exists, at least in theory, that contact between carbon
reinforcement and the metallic substrate could create a galvanic cell, which would
result in corrosion of the metal. While this p h e n o m e n o n has never been documented,
it is common practice to include an insulating layer of E-glass at the inner surface of
the laminate to guard against the possibility of galvanic corrosion.
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5. Structural design
The appropriate method of analysis will depend on the material from which the beam
is made and the geometry of the cross-section. The following sections discuss the
features of cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
Cast iron. Cast iron is an alloy of iron with 2.54% carbon, present as graphite
flakes. Other elements, which have an important influence on material properties, are
present as impurities. The behaviour of cast iron is very difficult to accurately predict
and there is a large variation in material properties from casting to casting. The
stressstrain behaviour of a cast iron will vary according to the quantity and
coarseness of the graphite flakes present. Cast iron exhibits different material
properties according to whether it is loaded in tension or compression. Tensile
strengths are typically of the order of 120160 N/mm , while compressive strengths
are typically of the order of 500650 N/mm . The low elastic limit in tension
coincides with the first localized yield at the ends of the graphite flakes, which act as
stress raisers. In compression the graphite flakes can transfer stress, which results in
the higher compressive strength.
2
Cast iron displays non-linear behaviour in both tension and compression (although
the non-linearity is more pronounced in tension), and exhibits brittle failure with no
plastic deformation.
For the purposes of analysis, cast iron is usually assumed to be a linear elastic material
and is assessed using simple elastic bending theory and a suitable failure criterion.
Wrought iron. Wrought iron is produced from cast iron by raising it to a high
temperature and subjecting it to a strong air blast that removes carbon and other
impurities. After this process the iron is heated to welding temperature and rolled to
remove further slag. This process is repeated up to four times depending on the
required quality of the wrought iron. The material produced is almost pure iron, it is
softer than steel but less liable to corrosion.
The quality of wrought iron depends on where and when it was made and the
characteristic strength can vary considerably. In addition to the variability of strength,
the failure of a wrought iron member may be governed by the presence of laminations,
inclusions and deformities. These factors mean that a very thorough survey of
wrought iron members should be made prior to any assessment of their structural
capacity. Wrought iron possesses very similar stiffness, density and coefficient of linear

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Structural design
thermal expansion properties to those of steel. As a general guide the characteristic

yield strength may be taken as 220 N/mm for good quality wrought iron.
2
Wrought iron should be assessed using the same general approach as that adopted for
steel beams. Wrought iron beams are unlikely to meet the geometric constraints to
permit plastic design methods to be used. Where these requirements are met, plastic
analysis should only be permitted where the wrought iron is of good quality.
For the vast majority of cases wrought iron is assumed to be a linear elastic material
and is assessed using simple elastic bending theory.
Where riveted construction has been used allowance should be taken of rivet holes in
accordance with the relevant standard, e.g. BS5400: Part 3: Section 11.3.3.
10
Steel. Steel has been used for structural purposes since about 1890, largely replacing
wrought iron by 1900. Design methodology appropriate to steel construction is
well understood and is covered by current British Standards. The characteristic yield
strength of pre-1955 steel should be taken as 230 N/mm , for steel produced before
1922 a close inspection should be made for defects which could result in a lower
capacity for the section.
2
Design guidelines for steel take two different approaches depending on the crosssection of the beam. Where rolled or fabricated sections meet the geometric
requirements set out in BS5400: Part 3: Section 9.3.7, the full plastic moment can be
developed before, and maintained after the onset of local buckling. Sections of this
type are referred to as being 'compact'. Where the sections are to be reinforced using
CFRP, the onset of fully plastic bending results in strains in the extremes of the
section exceeding the permissible strain in the CFRP. Where compact sections are to
be reinforced using CFRP an elastic or plastic analysis should be used. The section is
assumed to display linear elastic or plastic response and strains in the CFRP are
limited to a permissible value.
Where the geometry falls outside the limits set in Section 9.3.7 of BS5400 the section
is termed 'non-compact'. In this instance the section is assumed to display a linear
elastic response and is assessed using simple elastic bending theory.
Design f r o m first
principles (hand
calculations)
Design from first principles can only be done for strengthening schemes (intact
components) where the strength of the component can be estimated reasonably
accurately from a fundamental understanding of failure behaviour. Thus, it can be
used for 'simple' elements such as beams and columns, and as a precursor to finite
element analysis. The analysis of structures made out of cast iron should take into
account the non-linear stressstrain behaviour in tension and compression.
For the design of un-reinforced cast iron struts with concentric axial load, recourse
may be made to the use of any of the following:
(1)
ClaxtonFidler formulae: Permissible average axial compressive stress is the

lesser of
p-ft
PT =
J(p-ft) +8f p
t
<\0
(tensile)
(7)
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Table 15
Values of end fixity factor (F)
End c o n d i t i o n
Both
One
Both
One
1.0
0.5
0.25
4.0
ends pin j o i n t e d
end f i x e d , o n e end pin j o i n t e d
ends rigidly fixed
end fixed, o n e end entirely free
or
P+fc
PT
J(p-ft) -2AfcP
2
1.2
(8)
where f is the material failure stress in compression, f is the material failure

stress in tension and p =
Eir /(L/r) .
Struts that are adequately braced can be assessed using the RankineGordon
equation:
c
(2)
(compression),
P =
fA
c
(9)
(l+FaL?/K?)
2
where P is the safe load (kN), f is the compressive yield stress (N/mm ), A is
the cross-sectional area (mm ), L is the length (mm), K is the least radius of
gyration (mm), F is the end fixity factor (see Table 15) and a is the material
factor, 1/1600.
c
W h e n designing a strengthening or repair scheme using first principles, the resistance of

a reinforced member shall not be obtained by simply adding the maximum theoretical
resistance of each material acting alone.
Elastic analysis the transformed section approach. A n elastic analysis approach
assumes that plane sections remain plane during bending and that the material
exhibits a linear elastic stressstrain response. It is also assumed that the CFRP
reinforcement is perfectly bonded to the tensile (or compressive) flange of the beam,
i.e. that no slip occurs at the interface. The design philosophy is to transform the
reinforced section to an equivalent section of a reference material, normally that of
the metal. The resulting transformed section behaves in the same manner as a
member composed of only the reference material. The thickness of composite
reinforcement to be added is designed, using an elastic analysis, such that stresses
within the original section are limited to a permissible value.
The reinforced section is transformed by increasing the width of the carbon fibre
laminate by multiplying the actual width by the modular ratio (elastic modulus of the
composite or elastic modulus of the metal). The plane strain assumption may then be
employed in order to calculate stresses in the section. Using this approach the bending
characteristics of a cross-section made from a number of materials with different
elastic modulus may be calculated. This process is illustrated in Figure 9.
The carbon fibre laminate cannot relieve stresses in the section resulting from dead
load on the beam. The reinforcement will share stresses due to live loading with the
cast iron in proportion to its stiffness.

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Structural design
-114.00 mm
-114.00 mm
38.00 mm
38.00 mm
-38.00mm
<-38.00mm
584.00mm
584.00 mm
Width of CFRP
increased in line
with the modular
ratio.
38.00 mm
-356.00 m m -
-553.00 mm
Transformed cross section
Actual cross section
47.9 N/mm
0.000532
481.7mm
17.7 N/mm
0.000197
74.5 N/mm
0.000207
_ F
Stress distribution
Strain distribution
Figure 9
The transformed section approach
Stress is transferred into the CFRP reinforcement via shear stress across the adhesive
interface with the beam. This shear stress must be assessed against the design
allowable value for the adhesive using standard engineering formulae.
The distance y of the neutral axis (NA) of a composite cross-section from an arbitrary
datum is obtained from
y = ^ _ J _ L i ( i . e . considering the area stiffness moments),
(10)
where A; is the cross-sectional area of each material, E is the modulus of elasticity of

the composite material i and yt is the distance from the same arbitrary datum to the
centroid of the material i.
t
The second moment of area (I ) of the transformed section is given by

t
I = I + J2mh,
t
(11)
where I is the second moment of area of the reference material about the N A of the
transformed section, n; is the modular ratio E,/E , E is the modulus of elasticity of the
reference material, E, is the modulus of elasticity of any material z and I; is the second
moment of area of material i about the N A of the transformed section.
r
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For the analysis of cast iron strengthened with laminate, the choice of a reference
material may not be straightforward. Moreover, cast iron has different non-linear
stressstrain characteristics in tension and compression, and hence is not directly
amenable to classical bending theory, which assumes elastic behaviour. Exact
integration using the equations of static equilibrium will be required, which may be
time consuming. Alternatively, an approximate triangular stress distribution may be
assumed in tension and compression. W h e n using this approach, the modulus of
elasticity at any level of strain shall be the instantaneous (tangent) modulus in either
tension or compression. Conservatively the value of elastic modulus shall be assumed
constant in tension and compression, even though it only relates to the strain in the
outermost compression and tension fibres. Alternatively, the secant modulus
corresponding to the stress and strain may be used.
For column buckling analysis of a reinforced member, an analysis can be conducted

using the transformed section properties (i.e. area and second moment of area) of the
column. These transformed section properties can be used to obtain a modified
(effective) slenderness parameter. This slenderness parameter can be used to obtain
the capacity of the reinforced section from a relevant design code. This approach is
based on the assumption that the strain in the parent metal is the limiting strain at
failure, and that both materials obey Hooke's law.
For a member reinforced with FRP, the corresponding slenderness parameter is
(12)
where A is the area of the transformed section, I is the second moment of area of the
transformed section
t
(13)
where I is the second moment of area of the un-reinforced section, L is the effective
length of column, Pg is the Euler buckling load of the un-reinforced section, P is the
squash load (o~ A ) of un-reinforced section, a is the effective yield stress of the
substrate material and A is the cross-sectional area of un-reinforced section.
e
For a given value of A , the average failure stress can be obtained from relevant design
plots or tables. T h e buckling or squashing load of the composite column is then obtained
as the product of the average failure stress and the area of the transformed section.
c
Elastic design. Elastic design can be used for schemes involving cast iron, wrought
iron and steel. W h e n designing beams elastically the following steps should be
followed:
(1)
(2)
Ascertain the dimensions of the beam under consideration. These dimensions

should come from on-site measurement and should represent lower bound
flange or web thicknesses with respect to varying degrees of corrosion along the
length of the member.
In order to calculate the effective second moment of area of the section, the
actual width of reinforcement applied should be multiplied by the modular ratio.

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Structural design
(3)
(4)
The resulting transformed cross-section behaves in the same manner as one

made entirely from the reference material (usually that of the metal).
The second moment of area and the location of the NA should be calculated
by application of the parallel axis theorem for both the reinforced and
un-reinforced section.
Stresses in a section can then be calculated, for a given applied moment, using
the fundamental equation of elastic bending:
< * = n ^ .
(5)
(6)
(7)
(14)
Stresses in the un-reinforced section due to dead loading only should be

calculated.
Stresses in the reinforced section due to live loading only should be calculated.
The total stress within the section may then be determined by superposition of
dead and live load stresses. The thickness and location of the reinforcement
added should be modified until stresses within the section fall within the per
missible. The permissible stress will vary according to the material from which
the beam is manufactured and the standard against which it is being assessed.
Shear stresses at the adhesive interface should be assessed against permissible
values for the adhesive used. The shear stress at the adhesive interface can be
assessed using the following equation:
'
where V is the vertical shear force acting on the section at the point under
consideration, A is the transformed cross-sectional area of the plate at the point
under consideration, y is the distance from the C of G of the CFRP plate to the
NA of the composite beam, b is the actual breadth of the CFRP plate and I is
the second moment of area of the composite beam.
(8) Vertical shear stresses within the web should be checked. It should be noted
that the provision of CFRP reinforcement to either tensile or compressive
flanges will not reduce shear stress in the web.
(9) The susceptibility of the section to buckling should also be checked. The
application of a CFRP plate to a compressive flange will reduce the likelihood of
a buckling type failure. However, while the use of CFRP plate bonding for
increasing the moment capacity of a beam has been extensively validated, the
use of CFRP for increasing resistance to lateral torsional buckling has not.
c
Points to note:
The above analysis approach is simplistic but does provide good correlation with
measured data. The stresses calculated by the above analysis may then be used for
more complex analysis such as buckling criteria or fatigue analysis.
Both the maximum tensile and compressive stresses within both the beam and
CFRP plate should be checked.
CFRP properties adopted for design should be quoted with the fibre volume
fraction at which the test data was obtained. The thickness of CFRP plates
specified for strengthening should be in terms of the number of plies required (at
the assumed fibre volume fraction). This means that variation in the manu
factured fibre volume fraction does not lead to insufficient carbon in the plate.
The basis of elasto-plastic design. This can be applied to steel and good quality
wrought iron beams reinforced with CFRP. An elasto-plastic approach assumes that
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FRP composites
Location of
neutral axis
Limits strain for

CFRP plate
Cross section
Figure 10
Strain distribution
Stress distribution
Elasto-plastic analysis
plane sections remain plane during bending and that the metal exhibits a linear elastic
or perfectly plastic stress strain response. It is also assumed that the CFRP
reinforcement is perfectly bonded to the tensile (or compressive) flange of the beam,
i.e. that no slip occurs at the interface. An elasto-plastic analysis is required, rather
than a fully plastic analysis, as a result of the fundamental differences in the behaviour
of the metal and the reinforcing CFRP. The metal will deform in a linear elastic
manner up to the limit of proportionality, after which it will deform plastically to
failure at a large ultimate strain, whereas CFRP will deform elastically to failure. The
long-term design allowable strain of CFRP is between 0.1% and 0.3%, at this strain
limit it is unlikely that a full plastic hinge will have developed.
The reinforced section is analysed by assuming a plane strain distribution with an
assumed location for the NA. The location of the NA is then iterated until the
resultant force blocks (tension and compression) balance, this is illustrated in Figure 10.
Due to the fact that the metal is permitted to yield, the full benefit of the
reinforcement will be realized irrespective of the pre-load prior to reinforcement.
Stress is transferred into the CFRP reinforcement via shear stress across the adhesive
interface with the beam. This shear stress must be assessed against a design allowable
value for the adhesive using standard engineering formulae.
The forces in tension and compression are the products of the cross-sectional area of
the beam and the corresponding stress at that location. The location of the NA is
iterated until the forces in tension and compression balance. Once the location of the
NA has been determined, the moment capacity may be calculated by multiplication
of forces and the associated lever arms from the centroid of the force block to the NA.
This process is illustrated in Figure 11.
Elasto-plastic design the process.

(1)
Ascertain the dimensions of the beam under consideration. These dimensions

should come from on-site measurement and should represent lower bound
flange and web dimensions with respect to varying degrees of corrosion along
the length of the member.
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Structural design
F5
F4
F3<
Tension
Figure 11
Compression
Elasto-plastic
moment capacity
Elasto-plastic moment capacity-(L1 x F1) + (L2 x F2) + (L3 x F3) + (L4 x F4) + (L5 x F5)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Construct a strain distribution for the cross-section fixing the design allowable
strain for the CFRP plate and making an assumption as to the location of
the NA.
From the strain distribution across the section and knowledge of the
stressstrain curves of the materials under consideration, a stress distribution
for the cross-section should be determined. Where the strain in the material
exceeds yield, the stress shall be limited to the yield value.
Stresses in the section multiplied by the area over which they exist gives rise to
forces in tension and compression.
Steps 24 must be iterated until the forces in tension and compression are in
equilibrium.
The force blocks determined in Step 4 must then be multiplied by the
associated lever arms in order to determine the moment capacity of the
section. This process is illustrated in Figure 11.
Compact sections are analysed using an elastic or plastic approach at the
ultimate limit state. Where a metal beam has been reinforced using a CFRP
plate a serviceability check should be conducted using the approach set out in
BS5400: Part 3: Section 9.9.8 for unsymmetric beams.
Shear stresses at the adhesive interface should be assessed against permissible
values for the adhesive used. The shear stress at the adhesive interface can be
assessed using the following equation:
r
=^ T '
(16)
where V is the vertical shear force acting on the section at the point under
consideration, A is the transformed cross-sectional area of the plate at the point
under consideration, y is the distance from the centre of gravity of the CFRP
plate to the NA of the composite beam, b is the actual breadth of the CFRP
plate and I is the second moment of area of the composite beam.
Vertical shear stresses within the web should be checked. It should be noted
that the provision of CFRP reinforcement to either tensile or compressive
flanges will not reduce shear stress in the web.
c
(9)
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frp
composites
(10)
W h e r e sections fulfil the requirements for plastic analysis, buckling checks are
not required.
Lateral torsional buckling. T h e modified slenderness parameter for lateral torsional

buckling checks in reinforced beams is
where y is the distance from the elastic N A to the outermost compression fibre,
y is the distance from the elastic N A to the outermost tension fibre, ALT is
the slenderness parameter of the un-reinforced beam, S is the plastic section
modulus of the un-reinforced beam, S is the plastic section modulus of the
reinforced beam, 1 ^ and 1 ^ are the second moments of area of the un-reinforced
beam section about the major and minor axes respectively and I and 1 ^ are the
second moments of area of the transformed reinforced beam section about the major
and minor axes respectively.
c
xc
txx
Deflection. In general, the deflection of a beam can be calculated by combining the

deflection at the time of strengthening and the additional deflection due to the
increment of load after strengthening, in each case the relevant beam stiffness being
used. T h e deflection of a beam which is subject to certain loads at the time of
strengthening and which are to be proportionally increased after strengthening, can
be estimated using the equation:
(18)
where 6 is the deflection of the strengthened beam, So is the deflection of the

un-reinforced beam under the loads existing at the time of strengthening and 7L is the
ratio of the load after repair to that before.
Buckling. For elements of a member prone to local buckling, the laminate thickness
selected shall ensure that local buckling is precluded. This can be achieved by using
the effective thickness approach. This effective thickness should give the same local
bending stiffness as the combined stiffness of the substrate and composite, and also
satisfy the breadth to thickness ratios given in Design Codes.
T h e effective thickness is given by
ttf = (12I )
(19)
where I is the second moment of area of the (transformed) element of unit width,
consisting of the metal and FRP, as shown in Figure 1 2 .
e
Generalized pre-loaded member. W h e n designing a strengthening scheme for a pre

loaded member where there is no possibility of removing the existing load, the
deleterious effects of the pre-load can be accounted for by using the following linear
interaction equation:
P-P,
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<
1.0
(20)
Structural design
Unit width
Steel .
FRP
An I-section reinforced with FRP
NA
is
Detail A
Transformed element
Original element
Effective element
NA = Neutral axis of transformed element

/ = Second moment of area of transformed element
e
12/
( /
f
Figure 12
eff
is the effective thickness of the composite section
Derivation of
E is the elastic modulus of FRP
L
effective thickness for local
E is the elastic modulus of steel
buckling
where P* is the pre-load (axial load, moment and torsion), P is the total load after the
member is reinforced, R is the capacity of the un-reinforced member and R is the
capacity of the reinforced member.
t
Design by finite
e l e m e n t analysis
General
Except for a very limited number of simple problems such as beam and column
elements, design by hand-calculation methods is difficult to undertake. T h e finite
element method (FEM) will as of necessity be required to handle complex geometric
and material configurations. FE analysis will also be required for the assessment of
damaged (e.g. dented or out-of-tolerance bow) members, and in situations where
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present-day design Codes are based on empirical relationships derived from test
results, rather than a fundamental understanding of the mechanics of behaviour. A
number of commercial FE packages are now available for the analysis of structures
containing composite materials.
Before commencing the FE analysis, the objective should be established. This may
determine whether a linear elastic analysis will be sufficient for the purpose or
whether a full non-linear analysis (including material and geometric non-linearity)
will be required.
Selection of FE
software
When deciding on the choice of a suitable FE package for the analysis of strengthened
or repaired components, the following factors need to be considered:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Selection of e l e m e n t
type
Its ability to predict the serviceability and ultimate load carrying capacity of the
components, in accordance with relevant Standards or Codes of Practice.
Its ability to predict the failure mode of the composite component and
composite-metal hybrid component.
Accurate representation of the layered nature of composite laminates.
Modelling of laminate inter-ply and intra-ply behaviour.
Accurate modelling of interfacial bonding between laminate and substrate.
Composite modelling accounting for ply orientation.
Availability of proper element type for composite analysis.
Availability or definition of suitable failure criterion.
Accurate modelling of the stressstrain behaviour of the component,
accounting for all possible modes of failure.
In modelling the steel or CFRP hybrid component, either shell elements or brick
elements may be used, depending on the geometry of the structure. Furthermore,
depending on the capabilities of the software package, options may exist for defining
multilayer (laminae) properties within the element. The following aspects must be
considered in selecting the types of element to be used:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Shell elements may be used where the thickness is small compared to other
dimensions (length-to-thickness ratios greater than about 20). Thick shells,
which account for the effect of shear through the thickness, become
progressively more accurate than thin shells as the length-to-thickness ratio
decreases.
Since thin shell formulations ignore through thickness shear effects, it is not
possible for the FE analysis to give the (complementary) interface shear at the
steel or CFRP boundary. In simple cases it may be possible to estimate these
shears by hand calculations based on engineering assumptions. It is therefore
recommended that thin shell formulations should only be used, if at all, for
preliminary design or analysis purposes.
Hand calculations will be required to establish the interface shear even in the
case of thick shell formulations when single layer properties (obtained by
'smearing' the individual steel and CFRP properties) are used. However, no
assumptions need to be made in this case as the element through-thickness
shear will be available, and the distribution of stress through the thickness can
be established using standard beam theory. When interface shear results is
desired from the FE analysis, the steel and composites should be modelled as
discrete layers, obviating the need for smearing. The interface shear can thus be
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Structural design
(4)
(5)
(6)
Mesh discretization
W h e n a structure is discretized into finite elements, it is necessary to achieve a

balance between the need for accurate results and the cost of computation. T h e
following guidelines are provided:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Validation of FE m o d e l
obtained as the inter-laminar shear, as most FE programmes now have thick

shell element formulation with this capability.
Continuum elements are to be preferred to thick shell elements; where
transverse shear effects are dominant, normal strain cannot be ignored, accurate
inter-laminar stresses near localized regions of complex loading or geometry (e.g.
regions of bonding between dissimilar materials) are required, and where
displacement through the thickness may be non-linear.
For tubular joints, consideration should be given to the use of contact elements
at the interface of the CFRP and steel. This is because a ligament in tension
(due to applied axial tension or bending moments) tends to straighten out and
pull away from the steel.
Constant strain element formulations should be avoided for local stress analysis.
Adopt fine meshes in the regions of interest and where high stress gradients exist
In order to avoid stress discontinuities, there should be smooth grading of
elements, such that adjacent elements are of comparable size.
T h e aspect ratio of elements should preferably be kept below 5, but should not
exceed 10.
Elements with an included angle less than 45 should be avoided.
Triangular (or tetrahedral) elements should be kept to as few as possible, and
when used to model complex geometries, should be remote from areas of
interest or where high stress gradients exist. However, for a limited range of
problems tetrahedral elements may be preferred.
T h e sub-modelling technique may be used. In this a coarser mesh is used for
preliminary overall structural analysis, followed by analysis using a finer mesh in
the region of interest.
Normal checking procedures (e.g. visual checking for mesh connectivity, correct
assignment of dimensions and material properties, equilibrium of applied loads
and reactions, e t c ) should be followed. In addition, an analysis of the substrate alone
may be conducted and the results compared with test data or a relevant Code of
Practice (with all factors of safety, implicit or otherwise, set to unity), where codified
Standards exist.
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6.
Manufacturing
methods
Implementation
T h e manufacturing method adopted has an important bearing on the properties of the

composite material produced. T h e choice of manufacturing route will depend on the
requirements for the produced laminate (in terms of mechanical properties and
economics), and on the practicalities of using a particular manufacturing approach in
the context under consideration.
For structural upgrade applications the reinforcing laminate will be either pre
fabricated and bonded into location, or manufactured in situ. T h e advantage of prefabrication is that manufacture in a workshop environment allows for greater control
over the process. In-situ manufacture of laminates allows for structural members of
more complex shapes (including dents and other forms of damage) to be
accommodated. Applications where access is difficult, for instance the reinforcement
of long beams within a building, also benefit from in-situ manufacturing techniques.
T h e following parameters should be considered in the choice of a suitable manu
facturing technique:
T h e location of the worksite access to the site i.e. difficulty of bringing pre
fabricated components to site.
Conditions at the worksite environmental conditions (ambient temperature,
moisture level, e t c ) , access to services (compressed air, electricity, e t c ) ,
condition of the structure requiring rehabilitation and operating constraints
(noise limits, surface preparation permitted, etc.).
T h e number of composite components to be produced.
T h e required rate of production.
T h e complexity of the component.
Contact moulding
Also referred to as wet lay-up, the contact moulding process is the principal
manufacturing technique used in the manufacture of composite components for the
marine industry. Layers of reinforcement are either draped over a male tool, or into a
female tool producing components with only one finished face. Plies are successively
placed and once in position the reinforcement layers are saturated progressively with
the chosen resin. Rollers are used to carefully remove air bubbles, which may become
trapped in the lay-up, and compact the laminate. T h e resin is then allowed to cure,
either at ambient or elevated temperature.
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Implementation
Contact moulding relies to a certain extent upon the skill and experience of the
laminator and progress is determined purely by visual observation. T h e quality of
components produced using the contact moulding technique can be improved by
wetting out the reinforcement fibres off the tool. This can be accomplished either by
hand or using a wet-out machine, which uses a resin bath and rollers to impregnate
the reinforcement. T h e impregnated reinforcements are then transferred to the
mould for subsequent consolidation. Alternatively, lightweight reinforcement
materials, which allow easier wet-out can be used. Both methods help to improve
consistency and weight control.
This manufacturing route can either be used to produce pre-fabricated laminates, or
to manufacture laminates in situ. Contact moulding produces components with a high
resin content and relatively high void content. For structural rehabilitation
applications the existing structure is used as a mould and the laminate laid up
directly onto it. T h e resin, which forms the matrix of the composite material, is also
responsible for transmitting load between the structure and the reinforcing laminate.
This technique is commonly used for the strengthening of concrete structures, where
the relatively low properties of the laminate and adhesive bond strength are not the
limiting factors in design.
V a c u u m bag m o u l d i n g
Vacuum bag moulding is fundamentally the same process as contact moulding, with
the addition of a vacuum bag to provide consolidation during cure. T h e resin and
fibre reinforcements are laid up using the contact moulding process, a release film is
then positioned over the stack, and bleed fabric placed over this (in order to absorb
excess resin that flows from the laminate). A n airtight bag is then sealed over the
laminate and a vacuum drawn. This increases the fibre volume fraction, improves the
consistency of fibre impregnation and reduces the volume of voids in the laminate.
This manufacturing route can either be used to produce pre-fabricated laminates, or
to manufacture laminates in situ. T h e additional processing stage over contact
moulding increases the cost of the technique, both in terms of labour and disposables.
It is not necessary to pull a near total vacuum for this process; providing that a
vacuum level of 0.50.7 bar can be maintained during cure, then leaks in the vacuum
bag can be tolerated. This means that this process can be used to manufacture a
laminate in situ, where the substrate surface may not hold a vacuum (e.g. cast iron
structural members in poor condition).
Resin infusion under

flexible tooling
This process is very similar to the vacuum bag moulding process. Layers of dry
reinforcement are laid onto the mould, either ply by ply or as pre-forms. Pre-forms are
stacks of reinforcement (and cores) in which the dry materials are held together by
either a binder material or stitching. A layer of peel ply is then positioned over the
reinforcement stack. T h e purpose of the peel ply is to allow subsequent layers of
disposables to be removed, providing a clean surface ready for secondary bonding. A
layer of diffusion medium is located above the peel ply, the purpose of this layer is to
allow resin to flow over the fibre stack and to allow even application of pressure.
Finally a vacuum bag is sealed over the entire arrangement. A vacuum is drawn under
the bag (for the RIFT process, it is necessary to maintain 100% vacuum integrity to
ensure that air is not drawn into the produced laminate). This is then used to draw
the resin into the fibre reinforcement stack and to provide consolidation during the
resin cure.
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This manufacturing route can either be used to produce prefabricated laminates, or

to manufacture laminates in situ. In-situ manufacture can offer a particular advantage
if the member to be reinforced is of complex geometry or has an uneven surface. In
this instance the installation of reinforcing elements by secondary bonding may not be
practical. A further advantage of the RIFT process is that where large members
require reinforcement the fibre can be brought to site prior to the introduction of the
resin, minimizing handling and transportation problems.
F i l a m e n t winding
Filament winding is a manufacturing process in which continuous reinforcements in

the form of rovings or monofilaments are wound over a rotating mandrel.
Specially designed machines, traversing at speeds synchronized with the mandrel
rotation, control the winding angles and the placements of the reinforcements. These
may be wrapped in adjacent bands or in repeating patterns that ultimately cover the
mandrel surface. Successive layers are added at the same or different winding angles
until the required thickness is reached. T h e resin is applied during the winding stage
to wet out the fibres. Curing is usually carried out at elevated temperature and
atmospheric pressure, the last stage is removal of the mandrel.
T h e components produced are tubular hollow sections and can be produced in sizes
ranging from a few centimetres to several metres in diameter. Filament wound
components are typically pre-fabricated and used to provide new load paths within a
structure. A variation of this manufacturing process is to use a specially designed
machine to filament wind structural members in situ using the existing member as the
mandrel (obviously in this instance the mandrel is not removed at the end of the
process). This technique has been used to provide confining reinforcement to
concrete columns.
Pultrusion
This is the process of pulling reinforcement rovings through a bath of resin and into a
die, where they are cured. Since the process is continuous, sections of any length may
be produced. Fibre reinforcement is usually aligned in the direction of the pull giving
good mechanical properties in this direction.
Pultrusion is usually used to produce thin sheets of composite material for use in the
strengthening of concrete structures. T h e maximum thickness of a pultruded section
is limited by the capacity of the pultrusion apparatus to draw the fibre through the die.
T h e pultrusion process does not permit variation in the cross-section of a laminate
along its length. This means that the thicker laminates required to reinforce metallic
sections result in unacceptable peel stresses at the ends of the plates.
T h e pultrusion process generally produces sections with poor transverse properties.
Control of the fibre volume fraction during the process is critical and the fibre volume
fraction of the sections produced tends to be high. T h e high fibre volume fraction
results in low inter-laminar shear strengths.
Clearly, pultrusion can only be used to produce pre-fabricated components.
Pre-impregnation
(pre-preg)
This manufacturing process uses fibre that has been pre-impregnated with resin to a
tightly controlled fibre volume fraction. T h e pre-preg material is laid up into the
mould and consolidated by hand as the plies are laid down. After a specified number
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of plies the stack is de-bulked under a vacuum, at elevated temperature. This process
is continued until the desired number of plies has been laid. T h e laminate is then
cured under a vacuum (to provide consolidation) at elevated temperature.
T h e pre-preg manufacturing route provides the highest laminate mechanical
properties of the processes described. This process can also produce sections with
high transverse and inter-laminar shear strengths. T h e excellent mechanical
properties, combined with the ability to include a variation in the thickness of a
component makes this process particularly suitable for the reinforcement of metallic
members. This process is only used to produce pre-fabricated components, as on-site
manufacture is not practical.
H e a l t h and safety/
COSHH
T h e health and safety issues associated with the manufacture of fibre reinforced
plastics are the C O S H H c o n t r o l s relating to the use of uncured resins, solvents and
man-made fibres (Table 16).
18
Post-installation, composite materials are inert and do not create any health and
safety or environmental issues until disposal. High impact, fire or other destructive
Table 16
Type of fibres and associated hazards
Type of materials
T y p e of hazard associated
Resins amino cured e p o x y
Irritants and slightly c o r r o s i v e hardeners. Can cause skin

irritation and sensitization.
Resins - acid cured phenolic
During curing, formaldehyde gas is e m i t t e d only t o be

used in controlled e n v i r o n m e n t s such as w o r k s h o p .
Resins -
polyester, vinylester
High levels of styrene are evolved during curing. Peroxide

catalysts are normally used t o initiate t h e
curing reactions. T h e s e are strong oxidizing agents
and must b e treated with care w h e n handling with o t h e r
materials d u e t o their high level of reactivity.
Reinforcements -
carbon/graphite
D u s t particles evolved from t h e machining and cutting

of carbon e x c e e d 7 / i m diameters; h e n c e t h e dust is
only c o n s i d e r e d a nuisance, n o t a long-term
health hazard.
Reinforcements glass
D u s t particles e v o l v e d from t h e machining and cutting

of glass e x c e e d 7 fim diameters; h e n c e t h e dust is only
c o n s i d e r e d a nuisance, n o t a long-term health hazard.
Reinforcements aramid
S o m e of t h e dust particles e v o l v e d from t h e

machining and cutting of aramids are less than 7 /^m
diameters, and h e n c e are c o n s i d e r e d a health hazard
w h e n respired. D u s t masks and c o n t a i n m e n t are required
while processing (normally in w o r k s h o p conditions).
Reinforcement silica and
Fine inert particles used t o modify resin
o t h e r particulates
N u i s a n c e dust c o n t r o l s required.
Solvents a c e t o n e , propan-2-ol
handleability.
Highly flammable materials with s o m e health risks

associated, limit of c o n c e n t r a t i o n s allowed d u e t o
flammability of t h e solvents is far l o w e r than t h e
levels allowed before health is affected.
Pre-impregnated materials should be considered under the uncured resin type and the fibre type when
considering health implications.
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damage may create dust particles of the resin and the fibre reinforcements. The health
risks associated with the materials at this point are primarily from dust control; the
materials themselves should only cause nuisance dust.
Final disposal should be in accordance with local regulations on the disposal of
thermoset plastics. Composites are not considered hazardous to the environment,
chemically. Disposal at landfill sites is an option, but can be a costly means of disposal
since all waste sent to landfills is taxed. Soon to be implemented, European
Legislation will require a reduction in the amount of polymer matrix composites sent
to landfill. Therefore disposal methods such as incineration offer an attractive
alternative. Methods of recycling are also being investigated.
Storage of
materials
The provision of proper facilities is required for the storage of uncured composite
materials. Storage areas should be dry, out of direct sunlight and protected from
extremes of temperature. Where the storage area is to be used for the preparation of
materials, a bench should be provided for the cutting of fabric, scales for weighing
resin and adequate ventilation to remove fumes. Provision must be made for the safe
disposal of waste: uncured resin, thinners and solvents.
Nominally, uncured resins and hardeners are to be stored between 10C and 20C.
They should not be allowed to freeze. It is sometimes acceptable to store at 18C
to prolong shelf life but usually the materials should be used within 3 months of
purchase.
Fabrics should be stored in controlled temperature and humidity conditions and
should be conditioned at the worksite before installation.
Solvents must never be stored in highly flammable containers.
Pre-impregnated materials are normally partially cured resins, where the resin reaction
has been slowed down by lowering the temperature to 18C. Hence the need for
refrigerated storage.
Quality assurance
Quality management for the production of composite components begins with

specifications governing the constituent raw materials. The fibres, resins, curing
agents, formulation additives and thermal processing must be controlled by materials
and processing documents (specifications). This approach is required because the
structural material is being formed at the same time as the actual component,
removing the possibility of testing material samples prior to construction of the
component. It is possible to construct test panels in sequence with each
manufacturing operation on the component. This test panel can then be used for
destructive testing, although this is not common practice. A high level of quality
assurance, measuring all the factors that affect the final product quality, achieves
process control. For engineering solutions, a safe process envelope is set in which the
process can proceed.
Testing, both destructive and non-destructive, can be conducted in order to
determine critical mechanical and physical properties such as:
state of cure of the resin matrix;
porosity of the resin matrix;
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fibre volume fractions;

orientation and lay-up of fibres and plies;
fibrematrix interface condition;
de-laminations and trans-laminar cracks;
inclusions;
lack of bonding of ply to adjacent ply or other structure.
Although use may be made of non-destructive examination (NDE) techniques

employing ultrasonic testing, experienced operators employing visual inspection and
tap testing are often sufficient.
Given the difficulties in inspecting the materials it is common to apply effort prior to
and during manufacture to avoid forming defects. Quality processes are therefore very
important if cost-effective manufacture is to be achieved.
Non-destructive
examination
T h e N D E of composite solutions for the rehabilitation of structural members can be

split into three areas (Figure 13):
the inspection of the composite material itself;
the inspection of the bond between the composite material and the structural
member;
the inspection of the structural member.
Acoustic inspection
methods
T h e simplest form of acoustic testing is the tap test, this is a qualitative test that relies
on operator skill and experience to interpret and draw conclusions. A coin or
automated tapping device is used to tap the laminate; variation in the sound
produced indicates the presence of voids.
Ultrasonic techniques are the most common form of N D E for use on composite
materials. Ultrasonic techniques involve the inspection of components by the
generation within the component of mechanical elastic waves, or ultrasound, in
which energy is transferred through the materials by sinusoidal vibration of the
constituent particles. T h e ultrasonic wave is usually induced in the component by
means of an ultrasonic transducer. Ultrasonic inspection can be used to locate and
size damage, as well as to determine the thickness of a composite component.
Traditionally the inspection is performed by manually scanning the surface with a
single, small ultrasonic transducer. This manual form of ultrasonic inspection can be
used only on relatively thin FRP laminates, glass reinforced plastics attenuate signals
to a greater extent than carbon reinforced plastics and so thicker carbon fibre
laminates may be scanned. Thicker components must be scanned while immersed in
water, or water jets used to provide the ultrasonic coupling.
Composite defect
/
Reinforcing
laminate
Disbond
Adhesive
layer
W W
Substrate
Figure 13
inspection
Typical defects for

Substrate corrosion
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Transmission of the ultrasonic wave through a composite and into the substrate
material may be measured, the interruption of which indicates an area of de-bonding.
O v e r v i e w of other
inspection m e t h o d s
Laser shearography and speckle pattern interferometry use lasers to produce strain
maps of the surface being inspected. Discontinuities within a laminate or bond will
show up as localized strain concentrations.
Optical fibre strain monitoring can be built into composite components to be used for
structural rehabilitation. Optical fibres can be used to measure strain at a number of
locations along their length. Changes in the strain seen by the composite component
indicate damage to the composite material in the region of the increased strain.
Thermography techniques use infrared sensitive equipment to monitor the apparent
surface temperature of a component and detect any disruption to the natural heat
flow. Changes in thermal resistivity or diffusivity due to flaws can cause hot or cold
regions relative to the normal temperature. These hot or cold regions are then used to
identify and locate defects in a composite component.
Radiographic techniques can be used to detect loss of material in a component due to
voids, inclusions, corrosion pits, etc., through the consequent change in attenuation
of a beam of electromagnetic radiation in the X-ray or gamma-ray region.
Electromagnetic techniques, such as eddy current testing, can be used on electrically
conducting materials. A coil bearing an alternating current, which causes an
alternating magnetic field, is used to induce circulating electric currents in the
component under inspection. Changes in the properties of the component being
tested alter the magnetic field of the coil, which can be detected directly via the coil's
impedance. Electromagnetic techniques are not used to inspect composite
components, which are essentially non-conductive, but can be used to inspect
structural members through composite reinforcing plates.
Repair
In order for composite materials to gain widespread acceptance for use in structural
upgrade and life extension, techniques for damage evaluation and repair are
important. The objective of all repairs is to restore the component to an adequate
strength and stiffness such that the component is able to fulfil its functional
requirement in the long term. If the damage is insufficient to prevent the component
from performing its long-term function, it is recommended that the damage is left 'as
is' and monitored for further growth. In this instance the damaged area should still be
cleaned of damaged material and protected from environmental effects by coating the
area with an approved resin (which is cured as required).
D a m a g e assessment
The ability of a composite structural component to remain 'fit for purpose' will depend
on the philosophy adopted at the design stage with regard to allowable material
properties. The criterion used to assess whether or not repair is required is whether or
not the increased stresses in the original laminate will cause the damage to grow.
One method of damage assessment is to treat the damaged area as a hole. A typical
example of this is impact damage to composite materials bonded to metallic
substrates, where the damage tends to take the form of local crushing of the material.
This method of damage assessment analyses the stress concentration caused by the
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assumed hole in the laminate. T h e stresses in the laminate, including the effects of
the hole, are then compared with the design allowable. If the design allowable stress is
exceeded, then structural repair of the laminate is required.
A second method of damage assessment considers delamination type damage. In this
method, the material above the delamination is treated as a sub-laminate, which acts
as a panel with simply supported edges. T h e size of the damage is likely to grow
if, under compressive loading, the critical local buckling load of the sub-laminate is
exceeded. W h e n this is the case then a structural repair of the laminate is required.
Damage assessment of composite materials is not generally well understood when
compared with assessment of metallic materials. Much research work is currently
underway to broaden understanding in this area. Current best practice is to categorize
defects and assess them against allowable limits according to defect type. Table 17
provides guidance as to allowable limits by defect type.
Where composite materials have been bonded to a substrate, it is also necessary to
categorize any defects in the interface between laminate and substrate. Table 18
provides guidance as to allowable limits by defect type.
Table 17
Defect type and allowable limits for composite laminate
Laminate defect
Blisters
Chips
Crazing
D r y spots
Delamination
Cracks
Entrapped air
Exposed glass
M a x i m u m 6 m m diameter, 1.5 m m high

M a x i m u m 6 m m , p r o v i d e d it does n o t penetrate t h e reinforcing laminate
Slight
2
M a x i m u m 10 p e r m w i t h t o t a l n o t greater than 100 m m in area

None
None
3 m m d i a m e t e r m a x i m u m ; n o m o r e than 3% o f area
None
Exposed c u t edges
Foreign m a t t e r
Pits
Scores
Surface p o r o s i t y
Wrinkles
Sharp discontinuity
Table 18
A l l o w a b l e limits
None
N o n e , if it affects t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e laminate
M a x i m u m 3 m m diameter, 1.5 m m deep
M a x i m u m 0.5 m m deep
None
M a x i m u m deviation 2 0 % o f wall thickness b u t n o t exceeding 4.5 m m
Maximum 1 m m
Defect type and allowable limits for interface region
Interface defect
A l l o w a b l e limits
Blisters
Delamination
Surface c o r r o s i o n
D r y spots
Entrapped air
Foreign m a t t e r
Scores
Sharp discontinuity
M a x i m u m 6 m m diameter, 1.5 m m high

None
None
M a x i m u m 10 p e r m w i t h t o t a l n o t greater than 100 m m in area
3 m m d i a m e t e r m a x i m u m ; n o m o r e than 3% o f area
None
M a x i m u m 0.5 m m deep
Maximum 1 m m
2
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W h e r e a defect exceeds the allowable limit, some form of remedial action is necessary.
Repair m e t h o d s
T h e repair of composite components should be carried out using materials compatible

with those used for the original component.
Impact damage will commonly be repaired by the removal and replacement of the
damaged area. This may be accomplished either by the adhesive bonding of a premade laminate patch, or by laminating a patch in situ.
Adhesive bonding of pre-made laminate patches is appropriate where there is only
access to one side of the component and the damage extends all the way through the
laminate thickness. For flat components (such as beam reinforcement plates) it may
be adequate to lay-up a flat laminate of the desired size, scarf the edges of the patch
and t h e n use the repair laminate patch as a template for preparing the area for repair.
For shaped components, it will probably be necessary to take a mould from the
existing component and use this to manufacture the repair laminate.
W h e n part of the laminate remains in good condition, or the hole is small, the repair
laminate patch can be made in situ. T h e most appropriate methods are vacuum bag
moulding or in-situ RIFT. T h e advantages of these techniques are that the laminates
will conform well to the shape of the original component and the chance of bond line
voids occurring is m u c h reduced. Contact moulding may also be used to form a repair
laminate in some cases, although the laminate quality may be reduced.
In both cases the repair can be kept flush with the original surface. However, it may
be advantageous to overlap the repair onto sound surrounding laminate and step away
the plies of the repair over the sound laminate (Figure 14).
Delamination damage may also be repaired by the removal and replacement of the
damaged area using the techniques described above. Alternatively, delamination
damage may be repaired by the use of resin infusion. T h e main drawback with the use
of the 'remove and replace' approach to the repair of delamination damage is that
m u c h undamaged structural material must be removed in order to reach the area of
delamination.
Resin infusion may be used to repair delamination damage. T h e main drawback
with resin infusion is that the process must be carefully controlled to ensure that the
delamination is not forced to grow and yet ensure that sufficient resin is introduced.
External repair
Flush repair
Tapered
patch
Figure 14
Repair laminates
Damaged material
removed and area filled
Damaged component
Damaged area
removed and flush
repair inserted
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Damaged component
7.
Materials testing
Tests
There are a variety of materials tests and test specifications that can be used to
determine the mechanical properties of composite materials. Within the research
programmes that formed the basis of this manual the Composites Research Advisory
Group (CRAG) standard was used. This is a test standard for a variety of composite
tests that was developed in the UK for aerospace applications. Many other countries
and companies have their own standards, but the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) standard is the most popular outside Europe.
19
Since the start of this programme several International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) test standards have been produced covering some of the
more common materials tests conducted on composites and several others are in the
final stages of being approved. It is recommended that these standards be used within
Europe, where possible. However, where an ISO standard is not available, it is
recommended to use another well-recognized method such as CRAG or ASTM.
It is not uncommon for different test standards to produce slightly different material
properties for the same basic type of test. This is usually caused by the different
geometries specified for the various test methods. If materials tests are being
conducted for materials that are to be used in a specific region only, e.g. North
America or Europe, it would be prudent to conduct the tests to the standard best
recognized in that region. However, the tests will all give values that are comparable
and can be used for basic reference.
Each test standard will give a method as to how a test should be conducted, what the
specimen dimensions should be and how the results should be analysed. It is
important to note that many tests will differ depending on the lay-up of the
composite. Also, even with the correct test method, different lay-ups can give
different results. It is therefore important to test materials, where possible, with the
same lay-up as will be used in situ.
Structural tests
Besides validating design methods for the composite materials, model scale tests may
also be required to validate the adhesive bonds between the composite materials and
the existing component, and the response of the hybrid composite-metal component.
Although load testing is not generally warranted because of the high costs involved,
consideration should be given to testing of components or structures whose structural
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behaviour is uncertain or where there may be considerable variability in the material

properties. Load testing however should not be considered sufficient to assess directly
the capacity of a structure or component to resist adequate margins of safety against
the various loading conditions to which it is subjected during its life. Load tests
should therefore be considered to be complementary to the analytical process and
should not be considered as replacement for the design process.
T h e object of the load testing shall be to check structural behaviour under load and/or
verify the method of analysis being used, i.e. to prove the accuracy and suitability of
the analytical or design model.
T h e size of the test specimen should be chosen to avoid scale effects. Ideally, a
minimum of three tests should be performed to demonstrate repeatability of test
results. T h e test specimens should be adequately instrumented and a sufficient num
ber of measurements should be taken during the test. Enough information should be
gathered, especially at critical regions to check the structural behaviour under load
and/or to properly verify the analytical or design model.
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8.
Verification
W h e n new structures are designed, repaired or strengthened using CFRP, a third

party verification check is required.
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9.
Monitoring
During the service life of a structure repaired and strengthened using CFRP the
structure should be regularly monitored for defects and to assess performance to
ensure continuing 'fitness for purpose'. This should take into account short-term and
long-term performance considerations. Monitoring techniques such as visual, optical
fibre and ultrasonic inspections should be employed to assess the quality of the
substrate, the CFRP and the bond.

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10.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
References
Hull D and Clyne TW. Introduction to Composite Materials. 2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press, 1996.
Lubin G (ed.). Handbook of Composite Materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
Daniel IM and Ishai O. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials. Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Technical Report N o . 55. Design Guidance for Strengthening Concrete Structures Using
Fibre Composite Materials. The Concrete Society, 2000. ISBN 0 9 4 6 6 9 1 8 4 3 .
BS4994: 1987. Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in
reinforced plastics. British Standards Institution, London.
BS476: Part 20: 1987. Fire tests on building materials and structures. Part 20: Method
for determination of the fire resistance of elements of construction (general principles).
British Standards Institution, London.
BS5268-2: 1996. Structural Use of Timber. British Standards Institution, London.
BS8110-1: 1997. Structural Use of Concrete. British Standards Institution, London.
BS5950-1: 1990. Structural Use of Steelwork in Building. British Standards Institution,
London.
BS5400-3: 1982. Code of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges. British Standards Institution,
London.
BD21/97. The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures, 1997.
Values from DML test data.
MIL-HDBK-17-1E. Polymer Matrix Composites, Volume I Guidelines for Characterization of
Structural Materials. August 1996.
Jones RM. Mechanics of Composite Materials. McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Soutis C and Hu FZ. Design and performance of bonded patch repairs of composite structures.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Volume 211, Part G, 1997.
Structural Materials Handbook, Volume I Polymer Composites. European Space Agency, ESA
PSS-03-203.
Ryder GH. Strength of Materials. Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd., 1969.
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations. SI437, The Stationery Office, 1999.
Curtis PT (ed.). CRAG Test Methods for the Measurement of the Engineering Properties of Fibre
Reinforced Plastics. Technical Report No. 88012, Royal Aerospace Establishment, 1988.
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Index
Aberfeldy Bridge, Scotland 2

acoustic inspection methods 53
adhesive bonding 9-10
of pre-made laminate patches 56
adhesive joints 33
design 33-35
allowance for variability 26
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) standard 57
aramid 21
fibres 3
beams, elastic design 40-42
bias fabrics 20
biaxial fabrics 20
bonded joints 33
Bonds Mill Bridge, England 2
buckling 44
carbon
high modulus 21
high strength 21
carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP)
11
carbon fibres 4
cast iron 36
analysis of 40
struts, strengthening 2
CFRP see carbon fibre reinforced plastics
chemical resistance 8
chemicals, effect of 15
Claxton-Fidler formulae 37
co-curing 33
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) 14, 20
for fibres 24
column buckling analysis 40
columns 40
composite design 7-9
composite manufacturing techniques 5
Composites Research Advisory Group (CRAG)
standard 57
contact moulding 48-49
CTE see coefficient of thermal expansion
curing 50
damage assessment 54-55

deflection 44
degradation, long term 27-29
delamination damage 56
design allowable stiffness 30
design allowable strength and stiffness
29
design codes 8
differential thermal expansion 34
durability 8
E-glass 21
partial factor 28
elastic analysis, transformed section approach
38, 39
elastic constants of a unidirectional ply
30
elasto-plastic analysis 41
elasto-plastic design 41, 42-43
elasto-plastic moment capacity 43
end fixity factor 38
environmental conditions, effect of 14-16
epoxies 22
epoxy resins 5
fabric reinforcement 20
fabrics, storage 52
fatigue 9
FE see finite element
FEM see finite element method
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, use
in construction 2
fibres
material properties 21
properties of 4
reinforcements 7
types of 3-4, 51
filament winding 6-7, 50
finite element analysis 45-46
element type 46
validating model 47
software 46
finite element approaches 8
finite element method 45
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fire
degradation through 16
protection 9
FRP see fibre reinforced polymer
galvanic corrosion 35
glass fibres 4
hand lay-up 5
hazards associated with fibres 51
HDT see heat distortion temperature
Health and safety/COSHH 51
heat distortion temperature (HDT) 14
impact damage 56
inspection methods
electromagnetic techniques 54
laser shearography 54
radiographic techniques 54
speckle pattern interferometry 54
thermography techniques 54
inspection, typical defects 53
interface defects 55
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) test standards 57
laminate
defects 55
design 30-32
selection 22
stiffness, effect of fibre type 23
types 22
laminates
with aramid reinforcement, degradation
factors 28
with carbon reinforcement, degradation
factors 28
with E-giass reinforcement, degradation
factors 28
lap shear test 35
lateral torsion buckling 44
load effect changes, causes of 13
load factors 13
load testing 57-58
polyester 22
pre-impregnation (pre-preg) 6, 50-51
pre-loaded member 44
pre-preg see pre-impregnation
pultrusion 6, 50
quadraxial fabrics 20
quality assurance 52-53
repair 54
Rankine-Gordon equation 38
reinforcement - design/analysis process 18
reinforcing fibre 20
repair methods 56
resin infusion 56
under flexible tooling 6, 49
resin system 22
resin transfer moulding 6
resin-infused laminated epoxy composites,
properties of 7, 8
resins
properties of 4
unsaturated polyester 4
rovings 7
manufacturing
methods 48
process, effect on elastic modulus 25
materials
selection 19-22
testing 26, 57
maximum strain criterion 32
maximum stress criterion 32
mesh discretization 47
moisture, effect of 15
multidirectional laminate, coordinate system 31
organic solvents, effects of 15
peel stresses 33
phenolic resins 5
phenolics 22
ply 5
physical properties 30
64
IP: 79.130.107.190
On: Tue, 15 Nov 2011 08:33:35
safety factors 35
secondary bonding 33
solvents, storage 52
squash load 40
steel 37
stiffness degradation factor 29
stiffness properties of laminates (CLT) 30-32
strain compatibility 3 - 4
strengthening or repair, effect on components
17
stress concentrations 19
stress-strain relationships 32
structural strengthening 2
structural tests 57
temperature 14
thermal compatibility 24-25
thermoset resins 22
tows 7
triaxiai fabrics 20
Tsai-Hill criterion 32
typical partial factor using CFRP 29
ultimate strength capacity 25
ultra-high modulus carbon 21
ultraviolet radiation 15
unidirectional
fabrics 20
laminate, coordinate system 31
plies, properties 30
vacuum bag moulding 49
vinylester 22
Volkersen shear lag analysis 33
wet lay-up, see Contact moulding
wrought iron 36

FRP Strengthening of Metallic Structures

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FRP Strengthening of Metallic Structures

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FRP composites

life extension and strengthening

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ICE design a n d practice guides

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ICE design and practice guide

"l Thomas Telford

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3. Design process overview

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Overview of fibre reinforced

The history of composite materials has been discussed widely in standard

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poor condition, because of manufacturing imperfections, corrosion or the presence of

Typical properties of common reinforcing fibres

Young's modulus (GPa)

Typical properties of common resin systems

polyester dissolved in styrene. Curing occurs by the polymerization of the styrene,

T h e above techniques are all labour driven. Pultrusion is an automated technique

Filament winding is another automated technique used to produce objects with

O v e r v i e w o f fibre reinforced polymer composites f o r strengthening

unidirectional (UD), at least 95% of fibres in the 0 direction;

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Typical properties of composite materials produced using the RIFT method

Alternate ply orientations to prevent large matrix cracks forming.

O v e r v i e w o f fibre reinforced polymer composites f o r strengthening

moisture absorption, and so increases with temperature, concentration (relative

Fire performance. Epoxy and polyester-based materials are flammable. However

T h e recommendations contained in this guide mainly cover t h e structural

T h e recommendations are applicable to the strengthening or repair of metallic

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Partial load factors should take account of the following:

inaccurate load assessment;

As with all materials, the environment to which a composite component is to be

It is usual to limit the operating temperature to which a composite material is

Any polymeric material in proximity to moisture, whether in the form of humidity or

Polymer composites are susceptible to degradation through fire. T h e organic polymer

Design process overview

Following strengthening or repair, a component is likely to be stiffer than before and

Composites can be used in structures designed plastically in which a significant

W h e n a metallic structure or structural component is reinforced with a CFRP

Typical material properties for fibres

T h e main functions of the resin system are:

When bonding a composite component to an existing structural member it is

Recommended laminate types for typical constructional materials

Cast iron, w r o u g h t iron, steel

Effect of fibre type on laminate stiffness

When bonding a composite component to an existing structural member, it is also

CTE for fibres

Given that the value of C T E for mild steel 12 x 1 0 K , the importance of

T h e ultimate tensile strength of a CFRP laminate used for rehabilitation must be

T h e various manufacturing processes (see Chapter 6) for composite materials produce

Effect of manufacturing process on elastic modulus

Coupon testing provides an empirical means of determining intrinsic material

It is assumed that laminates will contain representative defects such as

Test laminates should be manufactured using representative processes, under

where 0^ is the characteristic strength, a

is the mean strength given by the test

Degradation factors for laminates with E-glass reinforcement

* T h e factor of unity applies only w h e r e there is no fatigue loading.