Unit 1

Verbs followed by -ing and/or

infinitive
A Verbs followed by -ing or a noun
The builders avoided destroying the areas beauty.
The builders avoided the destruction of the areas beauty.
I miss seeing my friends every day.
I miss my friends.
Other verbs followed by -ing or a noun are: detest, dislike,
enjoy, fancy, help, keep, loathe, do not mind, practise.

remember

I remembered buying the ticket. (= I bought the ticket and

I remember doing so.)
Ill remember to buy the ticket. (= I havent bought it yet,
but I will remember.)
Note that you can use a that clause with remember.
I remembered that I had bought the ticket.
mean

This means bringing all the information up to date.

(= This involves bringing the information up to date.)
I meant to bring all the information up to date.
(= I intended to do it but didnt.)
Note that you can use a that clause with mean.

Note that some verbs are followed by -ing or a that

clause.

This means that the world will change more rapidly in

future.

He considered going there on holiday.

He considered that this might be his last holiday.

Other verbs in this category are: admit, deny, report.

B Verbs followed by -ing or the infinitive with to

Some verbs are followed by -ing or to or a noun.
I like playing chess.
I like to play chess.
I like chess.
Other verbs followed by -ing or to or a noun are: attempt,
cant bear/stand, begin, continue, hate, intend, love, prefer,
start.
Note that would like/love/prefer are followed by the
infinitive with to.

C Verbs followed by -ing or the infinitive with to

where the meaning changes
forget

I forgot to buy the ticket. (= I didnt buy the ticket.)

I forgot buying the ticket. (= I bought the ticket and
then I forgot.)
Note that you can use a that clause with forget.
I forgot that I had bought the ticket.
go on

She went on singing. (= She was singing and continued

doing so.)
She went on to sing. (= She was doing something and
then began to sing or became a singer.)

stop

I stopped looking at the scenery. (= I was looking at the

scenery and then I stopped.)
I stopped to look at the scenery. (= I was doing something,
eg driving, and I stopped that activity in order to look
at the scenery.)
regret

I regret giving him the information. (= I gave him the

information and I regret it.)
I regret to tell you that you didnt get the job. (= I am about
to give you some bad news.)
Note that you can use a that clause with regret.
I regretted that I had given the information.

D Verbs followed by the infinitive with to

I cant afford to go back there.
He failed to turn up for the interview.
He managed to succeed in the end.
Other verbs followed by the infinitive with to are:
appear, ask, choose, help, want.

E Some verbs are followed by -ing or the

infinitive without to
I watched the sun setting. (= I watched part of the
process.)
I watched the sun set. (= I watched the whole process.)
Other verbs are: feel, hear, listen to, notice, see.

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Unit 2
Using nouns to build noun phrases
1 (article/determiner) + adjective + noun
I live in a small flat.
a (article/determiner) + small (adjective) + flat (noun)

Other examples:
The research into the survival of minority languages will
be published soon.
The plan of the facilities in the park was at the entrance.
The investment in education has brought enormous benefits to
the children of all people in the area.
The solution to the problem of illiteracy can be tackled in
many ways.

Other examples:
Many ancient civilizations have disappeared.
High-speed transport is essential for the modern world.

5 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun +

relative clause

The crisis had a huge impact.

The neighbourhood where I live is very quiet.

My country has considerable resources.

Describe a piece of electronic equipment that you like.

They undertook an archaeological dig.

Other examples:

A museum displays historical items.

The exam that I took last week was fairly straightforward.

A thorough analysis was carried out by the scientists.

The ideas that I read in the book were new to me.

2 (article/determiner) + noun + noun

The transport system works very well.
Other examples:
The telephone network is very efficient.
Penicillin was a key invention.
The supermarket carried out some market research.
The education system is very well-organized.
I followed several language classes.

3 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun +

prepositional phrase ((article/determiner) (+
adjective) + noun)
The past has a huge impact on the present.

The people who support this idea argue that education

is crucial.
See defining and non-defining relative clauses in
Unit 8 below.

The use of noun phrases

1 Noun phrases are used to build ideas by placing
information before the noun using adjectives or other
nouns and after the nouns using prepositional phrases.
The building of the railway had a huge effect on the local
community.
2 Noun phrases can be used to paraphrase and
summarize ideas.
Car sales rose slowly in the north of the UK.
There was a slow rise in car sales in the north of the UK.
3 Noun phrases are often used in:

Other examples:

a headings in the reading module

Television has had a huge effect on peoples lives.

the impact of tourism, the reasons for increased numbers of

tourists, methods to protect the area

Specialization in a particular field can take time.

The answer to the problem lies in investment.

4 (article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun +

prepositional phrase ((article/determiner)
(+ adjective) + noun) + prepositional phrase
((article/determiner) (+ adjective) + noun)
The countryside near the home of my parents is very
beautiful.
An explanation of the different types of systems was given.

b the Task 1 and Task 2 questions and answers

Many people think that the changes in the climate are
mainly the result of human behaviour. To what extent do
you agree or disagree?
c headings and questions in the listening
Questions 15
The consequences of tourism
The impact of 1 ................ on the environment in
mountain regions
(tourists)

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Unit 3
Prepositions with verbs
Verbs followed by prepositions are also called
prepositional verbs. Such verbs are more common
than phrasal verbs in academic writing. Phrasal verbs
are colloquial and they are used more in conversation,
news and fiction.

About
He thought about the essay for a long time.
Little is known about the earliest city states.
We talked about the book for a long time.

At
I looked at the dictionary definition.
He guessed at the answer in the exam.

For
She asked for a reduction in fees.
Many elderly people are cared for in the community.

From

Existence verbs
The increase in the availability of knowledge coincided with
artistic development.
Knowledge is often connected with power.

Unit 4
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative and superlative adjectives are used to
compare items, events, people and processes. They are
also used to express peoples opinion.
In sentences, the comparative form of the adjective is
followed by than and the item which is being compared.
The comparative form of adjectives is formed in
different ways.

1 Comparatives using -er

For adjectives with one syllable, you can form the
comparative adjective by adding -er.
Computers are faster now than they were ten years ago.

The trend for car sales differs from that of motorbikes

enormously.

For adjectives with two syllables or more, you can use

more/less.

The idea stems from research in the field of engineering.

Playing games on the computer is more/less interesting than

reading books.

In
He used the data in our answer.
He took part in the survey.
He succeeded in passing the exam.
He wants to specialize in chemistry.

On
The solution to the problem of illiteracy depends on the cause.
He relied on his memory in the exam.

With
A sedentary lifestyle is associated with being overweight.
The patients were provided with beds and medication.

Causative verbs
The increase in information via the Internet has resulted in
information overload for students.

Note that you use the word than with comparative

adjectives.

2 Comparatives with adjectives ending

in -e or -y
For adjectives ending in -e, you add -r to the ending,
and for adjectives ending in -y you replace the -y with -i
and add -er.
The streets in the new entertainment district of the city are
wider than those in the old part.
People were happier in the past than now.

3 Comparatives where you double the

consonant
In one-syllable adjectives ending in a consonant, you
double the consonant.
Computers were bigger in the past than they are now.

The world has now been transformed into a global village.

The education of the workforce can lead to greater economic
growth.

4 Comparatives with -er or more

You can use -er or more with some adjectives.
Some people think that childrens knowledge is shallower/
more shallow than it used to be.

E-books are becoming commoner/more common than they

were even a few years ago.

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5 Irregular comparatives
You use a different word as the comparative form for
some common adjectives.
Good
She is a better reader than he is.
Bad
Last night the acting in the play was worse than other
performances.

6 Superlative adjectives
You make superlative adjectives by using e and adding
-(e)st to adjectives with one syllable or two syllables.
The adjective is preceded with the word the.
For adjectives ending in -y, you change the -y to -i and
add -est. You use the most with longer adjectives.

Unit 5
Degrees of certainty
A Possibility
1 You can express possibility by using can/may/
possibly/it is possible that
Doing even basic exercises such as walking can/may improve
childrens health.
It is possible that doing even basic exercises such as walking
will improve childrens health.
It is possible for even basic exercises such as walking to
improve childrens health.
Doing even basic exercises such as walking will possibly
improve childrens health.

The latest computers are very fast.

Clubs and discos are often the noisiest places that you can visit.
The most impressive place I have been to is St Petersburg.
With some adjectives, you can use the -(i)est or the most.
The commonest/most common pastime is playing on
the computer.

7 Irregular superlative adjectives

The worst film I have ever seen is
The best place to study is the library.

8 Comparatives with less and not as as

You can use not as ... as with short adjectives and less
with longer adjectives.
Factual books are not as popular as fiction.
Some types of websites are less attractive than others.
You can make comparisons by using than.
Sales were greater in 1980 than in 1990.

9 Words to strengthen or weaken comparatives

You can add words to strengthen or weaken
comparatives.

2 Negative possibility
It is not possible to improve ones health without taking
exercise.
It is impossible to improve ones health without taking
exercise.
It is impossible for ones health to improve without taking
exercise.

3 Tentative possibility
Robots could/might perform operations in the future.
It is possible that robots (will) might/could perform
operations in the future.

B Probability and expectation

1 You can express probability by using should/
ought to/likely/probably/it is probable that
It is probable that health care will become more
technologically advanced in coming years.
This can be rewritten as follows:
It is likely that health care will become more technologically
advanced in coming years.

Books are much more attractive nowadays than in the past.

Health care should/ought to become more technologically

advanced in coming years.

The number of visitors was a little higher this year than

last year.

Health care will probably/likely become more

technologically advanced in coming years.

10 You can also compare clauses

Computer sales were as high in June as they were
in January.
Twice as many people attended the show this time as
the last time.

Health care is likely to become more technologically

advanced in coming years.
Note that you cannot say:
Health care is probable to become more technologically
advanced in coming years.

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Grammar reference

2 Negative
It is unlikely/improbable that health care will become more
technologically advanced in coming years.

C Necessity
1 You can express necessity as follows:
It is necessary for all children to be vaccinated against polio.
All children need to be vaccinated against polio.

2 Negative necessity
It is unnecessary for all age groups to be vaccinated
against the flu.

D Certainty
1 You can express certainty as follows:
It is certain that the world will need fewer doctors in future.
The world will need fewer doctors in future.

2 Negative
It is not certain that the world will need fewer doctors
in future.

Second conditional
You use the second conditional to talk about
imaginary or impossible situations in the present or
future. You form the second conditional by using if +
the past simple + would + the infinitive without to.
If we constructed taller building in cities, it would save a lot
of space.
If I were able to live anywhere, Id move near the sea.
Note that in speech If I was you is becoming common.
You can also use could, might, should instead of would in
the main clause.
If we constructed taller building in cities, it could/might/
should save a lot of space.

Third conditional
You use the third conditional to hypothesize
or speculate about the past. You form the third
conditional by using if + past perfect + would have + the
past participle.
If I had been more interested in science, Id have been able to
study astronomy.
You can also use could, might, should, instead of would in
the main clause.
If popular tourist spots around the world had not been
protected, they could/might/should have been destroyed
by now.
You can remove the if in the second conditional and
third conditional and invert as follows:

Unit 6
Hypothesizing: first, second and
third conditionals
First conditional
You use the first conditional to talk about real
situations in the present or future and their possible
results. You form the first conditional by using if + the
present simple + will + the infinitive without to.
If more money is invested in space research we will one day
inhabit other worlds.
You can also use may, might, going to, can instead of will
in the main clause.
If more money is invested in space research, we may one day
inhabit other worlds.
If more space is needed in cities, derelict areas can be turned
into parks.
If the neighbourhood is improved, its going to be an
interesting place to live in.

Were I to buy an e-book reader, I still wouldnt have enough

space for books.
Had I bought a house in the country I would have had much
more space.

Unless/if not
You can use unless instead of if not in conditional
clauses.
Unless the world population growth slows down, we will run
out of space sometime this century.
If the world population growth doesnt slow down, we will
run out of space sometime this century.

Various types of conditional sentences

You can use even if/on condition that/provided that/
provided/as long as in conditional sentences.

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Grammar reference

Cause and effect verbs

1 There is a wide range of verbs to indicate causes
and effect:
affect, bring about, cause, change, create, impact, improve,
influence, lead to, make something happen, produce, result
(in/from), shape, transform
Exercise can affect peoples well-being. (cause effect)
Technology has changed our working habits. (cause effect)
Note the difference between result in and result from:
Advances in science have resulted in many medical
treatments. (cause effect)
Many medical treatments have resulted from advances in
science. (effect cause)
2 You can use the passive to change the order of the
cause and effect items.
Peoples well-being can be affected by exercise. (effect
cause)
Our working habits have been changed by technology. (effect
cause)
3 You can also use the nouns formed from the verbs in 1:
effect, cause, change, creation, impact, improvement, influence,
production, result, shaping, transformation
Labour-saving devices have had an effect/impact on our
lifestyle.
Supermarkets have great influence over our eating habits.
The result of proper hygiene and a good diet can be a
longer life.
Science has brought many improvements to our lives.
4 Expressing connections
You need to distinguish ideas that are connected but
do not have a cause and effect relationship.
Using computers is associated/linked with different health
issues.

You can buy two pieces of luggage at a reduced price.

Can I give you a piece of advice?
3 Some uncountable nouns that end in s like news are
followed by a singular verb.
The news is all about financial matters today.
4 Note that many common nouns are uncountable in
English, but countable in other languages.
Accommodation is not cheap in city centres.
The information is on the company website.
Modern furniture is very different from that of the past.
The weather is bad today.
Other nouns are: advice, equipment, knowledge, money.
5 Plural nouns take plural verbs.
The surroundings are very beautiful.
Some other common plural nouns are: goods, means,
trousers.
6 Depending on whether you want to focus on the group
or the individuals in a group, some group nouns have
singular and plural verbs.
The government is/are planning to change consumer
protection laws.
The family like(s) the HD TV.
But note:
The police have arrived.
Note that in Australian and American English the
singular verb is used with family etc.
Other similar nouns are: army, crowd, data, group, public.
7 Some uncountable nouns may also be used as
countable nouns.
Fruit is available in most supermarkets.
Two fruits (bananas and apples) outsell all the others in
this market.

Unit 7
Countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns
1 Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form.
They are used with a singular or a plural verb.
I bought a tablet. The tablet is very convenient.
I have two tablets. The tablets are both very convenient.

Uncountable nouns
1 Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb.
The information is inside the box.
2 To count uncountable nouns you can use phrases like
a piece of/a bit of/a slice of/a sheet of etc.

8 Nouns that change their meaning:

A
Business (in general related to enterprise) is different
from a business (which is a company or firm).
Help (in general) is not the same as a help (a person who
helps people).
Work (in general) is not the same as a work (of art).
B
Contrast coffee (the material) with a coffee, as in a cup of
coffee.
Contrast paper (the material) with a paper, as in a
newspaper.
Contrast wood (the material) with a wood, which is an
area with some trees.

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Unit 8
Defining and non-defining
relative clauses
Relative clauses contain a relative pronoun: which, that,
who, whose, whom. You can use them in sentences to
provide additional information about nouns.
There are two types of relative clauses: defining and
non-defining.

Defining clauses
1 Defining clauses provide information that identifies
the person, event or thing that they refer to.
Defining relative clauses cannot be left out of the
sentence and do not have commas at the beginning
and end of the clause.
The comedy film that I saw yesterday was very funny.
The actress who played the heroine was captivating.
2 You can leave out the relative pronoun:
a only if it is the object of the clause
b only in defining clauses
I couldnt put down the book (that/which) I bought.
The person (who/whom) Id like to describe is my
grandfather.
3 In speech some people use that instead of who/whom.
The person (that) Id like to describe is my grandfather.

Non-defining clauses
1 Non-defining clauses provide additional information
about a person, event or thing.
Non-defining clauses can be left out without affecting
the main information of the sentence. They have
commas at the beginning and the end. In speech, you
indicate a non-defining clause by pausing briefly at the
commas and using a rising tone on the word before
the comma.
The building, which is made of glass and is very elegant, is
near the river.
2 You cannot leave out the relative pronoun in nondefining clauses when it is the object of the clause.
The building, is made of glass and is very elegant, is near
the river.
3 You cannot use the word that to introduce a nondefining clause.
The building, that which is made of glass and is very elegant,
is near the river.

That or which
1 You can use that or which when referring to things, but
you use which with prepositions rather than that.
The painting, from which I got the idea for the story, is in the
National Gallery.

Whom
1 You can use the word whom as the object of the word
who. Whom is more formal and it is not often used
in speech.
The singer (who/whom) I saw on the bus is very well-known.
2 You use whom with prepositions, but again this is more
formal. It is not often used in speech and mostly found
in formal writing.
The sculptor from whom I purchased the bronze statue has
reduced the price.
The manager (who/whom) I purchased the bronze statue from
has reduced the price.

Whose
You use whose for possession instead of whom.
Thats the pop singer whose song sold millions.

When and why

You can leave out when and why in defining clauses.
The reason (why) the bridge looks so elegant is the way it
was constructed.
I want to talk about the time (when) I was in Australia.

Where
You cannot leave out where.
Id like to talk about the area where I was brought up.

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

and noun phrases
Both defining and non-defining relative clauses can be
used to build ideas. See Unit 2.5 above.