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Physics
for the IB Diploma
K. A. Tsokos
This fifth edition of Physics for the IB Diploma covers, in one
volume, the entire new International Baccalaureate (IB) syllabus
(for first examinations in May 2009), including all the options at
both Standard Level and Higher Level. It features a chapter on
the role of physics in the context of the Theory of Knowledge
(TOK) course, along with many discussion questions for TOK.
The student-friendly design makes this comprehensive book easy
to use and the accessible language ensures that the material is
also suitable for students whose first language is not English.
The author has been teaching physics for over twenty years.
Fifth edition
Features include:
x answers to the end-of-chapter questions
x supplementary material for specific topics
x glossary of key terms.
Physics
for the
IB Diploma
K. A. Tsokos
The division of this book into chapters and sections usually follows
the organisation of the syllabus. However, since the sections are
reasonably independent of each other, alternative teaching
sequences may be used. Each chapter opens with a list of learning
objectives that are directly related to the syllabus. The questions
at the end of each chapter have been expanded and answers to
those involving calculation, plus some others, have been supplied
at the back of the book. Worked examples throughout the text
highlight important results, laws, definitions and formulae, and
provide students with the necessary skills to solve problems.
Learning
Standard and
Higher Level
Fifth edition
K. A. Tsokos
Contents
Preface
A note to the reader
xi
xii
2.2
48
48
54
56
2.3
2
2
5
63
64
67
2.4
69
69
70
2.5
76
77
82
83
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
8
8
11
12
14
14
15
16
17
18
18
21
21
22
22
24
25
2.6
91
93
95
2.7
99
99
102
103
104
107
108
110
112
2.8
119
31
31
33
Topic 2: Mechanics
38
2.1
38
38
42
44
87
87
89
119
122
123
www.cambridge.org
iv Contents
2.9
127
127
129
132
132
134
138
142
143
145
146
149
151
4.2
216
216
217
218
218
224
4.3
228
228
231
234
238
238
240
4.4
3.2
3.3
3.4
158
158
159
160
163
163
165
167
168
169
174
174
175
176
177
178
Thermodynamics AHL
Internal energy
Work done on or by a gas
The first law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics
Degradation of energy
183
183
184
187
189
192
195
4.1
195
195
196
204
207
208
4.5
SL Option A
The Doppler effect
244
244
4.6
251
251
255
4.7
259
259
261
4.8
267
267
4.9
271
271
272
273
274
275
280
5.1
280
280
285
5.2
289
289
292
295
276
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Contents v
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
299
299
300
304
Radioactivity Core
The nature of alpha, beta and
gamma radiations
Radioactive decay equations
The law of radioactive decay
373
373
376
377
6.3
380
380
381
384
385
385
6.4
389
389
394
398
398
399
400
402
6.2
306
310
310
312
314
318
318
320
325
336
336
338
327
339
341
6.5
6.6
343
5.7
350
350
351
354
356
5.8
360
360
361
363
365
367
6.1
367
367
369
369
370
371
305
368
407
407
408
409
410
411
415
415
415
417
417
418
420
423
425
427
428
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vi Contents
7.2
434
434
436
438
444
447
448
8.2
454
454
455
458
459
461
463
463
464
466
467
Part II Options
Resolution SL
481
A6
Polarization SL
481
Quantum physics SL
482
B2
Nuclear physics SL
482
A5
471
483
483
C3
Electronics SL
484
C4
484
C2
Introduction to relativity SL
485
D2
485
D3
Relativistic kinematics SL
485
D4
486
D5
Quarks SL
486
487
487
489
491
E2
494
494
495
496
498
499
500
E3
506
506
507
510
511
A2
472
472
473
474
474
475
476
476
477
478
480
A3 Standing waves SL
480
A4 Diffraction SL
480
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Contents vii
E4
E5
E6
Cosmology SL and HL
Olbers paradox
The expanding universe
The Big Bang: the creation of space
and time
The development of the universe
514
514
516
521
521
Galaxies Extension HL
Types of galaxy
Galactic motion
Hubbles law
The evolution of the
universe
517
517
525
529
F2
F3
Radio communication SL
and HL
Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
Comparing AM and FM
The AM radio receiver
Analogue and digital signals SL
and HL
Binary numbers
Analogue and digital signals
Bit rate of a digital signal
The transmission and reception of
digital signals
Time division multiplexing
The advantages of digital
communication
Optic fibre transmission SL
and HL
Total internal reflection
Optical fibres
Dispersion
Attenuation
Detection
Noise
Regeneration
F5
533
533
536
537
F6
539
Channels of communication SL
and HL
Copper wires
Wire pairs
Coaxial cables
Optic fibres
Radio waves
Microwave transmission through
free space
Satellite communications
574
574
575
575
575
576
577
578
Electronics Extension HL
The operational amplifier (op-amp)
The non-inverting amplifier
Reshaping digital pulses the
Schmitt trigger
584
584
588
590
596
F4
544
544
546
548
550
550
554
554
554
554
G1
Light SL and HL
The speed of light
Electromagnetic waves
Properties of EM waves
The laser
598
598
599
601
603
G2
607
607
617
620
G3
624
624
626
628
629
631
G4
X-rays Extension HL
The production of X-rays
X-ray diffraction
634
634
635
G5
640
640
641
642
557
558
558
562
562
564
565
567
569
570
571
www.cambridge.org
viii Contents
I3
644
645
647
648
652
652
657
659
J1
722
723
723
725
728
J2
731
731
732
733
738
738
740
J3
746
746
748
748
749
749
750
751
752
671
673
674
685
I2
690
690
693
697
Medical imaging HL
Properties of radiation
X-ray imaging
Other imaging techniques
Ultrasound
Diagnostic uses of radioactive
sources
700
700
702
705
707
709
712
716
671
677
677
680
682
683
712
663
663
666
667
669
Radiation in medicine HL
Biological effects of radiation
and dosimetry
Radiation therapy
J4
718
718
719
720
720
721
752
753
753
758
758
758
761
761
www.cambridge.org
Contents ix
J5
764
764
765
766
770
Appendices
1
Physical constants
777
Astronomical data
780
781
782
Answers to questions
788
819
Index
832
778
www.cambridge.org
Part I
Core and AHL
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CHAPTER 1.1
Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
appreciate the order of magnitude of various quantities;
perform simple order-of-magnitude calculations mentally;
state the fundamental units of the SI system.
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The SI system
The seven basic SI units are:
1 The metre (m). This is the unit of distance. It is
the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a
time of 1/299 792 458 seconds.
2 The kilogram (kg). This is the unit of mass. It is
the mass of a certain quantity of a platinum
iridium alloy kept at the Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures in France.
3 The second (s). This is the unit of time. A second is
the duration of 9 192 631 770 full oscillations of
the electromagnetic radiation emitted in a
transition between the two hyperfine energy
levels in the ground state of a caesium-133 atom.
4 The ampere (A). This is the unit of electric
current. It is defined as that current which,
when flowing in two parallel conductors 1 m
apart, produces a force of 2 107 N on a
length of 1 m of the conductors.
5 The kelvin (K). This is the unit of temperature. It
is 2731.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of
the triple point of water.
6 The mole (mol). One mole of a substance
contains as many molecules as there are atoms
in 12 g of carbon-12. This special number of
molecules is called Avogadros number and is
approximately 6.02 1023 .
7 The candela (cd). This is a unit of luminous intensity. It is the intensity of a source of frequency
1
W per steradian.
5.40 1014 Hz emitting 683
Power
Prefix
Symbol
Power
Prefix
Symbol
1018
atto-
101
deka-
da*
hecto-
h*
kilo-
mega-
10
giga-
10
12
tera-
15
peta-
P*
18
exa-
E*
10
15
10
12
10
10
10
10
10
femtopico-
nano-
micro-
millicentideci-
m
c
d
10
10
10
10
10
*Rarely used.
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m
= s2 = s
2
ms
Length/m
Distance to edge of observable universe
1026
1022
1021
1016
1013
Distance to sun
1011
107
Size of a cell
105
1010
Size of a nucleus
1015
Size of a proton
1017
Planck length
1035
Mass/kg
x
[L ]
= [M][L ][T ]2 [L ] y [M]z
[T ]
1
[L ][T ]
= [M]
x +z
[L ]
x+y
2x
[T ]
1
y=
2
and
1
z=
2
The universe
1053
1041
The sun
1030
The earth
1024
105
An apple
0.25
A raindrop
106
A bacterium
1015
Smallest virus
1021
A hydrogen atom
1027
An electron
1030
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1017
1017
108
One year
107
5
One day
10
Period of a heartbeat
1015
1024
Planck time
1043
Fundamental interactions
There are four basic or fundamental
interactions in physics. However, in 1972, the
electromagnetic and weak interactions were
unified into one the electroweak interaction.
In this sense, then, we may speak of just three
fundamental interactions (see Figure 1.1).
Gravitational
Gravitational
Electromagnetic
Electroweak
Weak (nuclear force)
Colour (or strong nuclear force)
Colour
Q1
How many grains of sand are required to ll the
earth? (This is a classic problem that goes back to
Aristotle.)
Answer
Q2
Estimate the speed with which human hair grows.
Answer
6 40
240
4 10 9 m s1
Q3
If all the people on earth were to hold hands in a
straight line, how long would the line be? How
many times would it wrap around the earth?
Answer
Example questions
Let us close this chapter with a few problems
similar to the one we started with. These
problems are sometimes known as Fermi
problems, after the great physicist Enrico Fermi,
who was a master in this kind of estimation.
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Answer
10 8 10 8
2 0.3
21
Q5
What depth of car tyre wears off with each turn?
(This is another classic problem.)
Answer
?
Q
QUESTIONS
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(a)
(c)
312 480
;
160
(d)
8.99 10 9 7 10 6 7 10 6
;
(8 10 2 )2
(e)
6.6 10 11 6 10 24
.
(6.4 10 6 )2
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CHAPTER 1.2
Objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
state the various types of errors that may arise in the measurement of a
physical quantity;
state the difference between accuracy and precision;
draw a line of best fit;
appreciate the importance of significant digits.
Errors of measurement
There are two main types of error of
measurement or observation. They can be
grouped into random and systematic even though
in many cases it is not possible to sharply
distinguish between the two. We may say that
random errors are almost always the fault of
the observer whereas systematic errors are due
to both the observer and the instrument being
used. In practice, all errors are a combination of
the two.
A random error is characterized by the fact that
it is revealed by repeated measurements (the
measurements fluctuate about some value they
are sometimes larger and sometimes smaller)
whereas a systematic error is not. Random
errors can be reduced by averaging over
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Instrument
Reading error
Ruler
0.5 mm
Vernier calipers
0.05 mm
Micrometer
0.005 mm
0.5 mL
0.1 g
Stopwatch
0.01 s
Random errors
If a measurement is repeated many times, it can
be expected that the measurement will be too
large as often as it will be too small. So, if an
average of these measurements is taken, the
x1 + x2 + + x N
N
x reading error
However, if the deviations from the mean are
larger in magnitude than the reading error, the
experimental error in the quantity x will have
to include random errors as well. To estimate
the random error we calculate the quantity
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 + + (x N )2
e=
N 1
x e
To illustrate these points consider the
measurement of a length using a ruler. The
reading error according to one observer is
0.1 cm. The experimenter produces a table of
results and, after computing the average of the
measurements, the deviation and its square are
also inserted in the table see Table 2.2.
Length/cm
(0.1 cm)
Deviation
x/cm
( x)2/cm2
14.88
0.09
0.0081
14.84
0.05
0.0025
15.02
0.23
0.0529
14.57
0.22
0.0484
14.76
0.03
0.0009
14.66
0.13
0.0169
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Systematic errors
The most common source of a systematic error
is an incorrectly calibrated instrument. For
example, consider a digital force sensor. When
the sensor is to be used for the first time, it
must be calibrated. This means that we must
apply a force whose value we are confident we
know, say 5.0 N, and then adjust the sensor so
that it too reads 5.0 N. If we apply the 5.0 N force
and then adjust the instrument to read 4.9 N,
the instrument will be incorrectly calibrated. It
will also be incorrectly calibrated if the sensor is
adjusted to read 5.0 N when the known force
that we apply is not really 5.0 N. If we use this
sensor to verify Newtons second law, we would
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