CHAPTER 1

Basic Flow Equations

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Vector Notation
Darcy's Law
Capillary Pressure Effect
Reservoir Flow Forces
Continuity Equation
Chain Rule
Linearity
Diffusivity Equation
Classification of 2nd Order P.D.E.
Comparison of Heat Flow and Darcy Fluid Flow
Boundary Value Problems

Basic Flow Equations

Vector Notation
A scalar is a number, which has single value. For example, 5 is a scalar, is a scalar, -3.6 is
a scalar. A vector, on the other hand, is a number, which includes several values. The most
common is in three-dimensional space. For example, a vector u would have the following form in
three-dimensional space.
u1

vector u = u = u = u2

u3

(1)

We sometimes say that vector has direction and magnitude, but a more general way to think
of a vector is a column of numbers. The column length is three in three-dimensional space, two in
two-dimensional space.
We will now introduce an operator called del, written as . In vector notation this is
equivalent to a derivative. For example, if we have an x, y, z three-dimensional space, the del
operator would be used in conjunction with the scalar, for example a, to define the gradient of a.
a

x
a
gradient of the scalar a = a =
y
a

(2)

Although a is a scalar, a is a vector.

A common algebraic operation is the inner product which is noted as u v or (u,v), for
example, where u and v are vectors. This inner product is sometimes called the dot product and is
defined as:

2
Basic Flow Equations

inner (dot) product of vectors u and v = u v = u,v

= u1 v 1 + u2 v 2 + ... + un v n
n

ui v i
i=1

(3)
Another use of the del operator, noted as , is to specify the divergence of a vector.

divergence of u = u = u1 + u 2 + u 3
x y z

(4)

0
The divergence of a vector is a scalar.

These basic rules of notation are used repeatedly in writing and deriving equations in
reservoir engineering.

3
Basic Flow Equations

4
Basic Flow Equations

Darcy's Law
Darcys Law governs the flow of fluids in the reservoir, and in simulators. Darcy's Law is
named after Henry Darcy who was a civil engineer for the town of Dijon, France. In 1857, he
published a paper showing the results of some experiments of water flowing through sand filters.
He observed that
q = c( h w2 - h w1 )

(5)

This states that the flow rate is proportional to the difference in water manometer heights at
the two ends of the flow tube. He noted that this proportionality of flow rate to the difference in
manometer heights applied regardless of the angle of the sandpacked tube. We now generalize his
result by recognizing that the sandpack has a particular permeability (k), area (A), length (L) and
that the fluid had a particular viscosity (). We would rewrite his equation as
q=
0

kA ( 2 - 1)

(6)

The manometer readings would be expressed as flow potential, .

General Darcy's Law (Isotropic). A more general expression of Darcy's Law shows that the
"Darcy" velocity, u, vector is equal to the mobility times the potential gradient for any phase. This
general expression is for an isotropic, or non-directional, permeability.
k

u = - 0.00633

0
where,
u
k

= Darcy velocity, ft/D

= permeability, md
= viscosity, cp

= gradient of flow potential

= p + (/144) Z
= fluid density, lbm/ft3
= elevation (positive upward), ft

(7)

in one dimension,
ux = - 0.00633
0

dZ
k dp
(
+
)
dx
144 dx

(8)

5
Basic Flow Equations

or,to simplify the notation, we can use the angle to designate the angle of the x directon with the
horizontal. Then dZ/dx = sin and

ux = - 0.00633
0

k dp
(
+
sin )
dx
144

(9)

We might note that if we define potential as = p + (/144) Z, then this is strictly

valid only for an incompressible fluid. Actually, potential gradients should be defined for
compressible fluids: = p + (/144) Z. Then, potential differences must be found by
integrating the gradients along the flow path.
The Darcy velocity is not an actual velocity. It is a macroscopic velocity, which gives a flow
rate when multiplied by the cross-sectional area normal to the flow path. It's units are actually
ft3/D/ft2. This does not account for the space taken up by the rock particles. The average particle
velocity, v, can be calculated in the direction of flow by v = u/, where u is a macroscopic (Darcy)
velocity defined by q = Au.
General Darcy's Law (Anisotropic).
expression is more complicated.

u = - 0.00633
0

If we have a directional (anisotropic) permeability, the

(10)

The permeability becomes a tensor which looks like a matrix.

k1 1

k k 21
k 31

k12
k 22
k 32

k13

k 23
k 33

(11)

6
Basic Flow Equations

The tensor has nine values but the matrix is symmetrical (i.e., k 31 = k13), so that the matrix
has only six distinct values.
For flow in the x direction,
ux = -

k11 k12 k13

x
y
z

(12)

This complicated expression is simplified by orienting the coordinates of the flow system
(the simulator coordinates) along the axes of permeability. These axes are orthogonal and will be
lined up with the maximum and minimum permeabilities. When the coordinates are oriented in this
manner, then each direction has its own permeability and the tensor has only three non-zero values.
kx

k = 0
0

0
ky
0

0
k z

(13)

so, flow in x direction is simplified to

ux = -

k x
x

(14)

All simulators are designed to have the coordinates oriented correctly. So Darcy's Law for a
particular direction is expressed in terms of permeability in that direction.
ux = - 0.00633

k x
x

(15)

Multi-phase Flow.
Darcy's Law is extended to multi-phase flow. The pressure, gravity, and
capillary effects are included in these equations. The first step is to define potentials for all three
phases. Arbitrarily, we use the oil pressure as our reference pressure. This leads to capillary terms
being included in the gas potential and water potential equations.
o
o
Z = p+
Z
o = po +
144
144
(16)
0
7
Basic Flow Equations

g
g
Z = p+
Z + Pcog
g = p g +
144
144
0
w
w
Z = p+
Z - Pcow
w = pw +
144
144

(17)
(18)

where,
po,g,w
p
Pcog
Pcow
Z

/144

= phase pressures, psi

= po, psi
= o/g capillary pressure pg - po, psi
= o/w capillary pressure po - pw, psi
= elevation (positive upward), ft
= fluid density, lbm/ft3
= hydrostatic gradient, psi/ft

The use of oil pressure in all three equations, rather than using p g and pw, give rise to the
capillary pressure terms. Our three flow equations are:

o
ko

(p +
Z)
u o = - 0.00633
o
144
g
kg

(p +
Z + Pcog )
u g = - 0.00633
g
144

w
kw

( p +
Z - Pcow )
u w = - 0.00633
w
144

(19)
(20)
(21)

where,
ko
kg
kw
kro
krg
krw

= effective permeability to oil

= effective permeability to gas
= effective permeability to water
= relative permeability to oil
= relative permeability to gas
= relative permeability to water

= k kro, md
= k krg, md
= k krw, md

8
Basic Flow Equations

Capillary Pressure Effect

We are very familiar with the effects of gravity on fluid flow, but the effect of capillary
pressure is less direct. It is important to know when capillarity effects flow in our simulator. The
most common use of capillary pressure data is in the determination of the original saturations at
initial conditions. The capillary/gravity equilibrium is represented by translating the "drainage"
capillary pressure curve to an elevation versus water saturation curve. The relationship between
elevation and capillary pressure is given by

Pcow =

w - o
(Z - Z FWL )
144

(22)

where, ZFWL is the elevation of the "free-water level" at which Pcow = 0. A similar relationship exists
for gas and oil. This can be modeled in a simulator if fine enough grids are used.

9
Basic Flow Equations

Pcow
w

Sw
10
Basic Flow Equations

Z- Z

FW
L

Sw

The effect of capillary pressure on displacement is less obvious because we are not
accustomed to making hand calculations of fluid flow with capillary pressure. Let us consider
horizontal displacement of oil by water injection for a one-dimensional problem.
The solution of this problem is straightforward if we ignore capillary pressure. We construct
fractional flow curve and then draw a line from the initial saturation to a point of tangency on the
fractional curve. The point of tangency represents the fractional flow at the front. This is called the
Welge Method.
The horizontal displacement problem results in a
sharp front. This discontinuity at the front is calculated by
the Welge Method.
When capillary effects are included in the problem,
the result is a dispersion of the front.
The Welge solution does not apply at the front. The shape
of this front is controlled by capillary forces.

11
Basic Flow Equations

We often find that it is not important to simulate the effects of capillary pressure on
displacement in a field scale model. If we ignore capillary pressure, we find that the simulator does
not give us the sharp front that the Welge solution calculates. Instead a modeling error called
numerical dispersion results in a dispersed front similar to that caused by the inclusion of capillary
pressure. It should be noted that physical dispersion in the reservoir is more important for low
permeability rocks but will also be caused by the "dispersion" effects of heterogeneity. Thus the
simulator results, including numerical dispersion, might be more representative of reservoir
behavior than the Welge solution, even for high permeability rocks.
Another application of capillary pressure is its effect on imbibition of a wetting phase. An
example is the counterflow that occurs when water imbibes into a low permeability rock to displace
oil. Although this might be an important recovery mechanism in some rare cases, it occurs very
slowly. SPE Monograph No. 13 gives an example on p. 130, where displacement by imbibition
moves only 20 ft in 12.74 years.

12
Basic Flow Equations

Reservoir Flow Forces

We often analyze flow behavior in terms of the forces implied by Darcy's Law. We refer to
the viscous, gravity, and capillary forces. these are usually expressed in terms of pressure gradients
as follows:
Viscous Force =

Gravity Force =

u, psi/ft
0.00633k

(23)

, psi/ft
144

(24)

Capillary Force = P c = dP c S, psi/ft

dS

(25)

where, S is the saturation of interest. Inspection of these equations gives us some understanding of
the forces. For example, we could say that
1.

If there is no flow then viscous force = 0.

2.

If there is no density difference (single phase, for example) then gravity

force = 0.

3.

If there is no saturation gradient (single phase, for example) then capillary

force = 0.

It is common to analyze reservoir flow in terms of ratios. (We recall that Reynold's number,
for pipe flow, is a ratio of inertial forces/viscous forces). An example of a force ratio for reservoir
flow is the Gravity number, the ratio of gravity forces to viscous forces:
N gravity

0.00633k 1
144

(26)

13
Basic Flow Equations

Continuity Equation
The continuity equation for flow in a porous medium is
( )

( u) = t

(27)

(final form)
The derivation starts with any element in space in a porous medium:

Take an element on the surface, ds, and observe the mass flow rate out of the element:

When u is not normal (perpendicular) to the surface, we take the normal component u n so that:
u n

d s

rate of mass flow out of ds =

(u n)ds = ( u n)ds

(27)

Units can be expressed as:

(lb/ft3) (ft/sec) (ft2)=lbm/sec

(28)

To get the total mass flow rate out of the element, we integrate over the entire surface.

total mass flow rate out = ( u n)dS
S

(29)

Now, take a small volume, dV, from anywhere in the element:

rate of mass loss out of dV = -

( )
dV
t

(30)

14
Basic Flow Equations

Where is porosity and is the fluid density. We then get the total rate of mass loss by
integrating over the entire element
total mass rate of loss = -

( )
dV
t

(31)

We now equate:
total mass flow rate out = total mass rate of loss
i.e.

( u n)ds =

( )
dV
t

(32)

We now apply the divergence theorem (by Gauss) which says

( u n)ds = ( u)dV
S

(33)

Substituting this for the L.H.S. we have

( u)dV
V

= -

( )
dV
t

(34)

As dV goes to zero, the integrands must be equal, giving our final form of the continuity
equation:
( )

( u) = t
(35)
15
Basic Flow Equations

This is the continuity equation for fluid flow in a porous medium. We would consider this a
continuous approach to equation development. Throughout most of this course we will consider
a discrete approach to equation development.

16
Basic Flow Equations

Chain Rule
If

w = f ( u1, u2, ..., um )

and

uj = f ( x1, x2, ..., xn )

then,
w
w u1
w u2
w um
=
+
+ ... +
xi
u1 x i
u2 xi
um x i
(36)0
Examples:
If

= f (p,T)

and

p, T = f(x, y, z, t)

then,

p
T
=
+
x
p x
T x
(37)0
But, if = f (p) only
and

p = f(x, y, z, t)

then,

d p
=
x
dp x

(38)

where d/dp is expressed as a total derivative, not a partial derivative.

17
Basic Flow Equations

Linearity
L (0) = 0

(39)

L (c1u) = c1L(u)

(40)

L(u1 + u2) = L(u1) + L(u2)

(41)

L(c1u1 + c2u2) = c1L(u1) + c2L(u2)

(42)

Homogeneous:
L(u) = 0

(43)

Non-homogeneous:
L(u) = f(x,y)

(44)

e.g.
A 2nd order operator with x, y:

L = A

2
2
2
+
B
+
C
+ D
+ E
+ F
2
2
x
xy
x
y
y

(45)

0
where

A, B, C, D, E, F = f (x,y), not f (u).

18
Basic Flow Equations

Diffusivity Equation
Liquid. The diffusivity equation for a liquid system in a homogeneous porous medium is:

2 p =

c t p
k t

(46)

The derivation is based on the following three relationships:

1. Continuity Equation
( )

u = t

(47)

2. Darcy's Law (no gravity, isotropic)

k

u = p

(48)

3. Equation of State (isothermal)

= f(p)

(49)

For isothermal condition, fluid compressibility is

c = -

1 dV
1 d
=
V dp
dp

(50)

and rock compressibility is

cf =

1 d
dp

(51)

19
Basic Flow Equations

We start the derivation by substituting Darcys law into the continuity equation.
k

- p

= -

( )
t

(52)

Assuming constant k,
p =

( )
k t

(53)

Differentiating the L.H.S. with the operator, we have

p + ( ) ( p) =

( )
k t

(54)

or

2 p + ( ) ( p) =

( )
k t

(55)

The density gradient can be written

=

d
p = cp
dp

(56)

so that the L.H.S. becomes

2 p + c( p) ( p) =

( )
k
t

(57)

The second term, c (p)(p) is nonlinear. So it is ignored to make the diffusivity equation
linear on the grounds that c is small (for a liquid system) and the pressure gradient-squared is
also small.
20
Basic Flow Equations

This leaves:
2 p =

1 ( )
k
t

(58)

The R.H.S. can be expanded:

1

+

k t
t

(59)

1 d p
d p
+

k dp t
dp t

(60)

1
p
p
(c )
+ ( c f )

k
t
t

(61)

p
c + cf

k
t

(62)

2 p =

We define ct as the total system compressibility (fluid and rock)

c t = c + cf

(63)

giving us the final form of the diffusivity equation

2 p =

c t p
k t

(64)

This can be expressed in terms of different geometries, affecting only the L.H.S.
2p is called the Laplacian of p.
ct
Note that this is a linear P.D.E. only if k does not depend on p. We usually assume
that each parameter is constant so we have a linear P.D.E. to use in finding analytical solutions.
1-D linear flow
21
Basic Flow Equations

 ct p
2 p
=
2
x
k t

(65)

2-D cartesian

ct p
2 p
2 p
+
=
2
2
x
k t
y

(66)

For well testing we use radial geometry which gives

ct p
1 p
r =
r r r
k t

(67)

1 p
ct p
2 p
+
=
2
r
r r
k t

(68)

or

Real Gas Diffusivity Equation. To derive the diffusivity equation for a real gas, we start with
the continuity equation:

u = ( )
t

(69)

We use Darcy's law, for single phase horizontal flow

k

u = - p

(70)

and an expression for gas density

pM
zRT

(71)

Then

22
Basic Flow Equations

pM k
pM
- p =

zRT
t zRT

(72)

Canceling constants, we have

k

p
p
p =

z
t z

(73)

This equation is non-linear and cannot be solved because p, z, and depend on the solution
variable, p. Therefore, we introduce the real gas pseudo-pressure, m(p), defined by:
p

m(p) =

2p

z(p )(p ) dp

(74)

po

or, more simply written

p

p
dp
z
po

m(p) = 2

(75)

We then note that any derivative of m with respect to any variable, say , is
dm
2p dp
2p
=
and m
p
d
z d
z

(76)

We now go back to Eq. 73.

2p
2 p
p =

z
k t z
2 p

k t z

(78)

d p
p d p
dp z + z dp t

(79)

m =

2m =
=

2
k

(77)

2 z d p
p d 2p p
+

k 2p dp z
z dp z t

(80)

23
Basic Flow Equations

2 z d p 1 d m
+
k 2 p dp z dp t

2
c + c f m
k 2
t
and, finally, the Real Gas Diffusivity Equation is
ct m
2m =
2 t
=

(81)

(82)

(83)

Where
c =

cf =

1 d
dp

zRT d pM

pM dp zRT

z d p

p dp z

1 d
dp

ct = c + c f

(84)

Eq. 83 is similar to the liquid diffusivity equation, exept:

and ct depend on pressure, so the R.H.S. is nonlinear
(2) we solve for m(p), rather than p.

24
Basic Flow Equations

Classification of 2nd Order P.D.E.

General Equation in Canonical Form:
a u xx + b u xy + c u yy = H(x, y,u, u x , u y )

(85)

Descriminant: b2 - 4ac
Descriminant
<0

Type

Example

Elliptic

uxx + uyy = 0

(Laplace's Equation)

uxx + uyy = c

(Poisson's Equation)
(pseudo-steady state equation)

=0

Parabolic

uxx = ut

(Fourier's Equation)
(transient pressure equation)

>0

Hyperbolic

uxx - uyy = 0

(wave equation)

25
Basic Flow Equations

Comparison of Heat Flow and Darcy Fluid Flow

i-1

i+1

h
x

Heat Conduction.
Diffusivity Equation:
1 T
2 T
=
2
x
t

(86)

Thermal diffusivity:

cp

(87)

Flow Equation:
T
btu
= A
hr
x

(Fourier's Eq.)

(88)

Storage Equation:
d(btu) = c p VdT

where cp = Specific Heat

(89)

26
Basic Flow Equations

Conservation Equation:
Flow in - Flow out = Accumulation rate (Energy)

(Btu/D)

Finite Difference Equation:

n+1
- n
A T i+1 T i + A T i-1 T i = c p (Ax) T i T i
x
x
t

c p T in+1 - T in
T i+1 - 2 T i + T i-1
=

t
( x )2

(90)

(91)

Fluid Flow.
Diffusivity Equation:
1 p
2 p
=
2
x
t

(92)

Hydraulic diffusivity

0.00633k
c

(93)

Flow Equation:
0.00633kA p
scf
=
D
B
x

(Darcy's Eq.)

(94)

where k is in (md)
27
Basic Flow Equations

Storage Equation:
d(scf) =

cV p
dp
B

based on c =

(95)
1 dV

V dp

(pore volume)

Conservation Equation:
Flow rate in - Flow rate out = Accumulation rate (Mass) (scf/D)
Finite Difference Equation:
n+1
n
0.00633kA pi+1 - pi
0.00633kA pi-1 - pi
c( Ax) pi - pi

=
x
x
B
B
B
t

pi+1 - 2 pi + pi-1
c pin+1 - pin
=
0.00633k t
( x )2

(96)

(97)

28
Basic Flow Equations

Boundary Value Problems

Radial Infinite System (constant rate).
system is a Fourier Equation:
P.D.E.

I.C.
B.C.

(Outer)

1 p
c
p
r =
r r r
0.00633 k t

(98)

p(r,0) = pi

(99)

p(r, t)|r = pi

q =
(Inner)

The diffusivity equation for the radial infinite

(100)

2 (0.00633)khr p
|
B
r r r w

(101)

pi

q
h
rw

We can define the following dimensionless variables:

tD =

0.00633kt
cr 2w

(102)

29
Basic Flow Equations

pD =

2 (0.00633)kh( pi - p)
qB

(103)

rD =

r
rw

(104)
The P.D.E. and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:

(105)

I.C.

pD
pD

rD
=
rD
tD
rD rD
p D ( r D ,0) = 0

B.C.

p D ( r D ,t D )|r D = 0

(107)

P.D.E.
(Outer)

(106)

pD
rD
= -1
|
rD rD 1

(Inner)
The solution, for rD > 0 is:

(108)

1
r2
Ei(- D )
2
4tD
Which can be approximated for tD > 100 with the familiar semi-log straight line:
1
p D (1, t D ) = ln t D + 0.4045
2
p D ( r D ,t D ) =

(109)

30
Basic Flow Equations

Radial Closed System (constant rate, pseudo-steady state). The diffusivity equation for a
p
radial closed system is a Poisson Equation. For pseudo-steady state to exist, t is everywhere.
We can do a material balance and find that
gives the following:

p qB

t V p ct

. Making this substitution into the P.D.E.

P.D.E.

c
1 d dp
qB

r =
r dr dr 0.00633k r e2 hc

(110)

I.C.

p(r,0) = pi

(111)

B.C.

p
= 0

r
r
e
(Outer)
q =
(Inner)

(112)

2 (0.00633)khr p
|
B
r r r w

(113)

q
h
rw

31
Basic Flow Equations

We define the following dimensionless variables:

tD =

(114)

re
rw ,
rw
2 (0.00633)kh( pi - p)
=
qB

rD =
pD

0.00633kt
c r 2w
r De =

(115)
(116)

The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:

P.D.E.

pD
1
2
r D
= 2
r D r De
r D r D

(117)

I.C.

p D ( r D ,0) = 0

(118)

B.C.

pD
|r D = r De = 0
(Outer) r D

(119)

(Inner)

(120)

pD
= - 1
|
r D r D = 1

The pseudo-steady state solution for any point rD is:

1 r 2D
2t
3
r
+ 2 D - ln D 2
2 r De
4
r De
r De

pD ( r D ,t D )

(121)

The pseudo-steady state solution at the inner boundary is:

p D (1,t D )

2tD
r

2
De

+ ln r De -

3
4,

(122)

0
which is usually written as
32
Basic Flow Equations

3
4
(123)
The first term on the R.H.S. is the depletion term which expresses the drop in average reservoir
pressure.
p D (1, t D ) 2 t DA + ln r De -

10

Pseudo-steady state

Infinite acting

pD 5
4

Infinite acting:
p
Pseudo-steady state: p

D (1, t D ) = 1/2 ln(t D) + 0.4045

(1, t D ) =2 (r w/r e)^2t D + ln(r e/r w) -3/4

0
0.0E+00

2.0E+05

4.0E+05

6.0E+05

8.0E+05

1.0E+06

tD

Figure showing how the complete solution can be approximated by the infinite acting solution
for early times and the pseudo-steady state solution for later times (re/rw = 1,000).

33
Basic Flow Equations

Linear Infinite System (constant rate).

system is:

P.D.E.

The diffusivity equation for the linear infinite

2
p = c p
x2 0.00633k t

(124)

0
I.C.

p(x,0) = pi

(125)

0
B.C.

p(x,t)|x = pi

(Outer)

q =
(Inner)

(126)

0.00633kA p
B
x

(127)

0
We define the following dimensionless variables:
xD =

x
A

tD =

0.00633kt
cA

pD =

0.00633( pi - p)k
qB

(128)

(129)

A
(130)
34
Basic Flow Equations

The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:

P.D.E.
(131)
0

2
pD
pD
=
x 2D
tD

I.C.

p D ( x D ,0) = 0

B.C.

(Outer)

(132)

p D ( x D , t D )|x D = 0

(Inner)

(133)

pD
= -1
xD

(134)

The solution for any xD is:

pD ( x D ,t D ) = 2

xD
t D - x2D / 4t D
- x D erfc

2 tD

(135)

The solution at the inner boundary is:

p D (0, t D ) = 2

tD

(136)

35
Basic Flow Equations

Linear Closed System (constant rate, pseudo-steady state flow). Again, the diffusivity

p
equation for a radial closed system is a Poisson Equation. For pseudo-steady state to exist, t
p qB

t V p ct
is everywhere. We can do a material balance and find that
. Making this substitution
into the P.D.E. gives the following:
0
P.D.E.
0

2
c qB
d p

=
2
d x 0.00633k LAc

(137)

I.C.

p(x,0) = pi

(138)

B.C.

p
=0
x
=
L

x
(Outer)

(139)

q =
(Inner)

0.00633kA p
B
x x = 0

(140)

dp
dx

0
L

0
We define the following dimensionless variables:
tD =
xD =

0.00633kt
c L2

(141)

x
L

(142)
0
36
Basic Flow Equations

pD =

0.00633( pi - p)kA
qBL

(143)

37
Basic Flow Equations

0
The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:
2

pD
=1
2
xD

P.D.E.
(144)
0
I.C.

p D ( x D ,0) = 0

(145)

B.C.
p D
(Outer)

x D x = L
p D

(Inner)

x D x = 0

=0
(146)
= -1
(147)

The solution for any value of xD and tD is:

pD ( x D ,t D ) = t D +

1
x 2D
- xD +
2
3,

(148)
The first term on the R.H.S. is the depletion term expressing the drop in average reservoir
pressure.
0
At the inner boundary:
1
p D (0, t D ) = t D +
3
0
At the outer boundary:
1
p D (1, t D ) = t D 6

(149)

(150)

38
Basic Flow Equations

pD (0, t D ) t D3 t1/3
p D (0, t D ) 2 D

2.5

PD

1.5

0.5

0
0

0.5

t1D

1.5

39
Basic Flow Equations