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Vector Notation
Darcy's Law
Capillary Pressure Effect
Reservoir Flow Forces
Continuity Equation
Chain Rule
Linearity
Diffusivity Equation
Classification of 2nd Order P.D.E.
Comparison of Heat Flow and Darcy Fluid Flow
Boundary Value Problems
vector u = u = u = u2
u3
(1)
We sometimes say that vector has direction and magnitude, but a more general way to think
of a vector is a column of numbers. The column length is three in three-dimensional space, two in
two-dimensional space.
We will now introduce an operator called del, written as . In vector notation this is
equivalent to a derivative. For example, if we have an x, y, z three-dimensional space, the del
operator would be used in conjunction with the scalar, for example a, to define the gradient of a.
a
x
a
gradient of the scalar a = a =
y
a
(2)
2
Basic Flow Equations
ui v i
i=1
(3)
Another use of the del operator, noted as , is to specify the divergence of a vector.
divergence of u = u = u1 + u 2 + u 3
x y z
(4)
0
The divergence of a vector is a scalar.
These basic rules of notation are used repeatedly in writing and deriving equations in
reservoir engineering.
3
Basic Flow Equations
4
Basic Flow Equations
Darcy's Law
Darcys Law governs the flow of fluids in the reservoir, and in simulators. Darcy's Law is
named after Henry Darcy who was a civil engineer for the town of Dijon, France. In 1857, he
published a paper showing the results of some experiments of water flowing through sand filters.
He observed that
q = c( h w2 - h w1 )
(5)
This states that the flow rate is proportional to the difference in water manometer heights at
the two ends of the flow tube. He noted that this proportionality of flow rate to the difference in
manometer heights applied regardless of the angle of the sandpacked tube. We now generalize his
result by recognizing that the sandpack has a particular permeability (k), area (A), length (L) and
that the fluid had a particular viscosity (). We would rewrite his equation as
q=
0
kA ( 2 - 1)
(6)
u = - 0.00633
0
where,
u
k
= p + (/144) Z
= fluid density, lbm/ft3
= elevation (positive upward), ft
(7)
in one dimension,
ux = - 0.00633
0
dZ
k dp
(
+
)
dx
144 dx
(8)
5
Basic Flow Equations
or,to simplify the notation, we can use the angle to designate the angle of the x directon with the
horizontal. Then dZ/dx = sin and
ux = - 0.00633
0
k dp
(
+
sin )
dx
144
(9)
u = - 0.00633
0
(10)
k1 1
k k 21
k 31
k12
k 22
k 32
k13
k 23
k 33
(11)
6
Basic Flow Equations
The tensor has nine values but the matrix is symmetrical (i.e., k 31 = k13), so that the matrix
has only six distinct values.
For flow in the x direction,
ux = -
(12)
This complicated expression is simplified by orienting the coordinates of the flow system
(the simulator coordinates) along the axes of permeability. These axes are orthogonal and will be
lined up with the maximum and minimum permeabilities. When the coordinates are oriented in this
manner, then each direction has its own permeability and the tensor has only three non-zero values.
kx
k = 0
0
0
ky
0
0
k z
(13)
ux = -
k x
x
(14)
All simulators are designed to have the coordinates oriented correctly. So Darcy's Law for a
particular direction is expressed in terms of permeability in that direction.
ux = - 0.00633
k x
x
(15)
Multi-phase Flow.
Darcy's Law is extended to multi-phase flow. The pressure, gravity, and
capillary effects are included in these equations. The first step is to define potentials for all three
phases. Arbitrarily, we use the oil pressure as our reference pressure. This leads to capillary terms
being included in the gas potential and water potential equations.
o
o
Z = p+
Z
o = po +
144
144
(16)
0
7
Basic Flow Equations
g
g
Z = p+
Z + Pcog
g = p g +
144
144
0
w
w
Z = p+
Z - Pcow
w = pw +
144
144
(17)
(18)
where,
po,g,w
p
Pcog
Pcow
Z
/144
The use of oil pressure in all three equations, rather than using p g and pw, give rise to the
capillary pressure terms. Our three flow equations are:
o
ko
(p +
Z)
u o = - 0.00633
o
144
g
kg
(p +
Z + Pcog )
u g = - 0.00633
g
144
w
kw
( p +
Z - Pcow )
u w = - 0.00633
w
144
(19)
(20)
(21)
where,
ko
kg
kw
kro
krg
krw
= k kro, md
= k krg, md
= k krw, md
8
Basic Flow Equations
Pcow =
w - o
(Z - Z FWL )
144
(22)
where, ZFWL is the elevation of the "free-water level" at which Pcow = 0. A similar relationship exists
for gas and oil. This can be modeled in a simulator if fine enough grids are used.
9
Basic Flow Equations
Pcow
w
Sw
10
Basic Flow Equations
Z- Z
FW
L
Sw
The effect of capillary pressure on displacement is less obvious because we are not
accustomed to making hand calculations of fluid flow with capillary pressure. Let us consider
horizontal displacement of oil by water injection for a one-dimensional problem.
The solution of this problem is straightforward if we ignore capillary pressure. We construct
fractional flow curve and then draw a line from the initial saturation to a point of tangency on the
fractional curve. The point of tangency represents the fractional flow at the front. This is called the
Welge Method.
The horizontal displacement problem results in a
sharp front. This discontinuity at the front is calculated by
the Welge Method.
When capillary effects are included in the problem,
the result is a dispersion of the front.
The Welge solution does not apply at the front. The shape
of this front is controlled by capillary forces.
11
Basic Flow Equations
We often find that it is not important to simulate the effects of capillary pressure on
displacement in a field scale model. If we ignore capillary pressure, we find that the simulator does
not give us the sharp front that the Welge solution calculates. Instead a modeling error called
numerical dispersion results in a dispersed front similar to that caused by the inclusion of capillary
pressure. It should be noted that physical dispersion in the reservoir is more important for low
permeability rocks but will also be caused by the "dispersion" effects of heterogeneity. Thus the
simulator results, including numerical dispersion, might be more representative of reservoir
behavior than the Welge solution, even for high permeability rocks.
Another application of capillary pressure is its effect on imbibition of a wetting phase. An
example is the counterflow that occurs when water imbibes into a low permeability rock to displace
oil. Although this might be an important recovery mechanism in some rare cases, it occurs very
slowly. SPE Monograph No. 13 gives an example on p. 130, where displacement by imbibition
moves only 20 ft in 12.74 years.
12
Basic Flow Equations
Gravity Force =
u, psi/ft
0.00633k
(23)
, psi/ft
144
(24)
(25)
where, S is the saturation of interest. Inspection of these equations gives us some understanding of
the forces. For example, we could say that
1.
2.
3.
It is common to analyze reservoir flow in terms of ratios. (We recall that Reynold's number,
for pipe flow, is a ratio of inertial forces/viscous forces). An example of a force ratio for reservoir
flow is the Gravity number, the ratio of gravity forces to viscous forces:
N gravity
0.00633k 1
144
(26)
13
Basic Flow Equations
Continuity Equation
The continuity equation for flow in a porous medium is
( )
( u) = t
(27)
(final form)
The derivation starts with any element in space in a porous medium:
Take an element on the surface, ds, and observe the mass flow rate out of the element:
When u is not normal (perpendicular) to the surface, we take the normal component u n so that:
u n
d s
(u n)ds = ( u n)ds
(27)
(28)
To get the total mass flow rate out of the element, we integrate over the entire surface.
total mass flow rate out = ( u n)dS
S
(29)
( )
dV
t
(30)
14
Basic Flow Equations
Where is porosity and is the fluid density. We then get the total rate of mass loss by
integrating over the entire element
total mass rate of loss = -
( )
dV
t
(31)
We now equate:
total mass flow rate out = total mass rate of loss
i.e.
( u n)ds =
( )
dV
t
(32)
( u n)ds = ( u)dV
S
(33)
( u)dV
V
= -
( )
dV
t
(34)
As dV goes to zero, the integrands must be equal, giving our final form of the continuity
equation:
( )
( u) = t
(35)
15
Basic Flow Equations
This is the continuity equation for fluid flow in a porous medium. We would consider this a
continuous approach to equation development. Throughout most of this course we will consider
a discrete approach to equation development.
16
Basic Flow Equations
Chain Rule
If
and
then,
w
w u1
w u2
w um
=
+
+ ... +
xi
u1 x i
u2 xi
um x i
(36)0
Examples:
If
= f (p,T)
and
p, T = f(x, y, z, t)
then,
p
T
=
+
x
p x
T x
(37)0
But, if = f (p) only
and
p = f(x, y, z, t)
then,
d p
=
x
dp x
(38)
17
Basic Flow Equations
Linearity
L (0) = 0
(39)
L (c1u) = c1L(u)
(40)
(41)
(42)
Homogeneous:
L(u) = 0
(43)
Non-homogeneous:
L(u) = f(x,y)
(44)
e.g.
A 2nd order operator with x, y:
L = A
2
2
2
+
B
+
C
+ D
+ E
+ F
2
2
x
xy
x
y
y
(45)
0
where
18
Basic Flow Equations
Diffusivity Equation
Liquid. The diffusivity equation for a liquid system in a homogeneous porous medium is:
2 p =
c t p
k t
(46)
u = t
(47)
u = p
(48)
= f(p)
(49)
1 dV
1 d
=
V dp
dp
(50)
1 d
dp
(51)
19
Basic Flow Equations
We start the derivation by substituting Darcys law into the continuity equation.
k
- p
= -
( )
t
(52)
Assuming constant k,
p =
( )
k t
(53)
p + ( ) ( p) =
( )
k t
(54)
or
2 p + ( ) ( p) =
( )
k t
(55)
d
p = cp
dp
(56)
2 p + c( p) ( p) =
( )
k
t
(57)
The second term, c (p)(p) is nonlinear. So it is ignored to make the diffusivity equation
linear on the grounds that c is small (for a liquid system) and the pressure gradient-squared is
also small.
20
Basic Flow Equations
This leaves:
2 p =
1 ( )
k
t
(58)
1
+
k t
t
(59)
1 d p
d p
+
k dp t
dp t
(60)
1
p
p
(c )
+ ( c f )
k
t
t
(61)
p
c + cf
k
t
(62)
2 p =
(63)
c t p
k t
(64)
This can be expressed in terms of different geometries, affecting only the L.H.S.
2p is called the Laplacian of p.
ct
Note that this is a linear P.D.E. only if k does not depend on p. We usually assume
that each parameter is constant so we have a linear P.D.E. to use in finding analytical solutions.
1-D linear flow
21
Basic Flow Equations
ct p
2 p
=
2
x
k t
(65)
2-D cartesian
ct p
2 p
2 p
+
=
2
2
x
k t
y
(66)
ct p
1 p
r =
r r r
k t
(67)
1 p
ct p
2 p
+
=
2
r
r r
k t
(68)
or
Real Gas Diffusivity Equation. To derive the diffusivity equation for a real gas, we start with
the continuity equation:
u = ( )
t
(69)
u = - p
(70)
pM
zRT
(71)
Then
22
Basic Flow Equations
pM k
pM
- p =
zRT
t zRT
(72)
p
p
p =
z
t z
(73)
This equation is non-linear and cannot be solved because p, z, and depend on the solution
variable, p. Therefore, we introduce the real gas pseudo-pressure, m(p), defined by:
p
m(p) =
2p
z(p )(p ) dp
(74)
po
p
dp
z
po
m(p) = 2
(75)
We then note that any derivative of m with respect to any variable, say , is
dm
2p dp
2p
=
and m
p
d
z d
z
(76)
2p
2 p
p =
z
k t z
2 p
k t z
(78)
d p
p d p
dp z + z dp t
(79)
m =
2m =
=
2
k
(77)
2 z d p
p d 2p p
+
k 2p dp z
z dp z t
(80)
23
Basic Flow Equations
2 z d p 1 d m
+
k 2 p dp z dp t
2
c + c f m
k 2
t
and, finally, the Real Gas Diffusivity Equation is
ct m
2m =
2 t
=
(81)
(82)
(83)
Where
c =
cf =
1 d
dp
zRT d pM
pM dp zRT
z d p
p dp z
1 d
dp
ct = c + c f
(84)
24
Basic Flow Equations
(85)
Descriminant: b2 - 4ac
Descriminant
<0
Type
Example
Elliptic
uxx + uyy = 0
(Laplace's Equation)
uxx + uyy = c
(Poisson's Equation)
(pseudo-steady state equation)
=0
Parabolic
uxx = ut
(Fourier's Equation)
(transient pressure equation)
>0
Hyperbolic
uxx - uyy = 0
(wave equation)
25
Basic Flow Equations
i-1
i+1
h
x
Heat Conduction.
Diffusivity Equation:
1 T
2 T
=
2
x
t
(86)
Thermal diffusivity:
cp
(87)
Flow Equation:
T
btu
= A
hr
x
(Fourier's Eq.)
(88)
Storage Equation:
d(btu) = c p VdT
(89)
26
Basic Flow Equations
Conservation Equation:
Flow in - Flow out = Accumulation rate (Energy)
(Btu/D)
c p T in+1 - T in
T i+1 - 2 T i + T i-1
=
t
( x )2
(90)
(91)
Fluid Flow.
Diffusivity Equation:
1 p
2 p
=
2
x
t
(92)
Hydraulic diffusivity
0.00633k
c
(93)
Flow Equation:
0.00633kA p
scf
=
D
B
x
(Darcy's Eq.)
(94)
where k is in (md)
27
Basic Flow Equations
Storage Equation:
d(scf) =
cV p
dp
B
based on c =
(95)
1 dV
V dp
(pore volume)
Conservation Equation:
Flow rate in - Flow rate out = Accumulation rate (Mass) (scf/D)
Finite Difference Equation:
n+1
n
0.00633kA pi+1 - pi
0.00633kA pi-1 - pi
c( Ax) pi - pi
=
x
x
B
B
B
t
pi+1 - 2 pi + pi-1
c pin+1 - pin
=
0.00633k t
( x )2
(96)
(97)
28
Basic Flow Equations
I.C.
B.C.
(Outer)
1 p
c
p
r =
r r r
0.00633 k t
(98)
p(r,0) = pi
(99)
p(r, t)|r = pi
q =
(Inner)
(100)
2 (0.00633)khr p
|
B
r r r w
(101)
pi
q
h
rw
0.00633kt
cr 2w
(102)
29
Basic Flow Equations
pD =
2 (0.00633)kh( pi - p)
qB
(103)
rD =
r
rw
(104)
The P.D.E. and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:
(105)
I.C.
pD
pD
rD
=
rD
tD
rD rD
p D ( r D ,0) = 0
B.C.
p D ( r D ,t D )|r D = 0
(107)
P.D.E.
(Outer)
(106)
pD
rD
= -1
|
rD rD 1
(Inner)
The solution, for rD > 0 is:
(108)
1
r2
Ei(- D )
2
4tD
Which can be approximated for tD > 100 with the familiar semi-log straight line:
1
p D (1, t D ) = ln t D + 0.4045
2
p D ( r D ,t D ) =
(109)
30
Basic Flow Equations
Radial Closed System (constant rate, pseudo-steady state). The diffusivity equation for a
p
radial closed system is a Poisson Equation. For pseudo-steady state to exist, t is everywhere.
We can do a material balance and find that
gives the following:
p qB
t V p ct
P.D.E.
c
1 d dp
qB
r =
r dr dr 0.00633k r e2 hc
(110)
I.C.
p(r,0) = pi
(111)
B.C.
p
= 0
r
r
e
(Outer)
q =
(Inner)
(112)
2 (0.00633)khr p
|
B
r r r w
(113)
q
h
rw
31
Basic Flow Equations
tD =
(114)
re
rw ,
rw
2 (0.00633)kh( pi - p)
=
qB
rD =
pD
0.00633kt
c r 2w
r De =
(115)
(116)
The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:
P.D.E.
pD
1
2
r D
= 2
r D r De
r D r D
(117)
I.C.
p D ( r D ,0) = 0
(118)
B.C.
pD
|r D = r De = 0
(Outer) r D
(119)
(Inner)
(120)
pD
= - 1
|
r D r D = 1
pD ( r D ,t D )
(121)
2tD
r
2
De
+ ln r De -
3
4,
(122)
0
which is usually written as
32
Basic Flow Equations
3
4
(123)
The first term on the R.H.S. is the depletion term which expresses the drop in average reservoir
pressure.
p D (1, t D ) 2 t DA + ln r De -
10
Pseudo-steady state
Infinite acting
pD 5
4
Infinite acting:
p
Pseudo-steady state: p
0
0.0E+00
2.0E+05
4.0E+05
6.0E+05
8.0E+05
1.0E+06
tD
Figure showing how the complete solution can be approximated by the infinite acting solution
for early times and the pseudo-steady state solution for later times (re/rw = 1,000).
33
Basic Flow Equations
P.D.E.
2
p = c p
x2 0.00633k t
(124)
0
I.C.
p(x,0) = pi
(125)
0
B.C.
p(x,t)|x = pi
(Outer)
q =
(Inner)
(126)
0.00633kA p
B
x
(127)
0
We define the following dimensionless variables:
xD =
x
A
tD =
0.00633kt
cA
pD =
0.00633( pi - p)k
qB
(128)
(129)
A
(130)
34
Basic Flow Equations
The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:
P.D.E.
(131)
0
2
pD
pD
=
x 2D
tD
I.C.
p D ( x D ,0) = 0
B.C.
(Outer)
(132)
p D ( x D , t D )|x D = 0
(Inner)
(133)
pD
= -1
xD
(134)
xD
t D - x2D / 4t D
- x D erfc
2 tD
(135)
p D (0, t D ) = 2
tD
(136)
35
Basic Flow Equations
Linear Closed System (constant rate, pseudo-steady state flow). Again, the diffusivity
p
equation for a radial closed system is a Poisson Equation. For pseudo-steady state to exist, t
p qB
t V p ct
is everywhere. We can do a material balance and find that
. Making this substitution
into the P.D.E. gives the following:
0
P.D.E.
0
2
c qB
d p
=
2
d x 0.00633k LAc
(137)
I.C.
p(x,0) = pi
(138)
B.C.
p
=0
x
=
L
x
(Outer)
(139)
q =
(Inner)
0.00633kA p
B
x x = 0
(140)
dp
dx
0
L
0
We define the following dimensionless variables:
tD =
xD =
0.00633kt
c L2
(141)
x
L
(142)
0
36
Basic Flow Equations
pD =
0.00633( pi - p)kA
qBL
(143)
37
Basic Flow Equations
0
The diffusivity equation and initial and boundary conditions in dimensionless forms are:
2
pD
=1
2
xD
P.D.E.
(144)
0
I.C.
p D ( x D ,0) = 0
(145)
B.C.
p D
(Outer)
x D x = L
p D
(Inner)
x D x = 0
=0
(146)
= -1
(147)
1
x 2D
- xD +
2
3,
(148)
The first term on the R.H.S. is the depletion term expressing the drop in average reservoir
pressure.
0
At the inner boundary:
1
p D (0, t D ) = t D +
3
0
At the outer boundary:
1
p D (1, t D ) = t D 6
(149)
(150)
38
Basic Flow Equations
pD (0, t D ) t D3 t1/3
p D (0, t D ) 2 D
2.5
PD
1.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
t1D
1.5
39
Basic Flow Equations