Human sexuality is the capacity to have erotic experiences and

their development and nurturing, as in the case of ego ideals and

responses. A person's sexual orientation may influence their sexual

formative identifications. Contrary to popular opinion, genes are

interest and attraction for another person.

[1]

Sexuality may be

studied not on the premise that they stand for a trait but rather on

experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including through

the premise that only a difference in alleles corresponds to a

thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors,

variation in traits among persons.[5] In the case of human sexuality,

practices, roles and relationships,[2] which may manifest by way of

this means that "ten percent of the population has chromosomal

biological, physical, emotional, orspiritual aspects. The biological

variations that do not fit neatly into the XX-female and XY-male set

and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the reproductive

of categories."[6]

functions of the sexes (including the human sexual response cycle),

[3]

and the basic biological drive that exists in all species. Physical,

Evolutionary perspectives on human coupling and reproduction

as well as emotional, aspects of sexuality also include the bond

derived, for instance, from studies of phenomena such

that exists between individuals, and is expressed through profound

as reproduction strategies

feelings or physical manifestations of emotions of love, trust, and

further views of sexuality. Socio-cultural aspects of sexuality

caring. Spiritual aspects of sexuality concern an individual's

include historical developments and religious beliefs, including

spiritual connection with others. Sexuality additionally impacts and

Jewish views on sexual pleasure within the marriage and certain

is impacted by cultural, political, legal, and philosophical aspects of

Christian or other religious views on avoidance of sexual pleasures.

life. It can refer to issues of morality, ethics, religion and theology.

[3]

[7]

and social learning theory[8] provide

Some cultures have been described as sexually repressive. The

study of sexuality also includes human identity within social

Sexual activity is a vital principle of human living that connects

groups, sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs) and birth

the desire, energy and pleasure of the body to a knowledge

control methods.

of human intimacy, for the sake of erotic love,

intimate friendship, human mating and procreation. Interest in
sexual activity typically increases when an individual
reaches puberty.[4] Some researchers assume that sexual
orientation or sexual behavior is determined by genetics; some
argue that it is molded by the environment; and others argue that
both interact to form sexual orientation.[1] This pertains to
the nature versus nurture debate, in which one assumes the
features of a person innately correspond to their natural
inheritance, as in the case of drives and instincts, or in which one
assumes the features of a person continue to change throughout

External female anatomy[edit]

labia minora is to protect the vaginal and urethral opening by

covering them in a sexually unstimulated state.[25] Located at the
base of the labia minora are the Bartholin's glands which contribute
a few drops of an alkaline fluid to the vagina via ducts which helps
to counteract acidity of the outer vagina since sperm cannot live in
an acidic environment.[3]
The clitoris is developed from the same embryonic tissue as the
penis; it or its glans alone harbors as many (or more in some cases)
nerve endings as the human penis or glans penis, making it
extremely sensitive to touch.[26][27][28] The clitoral glans, which is a
small, elongated erectile structure, has only one known function
sexual sensations. The clitoris is also the main source of orgasm in
women.[29][30][31][32] The thick secretions that collect in the clitoris are

External female genitals

called smegma.[3]

The mons veneris is also known as the "Mound of Venus." This area
is the soft layer of fatty tissue overlaying the area where the pubic
bone comes together.[23] Following puberty, this area grows in size.
It is sensitive to stimulation due to many nerve endings gathering
in this area.[3]

The vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when
the labia minora are parted. This opening has many nerve endings
that make it sensitive to touch. It is surrounded by the
bulbocavernosus muscle which is a ring of sphincter muscles that
contract and relax. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides

The labia (minora and majora) are collectively known as the lips.

of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs which help the

The labia majora are two elongated folds of skin extending from the

vagina grip the penis by swelling with blood during arousal. Within

mons to the perineum in women. Its outer surface becomes

the vaginal opening, there is something called the hymen which is

covered with hair after puberty. Labia majora would also be known

a thin membrane that partially covers the opening in many virgins.

as the outer lips. In between the labia majora are the labia minora.

To rupture the hymen has been historically considered as losing

These two hairless folds of skin meet above the clitoris to form the

one's virginity, though by modern standards losing one's virginity is

clitoral hood, which is highly sensitive to touch. The labia minora

considered as the first time someone has sexual intercourse, as the

become engorged with blood during sexual stimulation, causing

hymen can be ruptured by activities other than sexual intercourse.

them to swell and turn bright red or wine colored.

[3]

Near the anus,

The urethral opening expels urine from the bladder. This is located

the labia minora merge with the labia majora. The labia minora are

below the clitoris and above the vaginal opening. This opening

composed of connective tissues that are richly supplied with blood

connects to the bladder with the urethra.[3]

vessels which cause the pinkish appearance.[24] The purpose of the

The last part of the external organs used for sexual pleasure are

The female's internal reproductive organs consist of

the breasts. Western culture is one of the few that find breasts to

the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina is the

be erotic.[3] The breasts are the subcutaneous tissues on the front

sheath-like canal in women that extends from the vulva to the

thorax of the female body.

[24]

Their purpose is to provide milk to a

cervix. The vagina receives the penis during intercourse and serves

developing infant. They develop during puberty due to an increase

as a depository for sperm. This is also known as the birth canal and

in estrogen, and each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 mammary

can expand to 10 centimeters during labor and delivery. The vagina

glands, which are milk producing glands. It is the more fatty tissue

is located behind the bladder but in front of the rectum. The vagina

one has that determines the size of breasts, and heredity plays a

is normally collapsed, but during sexual arousal it opens, lengthens,

huge role in determining size.

[3]

"A mammary gland is composed of

and produces lubrication, which allows the penis to be inserted. The

fifteen to twenty irregularly shaped lobes, each of which includes

vagina has three layered walls, and is a self-cleaning organ with

alveolar glands, and a duct (lactiferous duct) that leads to the

natural important bacterium within it to keep the production of

nipple and opens to the outside. The lobes are separated by dense

yeast down.[3] The G-spot, named after the Ernst Grfenberg, who

connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to the

first reported it in 1950, may be located in the front wall of the

tissues on the underlying pectoral muscles. Other connective

vagina and may cause orgasms. This area may vary in size and

tissue, which forms dense strands called "suspensory ligaments,"

location from woman to woman, or be non-existent in some

extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral tissue to

women, and various researchers dispute its structure, existence or

support the weight of the breast. The breasts are really modified

hypothesize that it is an extension of the clitoris.[33][34][35]

sweat glands, which are made up of fibrous tissues and fat that
provide support and contain nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic
vessels.[24]
Internal female anatomy[edit]

The uterus is also known as the womb; a hollow, muscular organ

where a fertilized egg, called a zygote, will implant itself and grow
into a fetus.[3] The uterus lies in the pelvic cavity behind the
bladder, in front of the bowel, and above the vagina. Normally, it is
positioned in a 90-degree angle tilting forward, although in about
20% of women it tilts backwards.[24] The uterus consists of three
layers with the innermost layer being the endometrium. The
endometrium is where the egg is implanted. During ovulation, this
thickens up for implantation, but if implantation does not occur, it is
sloughed off during menstruation. The cervix is the narrow end of
the uterus. The broad part of the uterus is the fundus.[3]
The Fallopian tubes are the passageways that an egg travels down
to the uterus during ovulation. These extend about four inches from

The female reproductive system

both sides of the uterus. There are finger like projections at the end

of the tubes that brush the ovaries and pick up the egg once it is

ruptures, the ripe ovum is expelled into the abdominal cavity where

released. The egg then travels for about three to four days down to

the fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the fimbria. The cervical

the uterus.[3] "After sexual intercourse, sperm swim up this funnel

mucus changes to aid in the movement of sperm. Days fifteen to

from the uterus. The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain

twenty-eight, the Post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian follicle that

both the egg and the sperm, encouraging fertilization and

once held the ovum is now called the corpus luteum, and it now

nourishing the egg until it reaches the uterus. If an egg splits in two

secretes estrogen. Progesterone increases inhibiting LH release.

after fertilization, identical twins are produced. If separate eggs are

The endometrium thickens to get ready for implantation, and the

fertilized by different sperm, the mother gives birth to non-identical

ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the egg

or fraternal twins."

[24]

The ovaries are the female gonads, and they are developed from
the same embryonic tissue as the male gonads (testicles). These
are suspended by ligaments and are the source where the egg or
ova are stored and developed before ovulation. The ovaries are also
responsible for producing female

does not become fertilized and does not

implant menstruation begins. Days one to four, menstruation,
estrogen and progesterone decreases and the endometrium starts
thinning. Now the endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to
six days. Once menstruation ends the cycle begins again with an
FSH surge from the pituitary gland.[3]

hormones: progesterone and estrogen. Within the ovaries, each

Male anatomy and reproductive system[edit]

egg is surrounded by other cells and contained within a capsule

Main article: Human male reproductive system

called a primary follicle. At puberty, one or more of these follicles

are stimulated to mature on a monthly basis. Once matured these
are now called Graafian follicles.[3] "The female, unlike the male,
does not manufacture the sex cells. A girl baby is born with about
60,000 of these cells." Only about 400 eggs in a women's lifetime
will mature.

[24]

A female's ovulation is based on a monthly cycle with the

fourteenth day being the most fertile. Days five through thirteen
are known as the Preovulatory stages. During this stage, the
pituitary gland in the brain secretes follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH). Then a negative feedback loop is enacted when
estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. This estrogen
thickens the endometrium of the uterus. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
surge triggers ovulation. Day fourteen, ovulation, the LH surge
causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. Once the follicle

Men also have both internal and external (genitalia) structures that
are responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Men
produce their sperm on a cycle, but unlike the female's ovulation
cycle, the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing
millions of sperm daily.[3]
External male anatomy[edit]

out the body. The root consists of the expanded ends of the
cavernous bodies, which fan out to form the crura, and attach to
the pubic bone and the expanded end of the spongy body also
known as the bulb. The root is also surrounded by two
muscles: bulbocavernosus muscle and ischiocavernosus
muscle which aid in urination and ejaculation. The penis has
a foreskin that usually covers the glans, and in many cultures, is
removed at birth in a controversial procedure called circumcision.
[3]

Circumcision is one of the oldest forms of body modification

known to exist. The second external structure is thescrotum. Here

the testicles are held away from the body so that sperm can be
produced in an environment several degrees lower than normal
body temperature. Sweat glands are also located in this region to
External male genitals on an uncircumcised male.
The male genitalia are the penis (which has both internal and

aid in temperature control.

Internal male anatomy[edit]

external structures) and the scrotum (holds the testicles). The

penis's purpose is for sexual intercourse and is a passageway for
sperm and urine. An average sized unstimulated penis is about
3.75 inches in length and 1.2 inches in diameter. When erect on
average, men are most between 4.5 to 6 inches in length and
1.5 inches in diameter; 4.5 inches in circumference. The penis's
internal structures consist of the shaft, glans, and the root.[3]
The shaft of the penis consists of three cylinder-shaped bodies of
spongy tissue filled with tiny blood vessels, which run the length of
the organ. Two of these bodies lie side by side in the upper portion

The male reproductive system

of the penis called corpora cavernosa. The third is a tube which lies
centrally beneath the others and expands at the end to form the tip

Males also have internal reproductive structures as well, and these

of the penis (glans) called the corpus spongiosum. [36] The raised rim

consist of the testicles, the duct system, the prostate and seminal

at the border of the shaft and glans is called the corona. The

vesicles, and the Cowper's gland.[3]

urethra runs through the shaft so that sperm and urine have a way

The testicles are the male gonads. This is where sperm and male

two main zones: the inner zone which produces secretions to keep

hormones (androgens) are produced. Millions of sperm are

the lining of the male urethra moist and the outer zone which

produced daily in several hundred seminiferous tubules that

produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen. [36] The

altogether measure over a quarter of a mile. Cells called the Leydig

seminal vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and

cells or interstitial cells of Leydig are between the tubules and

mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine contractions which

produce hormones. The hormones that are produced are called

aids in movement through the structure, and bases which help

androgens, and they consist of testosterone and inhibin. The

neutralize the acidity of the vagina because sperm cannot survive

testicles are held by the spermatic cord, which is a tubelike

in an acidic environment. The last internal structure is the Cowper's

structure which contains blood vessels, nerves, the vas deferens,

glands, or bulbourethral glands, which are two pea sized structures

and a muscle that helps to raise and lower the testicles in response

beneath the prostate. These structures

to temperature changes and sexual arousal in which the testicles

Sexual response cycle[edit]

are drawn closer to the body.

[3]

The sexual response cycle is a model that describes the

The next internal structure is the four part duct system that

physiological responses that take place in men and women during

transports sperm. The first part of this system is the epididymis.

sexual activity. This model was created by William

Theseminiferous tubules are the testicles converging to form coiled

Masters andVirginia Johnson. According to Masters and Johnson, the

tubes that are felt at the top and back of each testicle. Each tubule

human sexual response cycle consists of four phases: excitement,

uncoiled is about twenty feet long. The second part of the duct

plateau, orgasm, and resolution. The excitement phase is the phase

system is the vas deferens.

[3]

The vas deferens is also known as

in which one attains the intrinsic motivation to pursue sex. The

"ductus deferens," and is a muscular tube that begins at the lower

plateau phase sets the stage for orgasm. Orgasm may be more

end of the epididymis. The vas deferens also passes upward along

biological for men and more psychological for women. Orgasm is

the side of the testicles to become part of the spermatic cord.

the release of tension, and the resolution period is the unaroused

[36]

state before the cycle begins again.[3]

The expanded end is the ampulla which stores sperm before

ejaculation. The third part of the duct system are the ejaculatory
ducts which are one inch long paired tubes that pass through the
prostate gland. This is where semen is produced. [3] The prostate
gland is a solid, chestnut-shaped organ that surrounds the first part
of the urethra (tube which carries the urine and semen and the
fourth part of the duct system[3]) in the male.[36]

where two centers in the spine are responsible for an erection.

Vasoconstriction begins in the penis, the heart rate increases,
scrotum thickens, spermatic cord shortens, and the testicles
become engorged in blood. The second phase, plateau, the penis
increases in diameter, the testicles become even more engorged,

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles help produce seminal
fluid that gets mixed with sperm to create semen.

The male sexual response cycle starts out in the excitement phase

[3]

The prostate

gland lies under the bladder, in front of the rectum. It consists of

and the Cowper's glands secrete preseminal fluid. The third stage,
orgasm, during which rhythmic contractions occur every 0.8
seconds[verification needed], consists of two phases in men. The first phase

of orgasm is the emission phase in which contractions of the vas

deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles encourage ejaculation

Sexual dysfunction and sexual problems[edit]

Main article: Sexual dysfunction

which is the second phase of orgasm. This phase of orgasm is

Men and women have many sexual problems which frequently arise

called the expulsion phase and this phase cannot be reached

because of other problems within a relationship or simply because

without an orgasm. Finally, the resolution phase is when the male is

of individual differences. These differences consist of differences in

now in an unaroused state which consists of a refractory period

expectations, assumptions, desire, preferred behaviors, and

(rest period) before the cycle can begin. This rest period may

relationship conflicts. Although these differences create sexual

increase with a man's age.

[3]

The female sexual response begins with the excitement phase

which can last from several minutes to several hours.
Characteristics of this phase include increased heart and
respiratory rate and an elevation of blood pressure. Flushed skin or
blotches of redness may occur on the chest and back; breasts
increase slightly in size and nipples may become hardened and
erect. The onset of vasocongestion results in swelling of the
woman's clitoris and labia minora and the woman's vagina begins
to swell. The muscle that surrounds the vaginal opening grows
tighter and her uterus elevates and grows in size. The vaginal walls
begin to produce a lubricating liquid. The second phase, called the
plateau phase, is characterized primarily by the intensification of all
of the changes begun during the excitement phase. The plateau
phase extends to the brink of orgasm, which initiates the resolution
stage, the reversal of all of the changes begun during the
excitement phase. During the orgasm stage the heart rate, blood
pressure, muscle tension, and breathing rates reach maximum
peaks. The pelvic muscle near the vagina, the anal sphincter and
the uterus contract. While muscle contractions in the vaginal area
create a high level of pleasure, all orgasms are centered in the
clitoris, whether they result from direct manual stimulation applied
to the clitoris or indirect pressure resulting from the thrusting of
penis during sexual intercourse.[3][37][38][39]

problems in both men and women, problems among men and

women are different. The World Health Organization's International
Classifications of Diseases defines sexual problems as "the various
ways in which an individual is unable to participate in a sexual
relationship as he or she would wish." Sexual disorders, according
to the DSM-IV-TR, are disturbances in sexual desire and psychophysiological changes that characterize the sexual response cycle
and cause marked distress, and interpersonal difficulty. There are
four major categories of sexual problems: desire disorders, arousal
disorders, orgasmic disorders, and sexual pain disorders.[3]
Psychological aspects[edit]

Sigmund Freud with daughter Anna

Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been

Sexuality in humans generates profound emotional and

psychological responses. Some theorists identify sexuality as the
central source of human personality.[40] Psychological studies of
sexuality focus on psychological influences that affect sexual
behavior and experiences.[20] Early psychological analyses were
carried out by Sigmund Freud, who believed in
a psychoanalytic approach. He also conjectured the concepts
of erogenous zones,psychosexual development, and the Oedipus
complex, among others.[41]

ignored or tolerated by the Christian church.[46] During the 12th

century however, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread
throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th
century, homosexuality was viewed as a pathology.[46] Havelock
Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances. Ellis
argued that homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral,
that it was not a disease, and that many homosexuals made
significant contributions to society.[46] Freud believed all human
beings as capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual;
neither orientation was assumed to be innate.[47] Freud claimed that

Behavior theorists such as John B. Watson and B. F.

a person's orientation depended on how the Oedipus complex was

Skinner examine the actions and consequences and their

resolved. He believed that male homosexuality resulted when a

ramifications. These theorists would, for example, study a child who

young boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his

is punished for sexual exploration and see if they grow up to

father for love and affection and later to men in general. He

associate negative feelings with sex in general.

[42]

Social-learning

believed female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her

theorists use similar concepts, but focus on cognitive activity

mother and identified with her father and became fixated at that

and modeling.

stage.[47]

Gender identity is a person's own sense of identification as female,

Freud and Ellis thought homosexuality resulted from reversed

male, both, neither, or somewhere in between. The social

gender roles. This view is reinforced today by the media's

construction of gender has been discussed by a wide variety of

portraying male homosexuals as effeminate and female

scholars, Judith Butler notable among them. Recent contributions

homosexuals as masculine.[47] Whether a person conforms or does

consider the influence of feminist theoryand courtship research.[43]

not conform to gender stereotypes does not always predict sexual

[44]

orientation. Society believes that if a man is masculine he is

Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced

by a person's sexual orientation.[45] Sexual orientation refers to your
degree of emotional and physical attraction to members of the
opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes.[45] Heterosexual people are
attracted to the members of the opposite sex. Homosexual people
are attracted to people of the same sex. Those who are bisexual
are attracted to both men and women.

heterosexual, and if a man is feminine he must be homosexual.

There is no strong evidence that a homosexual or bisexual
orientation must be associated with atypical gender roles. Today,
homosexuality is no longer considered to be a pathology. In
addition, many factors have been linked to homosexuality
including: genetic factors, anatomical factors, birth order, and
hormones in the prenatal environment.[47]

Other than the need of extending one's family tree, there are many

Issues in Human Sexuality was a deeply flawed document when

other reasons people have sex. According to one study conducted

published and Changing Attitude believes that it fails to reflect the

on college students (Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main reasons

theology and Christian witness of the majority of LGBT Christians

for sexual activities are: physical attraction, as a means to an end,

and should be consigned to history.

to increase emotional connection, and to alleviate insecurity.

[48]

Holiness

A Statement by the House of Bishops of the General Synod

of the Church of England, December 1991

The crux of the matter for the Statement is whether sexual

The Church of Englands response to Lambeth 1.10

behaviour is holy in itself and conducive to growth in holiness. It

defines holiness as whatever will be in accord with the spirit of

Issues was published in response to the 1988 Lambeth Conference

Christ and promotes Christlikeness. (Para 2.26) The greater the

call for all bishops of the Anglican Communion to undertake a deep

degree of personal intimacy, the greater should be the degree of

and dispassionate study of the question of homosexuality

personal commitment. (Para 3.2)

(Resolution 64) URL.

Its purpose, stated in the Preface, was to promote an educational

Integration

process as a result of which Christians may become both more

Changing Attitude believes in the Statements ideal of an

informed about and understanding of certain human realities.

integrated human personality where body, feelings, mind and spirit

If Issues had been used for prayerful study and reflection as

Archbishop George Carey wrote in the Preface, it might have served
a useful purpose, although from the perspective of LGBT Christians,
it was a conservative document which failed to reflect our wisdom
and experience. However, the Archbishop turned it into a policy
document without the authority of General Synod and it continues
to be cited as the policy of the Church of England together with the

work fully together. (Para 4.18) It assumes that lesbian and gay
people are unable to achieve this degree of integration. The
bishops think that there has to be a harmony between the physical
and spiritual which same-sex couples are incapable of achieving.
The broad experience of Changing Attitude shows that same-sex
couples can achieve profound levels of physical and spiritual
harmony.

Lambeth Conference 1998 Resolution 1.10.

Fundamental principles

The Statement concludes by returning to [T]he predicament of the

The final chapter addresses the homosexuality in the life of the

conscientious Christian homophile(which) raises complex issues.

Church. It sets out two fundamental principles:

Changing Attitude believes that the presence of LGBT in creation

raises in reverse complex issues for the Church, issues which the

[H]omophile orientation and its expression in sexual activity do not

Church of England has shown itself reluctant to encounter.

constitute a parallel and alternative form of human sexuality as

complete within the terms of the created order as the

One-to-one partnerships are the only ethically serious model for

heterosexual.

homophiles. Rejection of permanent partnerships is pretentious

disguise for the evil of promiscuity. (Para 5.9)

Heterosexuality and homosexuality are not equally congruous with

the observed order of creation or with the insights of revelation as

They believe the majority of homophile clergy are not in sexually

the Church engages with these in the light of her pastoral ministry.

active partnerships. (Para 5.11)

Changing Attitude finds both of these fundamental principles

Clergy cannot claim the liberty to enter into sexually active

wanting. It is no surprise that the conclusions drawn by Issues from

homophile relationships. (Para 5.17)

this starting point are false, contrary to the claim in the Statement
that the argument that personal identity is fundamentally bound up

Clergy in homophile partnerships could not, in most parishes, be

with sexuality is false. Issues in Human Sexuality does not give

accepted as examples to the whole flock. (Para 5.16)

equal worth and dignity to LGBT people not accept that we are
made in the image of God.
Conclusions drawn by Issues in Human Sexuality:
The ideal for lesbian and gay Christians is abstinence and self-

Partnered homophile clergy who come out as a matter of personal

integrity take pre-emptive action within the movement for change
in the Churchs perceptions and teaching (and by implication,
shouldnt). (Para 5.19)

denial. (Para 5.5)

Homophobia

Physical expression of attachment to another person cannot be

The Statement says it is the fundamental responsibility of

commended as a way of life that is a faithful reflection of Gods

Christians to reject and resist all forms of homophobia and to be

purpose. (Para 5.6)

active in protecting those who are victimised. (Para 4.8) The Church
of England has been far from robust in resisting homophobia and

Homophiles who do not renounce all physical sex relations must

nevertheless be guided by some form of the Christian ideal of
chastity appropriate to them. (Para 5.7)
Bisexual activity is always wrong because their sexual orientation is
ambiguous and they are attracted to partners of either sex. (Para
5.8)

still fails to recognise and condemn prejudice against LGBT people.

Some issues in human sexuality
A second report, Some issues in human sexuality: A guide to the
debate, was published in 2003. It is described as a discussion
document and covers far more ground than the original Statement,
running to 358 pages. It dealt, very inadequately, with
Transsexualism for the first time. Changing Attitude was one of the

groups consulted by the bishops who wrote the report. It has had

Genital warts

little impact in motivating debate in the Church or informing

Genital warts are small fleshy growths, bumps or skin changes that

peoples attitudes.

appear on or around your genital or anal area. They're caused by

Introduction

thehuman papilloma virus (HPV) and are the second most common
STI in England after chlamydia.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are passed from one

The warts are usually painless, but you may notice some itching or

person to another through unprotected sex or genital

redness. Occasionally, they can cause bleeding.

contact.

You don't need to have penetrative sex to pass the infection on

You can be tested for STIs at a sexual health clinic, genitourinary

because HPV is spread by skin-to-skin contact.

medicine (GUM) clinic or GP surgery. Search for a sexual health

Several treatments are available for genital warts, including creams

clinic near you and find out what services they offer.

and freezing the warts (cryotherapy).

This page provides an overview of the different STIs and links to

Read more about genital warts.

more information about these conditions.

Genital herpes

Chlamydia

Genital herpes is a common infection caused by the herpes simplex

Chlamydia is the most common STI in the UK and is easily passed

virus (HSV), which is the same virus that causes cold sores.

on during sex. Most people don't experience any symptoms, so

Some people develop symptoms of HSV a few days after coming

they are unaware they're infected.

into contact with the virus. Small, painful blisters or sores usually

In women, chlamydia can cause pain or a burning sensation when

develop, which may cause itching or tingling, or make it painful to

urinating, a vaginal discharge, pain in the lower abdomen during or

urinate.

after sex, and bleeding during or after sex or between periods. It

After you've been infected, the virus remains dormant (inactive)

can also cause heavy periods.

most of the time. However, certain triggers can reactivate the

In men, chlamydia can cause pain or a burning sensation when

virus, causing the blisters to develop again, although they're

urinating, a white, cloudy or watery discharge from the tip of the

usually smaller and less painful.

penis, and pain or tenderness in the testicles.

It's easier to test for HSV if you have symptoms. Although there's

It's also possible to have a chlamydia infection in your rectum

no cure for genital herpes, the symptoms can usually be controlled

(bottom), throat or eyes.

using antiviral medicines.

Diagnosing chlamydia is done with a urine test or by taking a swab

Read more about genital herpes.

of the affected area. The infection is easily treated with antibiotics,

but can lead to serious long-term health problems if left untreated,
including infertility.
Read more about chlamydia.

Gonorrhoea

Gonorrhoea is a bacterial STI easily passed on during sex. About

penicillin injections. When syphilis is treated properly, the later

50% of women and 10% of men don't experience any symptoms

stages can be prevented.

and are unaware they're infected.

Read more about syphilis.

In women, gonorrhoea can cause pain or a burning sensation when

urinating, a vaginal discharge (often watery, yellow or green), pain
in the lower abdomen during or after sex, and bleeding during or
after sex or between periods, sometimes causing heavy periods.
In men, gonorrhoea can cause pain or a burning sensation when
urinating, a white, yellow or green discharge from the tip of the
penis, and pain or tenderness in the testicles.
It's also possible to have a gonorrhoea infection in your rectum,
throat or eyes.
Gonorrhoea is diagnosed using a urine test or by taking a swab of
the affected area. The infection is easily treated with antibiotics,
but can lead to serious long-term health problems if left untreated,
including infertility.
Read more about gonorrhoea.

HIV
HIV is most commonly passed on through unprotected sex. It can
also be transmitted by coming into contact with infected blood for
example, sharing needles to inject steroids or drugs.
The HIV virus attacks and weakens the immune system, making it
less able to fight infections and disease. There's no cure for HIV,
but there are treatments that allow most people to live a long and
otherwise healthy life.
AIDS is the final stage of an HIV infection, when your body can no
longer fight life-threatening infections.
Most people with HIV look and feel healthy and have no symptoms.
When you first develop HIV, you may experience a flu-like illness
with a fever, sore throat or rash. This is called a seroconversion
illness.

Syphilis

A simple blood test is usually used to test for an HIV infection.

Syphilis is a bacterial infection that in the early stages causes a

Some clinics may also offer a rapid test using a finger-prick blood

painless, but highly infectious, sore on your genitals or around the

test or saliva sample.

mouth. The sore can last up to six weeks before disappearing.

Read more about HIV and AIDS and coping with a positive HIV test.

Secondary symptoms such as a rash, flu-like illness or patchy hair

lossmay then develop. These may disappear within a few weeks,
after which you'll have a symptom-free phase.
The late or tertiary stage of syphilis usually occurs after many
years, and can cause serious conditions such as heart
problems, paralysisand blindness.
The symptoms of syphilis can be difficult to recognise.
A simple blood test can usually be used to diagnose syphilis at any
stage. The condition can be treated with antibiotics, usually

Trichomoniasis
Trichomoniasis is an STI caused by a tiny parasite called
Trichomonas vaginalis (TV). It can be easily passed on through sex
and most people don't know they're infected.
In women, trichomoniasis can cause a frothy yellow or watery
vaginal discharge that has an unpleasant smell, soreness or itching
around the vagina, and pain when passing urine.

In men, trichomoniasis rarely causes symptoms. You may

You may have a rash or tiny spots. In some people, scabies can be

experience pain or burning after passing urine, a whitish discharge,

confused with eczema. It's usually very difficult to see the mites.

or an inflamed foreskin.

Scabies can usually be successfully treated using special creams or

Trichomoniasis can sometimes be difficult to diagnose and your GP

shampoos available over the counter in most pharmacies, or from a

may suggest you go to a specialist clinic for a urine or swab test.

GP or GUM clinic. The itching can sometimes continue for a short

Once diagnosed, it can usually be treated with antibiotics.

period, even after effective treatment.

Read more about trichomoniasis.

Pubic lice

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a

Pubic lice ("crabs") are easily passed to others through close genital

subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and acquired

contact. They're usually found in pubic hair, but can live in

immunodeficiency syndrome(AIDS).[1][2] AIDS is a condition in

underarm hair, body hair, beards and occasionally eyebrows or

humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows

eyelashes.

life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.

The lice crawl from hair to hair but don't jump or fly from person to

Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is

person. It may take several weeks for you to notice any symptoms.

estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.

Most people experience itching, and you may notice the lice or

[3]

Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal

eggs on the hairs.

fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is

Pubic lice can usually be successfully treated with special creams or

present as both free virus particles and virus within

shampoos available over the counter in most pharmacies or from a

infected immune cells.

GP or GUM clinic. You don't need to shave off your pubic hair or

HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper

body hair.

T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.

Read more about pubic lice.

[4]

Scabies

of mechanisms, including apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells,

[5]

Scabies is caused by tiny mites that burrow into the skin. It can be
passed on through close body or sexual contact, or from infected
clothing, bedding or towels.
If you develop scabies, you may have intense itching that's worse
at night. The itching can be in your genital area, but it also often

HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number

direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4 + T

cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells.

[6]

When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-

mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively

more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

occurs between your fingers, on wrists and ankles, under your

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired

arms, or on your body and breasts.

immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of

conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).[1][2][3] Following initial infection, a person may experience

a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a

[11]

prolonged period without symptoms. As the infection progresses, it

Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its causeHIV

interferes more and more with the immune system, making the

infectionwas identified in the early part of the decade. [12]

person much more susceptible to common infections

like tuberculosis, as well as opportunistic infections andtumors that
do not usually affect people who have working immune systems.
The late symptoms of the infection are referred to as AIDS. This
stage is often complicated by an infection of the lung known
as pneumocystis pneumonia, severe weight loss, a type of cancer
known asKaposi's sarcoma, or other AIDS-defining conditions.

AIDS was first recognized by the United States Centers for

HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and

as a source of discrimination. The disease also has
significant economic impacts. There are many misconceptions
about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by
casual non-sexual contact. The disease has become subject to
many controversies involving religion. It has attracted international
medical and political attention as well as large-scale funding since

HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual

it was identified in the 1980s.[13]

intercourse (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood

transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to

HOW CAN I REDUCE MY RISK OF GETTING HIV THROUGH SEXUAL

CONTACT?

child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding.[4] Some bodily

In the United States, HIV is mainly spread by having sex with

fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV.[5] Common

methods of HIV/AIDS prevention include encouraging safe
sex, needle-exchange programs, and treating those who are
infected.[6] There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral
treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a
near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment reduces
the risk of death and complications from the disease, these
medications are expensive and have side effects. Without
treatment, the average survival time after infection with HIV is
estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.[7]
Since its discovery, AIDS has caused an estimated 36 million
deaths worldwide (as of 2012).[8] In 2013 it resulted in about 1.34
million deaths.[9]As of 2012, approximately 35.3 million people are
living with HIV globally.[8] HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemica
disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively
spreading.[10] Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in westcentral Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century.

someone who has HIV. There are several steps you can take to
reduce your risk of getting HIV through sexual contact, and the
more of these actions you take, the safer you can be. These actions
include:

Choose less risky sexual behaviors. Oral sex is much

less risky than anal or vaginal sex. Anal sex is the highest-risk
sexual activity for HIV transmission. If you are HIV-negative,
insertive anal sex (topping) is less risky for getting HIV than
receptive anal sex (bottoming). Remember: HIV can be
sexually transmitted via blood, semen (cum), pre-seminal fluid
(pre-cum), rectal fluid, and vaginal fluid. Sexual activities that
do not involve the potential exchange of these bodily fluids (e.g.
touching) carry no risk for getting HIV. For more details,
see Sexual Practices and HIV Risk, below.

Use condoms consistently and correctly. When used

consistently and correctly, condoms are highly effective in
preventing HIV. For more details, see Using Condoms, below.

Reduce the number of people you have sex with. The

number of sex partners you have affects your HIV risk. The
more partners you have, the more likely you are to have a
partner with HIV whose viral load is not suppressed or to have a
sex partner with a sexually transmitted disease. Both of these

factors can increase the risk of HIV transmission. Remember:

one in six people living with HIV in the U.S. are unaware of their
infection.
Talk to your doctor about pre-exposure prophylaxis
(PrEP). PrEP is taking HIV medicine daily to prevent HIV
infection. PrEP should be considered if you are HIV-negative and
in an ongoing sexual relationship with an HIV-positive partner.
PrEP also should be considered if you are HIV-negative and have
had a sexually transmitted disease (STD) or any anal sex
(receptive or insertive) with a male partner without condoms in
the past six months and are not in an exclusive relationship with
a recently tested, HIV-negative partner. For more
information, see our page on PrEP.
Talk to your doctor right away (within 3 days) about
post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) if you have a possible
exposure to HIV. An example of a possible exposure is if you
have anal or vaginal sex without a condom with someone who
is or may be HIV-positive, and you are HIV-negative and not
taking PrEP. Your chance of exposure to HIV is lower if your HIVpositive partner is taking antiretroviral therapy (ART)
consistently and correctly, especially if his/her viral load is
undetectable. Starting PEP immediately and taking it daily for 4
weeks reduces your chance of getting HIV. For more
information, see our page on PEP.
Get tested and treated for other sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs) and encourage your partners to do the
same. If you are sexually active, get tested at least once a year.
STDs can have long-term health consequences. They can also
increase your chance of getting HIV or transmitting it to
others. Find an STD testing site.
If your partner is HIV-positive, encourage your
partner to get and stay on treatment. ART reduces the
amount of HIV virus (viral load) in blood and body fluids. If taken
consistently and correctly, ART can keep people with HIV
healthy for many years, and greatly reduce their chance of
transmitting HIV to sex partners.

Of course, you can also reduce your risk of getting HIV by not
having sex. If you aren't having sexual contact, you are 100%
protected from getting HIV in that way. Alternatively, if you are
having sex, you can reduce your risk if you and your partner have
both been tested and know that you are both HIV-negative and you

practice monogamy. Being monogamous means: 1) You are in a

sexual relationship with only one person and 2) Both of you are
having sex only with each other. However, monogamy won't protect
you completely unless you know for sure that both you and your
partner are not infected with HIV.
SEXUAL PRACTICES AND HIV RISK
The risk of getting HIV through sexual contact varies widely
depending on the type of sexual activity. Some activities carry a
much higher risk of HIV transmission than others.
Your risk depends on several other factors as well, including
whether you and your partner are using a condom andif one of
you is HIV-positivewhether the partner who is HIV-positive is
using ART consistently and correctly and has achieved a
suppressed viral load, and whether the partner who is HIV-negative
is using PrEP consistently and correctly. Condoms and HIV
medicines can greatly lower the risk of transmitting HIV. For more
information, see CDCsHIV Transmission Risk.
Here is a list of some sexual practices, the risks they pose for
transmitting HIV, and steps you can take to lower your risk of
getting HIV:
Receptive Anal Sex (Bottoming)
1.
The risk of getting HIV from receiving anal sex (penis in the
anus or bottoming) without a condom is higher than any other
sexual activity.
2.
The partner receiving anal sex (bottom) is at greater risk of
getting HIV than the partner performing anal sex (top) because
the lining of the rectum is thin and may allow HIV to enter the
body.
3.
HIV can found in the blood, semen (cum), pre-seminal fluid
(pre-cum), or rectal fluid of a person infected with the virus, so
having your partner pull out before he ejaculates (cums) may
not decrease your risk.

4.

Do not douche before anal sex. Douching irritates the lining

of your rectum and this can increase your risk for getting HIV. If
you are concerned about cleanliness, clean the rectum gently,
with a soapy finger and water.
5.
If you are bottoming, always use a new condom with a
water-based lubricant. This will help minimize damage to your
rectum during sex and lower your risk of getting HIV and other
STDs.
Insertive Anal Sex (Topping)
1.
Insertive anal sex (penis in the anus of either a man or a
woman or topping) without a condom is considered a high-risk
behavior for HIV transmission, but the risk is not as high as
receptive anal sex (bottoming).
2.
The partner receiving anal sex (bottom) is at greater risk of
getting HIV than the partner performing anal sex (top), however
the top is also at risk because HIV can enter through the
opening of the penis or through small cuts, abrasions, or open
sores on the penis.
3.
If you are topping, always use a new condom with a waterbased lubricant. This will help lower your risk of getting HIV and
other STDs.
Receptive Vaginal Sex (Risks For Women)
1.
Receptive vaginal sex (penis in the vagina) without a
condom is considered a high-risk behavior for HIV transmission.
2.
In women, HIV can be directly absorbed through the mucous
membranes that line the vagina and cervix. The lining of the
vagina can also sometimes tear and possibly allow HIV to enter
the body.
3.
Your risk of HIV infection increases if you or your partner
also has an STD.
4.
You can lower your risk of getting HIV and other STDs by
always using a new condom.
5.
Oral or hormonal contraceptives (e.g., birth control pills) do
not protect women against HIV or other STDs.
6.
Many barrier methods used to prevent pregnancy (e.g.,
diaphragm, cervical cap) do not protect against HIV or other
STDs because they still allow infected semen (cum) to come in
contact with the lining of the vagina. If you use one of these
methods, be sure to also use a male condom correctly every
time you have vaginal sex.
7.
When worn in the vagina, female condoms are just as
effective as male condoms at preventing STDs, HIV, and
pregnancy. Don't use a male condom and a female condom at
the same time; they do not work together and could break. For

information on how to use a female condom, visit the Office on

Womens Healths HIV Prevention: Practice Safer Sex.
8.
Dont use nonoxynol-9 (N-9). Some contraceptives, like
condoms, suppositories, foams, and gels contain the spermicide
N-9. Dont use these gels, foams, or suppositories to prevent
against HIV these methods only lower your chances of
pregnancy, not of getting HIV and other STDs. N-9 actually
makes your risk of HIV infection higher, because it can irritate
the vagina, which might make it easier for HIV to get into your
body.
9.
Don't douche before sex. Douching removes some of the
normal bacteria in the vagina that protects you from infection.
This can increase your risk of getting HIV.
Insertive Vaginal Sex (Risks For Men)
1.
Insertive vaginal sex (penis in the vagina) without a condom
is considered a high-risk behavior for HIV transmission, but it is
less risky for the male partner than the female partner.
2.
In men, HIV can enter the body through the urethra (the
opening at the tip of the penis) or through small cuts or open
sores on the penis. Men who are not circumcised are at greater
risk of HIV infection through vaginal sex than are circumcised
men.
3.
Your risk of HIV infection increases if you or your partner
also has an STD.
4.
Use a new condom with a water-based lubricant every time
you have insertive vaginal sex to prevent STDs, including HIV.
Performing Oral Sex On A Man
1.
The risk of getting HIV by performing oral sex (your mouth
on someones penis or fellatio) is low, but it is not zero risk. It
is difficult to measure the exact risk because people who
practice oral sex may also practice other forms of sex during
the same encounter.
2.
Performing oral sex on an HIV-infected man, with ejaculation
in the mouth, is the riskiest type of oral sex activity.
3.
If the man you are performing oral sex on has HIV, his blood,
semen, or pre-seminal fluid may contain the virus.
4.
Performing oral sex also puts you at risk for getting other
STDs, including herpes.
5.
Your risk of getting HIV or other STDs is reduced if you do
not have open sores or cuts in your mouth.
6.
You can reduce your risk of getting HIV and other STDs
through oral sex if you avoid having your partner ejaculate
(cum) in your mouth, and if you use a condom.
7.
For more, see CDCs Oral Sex and HIV Risk.

Receiving Oral Sex If You Are A Man

1.
The risk of getting HIV by receiving oral sex (someones
mouth on your penis or fellatio) if you are a man is low, but it
is not zero risk. It is difficult to measure the exact risk because
people who practice oral sex may also practice other forms of
sex during the same encounter.
2.
If the person giving you oral sex has HIV, blood from their
mouth may enter your body through the lining of your urethra
(the opening at the tip of your penis) or your anus, or through
cuts and sores.
3.
Receiving oral sex also puts you at risk of contracting other
STDs, including herpes.
4.
Your risk of getting HIV is reduced if you do not have open
sores or cuts on your penis.
5.
For more, see CDCs Oral Sex and HIV Risk.
Performing Oral Sex On A Woman
1.
The risk of getting HIV by performing oral sex on a woman
(your mouth on a womans genitals or cunnilingus) is low, but
it is not zero risk. It is difficult to measure the exact risk
because people who practice oral sex may also practice other
forms of sex during the same encounter.
2.
If the woman you are performing oral sex on has HIV, her
vaginal fluid may contain the virus.
3.
Performing oral sex also puts you at risk of contracting other
STDs.
4.
There are effective barriers you can use to protect you from
contact with your partner's vaginal fluids. These include natural
rubber latex sheets, dental dams, or using cut-open
nonlubricated condoms between your mouth and your partners
genitals or rectum. For more information on proper condom and
dental dam use, see the U.S. Department of Veterans
Affairs' Tips For Using Condoms And Dental Dams.
5.
For more, see CDCs Oral Sex and HIV Risk.
Receiving Oral Sex If You Are A Woman
1.
The risk of getting HIV by receiving oral sex (someones
mouth on your genitals or cunnilingus) if you are a woman is
low, but it is not zero risk. It is difficult to measure the exact risk
because people who practice oral sex may also practice other
forms of sex during the same encounter.
2.
If the person giving you oral sex has HIV, blood from their
mouth may enter your body through your vagina, cervix, or
anus, or through cuts and sores.
3.
Your risk of HIV is increased if you have genital sores or
other STDs.

4.

Receiving oral sex also puts you at risk of getting other

STDs, such as herpes, syphilis, gonorrhea, genital warts (human
papillomavirus or HPV), intestinal parasites (amebiasis), or
hepatitis A or B infection.
5.
There are effective barriers you can use to protect you from
contact with your partner's mouth. These include natural rubber
latex sheets, dental dams, or using cut-open nonlubricated
condoms between your partners mouth and your genitals or
rectum. For more information on proper condom and dental
dam use, see the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs' Tips For
Using Condoms And Dental Dams.
6.
For more, see CDCs Oral Sex and HIV Risk.
Oral-Anal Contact (Rimming)
1.
The risk of getting HIV by giving or receiving oral stimulation
to the anus (your mouth on someones anus, also called
anilingus or rimming) is low, but it is not zero risk.
2.
This kind of sexual contact comes with a high risk of
transmitting hepatitis A and B, parasites, and other bacteria to
the partner who is doing the rimming. There are effective
vaccines that protect against hepatitis A and B and human
papillomavirus infections. Talk to your health care provider to
see if these are right for you, if you have not already been
vaccinated.
3.
You can reduce your risk of getting HIV or other STDs if you
use a cut-open unlubricated condom, dental dam, or nonmicrowaveable plastic wrap over the anus to protect against
infection. For more information on proper condom and dental
dam use, see the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs' Tips For
Using Condoms And Dental Dams.
Digital Stimulation (Fingering)
1.
There is a very small risk of getting HIV from fingering your
partner if you have cuts or sores on your fingers and your
partner has cuts or sores in the rectum or vagina. HIV
transmission this way is technically possible but unlikely and
not well documented.
2.
Use medical-grade gloves and lots of water-based lubricant
to eliminate this risk.
Sex Toys
1.
There is a very small risk of getting HIV from sharing sex
toys. HIV transmission this way is technically possible, but
unlikely and not well documented.
2.
Using sex toys can be a safe practice, as long as you do not
share your toys with your partner.

3.

If you share your toy with your partner, use a condom on the
toy, if possible, and change the condom before your partner
uses it.
4.
Clean your toys with soap and water, or a stronger
disinfectant if indicated on the cleaning instructions. It is
important to do this after each use!
NO-RISK SEXUAL ACTIVITIES
These activities carry no risk of HIV transmission:
1.
Non-sexual massage
2.
Casual or dry kissing
3.
Phone sex, cyber sex, sexy talk
4.
Masturbation (without your partner's body fluids)
5.
Frottagealso known as "dry humping" or body-to-body
rubbing
You can still contract other STDs, like herpes, HPV, or pubic
lice ("crabs") if you have bare skin-to-skin contact with your
partner.
USING CONDOMS
When used consistently and correctly, condoms are highly effective
in preventing HIV. They are also effective at preventing STDs
transmitted through body fluids, like gonorrhea, chlamydia, and
HIV. However, they provide less protection against STDs spread
through skin-to-skin contact like human papillomavirus (genital
warts), genital herpes, and syphilis.
For information about how to use condoms, see CDC's Condom Fact
Sheet in Brief. Also see the U.S. Department of Veterans
Affairs' Tips For Using Condoms And Dental Dams and the HHS
Office on Womens Healths HIV Prevention: Practice Safer Sex.
TAKING HIV MEDICINES TO PREVENT HIV
As noted above, there are ways to prevent getting HIV by taking
some of the medicines used to treat HIV. These methods are PrEP

(taking HIV medicine daily to prevent HIV infection) and PEP (taking
medicine to prevent HIV after a possible exposure).

Learn about PrEP

Learn about PEP

CIRCUMCISION
Male circumcision reduces the risk that a man will get HIV from an
infected female partner, and also lowers the risk of other STDs,
penile cancer, and infant urinary tract infection. Studies have not
consistently shown that it prevents HIV among men who have sex
with men. Circumcision is only partly effective and should be used
with other prevention measures. Men who are considering
circumcision should weigh its risks and costs against its potential
benefits.
In December 2014, CDC issued a request for public comment on
draft counseling recommendations about elective male
circumcision for the prevention of HIV, STDs, and other health
outcomes in the United States. The guidance is designed to help
health care providers provide accurate information to individual
men, as well as to parents, to help them make informed decisions
about circumcision. View the draft
recommendations: www.regulations.gov. To learn more, see CDCs
fact sheet: Draft CDC Recommendations for Providers Counseling
Patients and Parents Regarding Male Circumcision.