Copper Metal Overview

Copper
An overview
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Contents
Articles
Overview
Copper
Isotopes
Isotopes of copper
Miscellany
19
19
23
Peak copper
23
List of copper alloys
28
Copper deficiency
35
References
Article Sources and Contributors
42
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
43
Article Licenses
License
44
Overview
Copper
Copper
Appearance
red-orange metallic luster
Native copper (~4 cm in size)

General properties
Name, symbol, number
copper, Cu, 29
Pronunciation
/kpr/ kop-r
Element category
transition metal
Group, period, block
11,4, d
Standard atomic weight
63.546(3) gmol
Electron configuration
[Ar] 3d 4s
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 1 (Image)
10
Physical properties
Phase
solid
Density (near r.t.)
8.94 gcm3
Liquid density at m.p.
8.02 gcm3
Melting point
1357.77K,1084.62C,1984.32F
Boiling point
2835K,2562C,4643F
Heat of fusion
13.26 kJmol1
Heat of vaporization
300.4 kJmol1
Specific heat capacity
(25 C) 24.440 Jmol1K1

Vapor pressure
P/Pa
at T/K 1509
10
100
1k
10 k
100 k
1661
1850
2089
2404
2834
Copper
2
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
+1, +2, +3, +4

(mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity
1.90 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more)
1st: 745.5 kJmol1

2nd: 1957.9 kJmol1
3rd: 3555 kJmol1
Atomic radius
128 pm
Covalent radius
1324 pm
Van der Waals radius
140 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
face-centered cubic
Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity
(20C) 16.78 nm
Thermal conductivity
(300 K) 401Wm K
Thermal expansion
(25 C) 16.5 mm K
Speed of sound (thin rod)
(r.t.) (annealed)
1
3810ms
Young's modulus
110128 GPa
Shear modulus
48 GPa
Bulk modulus
140 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.34
Mohs hardness
3.0
Vickers hardness
369 MPa
Brinell hardness
874 MPa
CAS registry number
7440-50-8
Most stable isotopes

iso
NA
half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
Cu 69.15%
63
Cu 30.85%
65
63
65
Cu is stable with 34 neutron

Cu is stable with 36 neutron
Copper ( /kpr/ kop-r) is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number
29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an
exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material,
and a constituent of various metal alloys.
The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on
Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as yprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to uprum. Its
compounds are commonly encountered as copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals such
as turquoise and have been widely used historically as pigments. Architectural structures built with copper corrode to
Copper
give green verdigris (or patina). Decorative art prominently features copper, both by itself and as part of pigments.
Copper(II) ions are water-soluble, where they function at low concentration as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides,
and wood preservatives. In sufficient amounts, they are poisonous to higher organisms; at lower concentrations it is
an essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life. The main areas where copper is found in animals are
tissues, liver, muscle and bone.
Characteristics
Physical
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by

continuous casting and etching.
Copper just above its melting point keeps

its pink luster color when enough light
outshines the orange incandescence
color.
Copper, silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table, and they share
certain attributes: they have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electron
shell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. The
filled d-shells in these elements do not contribute much to the interatomic
interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds.
Contrary to metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are
lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This explains the low
hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper.[1] At the macroscopic
scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain
boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress thereby
increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a
fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than
monocrystalline forms.[2]
The low hardness of copper partly explains its high electrical (59.6106S/m)
and thus also high thermal conductivity, which are the second highest among
pure metals at room temperature.[3] This is because the resistivity to electron
transport in metals at room temperature mostly originates from scattering of
electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak for a
soft metal.[1] The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air
is approximately 3.1106A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it begins
to heat excessively.[4] As with other metals, if copper is placed against
another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.[5]
Together with osmium (bluish), and gold (yellow), copper is one of only three
elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver.[6] Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish
tarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the
filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells the energy difference between these shells is such that it corresponds to
orange light. The same mechanism accounts for the yellow color of gold.[1]
Copper
Chemical
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds with oxidation states +1 and +2,
which are often called cuprous and cupric, respectively.[7] It does not react
with water, but it slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a layer of
brown-black copper oxide. In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, this
oxide layer stops the further, bulk corrosion. A green layer of verdigris
(copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper constructions, such as the
Statue of Liberty, the largest copper statue in the world build using repouss
and chasing.[8] Hydrogen sulfides and sulfides react with copper to form
various copper sulfides on the surface. In the latter case, the copper corrodes,
as is seen when copper is exposed to air containing sulfur compounds.[9]
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and
Oxygen-containing ammonia solutions give water-soluble complexes with
oxidized copper wire (right).
copper, as do oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form copper chlorides and
acidified hydrogen peroxide to form copper(II) salts. Copper(II) chloride and
copper comproportionate to form copper(I) chloride.[10]
Isotopes
There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally
occurring copper; they both have a spin of 3/2.[11] The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being
67
Cu with a half-life of 61.83hours.[11] Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized, with 68mCu the
longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by -, whereas those with
a mass number below 64 decay by +. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.[12]
62
Cu and 64Cu have significant applications. 64Cu is a radiocontrast for X-ray imaging, and complexed with a
chelate can be used for treating cancer. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM that is a radioactive tracer for positron emission
tomography.[13]
Occurrence
Copper can be found as either native copper or as part of minerals. Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest
described single crystal measuring 4.43.23.2cm.[14] The largest mass of elemental copper weighed 420 tonnes
and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US.[15] There are many examples of
copper-containing minerals: chalcopyrite and chalcocite are copper sulfides, azurite and malachite are copper
carbonates and cuprite is a copper oxide.[3] Copper is present in the Earth's crust at a concentration of about 50 parts
per million (ppm),[15] and is also synthesized in massive stars.[16]
Production
Copper
Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world's

largest open pit copper mines.
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open

pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper.
Examples include Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine in
Utah, United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United States.
According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the top
mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed
by the United States, Indonesia and Peru.[3] The amount of copper in
use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow
all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.[17]
Reserves
World production trend
Copper output in 2005
Copper prices 20032011 in USD per tonne
Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all
copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with
many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast
(around 1014 tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5
million years worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only a
tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, given
present-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existing
copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years,
depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.[18] Recycling
is a major source of copper in the modern world.[19] Because of these
and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the
subject of much debate, including the concept of Peak copper,
analogue to Peak Oil.
The price of copper has historically been unstable,[20] and it quintupled
from the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to
US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped to
US$2.40/lb (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded to
US$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007.[21] In February 2009,
weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since
the previous year's highs left copper prices at US$1.51/lb.[22]
Methods
The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most

commercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S).[23] These
minerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 1015% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching.[24]
Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greater
ease of converting iron sulfides into its oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag, which
floats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2S is then roasted to convert all sulfides
into oxides:[23]
2 Cu2S + 3 O2 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2
The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:
2 Cu2O 4 Cu + O2
Copper
This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown across the
blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce
pure copper:[25]
Cu2+ + 2 e Cu
Recycling
Copper, like aluminium, is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained in a
manufactured product. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. It is estimated
that 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today.[26] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal
Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of Copper in use in society is 3555kg. Much of this is in
more-developed countries (140300kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (3040kg per capita).
The process of recycling copper follows roughly the same steps as is used to extract copper, but requires fewer steps.
High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower purity scrap
is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[27]
Compounds
Binary compounds
As for other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary
compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements. The principal
ones are the oxides, sulfides and halides. Both cuprous and cupric
oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important
examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.
The cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine, and iodine are known, as
are the cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to
prepare copper(II) iodide give cuprous iodide and iodine.[7]
2 Cu2+ + 4 I 2 CuI + I2
A sample of copper(I) oxide.
Copper
Coordination chemistry
Copper, like all metals, forms coordination complexes with ligands. In
aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complex
exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands
attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex.
Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light
blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:
Cu2+ + 2 OH Cu(OH)2
Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess
ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):
Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the

presence of ammonia ligands. The one used here
is tetramminecopper(II) sulfate.
Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2

OH
Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II)

acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate
forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, which is the most familiar
copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.[28]
Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol functional
group, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper
salts are used to test for reducing sugars. Specifically, using
Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of the sugar
is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I)
oxide.[29] Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with
ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[30] Amino
acids form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II). Many
wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium
ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II)
salts.
Organocopper chemistry
Ball-and-stick model of the complex

[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, illustrating the octahedral
coordination geometry common for copper(II).
Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as

organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen
to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. They
are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithium
reagents;[31] in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution with
alkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I)
acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling[32]
and the Sonogashira coupling.[33] Conjugate addition to enones[34] and carbocupration of alkynes[35] can also be
achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon
monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.[36]
Copper
Copper(III) and copper(IV)

Complexes of copper(III) are frequent intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds. Dicopper oxo
complexes also feature copper(III).[37] Fluoride ligands, being highly basic, stabilize metal ions in high oxidation
states; indeed, representative copper(III) and copper(IV) complex are fluorides. These include K3CuF6 and
Cs2CuF6.[7] With di- and tripeptides, purple-colored complexes of copper(III) have been observed, this high
oxidation state being stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.[38]
History
Copper Age
Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known to some of
the oldest civilizations on record. It has a history of use that is at least
10,000 years old, and estimates of its discovery place it at 9000 BC in
the Middle East;[39] a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that
dates to 8700 BC.[40] There is evidence that gold and iron were the
only metals used by humans before copper.[41] Copper smelting was
invented locally in several different places. It was probably discovered
independently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhaps
A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete,
around 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century
shaped in the form of an animal skin typical for
AD.[42] Investment casting was invented in 45004000 BC in
that era.
Southeast Asia[39] and carbon dating has established mining at
Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK at 2280 to 1890 BC.[43] tzi the Iceman, a male dated from 33003200 BC, was
found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his involvement in
copper smelting.[44] Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper
smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.[44] Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and
Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC.[45] [46]
Bronze Age
Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass and bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper.
Bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.[47] The
Bronze Age was from 2500 BC to 600 BC when usage of bronze was widespread in Europe; the transition between
the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), with copper tools being
used with stone tools. Brass was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the
Roman Empire.[47]
Copper
Antiquity and Middle Ages

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (). It was an
important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples.
In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the generic
Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where much
copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the
English copper. Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythology
and alchemy, due to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing
mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to the
goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were
associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was
assigned to copper.[48]
Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev

Desert, Israel.
Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd2nd century BC. In North America, copper mining began with
marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale
with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.[49] Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America,
particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Copper burial
ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the
early 20th century.
The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC
used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper
became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's
coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining
and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most
intensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.[50] [51]
The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. It was most prevalent in
Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun.[52] In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medical
science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper
for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later on for headaches, burns, and itching. The Baghdad Battery, with
copper cylinders soldered to lead, dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic cell, leading people to
believe this was the first battery; the claim has not been verified.[53]
Copper
10
Modern period
The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that
operated from the 10th century to 1992. It produced two thirds of
Europe's copper demand in the 17th century and helped fund many of
Sweden's wars during that time.[54] It was referred to as the nation's
treasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.[55]
The uses of copper in art were not limited to currency: it was used by
Renaissance sculptors, in pre-photographic technology known as the
daguerreotype, and the Statue of Liberty. Copper plating and copper
sheathing for ships' hulls was widespread; the ships of Christopher
Columbus were among the earliest to have this feature.[56] The
Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern
electroplating plant starting its production in 1876.[57] The German
scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while
determining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discovered
that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) to copper would
affect bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in
Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficient
process accounts for 50% of the worlds primary copper production.[58]
Acid mine drainage affecting the stream running

from the disused Parys Mountain copper mines
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 with Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia,
played a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil. It never achieved the same influence, particularly because the
second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.[59]
Applications
The major applications of copper are in electrical wires (60%), roofing
and plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostly
used as a metal, but when a higher hardness is required it is combined
with other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) such as brass
and bronze.[15] A small part of copper supply is used in production of
compounds for nutritional supplements and fungicides in
agriculture.[28] [60] Machining of copper is possible, although it is
usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to get good
machinability characteristics.
Assorted copper fittings
Copper
11
Electronics and related devices

The electrical properties of copper are exploited in copper wires and
devices such as electromagnets. Integrated circuits and printed circuit
boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its
superior electrical conductivity (see Copper interconnect for main
article); heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of its
superior heat dissipation capacity to aluminium. Vacuum tubes,
cathode ray tubes, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper,
as do wave guides for microwave radiation.[61]
Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a

large building
Architecture and industry

Because of the waterproof nature of copper, it has been used as the
roofing material of many buildings since ancient times. The green
color on these buildings is due to a long-term chemical reaction:
copper is first oxidized to copper(II) oxide, then to cuprous and cupric
sulfide and finally to copper(II) carbonate, also called verdigris, which
is highly corrosion-resistant.[62] The copper used in this application is
phosphorus deoxidized copper (Cu-DHP).[63] Lightning rods use
copper as a means to divert electric current throughout the ground
instead of destroying the main structure.[64] Copper has excellent
brazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results are
obtained with gas metal arc welding.[65]
Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated

with patina
Copper in alloys
Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and bronze usually
refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the most
important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the
color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.[66]
The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-denomination statuary coins, often for the outer
cladding. The US 5-cent coin called nickel consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneous
composition.
The
90%
copper/10%
nickel
alloy
is
Copper
remarkable by its resistance to corrosion and is used in various parts

being exposed to seawater. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about
7%) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations.[15]
Copper alloys with tin are part of lead-free solders.[67]
Antimicrobial applications
Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural intrinsic properties to destroy
a wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coli O157:H7,
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus,
Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi).[68]
Some 355 copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of
disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned
regularly.[69] The United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as
antimicrobial materials with public health benefits,"[69] which allows
manufacturers to legally make claims as to the positive public health
benefits of products made with registered antimicrobial copper alloys.
Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant
In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper
products made from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed
tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health club equipment, shopping cart
handles, etc. (for a comprehensive list of products, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved
products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is
suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.[70] Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in
healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil and in the subway transit system
in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 20112014.[71]
[72] [73]
Antibiofouling applications
Copper has long been used as a biostatic surface to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was
originally used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal. Bacteria will not grow on a copper surface
because it is biostatic. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become important
netting materials in the aquaculture industry for the fact that they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling even in
extreme conditions[74] and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant[75] properties in marine environments.
Other uses
Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion of
structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot. Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed over
non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss. Textile fibers use copper to create antimicrobial
protective fabrics,[76] as do ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplating commonly uses
copper as a base for other metals such as nickel.
Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in a museum materials testing procedure called the
Oddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.
Copper is also commonly found in jewelry, and folklore states that copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms,
though this is not proven.[77]
12
Copper
13
Biological role
Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and
oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversion
of Cu(I) and Cu(II).[78] The biological role for copper commenced with
the appearance of oxygen in earth's atmosphere.[79] The protein
hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some
arthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).[80]
Because hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood, not the
red blood found in organisms that rely on hemoglobin for this purpose.
Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases.
Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate
substrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers.[78]
Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and

lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses,
cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include
lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives,
avocados, and wheat bran.
Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with the

processing of oxygen. In cytochrome c oxidase, which is required for
aerobic respiration, copper and iron cooperate in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also found in many superoxide
dismutases, proteins that detoxify superoxides, by converting it (by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogen
peroxide:
2 HO2 H2O2 + O2
Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates, hence they are
not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.[78]
Dietary needs
Copper is an essential trace element in
plants and animals, but not some
microorganisms. The human body
contains copper at a level of about 1.4
to 2.1mg per kg of body mass.[81]
Stated differently, the RDA for copper
in normal healthy adults is quoted as
0.97mg/day and as 3.0mg/day.[82]
Copper is absorbed in the gut, then
transported to the liver bound to
albumin. It enters the bloodstream via
the
plasma
protein
called
ceruloplasmin, where its metabolism is
controlled, and is excreted in bile.[83]
Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoid

membrane. A central "link" in this chain is plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.
Copper-based disorders
Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia,
bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, and
abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, an accumulation of copper in body tissues causes
Wilson's disease. Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low
ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status.
The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but
Copper
14
the results have not been confirmed by replication.[84]
Antimicrobial properties
Numerous antimicrobial efficacy studies have been conducted in the past 10 years regarding coppers efficacy to
destroy a wide range of bacteria, as well as influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi.[68]
Extensive EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices have found that when cleaned regularly, some 355
different EPA-registered antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces:
Continuously reduce bacterial contamination, achieving 99.9% reduction within two hours of exposure;
Kill greater than 99.9% of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria within two hours of exposure;
Deliver continuous and ongoing antibacterial action, remaining effective in killing greater than 99.9% of bacteria
within two hours;
Kill greater than 99.9% of bacteria within two hours, and continue to kill 99% of bacteria even after repeated
contamination;
Help inhibit the buildup and growth of bacteria within two hours of exposure between routine cleaning and
sanitizing steps.
Testing demonstrates effective antibacterial activity against E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus Epidermidis, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Several of the aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired
infections contracted each year in the United States.[85]
Precautions
NFPA 704
Fire diamond for copper metal
Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in
humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.[86]
Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30mg/kg) are toxic in animals.[87] A minimum dietary value for healthy
growth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet.[88] However, higher concentrations of copper
(100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth
rates, and carcass dressing percentages.[89]
Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and
excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson's
disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.[81]
Copper
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oxidation of the 2-hydroxy catechol of estradiol". Carcinogenesis 15 (7): 14211427. doi:10.1093/carcin/15.7.1421. PMID8033320.
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(http:/ / riunet. upv. es/ handle/ 10251/ 10503?locale-attribute=en). World Rabbit Science 3: 113118. .
17
Copper
18
Notes
Pourbaix diagrams for copper
in pure water, or acidic or alkali

conditions. Copper in neutral water is
more noble than hydrogen.
in water containing sulfide
in 10 M ammonia solution
in a chloride solution
Further reading
Massaro, Edward J., ed (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press.
ISBN0-89603-943-9.
"Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology" (http://www.
princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1988/8808/880808.PDF). Office of Technology Assessment. 2005.
Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp.11611208(48) Metals, Toxicity and
Oxidative Stress
William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed.. Table 6.1, p. 137:
Wiley, New York. ISBN0471736961.
Material: Copper (Cu), bulk (http://www.memsnet.org/material/coppercubulk/), MEMS and Nanotechnology
Clearinghouse.
Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation" (http://
www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v4/n3/abs/nchembio.72.html). Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 176.
doi:10.1038/nchembio.72. PMID18277979.
Copper transport disorders (http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2009/1/Copper.asp): an
Instant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry
External links
National Pollutant Inventory Copper and compounds fact sheet (http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/copper/
index.html)
Copper Resource Page. (http://www.weldaloy.com/resource_center.php) Includes 12 PDF files detailing the
material properties of various kinds of copper, as well as various guides and tools for the copper industry.
The Copper Development Association (http://www.copper.org) has an extensive site of properties and uses of
copper; it also maintains a web site dedicated to [[brass (http://www.brass.org)], a copper alloy].
The Third Millennium Online page on Copper (http://www.3rd1000.com/elements/Copper.htm)
Price history of copper, according to the IMF (http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/
?commodity=copper&months=300)
19
Isotopes
Isotopes of copper
Copper (Cu) has two stable isotopes, 63Cu and 65Cu, along with 27 radioisotopes. The most stable of these is 67Cu
with a half-life of 61.83hours. The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately 75ns. Most have half-lives
under a minute. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo + decay, while isotopes
with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo decay. 64Cu decays by both + and .[1]
68
Cu, 69Cu, 71Cu, 72Cu, and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer. 70Cu has two isomers, making a total of 7
distinct isomers. The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75minutes. The least stable is 69mCu with a
half-life of 360ns.[1]
Standard atomic mass: 63.546(3) u.
Table
nuclide Z(p) N(n)
symbol
isotopic mass
(u)
half-life
excitation energy
52
29
23
51.99718(28)#
53
29
24
52.98555(28)#
<300 ns
54
29
25
53.97671(23)#
55
29
26 54.96605(32)#
Cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
decay
daughter nuclear representative range of natural
[2]
[4]
spin
isotopic
variation
mode(s)
isotope(s)
[3]
composition (mole fraction)
(mole
fraction)
p
51
(3+)#
52
(3/2-)#
<75 ns
53
(3+)#
40# ms
[>200 ns]
55
54
Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni
3/2-#
Ni
56
29
27
55.95856(15)#
93(3) ms
56
(4+)
57
29
28
56.949211(17)
196.3(7)
ms
57
3/2-
58
29
29
3.204(7) s
58
1+
81.5(5) s
59
3/2-
60
2+
3.333(5) h +
61
3/2-
62
1+
Cu
Cu
Cu
57.9445385(17)
59
29
30
58.9394980(8)
60
29
31
23.7(4)
59.9373650(18) min
61
29
32
Cu
Cu
Cu
62
Cu
60.9334578(11)
29
33
61.932584(4)
9.673(8)
min
Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni
Ni
Isotopes of copper
63
Cu
64
Cu
65
Cu
29
20
34
62.9295975(6)
Stable
3/2-
0.68983-0.69338
29
29
35 63.9297642(6)
36
12.700(2) h + (61%)
64
- (39%)
64
64.9277895(7)
Ni
1+
Zn
Stable
3/2-
29
37
65.9288688(7)
5.120(14)
min
66
1+
67
29
38
61.83(12)
66.9277303(13) h
67
3/2-
68
29
39
31.1(15) s
68
1+
3.75(5) min IT (84%)
68
(6-)
- (16%)
68
69
Cu
Cu
68m
Cu
69
Cu
69m
Cu
70
Cu
67.9296109(17)
721.6(7) keV
29
40
2.85(15)
68.9294293(15) min
2741.8(10) keV
29
41
71m
Cu
72
Cu
72m
Cu
73
Cu
74
Cu
29
29
29
6.6(1) s
Zn
1+
-
71
Zn
73.939875(7)
4.2(3) s
1.594(10)
s
(3/2-)
(19/2-)
-
72
Zn
1.76(3) s
44 72.936675(4)
45
Zn
271(13) ns
71.9358203(15)
270(3) keV
(13/2+)
(3-)
19.4(14) s
43
3/2-
70
70.9326768(16)
2756(10) keV
Zn
6.6(2) s
42
Zn
(6-)
242.6(5) keV
29
Cu
70
70m2
Cu
Zn
33(2) s
71
Zn
44.5(2) s
69.9323923(17)
101.1(3) keV
Cu
Zn
360(30) ns
70m1
Cu
0.3085(15)
0.30662-0.31017
66
Cu
0.6915(15)
(1+)
(4-)
(>99.9%)
73
-, n
(<.1%)
72
74
Zn
(3/2-)
Zn
Zn
(1+,3+)
Isotopes of copper
75
Cu
76
Cu
76m
Cu
29
29
21
46 74.94190(105)
47 75.945275(7)
0(200)# keV
1.224(3) s
75
-, n
(3.5%)
74
- (97%)
76
-, n (3%)
75
1.27(30) s
76
(1,3)
3/2-#
641(6) ms
Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn
29
48
76.94785(43)#
469(8) ms
77
78
29
49
77.95196(43)#
342(11)
ms
78
79
29
50 78.95456(54)#
Cu
Cu
80
Cu
29
51
79.96087(64)#
188(25) ms -, n (55%)
100# ms
[>300 ns]
(3,5)
Zn
77
Cu
(3/2-)#
- (96.5%)
Zn
Zn
78
Zn
- (45%)
79
80
3/2-#
Zn
Zn
[1] G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http:/ /
www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. .
[2] Nucleonica: Universal Nuclide Chart (http:/ / www. nucleonica. net/ unc. aspx)
[3] Abbreviations:
IT: Isomeric transition
[4] Bold for stable isotopes
Notes
The precision of the isotope abundances and atomic mass is limited through variations. The given ranges should
be applicable to any normal terrestrial material.
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins
with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values
denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use
expanded uncertainties.
References
Isotope masses from:
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear
and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:
3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P. Taylor
(2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://www.iupac.org/
publications/pac/75/6/0683/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6): 683800.
doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http://iupac.org/
publications/pac/78/11/2051/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 20512066.
doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay summary (http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2005/
Isotopes of copper
atomic-weights_revised05.html).
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk page.
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear
and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:
3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/). Brookhaven
National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.
N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th
ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN978-0849304859.
22
23
Miscellany
Peak copper
Peak copper is the point in time at which
the maximum global copper production rate
is reached. Since copper is a finite resource,
at some point in the future new production
from within the earth will diminish, and at
some earlier time production will reach a
maximum. When this will occur is a matter
of dispute. Unlike fossil fuels, however,
copper is scrapped and reused and it has
been estimated that at least 80% of all
copper ever mined is still available (having
been repeatedly recycled).[1] Copper is
among the most important industrial metals.
World copper production, 1900-2002
Copper is used in electrical power cables,
data
cables,
electrical
equipment,
automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tubing, heat exchangers, artillery shell casings, small arms
ammunition, water pipes, and jewellery. Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all
copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As India and China race to catch up with the West,
the copper supply chain is becoming more strained,[2] leading to increased prices and an increase in copper theft.
Copper demand
Total world production is about 15 million tons per year.[3] Copper demand is increasing by more than 575,000 tons
annually and accelerating.[2] Based on 2006 figures for per capita consumption, Tom Graedel and colleagues at Yale
University calculate that by 2100 global demand for copper will outstrip the amount extractable from the ground.[4]
China accounts for more than 22% of world copper demand.[5]
For some purposes, other metals can substitute. During a copper shortage in the 1970s, aluminium wire was
substituted in many applications, but improper design caused a fire danger. The safety issues have since been solved
by use of larger sizes of aluminium wire (#8AWG and up), and properly designed aluminium wiring is still being
installed in place of copper.
Peak copper
24
Copper supply
Globally, economic copper resources are
being depleted with the equivalent
production of three world-class copper
mines
being
consumed
annually.[2]
Environmental analyst Lester Brown has
suggested copper might run out within 25
years based on what he considered a
reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per
year.[6]
New copper discoveries

56 new copper discoveries have been made during the past three decades.[2] World discoveries of copper peaked in
1996.[7]
Production
The chief producers of copper are Chile, United States, and Peru.[8] 21 of the 28 largest copper mines in the world
are not amenable to expansion.[2] Many large copper mines will be exhausted between 2010 and 2015.[2]
Country
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
4,580
4,860
5,410
5,320
5,560
5,600
5,330
5,390
843
850
1,040
1,090
1,049
1,190
1,270
1,275
1,140
1,120
1,160
1,150
1,200
1,170
1,310
1,180
China
585
565
620
640
890
946
950
995
Australia
873
870
854
930
859
860
886
854
Indonesia
1,160
1,170
840
1,050
816
797
651
996
Russia
695
700
675
675
725
740
750
725
Canada
600
580
546
580
607
589
607
491
Zambia
330
330
427
450
476
520
546
697
Poland
503
500
531
530
512
452
430
439
Kazakhstan
490
480
461
400
457
407
420
390
Mexico
330
330
406
420
338
347
247
238
1,500
1,500
1,610
1,750
1,835
1,840
2,030
2,190
13,600
13,900
14,600
14,900
15,100
15,400
15,400
15,900
Chile
Peru
United States
Other countries
World
|+ Copper production (thousands tonnes)[9] [10] [11]
Reserves
Copper is a fairly common element, with an estimated concentration of 50-70 ppm (0.005-0.007%) in Earth's crust
(1kg of copper per 15-20 tons of crustal rock). If all this copper were extractable, that would provide humans with a
nearly inexhaustible supply of the element (millions of years worth). Unfortunately, most of it can't be extracted
profitably at the current level of technology. At the present time, copper deposits are considered potentially
profitable if they are located sufficiently close to the surface and they contain at least 0.3-0.5% of copper.
Peak copper
25
The U.S. Geological Survey reported a current total reserve base of copper (economic and uneconomic) of 1.6
billion tonnes as of 2005, of which 950 million tonnes was considered economically recoverable.[12]
Country
Reserves
Percent
Reserve Base
Percent
150,000
30.61%
360,000
38.30%
United States
35,000
7.14%
70,000
7.45%
China
26,000
5.31%
63,000
6.70%
Peru
30,000
6.12%
60,000
6.38%
Poland
30,000
6.12%
48,000
5.11%
Australia
24,000
4.90%
43,000
4.57%
Mexico
30,000
6.12%
40,000
4.26%
Indonesia
35,000
7.14%
38,000
4.04%
Zambia
19,000
3.88%
35,000
3.72%
Russia
20,000
4.08%
30,000
3.19%
Kazakhstan
14,000
2.86%
20,000
2.13%
9,000
1.84%
20,000
2.13%
35,000
7.14%
110,000
11.70%
490,000
100%
940,000
100%
Chile
Canada
Other countries
World
|+ Copper Reserves (thousands of tonnes)[11]

Recycling
Each year in the USA, more copper is recovered and put back into service from recycled material than is derived
from newly mined ore. Coppers recycle value is so great that premium-grade scrap normally has at least 95% of the
value of primary metal from newly mined ore.[13]
Undiscovered conventional resources
Based on current discovery rates and existing geologic surveys, researchers have estimated that 1.6 billion metric
tons of copper exist that could potentially be brought into use. This figure relies on the broadest possible definition
of available copper as well as a lack of energy constraints and environmental concerns.[12]
Unconventional resources
Deep-sea nodules are estimated to contain 700 million tonnes of copper.[11]
Polities
Chile
Chile is the world's largest copper producer, and in 2007 accounted for 37% of the world's primary copper
production (see table above). One researcher has stated that Chile copper production may begin to decline
irreversibly in 2008.[2] However, this is contradicted by the Chilean Copper Commission, which has projected that,
based on planned expansion projects, Chilean copper production will continue to increase through at least 2012.[14]
Peak copper
26
Zaire
In Zaire, Copper production fell by 90% from 1976 (502,000 tons) to wartime 1993 (50,000 tons). Resumption
depends on political factors.[15]
Copper price
The price of copper struck a first peak level on March
6, 2008 on the London Metal Exchange (LME), surging
5.8 percent over the previous trading day to US$4.02
per pound. The previous record was set on May 12,
2006 at $3.98/lb. The international copper price
increased rapidly in early 2008, rising 23 percent in
February 2008,[16] then declined 40% before December
2008,[17] and reached $1.30 by year's end.[18] In
February 2011 the price peaked at over
10,100US$/tonne.[19]
Copper Tonne Prices 1986 - early 2011 in USD, showing 2008's

price collapse
Criticism
In his book The Ultimate Resource 2, Julian Simon extensively criticizes the notion of "peak resources", and uses
copper as one example. He argues that, even though "peak copper" has been a persistent scare since the early 20th
century, "known reserves" grew at a rate that outpaced demand, and the price of copper was not rising but falling in
the long run. For example, even though world production of copper in 1950 was only 1/8th of what it was today,
known reserves were also much lower at the time around 100 million metric tons making it appear that the world
would run out of copper in 40 to 50 years at most (which has not proven to be the case).
Simon's own explanation for this development is that the very notion of known reserves is deeply flawed,[20] as it
does not take into account changes in mining profitability. As richer mines are exhausted, developers turn their
attention to poorer sources of the element and eventually develop cheap methods of extracting it, rising "known
reserves". Thus, for example, copper was so abundant 5000 years ago, occurring in pure form as well as in highly
concentrated copper ores, that prehistoric peoples were able to collect and process it with very basic technology. As
of the early 21st century, copper is commonly mined from ores that contain 0.3% to 0.6% of copper by weight. Yet,
despite the fact that the material is far less "widespread", the cost of, for example, a copper pot is vastly lower today
in real terms than it was 5000 years ago.[21]
References
[1] http:/ / www. copperinfo. com/ environment/ recycling. html
[2] Andrew Leonard (2006-03-02). "Peak copper?" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ tech/ htww/ 2006/ 03/ 02/ peak_copper/ index. html). Salon - How
the World Works. . Retrieved 2008-03-23.
[3] Giurco, D: "Towards sustainable metal cycles:the case of copper", page 8, 2005, http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 2123/ 1521
[4] David Cohen (2007-05-23). "Earth's natural wealth: an audit" (http:/ / www. science. org. au/ nova/ newscientist/ 027ns_005.
htm?id=mg19426051. 200& print=true). New Scientist (2605): 3441. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.
[5] Dan Glaister, Tania Branigan and Owen Bowcott (2008-03-20). "Deaths and disruption as price rise sees copper thefts soar" (http:/ / www.
guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ mar/ 20/ internationalcrime). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.
[6] Brown, Lester (2006). Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble. New York: W.W. Norton. p.109.
ISBN0393328317.
[7] "Peak Copper Means Peak Silver" (http:/ / news. silverseek. com/ CharlestonVoice/ 1135873932. php). Charleston Voice. 2005-12-29. .
[8] Samuel K. Moore (2008-03). "Supply Risk, Scarcity, and Cellphones" (http:/ / spectrum. ieee. org/ mar08/ 6007). IEEE Spectrum. IEEE. .
Peak copper
[9] "pg. 54 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ coppemcs04. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2004. . Retrieved
2008-04-09.
[10] "pg. 56 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ coppemcs06. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2006. . Retrieved
2008-04-09.
[11] "pg. 54 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ mcs-2008-coppe. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2008. . Retrieved
2008-04-09.
[12] David Biello (2006-01-17). "Measure of Metal Supply Finds Future Shortage" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?id=measure-of-metal-supply-f). Scientific American. . Retrieved 2008-03-23.
[13] "Copper in the USA: Bright Future Glorious Past" (http:/ / www. copper. org/ education/ history/ g_fact_future. html). Copper
Development Association. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.
[14] Chilean Copper Commission (Sept. 2006): Current and future situation of the copper industry in Chile (Adobe *.PDF file) (http:/ / www.
icsg. org/ conferences/ Sep_06_meeting_Cochilco_Presentation. pdf)
[15] "Zaire: IRIN Briefing Part II" (http:/ / www. africa. upenn. edu/ Hornet/ irin_2277. html). University Of Pennsylvania. 1997-02-27. .
[16] "International copper price hits record high" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-03/ 08/ content_7744648. htm). China view.
2008-03-08. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.
[17] Base Metals decline (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ india/ news/ falling-demand-may-dent-base-metal-prices/ 00/ 48/ 341701/ )
Times of India
[18] $1.30 price (http:/ / charts3. barchart. com/ chart. asp?sym=HGZ8& data=A& jav=adv& vol=Y& divd=Y& evnt=adv& grid=Y&
code=BSTK& org=stk& fix=)
[19] http:/ / www. lme. com/ copper. asp
[20] Chapt 12, The Ultimate Resource II, by Julina Simon (http:/ / www. juliansimon. com/ writings/ Ultimate_Resource/ TCHAR12. txt)
[21] The Ultimate Resource 2 (http:/ / www. juliansimon. com/ writings/ Ultimate_Resource/ ), by Julian Simon
External links
Copper.org (http://www.copper.org/)
"US Minerals Databrowser" (http://mazamascience.com/Minerals/USGS). Mazama Science. Retrieved
2010-03-25.
R. B. Gordon*, M. Bertram and T. E. Graedel (2006-01-31). "Metal Stocks and Sustainability" (http://www.
pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/5/1209). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S. National
Academy of Sciences) 103 (5): 12091214. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509498103. PMC1360560. PMID16432205.
27
28

Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. They have high resistance against
corrosion. The best known traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant addition, and brass, using zinc
instead. Both these are imprecise terms, and today the term copper alloy tends to be substituted, especially by
museums.[1]
Compositions
The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements used
when making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. There are as many as
400 different copper and copper-alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy,
brasses, bronzes, copper nickels, coppernickelzinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys. The following
table lists the principal alloying element for four of the more common types used in modern industry, along with the
name for each type. Historical types, such as those that characterize the Bronze Age, are vaguer as the mixtures were
generally .
Classification of copper and its alloys

Family
Principal alloying element
UNS numbers
Copper alloys, brass
Zinc (Zn)
C1xxxxC4xxxx,C66400C69800
Phosphor bronze
Tin (Sn)
C5xxxx
Aluminium bronzes
Aluminium (Al)
C60600C64200
Silicon bronzes
Silicon (Si)
C64700C66100
Copper nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni)
C7xxxx
Mechanical properties of common copper alloys[2]

Name
Nominal
composition
(percentages)
Copper (ASTM B1, B2, Cu 99.9

B3, B152, B124, R133)
Form and
condition
Yield
strength
(0.2%
offset, ksi)
Tensile
strength
(ksi)
Elongation
in 2inches
(percent)
Hardness
(Brinell
scale)
Annealed
10
32
45
42
Comments
Electrical equipment,
roofing, screens
"
"
Cold-drawn
40
45
15
90
"
"
"
Cold-rolled
40
46
100
"
Gilding metal (ASTM

B36)
Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0
Cold-rolled
50
56
114
Coins, bullet jackets
Cartridge brass (ASTM

B14, B19, B36, B134,
B135)
Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0
Cold-rolled
63
76
155
Good for
cold-working;
radiators, hardware,
electrical, drawn
cartridge cases.
Phosphor bronze
(ASTM B103, B139,
B159)
Cu 70.0, Sn 10.0, P
0.25
Spring temper
122
241
High fatigue-strength
and spring qualities
Yellow or High brass

(ASTM B36, B134,
B135)
29
Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0
Annealed
18
48
60
55
Good corrosion
resistance
"
"
Cold-drawn
55
70
15
115
"
"
"
Cold-rolled
(HT)
60
74
10
180
"
Annealed
30
60
30
95
Cold-drawn
50
80
20
180
Annealed
22
56
40
90
Cold-drawn
40
65
35
150
Manganese bronze
(ASTM 138)
"
Naval brass (ASTM
B21)
"
Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2,
Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn
0.3
"
Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25,
Sn 0.75
"
Forgings
"
Resistance to salt
corrosion
"
Muntz metal (ASTM

B111)
Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0
Annealed
20
54
45
80
Condensor tubes
Aluminium bronze
(ASTM B169 alloy A,
B124, B150)
Cu 92.0, Al 8.0
Annealed
25
70
60
80
Hard
65
105
210
Annealed,
solution-treated
32
70
45
B60
(Rockwell)
Cold-rolled
104
110
B81
(Rockwell)
"
Beryllium copper
(ASTM B194, B196,
B197)
"
"
Cu 97.75, Be 2.0,
Co or Ni 0.25
"
"
Electrical, valves,
pumps
"
Free-cutting brass
Cu 62.0, Zn 35.5,
Pb 2.5
Cold-drawn
44
70
18
B80
(Rockwell)
Screws, nuts, gears,

keys
Nickel silver (ASTM

B112)
Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0,
Ni 18.0
Annealed
25
58
40
70
Hardware
Cold-rolled
70
85
170
"
"
"
Nickel silver (ASTM

B149)
Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5,
Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0
Cast
18
35
15
55
Easy to machine;
ornaments, plumbing
Cupronickel (ASTM
B111, B171)
Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0,
Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4
Annealed
22
44
45
Condensor, salt-water
pipes
Cold-drawn tube 57
60
15
"
Wrought
Heat-exchange
equipment, valves
Cast
17
37
25
60
"
Cupronickel
"
Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0
[3]
Ounce metal Copper Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb
5.0, Sn 5.0
Alloy C83600 (also
known as "Red brass"
or "composition metal")
(ASTM B62)
Gunmetal (known as
"red brass" in US)
Varies Cu 80-90%,
Zn <5%, Sn ~10%,
+other elements@
<1%
30
Mechanical properties of Copper Development Association (CDA) copper alloys[4]

Family
Red brass
CDA
Tensile strength
[ksi]
Yield strength
[ksi]
Min.
Min.
833
Typ.
32
Elongation (typ.)
[%]
Hardness
[Brinell
10mm-500kg]
Typ.
Machinability [YB =
100]
10
35
35
35
836
30
37
14
17
30
5065
84
838
29
35
12
16
25
5060
90
844
29
34
13
15
26
5060
90
848
25
36
12
14
30
5060
90
862
90
95
45
48
20
170195
30
863
110
119
60
83
18
225
865
65
71
25
28
30
130
26
903
40
45
18
21
30
6075
30
905
40
45
18
22
25
75
30
907
35
44
18
22
20
80
20
922
34
40
16
20
30
6072
42
923
36
40
16
20
25
6075
42
926
40
44
18
20
30
6580
40
927
35
42
21
20
77
45
932
30
35
18
20
6070
70
934
25
32
16
20
5565
70
935
25
32
12
16
30
5565
70
936
33
30
16
21
15
79-83
80
937
25
35
12
18
20
5570
80
938
25
30
14
16
18
5060
80
943
21
27
13
10
4255
80
Aluminium bronze
952
65
80
25
27
35
110140
50
953
65
75
25
27
25
140
55
954
75
85
30
35
18
140170
60
955
90
100
40
44
12
180200
50
958
85
95
35
38
25
150-170
50
878
80
83
30
37
29
115
40
Semi-red brass
Manganese bronze
Tin bronze
Leaded tin bronze
High-leaded tin
bronze
Silicon bronze
Brinell scale with 3000kg load
14
31
Comparison of copper alloy standards[4]

Family
Red brass
CDA
ASTM
SAE
SAE superseded
Federal
Military
833
836
B145-836 836
838
B145-838 838
QQ-C-390 (B4)
844
B145-844
QQ-C-390 (B2)
848
B145-848
QQ-C-390 (B1)
862
B147-862 862
430A
QQ-C-390 (C4)
C-2229 Gr9
863
B147-863 863
430B
QQ-C-390 (C7)
C-2229 Gr8
865
B147-865 865
43
QQ-C-390 (C3)
C-2229 Gr7
903
B143-903 903
620
QQ-C-390 (D5)
C-2229 Gr1
905
B143-905 905
62
QQ-C-390 (D6)
907
907
65
922
B143-922 922
622
QQ-C-390 (D4)
B-16541
923
B143-923 923
621
QQ-C-390 (D3)
C-15345 Gr10
926
926
927
927
High-leaded tin bronze 932
B144-932 932
QQ-C-390 (E7)
C-15345 Gr12
QQ-C-390 (E8)
C-22229 Gr3
Semi-red brass
Manganese bronze
Tin bronze
Leaded tin bronze
40
660
935
B144-935 935
66
QQ-C-390 (E9)
937
B144-937 937
64
QQ-C-390 (E10)
938
B144-938 938
67
QQ-C-390 (E6)
943
B144-943 943
952
B148-952 952
68A
QQ-C-390 (G6)
953
B148-953 953
68B
QQ-C-390 (G7)
954
B148-954 954
QQ-C-390 (G5)
C-15345 Gr13
955
B148-955 955
QQ-C-390 (G3)
C-22229 Gr8
958
Silicon bronze
C-2229 Gr2
63
934
Aluminium bronze
QQ-C-390 (B5)
878
QQ-C-390 (E1)
C-22229 Gr5
QQ-C-390 (G8)
B30
878
The following table outlines the chemical composition of various grades of copper alloys.
32
Chemical composition of copper alloys[4] [5]

Family
Red brass
CDA
833
AMS
UNS
C83300
[6]
Cu [%]
Sn [%]
Pb [%]
Zn [%]
93
1.5
1.5
Ni [%]
Fe [%]
Al [%]
Other [%]
21
Mn 4
C83400
90
836
4855B C83600
85
838
C83800
83
844
C84400
81
845
C84500
78
12
848
C84800
76
15
C86100
67
0.5
862
C86200
64
26
Mn 3
863
4862B C86300
63
25
Mn 3
865
4860A C86500
58
0.5
39.5
Mn 0.25
903
C90300
88
905
4845D C90500
88
10
0.3 max
907
C90700
89
11
0.5 max
0.5 max
922
C92200
88
1.5
4.5
923
C92300
87
1 max
926
4846A C92600
87
10
927
C92700
88
10
0.7 max
High-leaded tin bronze 932
C93200
83
934
C93400
84
0.7 max
935
C93500
85
937
4842A C93700
80
10
10
0.7 max
938
C93800
78
15
0.75 max
943
4840A C94300
70
25
0.7 max
952
C95200
88
953
C95200
89
10
954
4870B C95400
4872B
85
11
C95410
85
11
C95500
81
11
Semi-red brass
[7]
Manganese bronze
Tin bronze
Leaded tin bronze
Aluminium bronze
[8]
955
[9]
C95600
[10] 75
C95800
0.5 max
91
C95700
958
10
81
Ni 2
Si 2
Mn 12
Mn 1
33
[11] 89
Silicon bronze
[12] 83
14
Si 3
[13] 82
14
Si 4
[14] 90
5.5
Si 4.5
[15] 80
14
Si 4
[16] 65
34
Si 1
C87400
C87500
C87600
878
C87800
C87900
Si 4
C87200
Chemical composition may vary to yield mechanical properties
Brasses
A brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color. The zinc content can vary between few
% to about 40%; as long as it is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease corrosion resistance of copper.
Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy
(dezincification), leaving behind a spongy copper structure.
Bronzes
A bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also aluminium and silicon.
Aluminium bronzes are alloys of copper and aluminium. The content of aluminium ranges mostly between
5-11%. Iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are sometimes added. They have higher strength and corrosion
resistance than other bronzes, especially in marine environment, and have low reactivity to sulfur compounds.
Aluminium forms a thin passivation layer on the surface of the metal.
Bell metal
Phosphor bronze
Nickel bronzes, e.g. nickel silver and cupronickel
Speculum metal
UNS C69100
Precious metal alloys

Copper is often alloyed with precious metals like silver and gold, to create, for example, Corinthian bronze,
hepatizon, tumbaga and shakudo.
References
[1] British Museum, "Scope Note" for "copper alloy" (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ research/ search_the_collection_database/ term_details.
aspx?scopeType=Terms& scopeId=18864)
[2] Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, Elsevier, 2006
[3] Cast copper alloy C83600 (Ounce Metal) (http:/ / www. substech. com/ dokuwiki/ doku. php?id=cast_copper_alloy_c83600_ounce_metal)
substech.com
[4] Standard brass & bronze casting alloys (http:/ / www. franklinbronze. com/ sand-casting/ bronze-casting. htm), , retrieved 2009-09-07.
[5] Brass and Bronze Alloys (http:/ / www. ischumann. com/ brass_bronze. html), , retrieved 2009-09-08.
[6] UNS C83400 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C83400& show_prop=all&
Page_Title=UNS C83400), , retrieved 2009-09-08.

[10] UNS C95700 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C95700 & show_prop=all&
Bibliography
Machinery's Handbook, Industrial Press Inc, New York, ISBN 0-8311-2492-X, Edition 24, page 501
External links
Corrosion tests and standards: application and interpretation (http://books.google.com/
books?id=8C7pXhnqje4C&pg=PA565&dq=alloy+number+copper&as_brr=3&
ei=qdamSqTdKZK0MKmcvKoK&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=alloy number copper&f=false)
Copper Development Association (http://www.copper.org/)
34
Copper deficiency
35
Copper deficiency
Copper deficiency
Classification and external resources
ICD-10
E61.0
ICD-9
275.1
[1]
[2]
Copper deficiency is a very rare hematological and neurological disorder.[3] [4] [5] The neurodegenerative syndrome
of copper deficiency has been recognized for some time in ruminant animals, in which it is commonly known as
"swayback"[5] The disease involves a nutritional deficiency in the trace element copper.[5] Copper is ubiquitous and
daily requirement is low making acquired copper deficiency very rare. Copper deficiency can manifest in parallel
with vitamin B12 deficiency and zinc toxicity.[4] The most common cause of copper deficiency is a remote
gastrointestinal surgery, such as gastric bypass surgery, due to malabsorption of copper. On the other hand, Menkes
disease is a genetic disorder of copper deficiency involving a wide variety of symptoms that is often fatal.[6] Copper
is involved in normalized function of many enzymes, such as cytochrome c oxidase, which is complex IV in
mitochondrial electron transport chain, ceruloplasmin, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, and in amine oxidases.[5] These
enzyme catalyze reactions for oxidative phosphorylation, iron transportation, antioxidant and free radical scavenging
and neutralization, and neurotransmitter synthesis, respectively.[5] A regular diet contains a variable amount of
copper, but may provide 5mg/day, of which only 20-50% is absorbed.[4] The diet of the elderly may contain a lower
copper content than the recommended daily intake.[4] Dietary copper can be found in whole grain cereals, legumes,
oysters, organ meats (particularly liver), cherries, dark chocolate, fruits, leafy green vegetables, nuts, poultry, prunes,
and soybeans products like tofu.[7] The deficiency in copper can cause many hematological manifestations, such as
myelodysplasia, anemia, leukopenia (low white blood cell count) and neutropenia (low count of neutrophils, a type
of white blood cell that is often called "the first line of defense" for the immune system).[4] Copper deficiency has
long been known for as a cause of myelodysplasia(when a blood profile has indicators of possible future leukemia
development), but it was until recently in 2001 that copper deficiency was associated with neurological
manifestations. Some neurological manifestations can be sensory ataxia (irregular muscle coordination), peripheral
neuropathy (damage in the peripheral nerves) and myelopathy (disease of the spinal cord).[5]
Symptoms
Hematological Presentation
Most sufferers generally complain about tiredness, fatigue, and light
headedness. These are all common symptoms of anemia. Around half
of the patients displayed some kind of anemia with markedly reduced
leukocytes also known as leukopenia.[3] [4] [8] In addition to
leukopenia, many patients are deficient in neutrophils (neutropenia).[4]
[8]
Neutropenia has become a hematological hallmark, enabling
physicians to investigate copper deficiency as a diagnosis.[8] All types
of anemia including microcytic (small red blood cells), macrocytic
(large red blood cells, leaving insufficient amounts of hemoglobin per
unit volume of blood) and normocytic (a deficiency in normal sized red
blood cells) manifest.[3] [8] It is very rarely that thrombocytopenia,
Ring Sideroblast smear 2010-01-13
Copper deficiency
which is a syndrome of low blood platelets leading to slowed clotting and abnormal bleeding, is observed in
patients.[4] [8] Usually prolonged copper deficiency has to persist to manifest thrombocytopenia.[8] Many times
during a bone marrow biopsy, decreased granulocyte (which are granulated white blood cells including neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils) maturation, vacuolization of red blood cell precursors, and ringed sideroblastic cells are
present.[3] [4] [8] Sideroblastic cells have unusual patterns of iron clumping in the mitochondria that is visible when
the cell is stained, receiving its name ringed sideroblast.[5] [9] Subacute combined degeneration is also a
degeneration of the spinal cord, but instead of copper deficiency as the cause of degeneration, vitamin B12
deficiency is the cause.[4] [5] These bone marrow findings can lead to a diagnosis of myelodysplasia.[3] [8]
Myelodysplasia is sometimes referred to preleukemia..[10] This disease often later progresses into a form of
leukemia.[10] Most of the people who are diagnosed with myelodysplasia will have to undergo a stem cell
transplantation.[10] A diagnosis of copper deficiency at the state is crucial to prevent unnecessary painful surgery,
such as the bone marrow biopsy.
Neurological Presentation
Copper deficiency can cause a wide variety of neurological problems including, myelopathy, peripheral neuropathy,
and optic neuropathy.[5] [8]
Myelopathy
Sufferers typically present difficulty walking (gait difficulty) caused by sensory ataxia (irregular muscle
coordination) due to dorsal column dysfunction [8] or degeneration of the spinal cord (myelopathy).[5] [11] Patients
with ataxic gait have problems balancing and display an unstable wide walk. They often feel tremors in their torso,
causing side way jerks and lunges.[12] In brain MRI, there is often an increased T2 signalling at the posterior
columns of the spinal cord in patients with myelopathy caused by copper deficiency.[5] [8] [13] T2 signalling is often
an indicator of some kind of neurodegeneration. There are some changes in the spinal cord MRI involving the
thoracic cord, the cervical cord or sometimes both.[5] [8] Copper deficiency myelopathy is often compared to
subacute combined degeneration (SCD).[11] Subacute combined degeneration is also a degeneration of the spinal
cord, but instead vitamin B12 deficiency is the cause of the spinal degeneration.[5] SCD also has the same high T2
signalling intensities in the posterior column as copper deficient patient in MRI imaging.[13]
Peripheral Neuropathy
Another common symptom of copper deficiency is peripheral neuropathy, which is numbness or tingling that can
start in the extremities and can sometimes progress radially inward towards the torso.[8] [14] In an Advances in
Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation (ACNR) published case report, a 69 year old patient had progressively
worsened neurological symptoms.[15] These symptoms included diminished upper limb reflexes with abnormal lower
limb reflexes, sensation to light touch and pin prick was diminished above the waist, vibration sensation was lost in
the sternum, and markedly reduced proprioception or sensation about the selfs orientation.[15] Many people
suffering from the neurological effects of copper deficiency complain about very similar or identical symptoms as
the patient.[5] [14] This numbness and tingling poses danger for the elderly because it increases their risk of falling
and injuring themselves. Peripheral neuropathy can become very disabling leaving some patients dependent on
wheel chairs or walking canes for mobility if there is lack of correct diagnosis. Rarely can copper deficiency cause
major disabling symptoms. The deficiency will have to be present for an extensive amount of time until such
disabling conditions manifest.
36
Copper deficiency
37
Optic Neuropathy
Some patients suffering from copper deficiency have shown signs of vision and color loss.[14] The vision is usually
lost in the peripheral views of the eye.[14] The bilateral vision loss is usually very gradual.[14] An optical coherence
tomography (OCT) shows some nerve fiber layer loss in most patients, suggesting the vision loss and color vision
loss was secondary to optic neuropathy or neurodegeneration.[14]
Causes
Surgery
Bariatric surgery is a common cause of copper deficiency.[3] [5] Bariatric surgery, such as gastric bypass surgery, is
often used for weight control of the morbidly obese. The disruption of the intestines and stomach from the surgery
can cause absorption difficulties not only in copper, but also in iron and vitamin B12 and many other nutrients.[5]
The symptoms of copper deficiency myelopathy may take a long time to develop, sometimes decades before the
myelopathy symptoms manifest.
Zinc Toxicity
Increased consumption of zinc is another cause of copper deficiency.[8] Zinc is often used for the prevention or
treatment of common colds and sinusitis (inflammation of sinuses due to an infection), ulcers, sickle cell disease,
celiac disease, memory impairment and acne.[8] Zinc is found in many common vitamin supplements and is also
found in denture creams.[8] [16] Denture cream was recently accused of causing neurological problems, such as
numbness, tingling, muscle weakness, and anemia, in their consumers due to copper deficiency caused by zinc
toxicity.[16]
Metallic zinc is the core of all United States currency coins, including copper coated pennies. People who ingest
massive amount of coins will have elevated zinc levels, leading to zinc toxicity induced copper deficiency and thus
displaying neurological symptoms. This is the case for a 57 year old woman who was diagnosed with
schizophrenia.[17] This woman consumed over 600 coins, and started to show neurological symptoms such as
unsteady gait and mild ataxia.[17]
Hereditary Disorders
Menkes disease is a congenital disease that is a cause of copper
deficiency.[6] [8] [18] Menkes disease is a hereditary condition caused
by a defective gene involved with the metabolism of copper in the
body.[8] Menkes disease involves a wide variety of symptoms
including floppy muscle tone, seizures, abnormally low temperatures,
and a peculiar steel color hair that feels very rough.[6] [18] Menkes
disease is usually a fatal disease with most children dying within the
first ten years of life.[6] [18]
Menkes disease showing symptoms of the sparse,
steel colored "kinky hair" and paleness
Copper deficiency
38
Other
It is rarely suggested that excess iron supplementation causes copper deficiency myelopathy.[5] Another rarer cause
of copper deficiency is celiac disease, probably due to malabsorption in the intestines.[5] Still, a large percentage,
around 20%, of cases have unknown causes.[5]
Biochemical Etiology
Copper functions as a prosthetic group, which permits election transfers in key enzymatic pathways like the electron
transport chain.[4] [5] Copper is integrated in the enzymes cytochrome c oxidase, which is involved in cellular
respiration and oxidative phosphorylation, Cu/Zn dismutase, which is involved in antioxidant defense, and many
more listed in the table below.[4]
Several Copper Dependent Enzymes and Their Function [5]

Group
Oxidases
Enzyme
Flavin-containing amine oxidase
Metabolism of neurotransmitters: noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin and some

dietary amines
Protein-lysine-6-oxidase (lysyl oxidase)
Connective tissue synthesis- cross-linking of collagen and elastin
Copper-containing amine oxidase
Metabolism of amines- histamines, putrescine, cadaverine
Cytochrome c oxidase
Oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport in the mitochondrial membrane
Superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn

dismutase)
Antioxidant and free radical scavenger, oxidizes dangerous superoxides to safer

hydrogen peroxide
Ferroxidase I (ceruloplasmin)
Iron transport-oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe 3+, copper storage and transport, antioxidant

and free radical neutralizer
Hephaestin (ferroxidase)
Iron transport and oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ in intestinal cells to enable iron uptake
Monooxygenases Dopamine beta-monooxygenase
Methylation
Cycle
Function
Conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine
Peptidylglycine monooxygenase
Peptide hormone maturation- amidation of alpha-terminal carboxylic acid group of

glycine
Monophenol monooxygenase
(Tyrosinase)
Melanin synthesis
Methionine synthase
Transfer of methyl group from methyltetrahydrofolate to homocysteine to generate

methionine for the methylation cycle and tetrahydrofolate for purine synthesis
Adenosylhomocysteinase
(S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine)
Regeneration of homocysteine from adenosylhomocyesteine

(S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine) in the methylation cycle
Copper deficiency
39
Neurological Etiology
Cytochrome c Oxidase
There have been several hypotheses about the role of copper and some
of its neurological manifestations. Some suggest that disruptions in
cytochrome c oxidase, also known as Complex IV, of the electron
transport chain is responsible for the spinal cord degeneration.[5] [11]
Cytochrome c Oxidase mechanism in

mitochondrial membrane
Methylation Cycle
Another hypothesis is that copper deficiency myelopathy is caused by
disruptions in the methylation cycle.[11] The methylation cycle causes a
transfer of a methyl group (-CH3) from methyltetrahydrofolate to a
range of macromolecules by the suspected copper dependent enzyme
methionine synthase.[11] This cycle is able to produce purines, which
are a component of DNA nucleotide bases, and also myelin
proteins.[11] The spinal cord is surrounded by a layer of protective
protein coating called myelin (see figure). When this methionine
synthase enzyme is disrupted, the methylation decreases and
myelination of the spinal cord is impaired. This cycle ultimately causes
myelopathy.[11]
Myelinated neuron
Hematological Etiology
Iron Transportation
The anemia caused by copper deficiency is thought to be caused by impaired iron transport. Hephaestin is a copper
containing ferroxidase enzyme located in the duodenal muscosa that oxidizes iron and facilitate its transfer across the
basolateral membrane into circulation.[3] Another iron transporting enzyme is ceruloplasmin.[3] This enzyme is
required to mobilize iron from the reticuloendothelial cell to plasma.[3] Ceruloplasmin also oxidizes iron from its
ferrous state to the ferric form that is required for iron binding.[6] Impairment in these copper dependent enzymes
that transport iron may cause the secondary iron deficiency anemia.[3] Another speculation for the cause of anemia is
involving the mitochondrial enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV in the electron transport chain). Studies have
shown that animal models with impaired cytochrome c oxidase failed to synthesize heme from ferric iron at the
normal rate.[3] The lower rate of the enzyme might also cause the excess iron to clump, giving the heme an unusual
Copper deficiency
pattern.[3] This unusual pattern is also known as ringed sideroblastic anemia cells.
Cell Growth Hault
The cause of neutropenia is still unclear; however, the arrest of maturing myelocytes, or neutrophil precursors, may
cause the neutrophil deficiency.[3] [4]
Zinc Intoxication
Zinc intoxication may cause anemia by blocking the absorption of copper from the stomach and duodenum.[5] Zinc
also upregulates the expression of chelator metallothionein in enterocytes, which are the majority of cells in the
intestinal epithelium.[5] Since copper has a higher affinity for metallothionein than zinc, the copper will remain
bound inside the enterocyte, which will be later eliminated through the lumen.[5] This mechanism is exploited
therapeutically to achieve negative balance in Wilsons disease, which involves an excess of copper.[5]
Treatment
Copper deficiency is a very rare disease and is often misdiagnosed several times by physicians before concluding the
deficiency of copper through differential diagnosis (copper serum test and bone marrow biopsy are usually
conclusive in diagnosing copper deficiency). On average, patients are diagnosed with copper deficiency around 1.1
years after their first symptoms are reported to a physician.[5] Copper deficiency can be treated with either oral
copper supplementation or intravenous copper.[8] If zinc intoxication is present, discontinuation of zinc may be
sufficient to restore copper levels back to normal, but this usually is a very slow process.[8] People who suffer from
zinc intoxication will usually have to take copper supplements in addition to ceasing zinc consumption.
Hematological manifestations are often quickly restored back to normal.[8] The neurological symptoms will often,
but not always, cease.[8]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ icd10/ browse/ 2010/ en#/ E61. 0
http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=275. 1
Klevay, L. M. (2006). "Myelodysplasia," myeloneuropathy, and copper deficiency. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 81(1), 132-132.
Halfdanarson, T. R., Kumar, N., Li, C. Y., Phyliky, R. L., & Hogan, W. J. (2008). Hematological manifestations of copper deficiency: a
retrospective review. [Article]. European Journal of Haematology, 80(6), 523-531.
[5] Jaiser, S. R., & Winston, G. P. (2010). Copper deficiency myelopathy. [Review]. Journal of Neurology, 257(6), 869-881.
[6] Kodama, H., & Fujisawa, C. (2009). Copper metabolism and inherited copper transport disorders: molecular mechanisms, screening, and
treatment. Metallomics, 1(1), 42-52.
[7] Copper Information: Benefits, Deficiencies, Food Sources. http:/ / www. healthvitaminsguide. com/ minerals/ copper. htm
[8] Kumar, N. (2006). Copper deficiency myelopathy (human swayback). Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 81(10), 1371-1384.
[9] Iolascon, A., De Falco, L., & Beaumont, C. (2009). Molecular basis of inherited microcytic anemia due to defects in iron acquisition or heme
synthesis. Haematologica-the Hematology Journal, 94(3), 395-408.
[10] Myelodysplastic Syndromes. The Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, http:/ / www. leukemia-lymphoma. org/ all_page?item_id=55442.
[11] Jaiser, S. R., & Winston, G. P. (2008). Copper deficiency myelopathy and subacute combined degeneration of the cord: why is the
phenotype so similar? Journal of Neurology, 255, P569.
[12] Ataxic Gait Demonstration. Online Medical Video. http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=FpiEprzObIU& feature=related
[13] Bolamperti, L., Leone, M. A., Stecco, A., Reggiani, M., Pirisi, M., Carriero, A., et al. (2009). Myeloneuropathy due to copper deficiency:
clinical and MRI findings after copper supplementation. [Article]. Neurological Sciences, 30(6), 521-524.
[14] Pineles, S. L., Wilson, C. A., Balcer, L. J., Slater, R., & Galetta, S. L. (2010). Combined Optic Neuropathy and Myelopathy Secondary to
Copper Deficiency. [Review]. Survey of Ophthalmology, 55(4), 386-392.
[15] Jaiser, Stephan R. and Duddy, R. Copper Deficiency Masquerading as Subacute Combined Degeneration of the Cord and Myelodysplastic
Syndrome. Advances in clinical neuroscience and rehabilitation, http:/ / www. acnr. co. uk/ JA07/ ACNR_JA07_abnwinner. pdf
[16] Hedera, P., Peltier, A., Fink, J. K., Wilcock, S., London, Z., & Brewer, G. J. (2009). Myelopolyneuropathy and pancytopenia due to copper
deficiency and high zinc levels of unknown origin II. The denture cream is a primary source of excessive zinc. [Article]. Neurotoxicology
(Amsterdam), 30(6), 996-999.
[17] Dhawan, S. S., Ryder, K. M., & Pritchard, E. (2008). Massive penny ingestion: The loot with local and systemic effects. [Article]. Journal of
Emergency Medicine, 35(1), 33-37.
40
Copper deficiency
[18] Kaler, S. G., Liew, C. J., Donsante, A., Hicks, J. D., Sato, S., & Greenfield, J. C. (2010). Molecular correlates of epilepsy in early diagnosed
and treated Menkes disease. Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease, 33(5), 583-589.
41

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Copper Metal Overview

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Copper Metal Overview

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Copper

List of copper alloys

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Native copper (~4 cm in size)

Group, period, block

Standard atomic weight

Electrons per shell

Density (near r.t.)

Liquid density at m.p.

Specific heat capacity

(25 C) 24.440 Jmol1K1

+1, +2, +3, +4

1.90 (Pauling scale)

1st: 745.5 kJmol1

Van der Waals radius

Speed of sound (thin rod)

CAS registry number

Most stable isotopes

Cu is stable with 34 neutron

A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by

Copper just above its melting point keeps

Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world's

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open

World production trend

Copper output in 2005

Copper prices 20032011 in USD per tonne

The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most

A sample of copper(I) oxide.

Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the

Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2

Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II)

Ball-and-stick model of the complex

Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as

Copper(III) and copper(IV)

Antiquity and Middle Ages

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev

Acid mine drainage affecting the stream running

Assorted copper fittings

Electronics and related devices

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a

Architecture and industry

Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated

remarkable by its resistance to corrosion and is used in various parts

Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and

Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with the

Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoid

the results have not been confirmed by replication.[84]

in pure water, or acidic or alkali

in water containing sulfide

3.75(5) min IT (84%)

New copper discoveries

|+ Copper production (thousands tonnes)[9] [10] [11]

|+ Copper Reserves (thousands of tonnes)[11]

Copper Tonne Prices 1986 - early 2011 in USD, showing 2008's

List of copper alloys

List of copper alloys

Classification of copper and its alloys

Principal alloying element

Copper alloys, brass

Copper nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni)

Mechanical properties of common copper alloys[2]

Copper (ASTM B1, B2, Cu 99.9

Gilding metal (ASTM

Coins, bullet jackets