Welcome

WELCOME
Welcome to learn more about "NDT Principles and Limitations". This document was
originally the old Web course from 2002. The information is still valuable to read.
Expect from this welcome section the text are not changed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After completion of this web based training and the
following workshop you should have:

Basic NDT knowledge

Knowledge about NDT application on different
objects such as; welds, castings, forgings
Knowledge about typical defects in welds, castings and forgings
Knowledge about the most commonly used NDT methods applied within DNV Class
Knowledge about NDT procedures
Knowledge of personnel qualification and certification requirements
Knowledge about acceptance criteria
Knowledge to identify non-conformities during evaluation of procedures and witness NDT

An active role in giving feedback is both necessary and expected.

WEB BASED TRANING

This web-based training comprises of several parts (see left side menu). If you go through all the
parts, it should take you approximately 16 hours. Please note that you must complete this
module before attending the Workshop to follow.
We recommend that you divide your study into manageable parts. For example, two chapters per
day on the main "NDT Methods" section is usually enough.
We also recommend that you use the "Forum". This forum is an important channel for exchanging
viewpoints or for addressing questions to your colleagues. Your access to the forum is at the
bottom of the left-hand menu. Take a look !
NOTE: It is a challenge to go through all the content in this web-based program at your desk at
the same time as conducting your normal everyday business. It is essential that you allocate
enough time to your study.
If necessary, talk to your line manager and explain to him/her the importance of this web-based
element of your training. Remember that you will also have to pass a written test as a part of the
workshop that comes later on, the answers to which you will only find in this web based training
module.

Introduction and objectives

Many standards and codes require non destructive testing. In some cases the testing methods to
be used are specified. In cases where more than one method is permissible, the DNV
surveyor/inspector may be called on to specify the method. Whether the inspection method is
specified or optional, it is important for the inspector to have sufficient knowledge of the
advantages and limitations of common non destructive testing methods, and how they relate to
different defects in materials and welds.
The objective of this net based training module is to acquaint the participants with
the fundamentals of non destructive testing. The level of NDT knowledge shall be
sufficient to describe basic principles, advantages and disadvantages of the major non
destructive testing methods, operator certification, interpretation of NDT reports and
acceptance criteria.
In particular the participants shall be familiar with:

The importance of visual inspection.

The application of radiographic testing and its dependence on weld joint location, joint
configuration, material thickness, etc. and principals of basic radiographic film
interpretation.

The use of ultrasonic testing and the basic steps in performing a pulse echo examination.

The characteristics of magnetic particle testing, and the basic steps in performing testing.

The use of liquid penetrant and the basic steps to performing testing.

The use of eddy current equipment and the basic steps for performing testing.

The use of alternating current field measurement equipment and the basic steps for
performing testing

Leakage tests, plastic replica technique, and acoustic emission methods.

The reliability of the inspection process, probability of detection.

Certification schemes and the required level for qualification and certification of personnel
performing NDT.

The necessity of documented procedures and knowledge of international standards.

Overview of defects in materials

Chapter 2.1: Common defects in connection with welds.

Chapter 2.2: Common defects in cast materials
Chapter 2.3: Common defects in forged or rolled materials

2.1 Common defects in connection with welds.

Reference is made to fig. 2.1 where some of the defects described are illustrated.

1. POROSITY, 2. SLAG INCLUSIONS, 3. SLAG LINES, 4. LACK OF FUSION, 5. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION, 6.

UNDERCUT, 7. UNDERFILL, 8. OVERLAP, 9. LAMELLAR TEARING, 10. SURFACE CRACK, 11. INTERNAL CRACK, 13.
LAMINATION

Fig.2.1 Weld joints showing the.most common defects referred to in section 2.1
Porosity:
Porosity is the result of gas being entrapped in solidifying metal. The discontinuity formed is
generally spherical but may be cylindrical.
Unless porosity is gross, it is not as critical a flaw as sharp discontinuities that intensity stress.
Porosity is a sign that the welding process is not being properly controlled or that the base metal is
contaminated or of vanable composition.

Uniformly scattered porosity is porosity uniformly distributed throughout a single pass weld or
throughout several passes of a multiple pass weld. Whenever uniformly scattered porosity is
encountered, the cause is generally faulty welding technique or materials. Porosity is present in . a
weld if the technique used or materials used or conditions of the weld joint preparation lead to gas
formation and entrapment. If welds cool slowly enough to allow gas to pass the surface before
weld solidification, there will be little porosity discontinuities in the weld.
POROSITY
Cluster porosity is a localized grouping of pores that results from im-proper initiation or termination
of the welding arc.
Linear porosity is porosity aligned along a joint boundary, the root of the weld, or an interbead
boundary.
ELONGATED PORES OR WORMHOLES
Piping porosity is a term for elongated gas discontinuities. Piping porosity in fillet welds extends
from the root of the weld toward the surface of the weld. Much of the piping porosity found in
welds does not extend to the surface. Piping porosity in electroslag welds can become very long.
Inclusions
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and
base metal. They may be found in welds made by most arc welding processes. In general, slag
inclusions result from faulty welding techniques and the failure of the designer to provide proper
access for welding within the joint.
Slag lines are elongated cavities usually parallel to the axis of the weld, which contain slag or
other foreign matter.
SLAG INCLUSION
SLAG LINES
Lack of fusion:
Lack of fusion is the result of improper welding techniques, improper preparation of materials for
welding or improper joint design. Deficiencies causing incomplete fusion include insufficient
welding heat or lack of access to all boundaries of the weld joint that are to be fused during
welding, or both.
LACK OF FUSION
Incomplete penetration:
Incomplete penetration is joint penetration which is less than that specified. Technically, this
discontinuity may only be present when the welding procedure specification requires penetration
of the weld metal beyond the original joint boundaries. Inadequate joint penetration may result
from insufficient welding heat, improper joint design (too much metal for the welding arc to
penetrate) or improper lateral control of the welding arc.

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

Undercut:
Undercut is generally associated with either improper welding techniques or excessive welding
currents, or both. It is generally located at the junction of weld and base metal (at the toe or root).
Undercut discontinuities create a mechanical notch at the weld fusion boundary ( fig. 5.5, in ch.
Visual Inspection).
Underfill/excess weld:
Underfill is a depression on the face of a weld or root surface extending below the surface of the
adjacent base metal. It results simply from the failure of the welder or welding operator to
completely fill the weld joint as called for in the welding procedure specification.
Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, or root of the weld without fusion. It
can occur as a result of lack of control of the welding process, improper selection of welding
materials or improper preparation of materials prior to welding.( fig. 5.7, in ch. Visual Inspection)
Excess weld reinforcement is, in the root of the weld, ( fig. 5.5, in ch. Visual Inspection) caused by
improper fitup and/or welding technique. On the top ( fig. 5.6 in ch. Visual Inspection) it may be
caused by one or more of the following factors: too low travel speed, too low current, poor
planning of the welding sequence and bead size.

fig.5.5
Cracks
Lamellar tearing (cracks) are generally terracelike separations in base metal typically caused by
thermally induced shrinkage stresses resulting from welding.
LAMELLAR TEARING
Cracks occur in weld and base metal when localized stresses exceed the ultimate strength of the
material. Cracking is generally associated with stress amplification near discontinuities in welds
and base metal or near mechanical notches associated with the weldment design. High residual
stresses are generally present and hydrogen embattlement is often a contributor to crack

formation. Cracks may be termed longitudinal or transverse, depending on their orientation. When
a crack is parallel to the axis of the weld it is called a longitudinal crack regardless of whether it is
a centerline crack in weld metal or a toe crack in the heat-affected zone of the base metal.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the axis of the weld.
BRITTLE FRACTURE IN STEEL PRESSURE VESSEL
Longitudinal cracks in submerged arc welds made by automatic welding processes are commonly
associated with high welding speeds and sometimes related to porosity problems that do not show
at the surface of the weld. Longitudinal cracks in small welds between heavy sections are often
the result of high cooling rates and high restraint.
CRACK IN FLANGE TO DRIVE SHAFT WELD
Throat cracks are longitudinal cracks in the face of the weld in the direction of the axis. They are
generally, but not always, hot cracks.
SOLIDIFICATION CRACK
CENRE-LINE CRACK IN WELD CAPWELD
Root cracks are longitudinal cracks in the root of the weld. They are generally forms of hot cracks.
ROOT CRACK IN WELD

Crater cracks occur in the crater formed by improper termination of a welding arc. They are
sometimes referred to as star cracks though they may have other shapes. Crater cracks are
shallow hot cracks usually forming a multipointed star-like cluster.
Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They initiate and propagate from the toe of the weld where
restraint stresses are highest. Toe cracks initiate approximately normal to the base material
surface. These cracks are generally the result of thermal shrinkage strains acting on a weld heataffected zone that has been embrittled by hydrogen or an excessive cooling rate, or both.
Underbead and heat-affected zone cracks are generally cold cracks that form in the heat-affected
zone of the base metal. They are generally short but may join to form a continuous crack.

2.2 Common defects in cast materials.

Castings with wrong dimensions or indentations are usually the result of dimensional errors in the
pattern, incorrect design of pattern and mold equipment, or an uncontrolled casting process. Such
defects should be revealed by visual examination using proper tools and measuring devices. The
most obvious surface defects should also be discovered at this stage.
The less obvious surface defects and internal defects may be revealed by use of other NDT
methods. The most common types of such defects are:
Segregation. Local concentration of alloying elements or harmful impurities with the result that
ingots have a heterogeneous structure, with maximum impurity concentrations in the last regions
to solidify, i.e. around any central pipe which may be formed. Smaller areas of segregation
elsewhere result from the entrapment of liquid zones between growing solidifying crystals, as in
the case of ingot corner segregation. Segregations may affect the mechanical properties and
weldability.
Shrinkage. Cavity voids resulting from solidification shrinkage. The growth of dendrites during the
freezing process may isolate local regions, preventing complete feeding from the risers.

Pipe. The central shrinkage cavity in the feeder head of a casting.

Inclusions. Non-metallic materials in a solid metallic matrix. Common inclusions include particles
of refractory, sand inclusions, slag, deoxida-tion products, or oxides of the casting material.
Gas porosity. Voids caused by entrapped gas, such as air or steam, or by the expulsion of
dissolved gases during solidification.

SURFACE OR SUBSURFACE BLOWHOLES

BLOW HOLES, PINHOLES
Crack. A discontinuity formed in the surface, with length and depth substantially greater than the
width. The origin of cracks varies. Hot cracks are fractures caused by internal stresses that
develop after solidification and during cooling from an elevated temperature (above 65QC). A hot
crack is less visible (less open) than a hot tear and usually exhibits less evidence of oxidation and
decarburization. Stress cracks result from high residual stresses after the casting has cooled to
below 650 C. Stress cracks may form at room temper ature several days after casting.
QUENCH CRACKING

2.3 Common defects in forged or rolled materials.

Many of the defects typical for cast materials will still appear as defects after forging or rolling of
e.g. a faulty ingot.
Lamination is as excessive large laminar, non-metallic inclusion embedded in the material.
Laminations are usually caused by shrinkage cavities present in the upper section of an ingot
enlarged by the forging or rolling process.
Inclusions. In rolled and forged, materials inclusions are elongated in the work direction. Such
elongated inclusions are the main cause of the anisotropy of rolled steel plates.

Overview of NDT methods

Chapter 3.1: Visual inspection (VT)

Chapter 3.2: Radiographic testing (RT)
Chapter 3.3: Ultrasonic testing (UT)
Chapter 3.4: Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)
Chapter 3.5: Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
Chapter 3.6: Eddy Current Testing (ET)

3.1 Visual inspection (VT).

Method:
The test object is subjected to examination by the experienced eye of an inspector assisted by
vieing aids and measuring gauges.
Application/advantages:
The method may be used on all objects cast, rolled, forged and welded. Visual inspection
before, during and after welding may detect an aid in the elimination of discontinuities that might
become defects in the final weldment
Limitations:
It is limited to what the eye can see.
Principle:

Comments:
Visual inspection is the basic non-destructive inspection method. Its ability to prevent defects is
perhaps the most important feature of visual inspection, and more than for any other method its
success is in direct proportion to the knowledge and experience of the inspector. The method
should be applied as early as possible in a production process.

3.2 Radiographic testing (RT).

Method:
Radiographic image is produced by the passage of X-rays or gamma rays through the test object
onto a film.
Application/advantages:
Radiographic testing can be used on all metals to detect defects with an appreciable dimension
parallel to the radiation beam, on or below the surface of the object. Radiographic testing is most
applicable on three dimensional defects. Dependant on radiation energy, radiographic testing can
be used on material thickness up to 100 mm Fe or more.
Limitations:
Defects such as cracks perpendicular to the radiation beam cannot be detected by radiographic
testing. Radiography is readily used on flat plates. Lack of accessibility due to object/weld
configuration may, however, preclude the use of this method.
Due to radiation hazard operators must have an authorized knowledge of radiation protection.
Principle:

Comments:
The applicability of radiography for weld inspection depends a great deal upon the weld joint
location, joint configuration and material thickness.
Radiography uses X- or gamma radiation that will penetrate through the part and produce an
image on a film or plate. The density of the material in a discontinuity (air in the case of a crack,
incomplete fusion, or porosity) is usually lower than that of the solid metal. Different density
material attenuate the radiation differently and consequently produce optical density differences
on a film or plate. The selection of the radiation source (energy of the emitted rays) for a particular
thickness of weld is a critical factor. If the energy of the source is too high or too low for a given
thickness of material, then low contrast and poor radiographic sensi-tivity result.

3.3 Ultrasonic testing (UT).

Method:
Ultrasonic pulses are directed into a test object. Echoes and reflections indicate presence,
absence, and location of flaws, interfaces, and/or defects.
Application/advantages:
Ultrasonic testing is a sensitive NDT-method, which can be used on metals or non-metals. Best
results are obtained when the sound beam is perpendicu-lar to the defect. Defects may be

detected at depths ranging from 5 mm to 10 m in steel.

Limitations:
Operation of ultrasonic equipment requires experienced personnel. False indications may arise
from multiple reflections and geometric complexity. Small and thin objects and coarse-grained
materials may be difficult to test. For example, welds involving nickel base alloys and austenitic
stainless steels tend to scatter and disperse the sound beam: penetration of the sound beam into
these materials is limited and interpretation of the results may be difficult.
Principle:

Comments:
The ultrasonic method uses the transmission of mechanical energy in waveform at frequencies
above the audible range. Reflections of this energy by discontinuities are detected. In the pulseecho technique, which is most commonly used, a transducer transmits a pulse of high frequency
sound into and through the material and the reflected sound is received from a discontinuity or the
opposite surface of the test object. The reflected sound is received as an echo which, together
with the ori-ginal pulse, is displayed on the screen of a cathode ray tube. The method can be used
to detect both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

10

3.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT).

Method:
When an object is magnetized, iron powder applied to the surface will accumulate over regions
where the magnetic field is disturbed as a result of surface flaws.
Application/advantages:
MT is a simple and fast method to detect surface defects in ferromagnetic materials.
Limitation:
The MT is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials. It is for example not applicable to stainless
weld deposit on ferromagnetic base material. Trained operators are necessary to avoid misinterpretations.
Principle:

Inspection of crankshafts with hand yoke BWM 220/12 and adjustable poles

Comments:
Magnetic particle testing is used for locating surface or near surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. This method involves the es-tablishment of a magnetic field within the
material to be tested. Discontinuities at or near the surface set up a disturbance in the magnetic
field. The pattern of discontinuities is revealed by applying magnetic particles to the surface, either
by dry powder or suspended in a liquid (wet method). The leakage field attracts the magnetic
particles, and thus the discontinuities may be located and evaluated by observing the areas of
particle buildup. These magnetically held particles form an indication of the location, size and
shape of the discontinuity. Some of the factors which determine the detectability of discontinuities
are the magnetizing current, the direction and density of the magnetic flux, the method of
magnetization and the material properties of the object to be tested.
The electric current used to generate the magnetic field may be alternating (AC) or direct (DC).
The primary difference is that magnetic fields produced by DC are far more penetrating than those
produced by AC.
Compared to liquid penetrant inspection, the MT has the following advantages: it will also reveal
those discontinuities that are not surface open cracks (cracks filled with carbon, slag or other
contaminants) and therefore not detectable by liquid penetrant.

11

3.5 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT).

Method:
The surface to be examined is covered with liquid that penetrates surfaceopen cracks. The liquid
in cracks bleeds out to stain powdercoating applied to the surface after removal of excess liquid
film from the surface of the test object.
Application/advantages:
PT is a sensitive method to detect defects like cracks and pores that are open to the surface of the
material. PT may be used on both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
Limitations:
PT can only be used on clean surfaces and can only detect defects open to the surface.

Principle:

Comments:
The method is particularly useful on nonmagnetic materials where magnetic particle inspection
cannot be used. The liquid penetrant method is used extensively for exposing surface
discontinuities in nonmagnetic materials such as aluminum, magnesium and austenitic steel weldments. It is also useful for locating cracks or other discontinuities, which may cause leaks in

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containers and pipes.

There are two varieties of the penetrant method, both using a similar pe-netrant. One uses a
visible dye, usually red for color contrast, and the other a fluorescent dye. The main difference is
in the visibility of the indication: very small indications are less likely to be overlooked if they are
revealed by a fluorescent glow in a near darkness rather than a red indication viewed in normal
light.

3.6 Eddy Current testing (ET).

The Eddy Current testing method include also the following testing methods :
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
Electro Magnetic Array (Lizard EMA) (not presented in the course notes)
1. ET is widely used in the industry as an alternative to MT. The equipment type is often
recognised as Hocking impedance plane inspection. The method is based on manually probescanning without recording devices of defect indications. Normally the method is conducted as dry
based inspection (i.e topside above water).
http://www.hocking.com/(open in new window)
2. ACFM provided by Technical Software Consultants, UK (TSC) is a computerised system with
both automatic and manually probe-scanning options. The system provides recording devices for
post interpretation of defect indications. The system is capable to operate both as dry and wet
based inspection. ( i.e underwater and above water).
http://www.tscuk.demon.co.uk/tschome.htm(open in new window)
3. Lizard EMA provided by Newt International Ltd, UK is a computerised eddy current system with
both automatic and manually probe scanning options. The system provides recording devices for
post interpretation of defect indications. The system is capable to operate both as dry and wet
based inspection. ( i.e underwater and above water).
http://www.lizard.co.uk/ (open in new window)
These methods of detection can find fine surface breaking defects through non conductive
coatings. In addition they can be used to size defects both for length and depth. They are used
mainly for detection of surface breaking defects. General-purpose equipment can also be used for
coating thickness measurement and material sorting given appropriate calibration samples.
ET advantages:
1 Can be used through good quality non-conducting coatings
2 Can assess crack depth as well as length (immediately)
3 Quicker than MT (>2m/Hr)
4 Can be used on all conducting materials
5 Gives an electronic and written report (ACFM, Lizard EMA)
6 Can replay the scan for off-line assessment (ACFM, Lizard EMA)
ET disadvantages:
1 Can be more difficult than MT on tight geometry
2 Cannot assess sub surface defects
3 Depth of the defect will be along the surface of the defect not Through thickness

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Applicability of NDT methods on different material

defects

Note:
For non-magnetic materials liquid penetrant testing is used instead of magnetic particle inspection.

Table 4.1 Applicability of different NDT-methods vs. defects in welded joints:

Table 4.2 Applicability at different NDT-methods vs. defects in casting

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Table 4.3 Generally accepted methods for detection imperfections

15

Visual Inspection
Introduction
Visual inspection is the basic non-destructive testing method both during production processes and
also during field and inservice inspection.

This chapter deals with visual field inspection with emphasis on welding
inspection, for which the following may be stated: Visual inspection should be
performed before, during and after fabrication of any weldment. If properly
carried out, visual inspection may greatly reduce defects in the final weldment.

The main sections:

Chapter 5.1: Viewing aids and measuring gauges.
Chapter 5.2: Inspection before welding
Parent metal
Weld preparation, fit-up and assembly
Welding consumables
Preheating
Electrical parameters
Chapter 5.3: Inspection during welding
lnterpass temperature
Back gouging
Tack welds and interrun cleaning
Chapter 5.4: Inspection after welding.
Cleaning and dressing
Weld contour and shape of welds
Weld repairs
Chapter 5.5: Imperfections associated with welding
TIG welding
MMA welding
MIG welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Oxy-acetylene Welding
Chapter 5.6: Inspection reporting and records
Chapter 5.7: Quiz related to Visual Inspection

5.1 Viewing aids and measuring gauges.

Proper working light is imperative during all visual inspection. The color of the light should be such that
there is good contrast between any imperfections and their background. It should be possible to vary
the direction of the light to reveal imperfections in slight relief.

16

To give a reasonable idea of what the unaided eye can see, it may be remembered that a normal eye
under average viewing conditions can see a disc approx. 0,25 mm and a line approx. 0,025 mm wide.
The normal eye cannot focus on objects closer than about 150-250 mm. The function of hand lenses is
to enable the eye to view an object from a very short distance. For this purpose a hand lens with a
magnification 2 2,5 is suitable.
To inspect a weld that is not directly visible but is within viewing distance of the eye, a dental mirror
may be used. For more remote welds, intrascopes, fiber optic or portable TV-cameras may be used.
Standard workshop tools are used to inspect welds, such as straight edge, ruler, protractor, caliper
(internal, external or vernier), height/depth gauge and contour gauge.
Two typical gauges to be used for measuring the sizes of butt welds and fillet welds are shown in figure
5.1. Another measuring gauge which can be used for measuring of weld reinforcement on butt welds,
fillet weld leg length and angle for edge preparation is shown in figure 5.2.

Fig. 5.1 Measurement of weld profiles

17

Fig. 5.2 Instrument for measuring weld profiles

5.2 Inspection before welding.

Before welding, the inspector should:

have knowledge of the applicable standard and specification to be used

have knowledge of the welding procedure to be used and the welders qualifications where
appropriate
be provided with the working drawings

THE INSPECTOR SHOULD THEN CARRY OUT CHECKS ON THE FOLLOWING ITEMS:
5.2.1 Parent metal
The parent metal should be checked for correct specifications, dimensions, flatness, surface condition
etc.
5.2.2 Weld preparation, fit-up and assembly
The shape and dimensions of the weld preparation, including backing material are to be checked using
appropriate measuring devices. The fusion faces and adjacent material are to be checked for
cleanness.
The methods of assembly are often specified in the procedure or specification. It may be necessary to
note the position of tack welds for subsequent checks. Tack welds to be incorporated in subsequent
runs should be cleaned. When preheat is specified, this is to be applied before tacking. Minimum size
of the tack welds may also be specified. Regarding fit-up, the gap between the components should be
uniform, see A, B and C on Fig. 5.3, however, some non-uniformity may be acceptable. Linear and
angular misalignment (D and E) should also be within tolerance, however, it might be necessary to
preset the components to take care of the distortion caused by the welding.

18

Fig. 5.3 Alignment of butt welds

5.2.3 Welding consumables
Consumables are to be checked to ensure that correct item is being used and that it is in good
condition.
Manual metal-arc electrodes
Type coding and/or makers identification and diameter are to be as called for by the welding
procedure. Taken from sealed packets, the covering shall not be flaked or broken off and there shall be
no sign of electrode having been damp and subsequently dried out, such as crystallized salts on the
covering or rusty core wire. Storage ovens and heated quivers shall be used as applicable. (No
unauthorized returns to packet by economy-minded storekeepers!)
Submerged-arc wires and fluxes
Identification and matching of wire to flux are, to be checked. The flux shall not be contaminated
(caused by over-enthusiastic recovery) or damp.
Gas-shielded welding
Correct composition and diameter of wire, correct spooling for equipment in use, no contamination by
rust or grease, correct shielding gas and flow. In the case of mixtures correct ingredients and
proportions are important items.
Safe wire feeding is important for keeping a stable arc and preventing lack of fusion. Protection of the
arc from draught is also important.
Gas-cutting
The type and amount of fuel gas shall match the equipment in use. A correct cutting speed is
necessary to obtain a satisfactory surface of the cut.
5.2.4 Preheating
Rapid cooling after welding may lead to cracking, and the cooling rate may need to be reduced by
preheating. The faces to be welded and the adjacent metal, are usually heated to a temperature in the
range of 50 250 C immediately before welding. Pre heat temperature is normally to be re-established
at the start of each run. There may be adverse metallurgical effects if the required preheating
temperature is not correct. Two common methods of measuring the temperature are:
Surface pyrometer, the accuracy of this and other instruments should be checked regularly
Temperature indicating crayon (often referred to as the trademark of a major supplier, Tempilstick).
A check should be made that the preheat temperature is maintained at the specified distance from the
Joint, usually approx. 75 mm or six times the plate/wall thickness.
5.2.5 Electrical parameters
The welding procedure will normally specify the current and voltage to be used. When assessing the

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tolerances for this, the following should be taken into consideration:

The static and dynamic characteristics vary for the different makers of machines.
Increased fluctuations may be caused by loose connections (a loose welding return often
causes arc strikes which may be harmful to the material).
Meter readings may also for other reasons fluctuate substantially during normal welding.
Meters on the equipment are not always trustworthy unless they have recently been calibrated.

It is difficult to assess tolerances for current and voltage. Generally, a small deviation in the volt reading
is not so important, more important is that the heat input is sufficient to keep balance between the melt
and solid material and to keep good control of the melt.
A clamp meter is practical to control the current.

back to the top

5.3 Inspection Inspection during welding.

What is said about welding consumables, preheating and electrical parameters in the previous chapter
also applies during welding. During welding the following may be important to pay attention to:
Interpass temperature
For the case of multi-run welds, check that the conditions specified in the welding procedure for
interpass temperature are applied. Time lapse between root run and the following pass (in some cases
referred to as hot pass) may be important and is in some cases specified in the pro-cedure.
Back gouging
When back gouging is specified, check that the back of the first run is gouged out by suitable means to
sound metal normally followed by grinding before welding is started on the gouged-out side. The shape
and surface of the resultant groove should be such as to permit complete fusion and a proper shape of
the run to be deposited.
Tack welds and interrun cleaning
All recognized specifications call for cracked tack welds to be ground out. In some pipe joints proper
tack welds must be ground out to the original preparation before carrying out the root run in the area.
It should be checked that each run of weld metal is cleaned before it is covered by a further run,
particular attention should be paid to the junction between the weld metal and fusion faces. Weld
profiles with excess overlap or undercut at their edges may lead to poor fusion or defects in later runs.
Slag must also be removed before restriking the arc after stopping.
back to the top

5.4 Inspection after welding.

After the weld runs are completed, the weld is to be cleaned and inspected for shape and surface
defects. The assembly should also be checked against the manufacturing drawings and applicable
specifications or codes.

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The weld contour and transition to the base material may in some cases be very important from a
fatigue point of view.
Cleaning and dressing
It should be checked that all slag has been removed. Dressing may be specified from a design aspect
or may be necessary to facilitate testing by certain methods. When dressing of the weld face is
required, ensure that overheating of the material due to the grinding action is avoided. Furthermore,
ensure that due consideration is given regarding the di-rection of the grinding pattern versus the stress
direction. Use of the same grinding equipment for different materials may in some cases lead to
corrosion problems.
Weld contour and shape of welds
Butt welds:

Fig. 5.4 Incompletely filled groove can be measured and is normally not acceptable.
Root concavity may be acceptable in moderation.

Fig. 5.5 Undercut and excess penetration

Fig 5.6 Too much weld metal can adversely affect fatigue strength.

Fig. 5.7 Overlap caused by weld metal flowing onto the parent metal without fusing to it. Often
difficult to identify positively.

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Fig. 5.8 Insufficient weld metal reduces the weld strength.

Fillet welds:

Fig. 5.10 Leg lengths are the primary dimension of fillet welds, unless otherwise stated the leg
lengths are intended to be equal.

Fig. 5.11 Throat thickness, actual dimension is Tl. Dimension measura-ble by visual inspection of
finished joint is T2.

Fig. 5.12 Concave and convex weld faces

Fig. 5.13 Undercut and overlap

Weld repairs

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Repairs required after visual inspection are normally to be completed and the area reinspected prior to
testing by other methods.
When the weld does not meet the requirements, one of the following actions may be specified:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Report fault to authority for decision

Scrap fabrication
Re weld surface defects after grinding out faulty material, oxide, slag, etc.
Grind all faulty areas back to sound parent metal as per original specifications for edge
preparation, taper weld metal at ends of fault to allow adequate access and re weld to original
procedure.
5. Cut out (by thermal or mechanical process) all weld metal, re-prepare and re-weld according to
original procedure.

Where no guidance is given, a combination of 3) and 4) is assumed.

Intermediate inspection may be necessary during the process of repair-ing the defects to ensure that
the work is correctly carried out and that the defect is exposed and removed. Various NDT-methods
may also be used in addition to visual inspection to ensure that the defects are removed.
Not only weld defects and correct weld reinforcement should be paid attention to, other surface defects
may also be important, such as:
Torn surface, caused by removal of temporary attachments.
Arc marks, caused by insecure connection of welding return.
Stray flash, caused by electrode accidentally coming into contact with work away from weld region.
Such defects may be harmful in high-stressed areas, and they are usually rectified by being ground
back to sound metal.

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5.5 Imperfections associated with welding.

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5.6 Inspection reporting and records.

To be able to verify that the fabrication and inspection is performed according to the governing
procedures, specifications or codes, the inspector may need to make up a check list to ensure that
visual inspection of all relevant items at each stage of fabrication has been carried out. When required,
welds that have been inspected and approved should be suitably marked or identified.
The report should state how the inspection was performed, i.e. if artificial light, hand lenses or other
equipment have been used.
If other NDT methods are utilized, a report for visual inspection should normally be available and
accepted before further NDT is carried out.
A careful inspection and description of a defect can be of considerable assistance to experts trying to
diagnose the cause and possible remedies. Photographs or accurate sketches or both may in many
cases be helpful.
It should also be kept in mind that if special problems are experienced during fabrication, a
comprehensive reporting may be very important for future inservice inspection.
Concerning reporting, see also part "NDT Procedures and reports" (se left side menu).

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41

Radiographic Testing

Chapter 6.1: Introduction

Chapter 6.2: The radiographic process
Chapter 6.3: Quality of radiograph
Chapter 6.4: Film interpretation
Chapter 6.5: Advantages and limitations of radiographic testing
Chapter 6.6: Quiz related to Radiographic Testing

6.1 Introduction.
Radiographic testing can be applied to most materials depending on material type and thickness. All materials
absorb radiation, some more than others. Steel absorbs more than aluminum, copper more than steel, tungsten
more than copper etc., depending on atomic number and specific weight. As a rule we say that the more dense a
material is, the more radiation it will absorb and the thicker a material is, the more radiation will be absorbed.
The applicability of radiographic testing for weld inspection depends a great deal upon the weld joint location, joint
configuration and material thickness. The radiographic method is an excellent method for examining buttwelds for
volumetric defects (three dimensional) like pores, slag inclusions, slag lines, incomplete penetration etc. The
radiographic principle is shown in Fig. 6.1. The film must be located as close as possible to the back surface of the
object.
To detect two dimensional defects like cracks and lack of fusion, the radiation beam must be parallel to the
defects.

Fig. 6.1 Radiographic examination of butt weld

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Typical example of radiographic testing steel products

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6.2 The radiographic process.

Radiographic testing can be performed by using two types of radiation:
x-rays, which are produced electrically
gamma-rays, which are produced by (nuclear decay of) radioactive material
X-rays are generated by high velocity electrons hitting a tungsten anode. The anode will emit x-rays whose energy
level and spectrum can be controlled by adjusting the acceleration voltage (kilo Volts) in the x-ray tube.

Typical x-ray tube

A radioactive source (for example Cobalt 60 or Iridium 192) cannot be turned off and special shielding containers
of lead or uranium have to be used for storage and control of the source.
Typical gamma-ray equipment
Sketch radioaktiv source
In tables 6.1 and 6.2 some data on x-ray machines and gamma ray sources and their applications are listed.

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Table 6.1 Typical x-ray machines and their applications.

Table 6.2 Radioactive materials for industrial radiography (Iridium 192 and Cobalt 60 most commonly used)
The penetrating power of the radiation increases with its energy. The energy of Iridium 192 radiation

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corresponds to a x-ray voltage of appr. 800 kV. For Cobalt 60 the corresponding x-ray voltage is appr. 3000 kV.
(Due to radioactive decay the activity of radioactive isotopes decreases with time. After one half-life the activity
measured in Curie or Becquerel is reduced to one half.)
The electromagnetic spectrum
When using the x-ray machine as exposure source, the energy penetrating the test object may be controlled both
by the high voltage and by the exposure time. When using radioactive sources (gamma rays), only the exposure
time is controllable. This makes a x-ray apparatus better suited for radiographic testing.
When a beam of x-rays or gamma rays strikes an object, some of the radiation is absorbed, some scattered and
some transmitted. A thicker portion of material will absorb more rays than a thinner portion. The film under the thin
portion will become darker because more rays will penetrate to the film and give a higher exposure. Discontinuities
(pores, slag inclusions etc.) are normally light compared to the base material and explain why discontinuities
produce dark spots or lines on the radiograph. An experienced inspector or interpreter will recognize the type of
discontinuity from its image (shape, size etc.) on the radiograph.
Sometimes discontinuities may produce light spots on the radiograph, due to heavy metal inclusions e.g. tungsten
inclusions from the tungsten electrode used with shielding gas welding.
For determination of exposure times, special calculators are provided with the equipment. These calculators
normally give exposure times referred to steel. If other materials than steel are to be tested, the calculat-ed
exposure times have to be adjusted according to table 6.3.

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*) Tin or lead alloyed in the brass will increase these factors.

Table 6.3 Radiographic material thickness relative to aluminum or steel

Aluminum is taken as the standard metal at 50 kV and 100 kV, and steel at the higher voltages and gamma rays.
The thickness of another metal is multiplied by the corresponding factor to obtain the approximate equivalent
thickness of the standard metal (aluminum or steel). The exposure applying to this thickness of the standard metal
is used.
Example: To radiograph 0.5 inch of copper at 220 kV, multiply 0,5 inch by the factor 1.4, obtain an equivalent
thickness of 0.7 inch of steel. Thus, use the exposure required for 0.7 inch of steel.
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6.3 Quality of radiograph.

6.3.1 Geometrical unsharpness

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One important variable related to radiography is the geometrical unsharpness Ug. The factor is calculated from the
following formula:

where
b. = object thickness + object to film distance
d. = effective width of the focal spot (given in the equipment documentation for the x-ray or gamma ray source)
f. = film to source distance
For high quality radiographs, a small value of Ug is desired (IIW allows Ug = 0,2 mm for best quality).

Fig. 6.2 Geometrical unsharpness (clarification)

6.3.2 Intensifying screens

To improve the intensifying efficiency of the photographic process, socalled intensifying screens are used.
Note that screens in general should be placed close to the film (vacuum-packed).
Lead intensifying screens are usually thin lead foils (0.02 0.15 mm) glued to a cardboard support. Lead screens
may have an intensifying effect of 5 times, depending on the radiation energy. They have the further advantage of
absorbing the longer wavelength scattered radiation, thereby producing better contrast in the radiographic image.
Certain chemical salts have the property of fluorescence (they emit light) under the excitation of x-rays. Placing a
sheet of this salt next to the film will increase the sensitivity of the radiograph by 10100 times depending on the
screen type.
Lead salt intensifying screens combine the properties of the two screen types mentioned above: they are highly
intensifying and absorb scattered radiation at the same time.
Codes and specifications normally require lead screens to be used.

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Lead screens

6.3.3 Radiographic films

Radiographic film is classified according to its sensitivity to radiation (often termed the speed of the film). In USA
four sensitivity groups (14) are usually specified, while European manufacturers specify three groups (G1
G3). High-speed films are coarse grained and give low contrast radiographs, while slow-speed films are fine
grained and give better contrast and cleaner radiographs.
Standards and codes specify the films to be used, normally medium to fine grained films.
Sketch radiographic film
6.3.4 Image quality indicator (I.Q.I.)
In order to determine the sensitivity of a radiograph, a penetrameter or image quality indicator (I.Q.1.) is used. (fig.
6.1). Each radiograph must show the image of a penetrameter in order to be of any value. Code requirements will
specify type, size and position of the I.Q.I. If possible, the penetrameter shall always be placed on the source side
of the object. The most frequently used types of I.Q.I. are ASME (hole penetrameter), IIW or DIN (wire step
penetrameters). (fig. 6.3 and 6.4).
Calculation of sensitivity in per cent
The smallest hole or thinnest visible wire indicates the sensitivity in per cent of the base metal or weld thickness.
Depending on the code requirements the sensitivity shall normally be 1.52.0 per cent.
ASME standards normally specify a sensitivity requirement of 22T. The first number is the penetrameter
thickness in per cent of the object thickness. The last number (2T) is the hole diameter where T is the thickness of
the penetrameter. Each ASME IQI has three holes IT, 2T and 4T and the highest sensitivity requirements is 1IT
and the lowest is 4 4T.
Example 1:
Wall thickness: 10 mm steel
DIN/ISO 10-16 Fe: 4 visible wires, thinnest is 0,2 mm (table 6.3)
Sensitivity in per cent: 0.2 mm 100/10 mm = 2%

Example 2:
Wall thickness: 10 mm steel
ASME requirement: 2 2T
Sensitivity: The image of the plate and the hole 2T (with diameter twice the thickness of the I.Q.I.) is visible. The
sensitivity is then app. 2 per cent. (ref. ASME V).
If all wires of the DIN/ISO penetrameter in Example 1 were visible (thinnest wire is 0.1 mm) the sensitivity would
be I per cent.
The material of the I.Q.I. should belong to the same material group as the object (Steel, Aluminum, Copper etc.).
The IIW-penetrameters are available only in steel. DIN penetrameters are available in Steel, Aluminum and
Copper, and ASME penetrameters in all commonly used materials.
The diameters of penetrameter wires are shown in table 6.4
Ex.: BZ No. 16 corresponds to a wire diameter of 0,1 mm, No. 15 to 0,125 mm etc.
The radiographic sensitivity depends on correct density, good definition and high contrast. On page 33 are
indicated parameters and remedies for improving the quality of radiographs. See also section 6.4: Film interpretation.

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Table 6.4 Diameters of penetrameter wires

Note that the wire diameters of the IIW 0,1 0,4 are the same as DIN 10 16. This is also the case for IIW 0,25
1,0 and DIN 6 12. DIN penetrameters are identified by Bildgutezahl (BZ) given in brackets in table 6.3.

Image Quality indicator, ASME hole penetrameter and DIN wire penetrameter.

Fig. 6.3 ASME penetrameter

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Fig. 6.4 DIN and IIW penetrameters

Radiographic Sensitivity
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6.4 Film interpretation.

Viewing of the radiographs is the most important part of radiographic inspection. The interpreter must be familiar
with the radiographic method and techniques, welding processes etc.
The interpretation and evaluation shall be in accordance with valid specifications, codes or standards.

Interpreting of radiographs
6.4.1 Identification
The radiographs must be marked in such a way that no doubt can arise as to which part of the object it represents.
The identification has to be beyond dispute concerning the position and orientation of the film.
Identification system
Lead letters and numbers, measuring tape and direction arrows should be fixed to the Section being radiographed
and should appear on the radiograph. Position/orientation should be marked on a suitable sketch or drawing to
show the necessary details.

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Identification, traceability between the object being tested and the film
6.4.2 Density
The density of the radiograph shall be correct according to the procedure or specification. Generally, a density less
than 1 is underexposed whiles a density above 4 is overexposed. The density could be measured with a direct
reading densitometer or by means of density strips, i.e. filmstrips with fixed density. The density should be between
1,5 3,5 on a radiograph of a homogeneous part of the object unless otherwise specified.
Example: Calculation of density
6.4.3 Sensitivity
The radiographs should be checked for sensitivity level to prove that the recommended radiographic technique is
used.
Radiographic sensitivity
The sensitivity shall be within the limit stated in the procedure or specification, normally 1,5 2,0 per cent of the
radiographed cross section, see section 6.3.4.
6.4.4 Film quality evaluation
The radiograph shall be sharp and free from scratches, stains, unsharpness, fog and imperfections due to
processing. Where a continuous length of weld (object) is to be radiographed (100 per cent) the separate
radiographs should overlap sufficiently to ensure that no portion of the weld remains unexamined.
All requirements in sect. 6.4.1 6.4.4 shall be fulfilled before an evaluation of the quality/homogenity of the object
is made. If one or more of these requirements is not fulfilled the inspector may find it necessary to repeat the
radiographs with an improved technique.

6.4.5 Material homogenity evaluation and grading

The evaluation and grading shall be carried out according to given standards or specifications, considering:

type of defect
amount of defect
classification according to standard and specification (accepted/not accepted) or grading in classes.

The radiographs should be examined on an illuminated diffusing screen (viewing box) in a darkened room and the

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illuminated area should be masked to the minimum required area for viewing of the radiographic image. The
brightness of the screen should be adjustable so as to allow satisfactory reading of the radiographs.
Radiographs and sketchs of weld defects
Some typical standards or recommendations are:

ASME V/VIII ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; Non Destructive Examination
ASTM E 155 Reference Radiographs for Inspection of Aluminum and magnesium Castings
ASTM E 446 Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings up to 2 (51 mm) in thickness
Radiographic standards for steel castings
ISO5817/EN 25817 Arc-welded joints in steels - Guidance on quality levels for imperfections.
EN 26520 Classification of imperfections in metallic fusion welds with explanations.
ISO10042/EN 30042 Arc-welded joints in aluminium and its weldable alloys - Guidance on quality levels
for imperfections.

Radiograps and sketches of weld defects

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6.5 Advantages and limitations of radiographic testing.

6.5.1 Advantages

A radiograph will detect volumetric discontinuities such as porosity, inclusions, and even cracks if the crack
opening runs parallel to the radiation beam.
The radiogramme or film provides a 'visual' indication of flaws
A radiograph is an excellent and permanent record of the testing, with built-in evidence (penetrameter) to
verify the sensitivity of the film.
Well established standards and codes of practice

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Can be used on almost any material

A radiograph will show surface discontinuities such as undercut, in-adequate penetration, excessive
penetration and burn through. These defects can also be detected visually. Note: RT should not replace
visual inspection for surface inspection.
For visible testing of materials or processes, the film may be substituted by a fluorescent screen. This
enables the operator to see defects in materials, unwanted particles in a substance etc.. The same method
is often used in hospitals and for airport security checks.

6.5.2 Limitations

X-rays and gamma rays are hazardous radiations. Irradiation of the human body will increase the risk for
developing cancer and genetic defects. Such radiation cannot be detected by any of the human senses
and proper instruments have to be used to check the radiation level. Due to the radiation danger,
limitations may be imposed upon time and place of radiography activities.
Access to both sides of the test object is necessary to produce a radiograph.
The shapes of the test object may make it difficult to produce a radiograph with useful information.
Discontinuities such as cracks, laminations, lack of fusion, etc., must be aligned with or parallel to the
radiation beam to be detected clearly.
Choice of radiation energy for a particular thickness of weld is a critical factor.
Location of defect in test objects cross section is difficult to determine.

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Information typical x-ray systems is given on below web links:
http://www.agfa.com (open in new window)
http://www.yxlon.com (open in new window)
http://www.ndt.net (open in new window)

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Ultrasonic Testing

Chapter 7.1: Definition of ultrasound and properties of waves

Chapter 7.2: Methods
Chapter 7.3: Performance of ultrasonic testing
Chapter 7.4: Measurement of thickness and detection of defects
Chapter 7.5: Advantages and limitations of ultrasonic testing
Chapter 7.6: Quiz related to Ultrasonic Testing

7.1 Definition of ultrasound and properties of waves

7.1.1 Ultrasound
Sound waves with a frequency of 20kHz or more, i.e. above the normal range of the human ear, are
generally referred to as ultrasonic waves. In practical use 50 kHz to 50 MHz is used for material
testing. To a certain extent ultrasonic waves possess properties similar to those of light waves, i.e.
they may be refracted, focused and reflected.
For the testing of materials, piezo-electric crystals formed as thin plates are used for generating
ultrasonic waves. If an alternating voltage is applied to the crystal, the plate will vibrate with the
frequency of this voltage, i.e. it emits sound waves. Conversly, a sound wave striking the plate
produces a voltage at its electrodes. Common piezo-electric transducers are made of quarts and
barium titanate.
7.1.2 Properties of waves
The following relationship exists between the parameters frequency (f), wave length (l) and
propagation velocity (v) in a propagating sound wave:

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When ultrasonic waves are used for material testing, the following applies:

shorter wavelengths will detect smaller defects

the penetrating power increases with the wavelength
longer wavelengths should be used on coarse grained material

Frequencies may therefore be selected as follows:

small defects: high frequency (2-4 MHz)

large defects: low frequency (0,5-2 MHz)
fine grained material: high frequency
coarse grained material: low frequency

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7.2 Methods
When testing materials with ultrasonic waves, high-frequency sound waves propagate in
homogeneous solid bodies as directed beams, with very little attenuation. At interfaces between
media with different acoustic properties, such as air and metal, the waves are almost completely
reflected. This makes it possible to detect cracks, inclusions and other flaws by means of ultrasonic
waves.
Ultrasonic testing of materials may be performed by the following methods:
a. The reflection (pulse-echo) method
b. The transmission method
c. The immersion method
The most important method is the pulse-echo technique which will be emphasized in this section.
Ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic thickness

7.2.1 The reflection (pulse-echo) method

When an ultrasonic pulse is transmitted to the object, the time delay between the initial pulse and the
echo from the back wall, or from a flaw inside the object, can be measured (fig. 7.1).

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Fig. 7.1 The pulse-echo principle

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7.3 Performance of ultrasonic testing

7.3.1 Ultrasonic equipment

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For indication and measurement of thickness, distances and defect sizes, an ultrasonic apparatus
containing transmitter, receiver and indicating screen is required. Relevant requirements for such
equipment are:

The ultrasonic equipment should cover a frequency range of at least 1,0 - 6,0 MHz.

The ultrasonic equipment is to be fitted with a calibrated gain regulator with maximum 2 dB
gain per step.

Test range: applicable to the test

The ultrasonic equipment is to be equipped with a flat screen extending to the front of the
apparatus so that a reference curve can be drawn directly on the screen (see calibration
7.3.5).

The ultrasonic equipment must be able to operate with both combined and separate
transmitter and receiver probes (fig. 7.5).

The ultrasonic equipment should allow echoes with amplitudes of 5% of full screen height to
be clearly detectable under test conditions.

7.3.2 Probes
When testing materials with ultrasound, two types of probes may be used; the normal probes ( 0)
(longitudinal waves) and the angle probes (transverse waves).

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Fig. 7.2 Probes (transducers) for ultrasonic equipment.

Left: normal probe 0, right: angle probe 70.
The normal probe ( 0) generates longitudinal waves and transmits t hem (via a couplant such as oil,
grease or water) into a test object in a direction normal to the surface to which the probe is applied.
The pulse propagates in a straight direction, but due to beamspread, the soundfield will become
cone-shaped. The angle of beamspread is related to probe diameter and frequency. In fig. 7.3 the
principle of application of a normal probe is shown. Note that the echo height on the screen
decreases as the length of the soundpath increases.

Ultrasonic inspection
Normal probes are to cover a frequency range of 0,5 - 6 MHz. Typical values are
1 MHz, 2 MHz, 4 MHz and 6 MHz. Most commonly frequencies used are 2MHz and 4MHz.

Fig. 7.3 Application of a normal probe

The angle probe is constructed to transmit transverse waves at a defined angle into a test object.
Ultrasonic inspection
Typical angles are 35, 45, 60, 70 and 80. The most commonly used angels are 45, 60, 70. On
materials with sound-velocities different from steel, the angle will change according to Snells Law.
For instance, a probe of 60 in steel will give 56 in aluminium, 37 in copper and 35 in cast iron
(Table 7.1).

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The angle probes are to cover a frequency range of 2 - 6 MHz. Typical values are
2 MHz and 4 MHz.

Fig. 7.4 Application of the angle probe

Table 7.1 gives the angles of refraction in different materials for the most common types of angle
probes having an angle of incidence of 35 - 80 wit h respect to steel. The acoustic velocity in cast iron
depends on various factors, the quoted values being average figures.

Table 7.1 Angles relative to steel

The double crystal probe (which is a special normal probe) consists of two separated piezo-electric
crystals, transmitter and receiver (fig. 7.5). Because the initial pulse has to pass an acoustic delay
block before reaching the contact surface of the material, the initial pulse will not interfere with defects
immediately below the contact surface. In other words, the deadzone will be greatly reduced. (fig. 7.1)

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Fig. 7.5 Principle of the double crystal probe (TR or SE probe)

An ultrasonic pulse from the transmitter crystal will propagate via the delay block into the material,
and reflected pulses from defects will reach the receiver crystal resulting in an echo on the screen.
The delay block and separate transmitter-receiver configuration, make the double crystal probe useful
for detecting defects immediately below the contact surface and for measuring thicknesses within the
range 1 - 30 mm. It is of importance to notice that with a double crystal probe, the first echo is always
used for detection.
Usually the double crystal probe is constructed with the piezo-electric elements at an angle (1 - 5) to
the normal. This will increase the detection efficiency close to the surface of the material and prevent
multiple echoes from reaching the receiver. A double crystal probe with focused beam will be efficient
for detecting pitting corrosion (see also section 7.4).
Note: The surface must be metallic clean when using double crystal probes.
On a surface with a small radius of curvature, such as pipes with a small diameter, it may be
necessary to adjust the probe shoe to attain sufficient contact between the material and the probe.
7.3.3 Procedure
Ultrasonic examination must be performed in accordance with a written procedure. Each procedure
must include at least the following information, as applicable:

Type of instrument
Type of transducers
Frequencies
Calibration details
Surface requirements
Type of couplants
Scanning techniques
Recording details
Reference to applicable welding procedures

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7.3.4 Coupling medium and contact surface

A satisfactory couplant, in either fluid or paste form, should be used to transfer the ultrasound from
the probe into the material. Oil, grease, or glycerine are well suited for this purpose. A cellulose gum
(wall paper paste) is particularly suitable as it can be removed with water after inspection is
completed. The contact surface should be free from weld spatter and any other substance which may
impede the free movement of the probe or disturb the transmission of ultrasound to the material. Light
grinding of the surface and the weld may be necessary.
7.3.5 Calibration
The calibration of the apparatus and probes are of decisive importance for the testing result.
For the calibration of the equipment range scale and the angular determination of angle probes, an
IIW calibration block (V1 or V2) should be used. (fig. 7.6).

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Fig. 7.6 Calibration blocks, range calibration

Range calibration V1/V2

Acceptance criteria often define a defect by specifying the size/height of the defect echo in relation to
a calibrated reference curve. As the sound velocity will vary with the material tested (i.e. beam angle,
range calibration, sound beam profile, etc., varies with the material) it is imperative that the calibration
blocks are of the same material as the test object. For construction of a reference curve, see fig. 7.7.

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Fig. 7.7 - Construction of reference curves

Construction of reference curve

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ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V, Article 5, describes a method or standard which is
frequently used for ultrasonic testing of welds in steel constructions. In the reference block (fig. 7.8)
made from the production material (or of a material with similar acoustic and metallurgical properties)
a drilled hole is used as a reference reflector for establishing the reference curve.
The diameter and hole location are dependent on the thickness of the plate, and are given in the
ASME-standard. By placing the probe in different positions on the reference block and marking the
corresponding echo height, one can establish a distance-amplitude curve on the screen. Defects will
be accepted or rejected depending on the echo height compared to the reference curve and the
length of the defect.

Root defect detected, echo amplitude evaluation against reference curve

A more detailed description for the calibration of the ultrasonic apparatus is given in VERITAS
Classification Notes No. 7 "Ultrasonic Inspection of Weld Connections". (Note, this document is
currently under revision).
7.3.6 Acceptance criteria
Before starting the ultrasonic examination, it is important to define the code or standard the
examination should follow. The soundness of the materials/welds must comply with the criteria in the
defined code or standard.

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Fig. 7.8 - Reference block for construction of reference curve

L = length or reference block given by probe angle and material range to be covered.
T = thickness of reference block.
B = width of reference block, minimum 40 mm.
P = position of drilled hole.

Table 7.2 Calibration reference block requirements

7.3.7 Defect sizing
A method which is suitable for determining the size of large defects with normal probes and
angleprobes is the 6 dB-drop method, also called the half value-method. When a defect is detected,
the probe is moved towards the edge of the defect until the defect echoheight it reduced by 6 dB (or
50 %), and the center of the probe is marked as the edge of the defect. By moving the probe around
the defect in this fashion, the extent of the defect can be plotted. The same technique can be used
with angle probes.
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7.4 Measurement of thickness and detection of defects

Material thickness (T) may be measured by using normal probes. Calibration has to take place on
similar materials as the test object to avoid errors due to different sound velocities. By reading the
distance to echo number n and divide by n, the thickness can be measured within approximately 1 2 % (fig. 7.9)
Echoes appearing between full thickness echoes indicate lamination or other types of defects.

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Fig. 7.9 Thickness measurement using multiple echo-technique

Multiple Echo Technique

Ultrasonic thickness
In some cases the back wall of the test object may be so corroded (pittings) that the transmitted
sound is reflected from the pittings into the material. Thus very little ultrasonic energy is reflected back
to the probe and thickness measurement is impossible. In such cases double crystal probes should
be used.
Possible errors:
If thickness measurements are to be carried out on an object with a coated surface, the coating may
give rise to measurement errors. To avoid such errors please note:

When using single crystal probes, measure the material thickness between first and second
echo (fig. 7.9)

When using double crystal probes, the coating must be removed before measurement is
carried out.

When using corrometers, D- or K-meters, it is likewise imperative that the coating is removed
before measurements are carried out.
Ultrasonic thickness (single crystal probe)
Ultrasonic thickness (twin crystal probe)

When using double crystal probes for measurement of pipe wall thickness, be aware of correct probe
position related to the axis of the pipe.
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7.5 Advantages and limitations of ultrasonic testing

The principal application of ultrasonic techniques consist of flaw detection and thickness
measurement.
7.5.1 Advantages of ultrasonic tests:

1. Capable of detecting planar defects not detectable by radiography.

2. High sensitivity, permitting detection of minute defects.
3. Great penetrating power, allowing examination of extremely thick sections, e.g. up to 10 m of
steel.
4. Accuracy in the measurement of flaw position and estimation of flaw size.
5. Fast response, permitting rapid and automated inspection.
6. May be performed with access to only one surface of the object.

7.5.2 Limitations of ultrasonic tests:

Test conditions which may limit the application of ultrasonic methods usually relate to one of the
following factors:

1. Unfavourable geometry of test object; for example, size, contour, complexity and defect
orientation.
2. Undesirable material structure; for example grain size, structure porosity, or inclusion content.
Examples of materials difficult to test by ultrasonics are austenitic steel and welds involving
nickel base alloys. Penetration of sound into these materials is limited and interpretation of
results may be difficult. (It should be noted that austenitic materials are now widely used for
fabrication of chemical tankers and -installations as well as nuclear reactors.)
3. Coupling and scanning problems, surface conditions etc.
4. When using normal probes, defects located less than 4-5 mm below the test objects surface
is difficult to detect. (This is due to the equipment dead zone, the width of the pulse, and the
probes near zone where interference will affect the measurements).
5. Due to high sensitivity false or irrelevant indications may occur.
6. Requirement to operators qualifications. (Ref. appendix II).

Information on typical ultrasonic equipment is given on below web links :

www.krautkramer.com (open in new window)
www.panametrics.com (open in new window)
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Magnetic Particle Testing

Chapter 8.1: Application

Chapter 8.2: Method
Chapter 8.3: Magnetization principles and methods
Chapter 8.4: MT Performance
Chapter 8.5: Surface preparation
Chapter 8.6: Examination of welds
Chapter 8.7: Non-relevant indications
Chapter 8.8: Advantages of the MT method
Chapter 8.9: Limitations of the MT method
Chapter 8.10: Demagnetization
Chapter 8.11 Acceptance criteria
Chapter 8.12: Reporting
Chapter 8.13: Quiz related to Magnetic Particle Testing

8.1 Application
Magnetic particle inspection may be applied to detect surface defects in ferromagnetic materials.

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Welding inspection on reactor tubes with hand yoke and isolating transformer
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8.2 Method

The test object is magnetized

Magnetic powder (iron powder or iron oxide) is applied to the surface during magnetization.
The powder will accumulate where a surface flaw causes a leakage in the magnetic field.

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8.3 Magnetization principles and methods

Direct magnetization is induced when current is passing directly through the test object, e.g. by
applying prods. (Fig. 8.1)
Indirect magnetization is induced when placing the test object in a magnetic field, e.g. by
means of a yoke (electromagnet). (Fig. 8.2)

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Inspection of crankshafts with hand yoke and adjustable poles

The principle of circular magnetization is shown in Fig. 8.1 and longitudinal magnetization in Fig. 8.2.

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Fig. 8.1 Circular magnetization methods

Fig. 8.2 Longitudinal (or axial) magnetization

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8.4 MT Performance

Wet particles (iron particles suspended in liquid) are recommended below 60 C.

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Inspection of turbine blades with hand yoke and adjustable poles

Dry particles are recommended between 60C and 300 C.

Fluorescent particles may be advantageously used.

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It is recommended to use contrast color to provide adequate contrast when using nonfluorescent particles. The thickness of the layer should not exceed 75 um. The contrast color
must not be electrically conductive.

94

The highest detection sensitivity for surface cracks is obtained by applying alternating current
(AC) magnetization and wet powder.

The use of permanent magnets is not recommended due to the magnetic field configuration
which may mask defects in a large region around the poles. (The part of the field perpendicular
to the surface will hamper the mobility of the magnetic particles, and thereby disturb the
indications. Only the region between the poles with dominating field tangential to the surface
may be reliably tested, fig. 8.3.)

Prods, when applied, shall be tipped with lead or aluminium to avoid copper deposits and hard
spots from burns on the part being examined.

Fig. 8.3 Magnetic field configuration of a permanent magnet

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8.5 Surface preparation

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Prior to magnetic particle inspection, the surface to be examined and all adjacent areas within
at least 25 mm shall be dry and free of all dirt, grease, lint, scale, welding flux and spatter, oil,
or other extraneous matter that could interfere with the examination.

Rough surfaces hamper the mobility of magnetic powder due to mechanical trapping which in
turn produces false indications. Such areas should be surface ground.

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8.6 Examination of welds

Recommended field strength, perpendicular to the defect, is in the range of 2,4 kA/m (30
Oersted) to 4,0 kA/m (50 Oersted). The field strength should be checked by a proper
instrument (e.g. Hall probe). Field Strength Meter

Maximum sensitivity is obtained when the direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
defect. Prof. Berthold Test Block

As a rule of thumb the ratio current/prodseparation shall be in the range of 3 to 5 A/mm.

The prods and yoke shall be positioned as indicated in fig. 8.4 to obtain full coverage of a
weld.

Fig. 8.4 Positions of prods or yoke for a 100 % coverage of a weld

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Welding inspection on tubes, longitudinal and transversal crack indication with cross yoke
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8.7 Non-relevant indications

Non-relevant indications that do not result from presence of flaws may occur. Examples of such
indications are:

When applying a too strong magnetic force, particle buildups may occur around sharp corners,
at rough surfaces, small undercuts etc.
Changes in magnetic properties may give indications, i.e. between steel and mill scale,
between different base metals or between weld metal and base metal. A well known example
is non-relevant indications between non-ferromagnetic weld metal and ferromagnetic base
metal.

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8.8 Advantages of the MT method

A superior method for detection of surface cracks.
The method is fast and simple to carry out.
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8.9 Limitations of the MT method

The method is only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.

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Misinterpretations may occur depending on the test object surface, differences in chemical
composition of welds and base materials, object geometry etc.

Limitation of temperature range (during welding).

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8.10 Demagnetization
Reasons for demagnetization :
All ferromagnetic metals, after having been magnetized, will to some extent retain a residual magnetic
field. Demagnetization may be necessary if :

the magnetic field will interfere with the operation of instruments sensitive to magnetic fields.

during machining or cleaning operations chips may adhere to the surface and interfere with
subsequent operations like painting or dimensioning.

the test object is to be used for parts/components where remains from the magnetization is
undesirable (e.g. bearings).

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8.11 Acceptance criteria

The criteria are usually specified in the relevant standard/code.

Linear surface discontinuities (cracks, linear porosity) are usually not allowed.

Undercut may be accepted within specific limits in depth and length. In addition to the
magnetic particle examination, determination of the undercut depth must be performed by
visual inspection.

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8.12 Reporting
Like other NDT methods the main purpose of an MPI report is to identify the object examined and to
state exactly the location of the defects found. Photos and sketches are helpful enclosures to the MPI
report.
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Liquid penetrant testing

Chapter 9.1: Introduction

Chapter 9.2: Penetrant Testing Materials
Chapter 9.3: Method
Chapter 9.4: Surface preparation
Chapter 9.5: Types of penetrant
Chapter 9.6: Types of developer
Chapter 9.7: Penetration and developing time
Chapter 9.8: Evaluation of indications
Chapter 9.9: Acceptance criteria
Chapter 9.10: Reporting
Chapter 9.11: Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing (PT)
Chapter 9.12: Quiz related to Liquid Penetrant Testing

9.1 Introduction.
Liquid penetrat testing is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by bleedout of a
coloured or fluorescent dye from the flaw.
The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by
capillary action. After a period of time called the "dwell", excess surface penetrant is removed and
a developer applied. This acts as a "blotter". It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal it's
presence. Coloured (contrast) penetrants require good white light while fluorescent penetrants
need to be used in darkened conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".
The method is suitable for surface examination of all non-porous, nonabsorbing materials. For ferromagnetic materials, magnetic particle testing is recommended.
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9.2 Penetrant Testing Materials.

The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene and whiting
first used by inspectors near the turn of the 20th century. Today's penetrants are carefully
formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector. To perform well, a penetrant
must possess a number of important characteristics. A penetrant must:

Spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and

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even coverage.
Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
Remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and
developing steps.
Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
Must not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.

All penetrant materials do not perform the same and are not designed to perform the same.
Penetrant manufactures have developed different formulations to address a variety of inspection
applications. Some applications call for the detection of the smallest defects possible and have
smooth surface where the penetrant is easy to remove. In other applications the rejectable defect
size may be larger and a penetrant formulated to find larger flaws can be used. The penetrants
that are used to detect the smallest defect will also produce the largest amount of irrelevant
indications.
Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed the ultraviolet
radiation. Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white
developer background. Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant
systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However, visible
penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection.
Visible penetrants are also less vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that
can significantly reduce the strength of a fluorescent indication.
Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant from the part.
The methods are:
Water Washable
Post Emulsifiable, Lipophilic or Hydrophilic
Solvent Removable
Water washable penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with water alone. These
penetrants contain some emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash the
penetrant from the part surface with water alone. Water washable penetrants are sometimes
referred to as self-emulsifying systems. Post emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties,
lipophilic and hydrophilic. In post emulsifiers, lipophilic systems, the penetrant is oil soluble and
interacts with the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible. Post emulsifiable, hydrophilic
systems, use an emulsifier that is a water soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from
the surface of the part with a water wash. Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a
solvent to remove the penetrant from the part.
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9.3 Method
The main steps of the method are as follows :

Precleaning of the surface to be tested

Drying of the surface
Application of penetrant by spraying, brushing or dipping
Penetration time
Removal of excess penetrant

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Drying of the surface by normal evaporation or by careful blowing

with a fan or hair dryer
Application of developer as a thin layer by dipping, spraying, or by use of dusttank
Developing time
Inspection of the test object
Post cleaning (if required)

Principle of Liquid Penetrant Testing

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9.4 Surface preparation

The surface to be examined must be dry and free from paint, dirt, grease, lint, scale, welding flux,
weld spatter, oil or other extraneous matter that could obscure surface openings or otherwise
interfere with the examination (machining and grinding may close surface cracks mechanically).
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9.5 Types of penetrant

Three types of penetrant exist in both visible (most commonly red) and fluorescent color.
Ordinarily, fluorescent examination is the most sensitive.
Water washable penetrant
Water washable penetrants are most frequently used and are sensitive enough for ordinary weld
examination. For rough surfaces this is the only suitable type of penetrant.
These penetrants may be removed from the surface by water washing. A none dusting clean cloth
or free flowing water may be used.
Post emulsifying penetrant
Post emulsifying penetrants are mainly used on smooth surfaces. For such surfaces this type of
penetrant has a higher sensitivity than the water washable penetrant.
After the necessary penetration time a thin continuos layer of emulsifier is to be added to the top
of the penetrant. The emulsifier will interact with the penetrant.
The resulting liquid from this interaction is water washable.
After an emulsifying time, depending of the type of surface, the liquids used and the temperature,
all surface penetrant may be washed away without disturbing the penetrant inside the surface
discontinuities.
Solvent removable penetrant
For low temperature examination and for examination of smooth surfaces the solvent removable
penetrant is recommended.
Excess penetrant is removed from the surface by wiping with a dry absorbing (non-dusting) cloth
followed by re-wiping the surface using a clean cloth damp with a solvent remover.
Testblock
Normal temperature range for liquid penetrant examinations:
15C 50C (60 F 125F)
Above and below this temperature range liquids suitable for high/ low temperature examination

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are to be used.
A non-standard temperature requires a procedure qualification with a comparator block. For
details see ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sec. V, art. 6.

Comparator block
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9.6 Types of developer

Nonaqueous wet developer, which is a powder suspended in a volatile solvent.

Spraying with nonaqueous developer from a min. distance of 30 cm

gives the best result for field work.

Dry developer, which is a dry powder, less suitable for field use.

Aqueous wet developer, which may be either a powder suspended in water or a powder
water solution. The aqueous wet developer is suitable for high temperature
examination.

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9.7 Penetration and developing time

It is important for the test to use sufficient penetration and developing
time. Recommended times are given in table 9.7.

Table 9.7 Recommended penetration and developing times

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9.8 Evaluation of indications

Discontinuities at the surface will be indicated by bleeding-out of the penetrant, however, local
surface irregularities such as machining marks may produce false indications.
Insufficient removal of excess surface penetrant may also produce red/ fluorescent shadows or
false indications.
To evaluate indications, use a thin brush dipped in a solvent. Carefully remove just the colored
developer. Apply a new thin layer of developer. If the indication reappear, a discontinuity exists. If
not, there might have been a false indication.
Indication detected
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9.9 Acceptance criteria

Acceptance criteria will be stated in the relevant standard/code. Ordinary linear surface defects
like linear porosity, cracks, overlaps etc. are not accepted.
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9.10 Reporting
It is important that the inspection results are stated clearly with exact location of any defects
found. See NDT procedure specifications and reports for further details about reporting.
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9.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing (PT)

Like all non-destructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant testing has both advantages and
disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT
methods are summarised below.
9.11.1 Advantages

The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.

The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, conductive and non-conductive materials may be inspected.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be tested.
Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Lots of small articles, in batches, can be examined using automated systems
A power supply is not needed for some methods of penetrant testing

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9.11.2 Disadvantages

Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
When using penetrant examination for nickel base alloys, austenitic stainless steels or
titanium there exist some limitations as to the con-tent of the liquids, see ASME Sec. V,
art. 6.
Fluorescent penetrant examination shall not follow a color contrast examination.
Reexamination is to be carried out with the same type of penetrant as the original
examination.
The method is timeconsuming.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Interpretation of results is sometimes difficult
The method is often abused and skimped, or not fully understood
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials may be required
There can be a fume exposure problem, particularly in confined spaces

Main processtages of the penetrant testing.

From Metals Handbook: Common types, location and Characteristic of flaws or discontinuities.
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Information on typical penetrant systems is given on below web links.
http://www.bycotest.com(open in new window)
http://www.amgas.com(open in new window)

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Eddy Current Testing

Chapter 10.1: Introduction

Chapter 10.2: Electromagnetic Effects

Chapter 10.3: Eddy Current Generation and Detection
Chapter 10.4: Factors affecting Eddy Currents
Chapter 10.5: Quiz related to Eddy Current Testing

10.1 Introduction
Eddy Current inspection is widely used in industry for the inspection of metals. The eddy current
methods are sensitive to the following properties of metals:
Electrical Conductivity
Magnetic Permeability
Geometry
The capability of the technique in individual applications depends on the following:
The frequency of AC used
The sensor design
Distance of sensor from surface (Lift Off)
These parameters will allow assessment of object surfaces without need for electrical contact
(Through coatings).

Conductivity is the measure of the ease with which the electrons flow in a material and will therefore
determine the eddy current density; changes in conductivity will affect the eddy currents produced in
the material. Increased conductivity will reduce the depth of penetration of eddy currents into
the material.

Permeability has probably the greatest effect on eddy current testing. The eddy current signals
created by permeability changes in ferrous welds can make eddy current techniques difficult to
apply although ACFM technology has largely overcome these problems. Some eddy current sets
can provide useful information about materials by assessment of permeability (e.g. metal type or
condition). Increased permeability will reduce the depth of penetration of eddy currents into the
material.

One of the most important test variables is the frequency. Eddy current testing is carried out at
frequencies from a few Cycles Per Second (Hertz [Hz]) to several million Cycles Per Second
(Megahertz [MHz]). The most important effect of the frequency is on the depth of penetration
of the eddy current field in the test metal. Increased frequency will reduce the depth of
penetration of eddy currents into the material.
Depth of Penetration

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All methods using alternating current are limited by the depth of penetration of such currents into a
conducting surface. The theoretical depth of penetration (where the current is reduced to 1/3 of its
value at the surface) is dependent on conductivity, magnetic permeability and the frequency of
operation.
Four examples are shown:

Ferritic steel has high permeability and low conductivity. The permeability is the
dominant effect and gives a smallest depth of penetration.
Aluminium has a high conductivity and low permeability giving a middle depth of
penetration.
Copper has a higher conductivity therefore less penetration than aluminium.
Stainless steel has a low conductivity and low permeability giving the deepest depth
of penetration.

Copper appears between mild steel and aluminium.

Figure 3.1: Frequency and Depth of Penetration

Applications for which electromagnetic systems can be used include:
1 Surface Crack (defect) detection in conductors
2 Sub surface defect detection in non-magnetic conductors
3 Tube and bar inspection (production)
4 Tube inspection on site (e.g. Heat Exchangers and Condensers)
5 Metal Sorting
6 Layer Thickness Measurement such as:
a) Insulator on Conductor
b) Non-magnetic conductor on conductor
c) Conductor on Insulator

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10.2 Electromagnetic Effects

In the first half of the nineteenth century it was discovered that there are three effects. If a loop of
wire connected to a current measuring device is moved through a static magnetic field then the
device measures a current flow. This shows that electricity can be generated by magnetism and is
the principle of the dynamo or generator. A wire carrying an electric current experiences a force
when placed near a magnet. Also if the electric current reverses the force changes direction. This is
the principle of the electric motor. The changing of a current in a wire will cause another current to
flow in an adjacent but not touching wire. This is illustrated below:

Figure 3.2: Changing Current in circuit A produces current in adjacent circuit B.

It should be noted that it is the closing of the switch in circuit A which causes a current flow in circuit
B (a steady state current would have no effect). It is this phenomenon that leads to transformers,
radio and television transmission and eddy current testing. If an A.C. current flows in circuit A,
because it is always changing, then one also flows in circuit B. If circuit B is replaced by solid metal
then a current flows in that metal (which is the eddy current). The link between the two circuits is a
magnetic field. The full sequence of events is described below.
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10.3 Eddy Current Generation and Detection

Coils
A coil will increase the intensity of the magnetic field produced from an electric current. The field
from adjacent wires in a coil add to provide a new total magnetic field dependent on the current and
the number of turns in the coil. Coils are necessary in eddy current testing to produce a sufficient
magnetic field from limited current or a sufficient current from a limited magnetic field.
The shape of the magnetic field from a coil is similar to that from a permanent magnet. This can be
represented as a series of lines or, for simplicity a single arrow. For D.C. current the arrowhead is at
the North Pole; for A.C. this only occurs at a certain point in time but is related to the directions of
currents flowing at the same point in time. The magnetic field varies at the same frequency as the
current in the coil. The coil windings are also sometimes shown collectively. In practical eddy current
probes a ferrite material is often used to further concentrate and control the magnetic field. The
ferrite is usually in the centre of the coil, and in some applications (shielded probes) may also
surround the coil.

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Figure 3.3: Magnetic Field produced in a coil.

Eddy Current Generation
If a coil is brought in close proximity with a conductive material the alternating magnetic field
(primary field) will pass through the material. As discussed above eddy currents will be induced in to
the material. The eddy currents generated will normally have circular paths at right angles to the
primary field. The flow of the eddy currents in terms of magnitude, phase and distribution depend on
several factors.

Figure 3.4: Eddy Currents flowing in a material

These electrical Eddy Currents will induce a secondary magnetic field to flow in opposition to the
original primary field

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Figure 3.5: Secondary Field produced by the Primary Magnetic Field

Eddy Current Detection

This situation can be balanced and so the display can be set to read zero in the normal set of
circumstances, (no crack) but if there is a change in the Eddy Current flowing in the material this will
then alter the secondary field, which in turn will affect the characteristics of the primary coil. It is this
change that will be monitored and so displayed, normally, on either a meter or cathode ray tube
monitor.

Photo no. 1, Advanced Eddy Current instrument

Photo no. 1b, General Crack Detection image on instrument shown in picture 1

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Photo no. 1c, Corrosion Detection image on instrument shown in picture 1

Photo no. 1d, Coating Thickness Detection image on instrument shown in picture 1
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10.4 Factors affecting Eddy Currents

There are several factors, which will affect the eddy currents, which have been produced:
1. If a surface-breaking crack is encountered, in this case the Eddy Current is forced to flow under
or around the crack, this will change the characteristics of the primary coil and thus the metering
system can indicate its presence.

Figure 3.6: Eddy Current behaviour around a defect

2. Lift off of the probe from the material surface, if this varies then the results can be affected, unless
the probe has been specifically designed to limit the effects of lift off.

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Photo no. 2, Lift off effect, note air gap

Photo no 2b, No lift off effect, note no air gap

3. Varying permeability of the test material can affect the resulting flux flow in the test. The magnetic
permeability of a metal affects the ease with which magnetic lines will flow through it. In a material
with high permeability a larger density of these lines will be created from a given source, and the
lines will tend to concentrate in the material (particularly the surface). This has two effects: firstly a
greater amount of magnetic energy can be stored in the coil, therefore increasing its inductance,
and secondly plenty of eddy currents are generated which increases the lift off effects. High
permeability materials will have created a small depth of penetration of the eddy currents.
4. Edge effects, if the Eddy Currents come up against an edge then they will be compressed and
this will affect the results again.

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Figure 3.7: Edge Effect

Photo no 3 Edge effect

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Photo no 3b, No edge effect, probe fits to geometry

5. Changing thickness of the material under test, again this can affect the results.

Figure 3.8: Varying material thickness

Geometry
The geometry of a component under test can cause difficulties in eddy current tests. A curved piece
of metal will obviously have a different lift off response to a flat one, and the edge effect can distort
the eddy current field and produce a large signal. Geometrical effects can be reduced by designing
a probe, which fits the surface, or by the use of shielded probes.

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Photo no 4, Probes of various size and shape to fit various geometry

Photo no 5, Probes of various size and shape to fit various geometry

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Alternating current field measurement

Chapter 11.1: Introduction to ACFM

Chapter 11.2: Basic ACFM theory
Chapter 11.3: Benefits and limitations
Chapter 11.4: General applications
Chapter 11.5: Comparison of ACFM
Chapter 11.6: Quiz related to ACFM

11.1 Introduction to ACFM

What it is
Electromagnetic inspection technique.
Developed from the ACPD technique.
Designed to increase benefits whilst overcoming the limitations.
Uses a uniform induced field.
Requires no electrical contact so can be used through coatings.
Provides surface breaking crack detection and sizing (length and depth).
Does not rely on calibration.
Full data storage.
The a.c. field measurement (ACFM) technique was developed during the 1980s from the a.c.
potential drop (ACPD) technique to combine the ability of ACPD to size without calibration with the
ability of eddy current techniques to work without electrical contact. This is achieved by
maintaining the uniform input field (induced rather than injected) but measuring the magnetic fields
above the specimen surface instead of the surface voltages.
The main aim of both ACPD and ACFM is to avoid calibration on artificial defects whenever
possible because such calibration is known to be prone to error for a number of reasons:
There is increased scope for operator error.
The calibration piece is not representative.
A slot does not behave electrically like a crack.
The slot is unlikely to be in material representative of the crack location (i.e. parent plate, HAZ,
weld).
The slot is not generally in geometry representative of the crack location.
Calibration can only be valid for the defect length used because crack length influences the
depth signal.

In ACPD only one component of the surface electric field is measured since the voltage probe is
always placed parallel to the input current flow. In ACFM, on the other hand, use can be made of
all three components of the magnetic field, although usually only two components are needed.
The three components are defined in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Definition of field directions and co-ordinate system used in ACFM.

The Y component, By, is parallel to the input current, the X component, Bx, is perpendicular to
the current and parallel to the metal surface, and the Z component, Bz, is perpendicular to the
metal surface. For deployment on fatigue cracked weld toes for example where a crack is parallel
to the weld, the x-direction will be parallel to the crack edge.
In general terms, the theoretical modelling shows that the magnetic field components are related
to the rates of change of the surface potential differences. With no defect present and a uniform
current flowing in the y-direction, the magnetic field is uniform in the x-direction perpendicular to
the current flow, while the other two components, By and Bz, are zero. The presence of a defect
diverts current away from the deepest part and concentrates it near the ends of a crack (or on
either side of a pit). The effect of this is to produce strong peaks and troughs in By and Bz (above
the ends of a crack or either side of a pit), while Bx shows a broad dip along the whole defect. An
example of the Bx and Bz signals above a crack is shown in the chart recorder plot on the left in
Figure 2, while a qualitative explanation of the signals is shown in Figure 3.
ACFM probes generally measure Bx and Bz, the former being used to estimated crack depth and
the latter giving an estimated of crack length.

Figure 2. Example of chart recorder and butterfly plots from a defect.

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Figure 3. Qualitative explanation of the nature of Bx and Bz above a notch.

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11.2 Basic ACFM theory

Current induction
A coilof wire carrying an alternating current will generate a magnetic fieldaround it as
demonstrated in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. Magnetic field around a coil

Note that the magnetic field and electric field are always 90 degrees to each other.
If this coil is brought down onto the surface of a metal sheet the alternating magnetic field around
the coil induces a current in a thin skin on the surface of the metal - again at right angles to the
magnetic field.

Figure 5. Electric field induced in a metal plate

Figure 5 shows the lower portion of the magnetic field produced by an ACFM induction coil and
the AC electric current, which is induced into the surface of the metal.
It is this induced current, and particularly the region marked on the diagram where the current can
be considered to be approximately linear, that forms the foundation of the ACFM technique.
The ACFM instrument usually drives a current of 1 amp through the induction coil at a frequency
of 5kHz.
Field distribution
If we consider a uniform AC current sheet in the surface of a material, as in Figure 6, this will itself
produce a magnetic field above the surface at right angles to the current direction.

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Figure 6. Magnetic field produced by current in plate

With reference to the co-ordinate system shown above, where X and Y directions are along the
surface of the material and the Z direction is normal to the surface, a current flowing in the Y
direction will produce a magnetic field (termed B by physicists) in the X direction. We term this Bx.
The magnitude of the B field is proportional to the current density in the electric field: the higher
the current density (the closer the flow lines are together) the higher the magnetic field.
In Figure 6 the By and Bz components of the magnetic field are both zero and the Bx level
depends on the magnitude of the current.
If the current flow lines are parallel then there is no component produced in Z, i.e. Bz is zero. A
resultant of the magnetic field in the Z direction is produced by curvature of current or bending of
the flow lines as shown in Figure 7 Bz will be positive if the current curves in one direction and
negative if it curves in the other direction.

Figure 7. Magnetic field due to current curvature

The important principles to remember are that if a current is flowing in a surface (called the x - y
plane) then,

The magnetic flux density in the x direction is proportional to current in the y direction
The magnetic flux density in the y direction is proportional to current in the x direction
The magnetic flux density in the z direction (out of the x - y plane) is proportional to the
curvature of the current in the x - y plane

Fields around a defect

After having seen the way that an electric current can be induced into a metal surface using a coil
and the magnetic field that is produced above the surface of the metal by the induced current, we
can now look at the effect on the fields by the presence of a crack.

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Remember that because the current flows in a thin skin the current will only be disturbed by
surface breaking defects.
Figure 8 shows the way that a uniform electric current flows around a surface breaking crack and
the shape of the resultant magnetic field.

Figure 8. Electric current flow and resultant magnetic field around a crack.
Current flowing near to the crack ends will try to flow around the crack ends, which will cause a
slight bunching of the current, flow lines and, more importantly, a curvature in the lines. This can
be seen in Figure 8.
In the centre of the crack the current will flow down one crack face and back up the other side with
the result that the current density will be reduced on the surface, with no curvature of the flowlines.
Let us now look at how the Bx and Bz components of the magnetic field would change if an
appropriate sensor were moved along the length of the crack.

Figure 9. X - section to show how Bx and Bz vary along the length of a crack.
With reference to Figure 9 it can be seen that away from the cracks the Bx is at a certain
background level and Bz is zero. As one end of the crack is approached the Bz shows a peak,
which corresponds, to the current curving around the crack end and Bx shows a small rise in
accordance with the bunching of the current at the crack end.
In the centre of the crack the Bz drops back to zero and the Bx drops into a trough as the current
density on the surface decreases. The drop in Bx is related to the crack depth.

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A similar indication occurs at the other crack end: Bz shows a trough as the current curves in the
opposite direction around the crack end and Bx peaks slightly then returns back to the normal
background level. The ACFM software displays the Bx and Bz traces as shown above which
produce the characteristic signals shown in Figure 9 when a crack is encountered.
The butterfly plot
As well as using the Bx and Bz signals the ACFM software also uses another display called the
butterfly plot. This is simply an X-Y graph with Bx plotted along the Y-axis and Bz plotted along the
(negative) X-axis as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. The Butterfly plot

When no cracks are present the butterfly display will show a slightly moving spot. When a crack is
encountered the responses in Bx and Bz are combined in the butterfly to produce a loop, as
shown above.
This loop is a very useful display as other disturbances in the Bx and Bz plots due to lift off or
other geometric changes usually give very different plots than a crack.
Summary
The main points to remember about ACFM theory are:

AC Current is induced into the test piece such that the current runs orthogonal to the
expected crack direction
The current flows in a thin skin on the surface of the material
The technique is sensitive to surface breaking defects
The Bx and Bz components of the magnetic field above the surface of the specimen are
measured
Bx is sensitive to defect depth
Bz is sensitive to defect length
A defect will normally produce a dip in Bx, a peak-trough pair in Bz and a loop in the
butterfly plot.

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11.3 Benefits and limitations

General benefits
1. Works through paint and scale reduced cleaning.
2. Full records of all data irrespective of whether a defect is called.
3. Data available for review by another operator.
4. Easily deployed by a two-man team or singly.
5. Operates at high and low temperatures.
6. No requirement for area to be visible, providing access is available for probe.
7. Detection and sizing in one instrument.
8. No calibration less room for operator error.
9. Can be used for detection and sizing on many materials, e.g. Aluminium, stainless steel,
titanium. (Note that correction factors are needed).
Limitations
As with any NDT technique, ACFM does have some limitations to its use.
General
1. Scanning direction should take account of expected defect orientation.
2. Sensitivity reduces with increasing coating thickness.
3. Some probes are sensitive to gross geometry changes, such as plate edges. These can be
overcome by appropriate probe choice.
Carbon steel
1. Sensitive to surface breaking flaws only.
2. Depth sizing models are for isolated semi elliptical flaws
Non magnetic materials
1. Sub surface defects may be detectable depending on the skin depth, however the predicted
response can be difficult to quantify.
2. Sizing models for carbon steels may need modifying depending on skin depth.
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11.4 General applications

Manual weld inspection
ACFM is extensively used for the inspection of welded connections in a wide range of industries.
Most in air manual weld inspection is carried out with the new AMIGO instrument. The AMIGO has
all the advantages of ACFM inspection available on other TSC instruments, but in a smaller,
lighter package, and with the added benefits of a longer battery life and support for simple array
probes.

Figure 11. AMIGO system and one-man inspection of coated pipework

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The system provides:

Rapid scanning using a hand-held probe.

Reliable crack detection and sizing (length and depth).
Dual frequency option 5kHz (for optimum performance on ferritic steel).
50kHz (for improved sensitivity on non-ferrous metals).
Rugged site unit, IP54 rated.
At least 6-hour operation on one fully charged battery pack, and easy exchange of battery
packs in the field. General inspections with manual probes can usually last a full 12-hour
shift.
Reduced cleaning requirements with no need to clean to bare metal.
Capable of inspection through thin metallic coatings, or through non-conducting coatings
several millimetres thick.
Windows software for ease of operation and compatibility with other Windows
applications.
Full data storage for back-up, off-line view and audit purposes.
Access to a wide range of geometries using TSCs new range of active topside probes.
Buttons for RUN / STOP and MARKERS on instrument and larger probes to allow oneman operation in difficult access areas.
Probes with embedded serial numbers to simplify operation.

Still in the field is the previous model U9 Crack Microgauge. Although significantly larger and
heavier than the AMIGO, the U9 is still capable of manual probe ACFM inspections, although it
does not support arrays.

Figure 12. Inspection of pressure vessel using U9

A summary of common industries and typical applications is shown below.

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Some of the work involves the use of 2 man teams, including rope access specialists. With 2 man
operations ACFM allows the probe pusher to be remote from the inspector. The butterfly plot
removes the effect of non-uniform probe movement to allow reliable use of non-inspectors as
access providers. In this way it is not necessary to have skilled inspectors who are also skilled
divers or climbers.

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Figure 13. Two-man operation using rope access.

The use of rope access avoids the need for scaffolding. The use of ACFM avoids the need for
paint removal and re-application.
Sub-sea inspection
The same principals of 2-man operation are used for sub-sea inspections. The operator remains
on the surface and the diver deploys the probe. Good audio communications are essential with
good helmet mounted camera views required in most cases.

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Figure 14. Sub-sea schematic

Figure 15. The U21 Underwater Crack Microgauge and its use for node inspection
Automated and semi automated weld inspection
(Information available on request)
Elevated temperature inspection
(Information available on request)
Thread inspection
The inspection of threads can be difficult with conventional inspection methods particularly with

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the female component. The use of MPI and penetrants requires high levels of cleaning and in fact
highly skilled operators, especially when the crack site is only visible using mirrors.
The ACFM technique has successfully been used for thread inspection over a wide range of
thread types. ACFM can inspect through coatings or partially cleaned threads. Threads ranging
from 5mm (0.195) to 350mm (13.65) diameter have been successfully inspected in either parallel
or taper configuration. Sizes outside this range are also possible. Materials that can be inspected
include ferritic steels, stainless steels, inconel, titanium and other electrically conducting materials.
Special purpose automated systems are also available and can be customised to suit particular
customer requirements.
Hand deployed probes are available for detection and crack depth sizing. A typical manual
inspection system is shown below.

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Figure 16 Manual thread probe

In the oil and gas industry, ACFM is now being applied to the inspection of drill strings, mud
motors, bolts and casings. For thread inspection, manually deployed probes are available for use
with TSCs standard ACFM instrument (the Crack Microgauge). This same instrument can be
used for inspecting welds, bores etc. by simply changing probes. Simple handling systems can be
produced to allow the inspection of bolts or studs.

Figure 17. Titanium stud inspection rig

In some situations it is desirable to reduce the reliance on skilled operators to reduce costs and
increase reliability. For drill string thread inspection, TSC have developed an automated thread
inspection system known as ATI. ATI provides simple PASS/FAIL reporting and removes the
requirement for a skilled operator to make the initial interpretation of the data. BP, Shell, British
Gas, Statoil and OSO have supported ATI developments. The ATI system has successfully gone
through field trials, and was first used offshore (by Shell) in 1998.

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The ATI system is available for inspection of a wide range of standard oilfield threads, both API
and proprietary designs.

Figure 18. The ATI system and deployed pin probe

Application examples
The following pagescontain pictures of ACFM being used for several different application areas. In
most cases typical defect signals are shown along with pictures showing the component or
deployment method.

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11.5 Comparison of ACFM

Comparison with eddy current
The main rival to ACFM as far as detecting and sizing surface breaking defects is concerned is
the Eddy Current (EC) technique. A summary of the differences between ACFM and conventional
EC is given in Table 1.
The main drawbacks of EC arise from the use of a compact circular excitation current. This results
in a very sensitive detection capability, but also makes the technique prone to strong lift-off signals
and signals due to material property changes. The non-uniform nature of the current also limits its
sensitivity to deep defects because the current does not flow to the bottom. The most important
consequence, however, is the inability to model the current flow in a general way, making it
necessary to use calibration techniques for sizing.
The use in ACFM of passive sensor coils separate to the excitation field also makes it much
easier to build array probes than with conventional eddy currents. ACFM array probes with up to
192 sensors have been built using a single large-scale excitation field.

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Table 1. Summary Of differences between ACFM and eddy currents

Comparison with MPI
For ferritic components, Magnetic Particle Inspection, MPI, is commonly used for surface breaking
crack detection both topside and subsea. The technique requires removal of coatings and
cleaning to bright metal. A visual indication of defect location and length are produced using either
black or UV ink.
In many situations it is the depth of a defect and not its length that determine its importance in
terms of structural integrity. Therefore in order to ascertain depth an alternative technique, such as
ultrasonics or ACPD, needs to be employed before a decision can be made.
ACFM can detect surface breaking cracks without the need for extensive cleaning or coating
removal and provides crack depth and length information.
Increasingly, where ACFM has been adopted, if MPI is used at all, it is simply to confirm an
indication found by ACFM.

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Table 2. Summary of differences between ACFM and MPI

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Other NDT Methods

Chapter 12.1: Leak testing

Chapter 12.2: Thermographic inspection
Chapter 12.3: Plastic replica method
Chapter 12.4: Acoustic emission

12.1 Leak testing

Selection of System:
For leak testing it is important to choose the correct method in order to optimize sensitivity, cost
and reliability of the test.
Leak testing should follow a pattern. A rough method should be followed by a more sensitive one,
e.g. ultrasonic, bubble test, heliumspectrometer.
12.1.1 Visible methods
Bubble test:
A leak in a gascontaining enclosure may be indicated by the formation
of buobles in a soapsolution at the leak. The pressure drop from inside to
outside of a weld may be established by either a vacuum box or by preation of the enclosure.
Liquid penetrants:
Leaks may be detected visually by use of fluorescent or coloured liquids.
(Apply penetrant on one side and inspect on opposite side).
12.1.2 Acoustical method
An ultrasonic instrument will detect ultrasonic energy produced in a turbulent flow of gas through
an orifice. The ultrasonic energy is normally converted to an audible frequency in the instrument.
Defects down to 0.25 mm can usually be detected by this method. Registration of smaller defects
requires low background noise.
12.1.3 Radiographic method
If a shortlived radioactive isotope is injected into the system, leakages may be detected by
radiation monitors.
12.1.4 Tracergas methods
Halogen leak detector is a detector that responds to halogen tracer gases. A vacuum system can
be filled or pressurized with tracer gas. Leakage is registered using a sampling probe on the
outside of the pressurized system. Higher sensitivity (up to 1 O-7 torr 1/sec.) is achieved by
placing a sampling probe in a vacuum system and applying tracergass from outside.
Helium leak detector is a helium mass spectrometer responding only to helium. This is the most
applicable and reliable instrument for leak testing, and is used with the sampling probe either
inside or outside the vacuum system. A leakage rate of 1 0-11 torr 1/sec. may be detected.

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12.2 Thermographic inspection

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A number of devices respond to the temperature radiated by an object at a temperature above

absolute zero and convert it to a proportional electric signal. Readouts may be presented:

in digital form
as line graphs
on black-gray-white or colour screens

Thermographic inspection may be used for detection of heat leakage, e.g. as a survey of
refineries,oil installations, houses, cars etc.
12.2.1 Advantages
Some advantages of noncontact thermographic methods are:

the thermal output may be detected remotely

the thermal pattern is not disturbed by the instrument

inaccessible or difficult regions can be monitored, provided there is a clear view between
the sensor and the area to be measured

measurements may be made rapidly and accurately. In certain temperature ranges

temperature differences as small as 0.2 C may be m easured.

12.2.2 Limitations

The surface emissivity of the material is to be known.

Glass, plastic, water vapor and carbon dioxide may disturbe the detection.

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12.3 Plastic replica method

The plastic replica method is mainly used where it is desirable to study the object in a microscope
or a scanning electron microscope. By using the plastic replica method, however, the object can
be left undamaged.
Procedure:

Grinding and mechanical polishing

Electrolytic polishing

Etching

Applying plastic

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Examination of the removed plastic replica by microscope

Applications:

Examination of the microstructure of a material, e.g. after heat treatment of materials.

Detection of surface cracks (e.g. running hot cracks in crankshafts), which are difficult to
find by any of the traditional NDT methods.

Surfaces may be studied for damages like wear, pittings, fracture etc.

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12.4 Acoustic emission

Acoustic emission may be used for either continuous monitoring or during proof testing.
Acoustic emission as an instrumentation technique relies on the detection of acoustic signals
emitted from a growing crack or similar defect. By measuring the relative arrival times for an
acoustic signal from a crack at 3 or 4 transducers at different positions it is possible to determine
the location of the source of the signal. Areas or regions with a high concentration of detected
acoustic signals will indicate an active defect and can be identified for further inspection by other
NDT methods.
12.4.1 Advantages
Acoustic emission may be used in connection with full scale pressure testing of tanks or
containers of different materials such as wood, plastic, fiberglass, concrete or metals. Necessary
pressure may be provided either through a hydrotest or by raising the pressure of the liquid in the
system. In this way the shut-down costs can be reduced.
12.4.2 Limitations
The main disadvantages of the acoustic emission method are:

high costs due to advanced equipment and experienced personnel.

databank needed for testing of different materials.

difficulty in interpretation of results.

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Probability of detection (POD)

Inspection reliability

The reliability of the inspection process relies on :

1. Capability of the actual technique

2. Degree of reliance on operator skill
3. Inspection procedures used
4. Auditability

What is POD?

In its simplest form POD is a percentage of cracks detected

However in practice this must refer to cracks of a particular size - i.e. cracks must be grouped together in
a certain size range

POD can be referred to crack length or depth - how relevant this is depends on the inspection technique
and how it works, - and on how defect severity relates to the different dimension of a crack

Probability of Detection

Provides a basis on which to compare inspection methods

The terms is much abused!

In order to compare techniques the techniques must be evaluated in the same trial using the same
samples

The POD performance only relates to the trial in which it was derived

Conducting a POD trial

The defects must be real. If you want to know how good a technique is at detecting cracks, you must
evaluate it on real cracks - not artificial defects or slots

The samples must be representative of the components to be inspected in the field (shape size and
material properties)

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There must be sufficient numbers of defects to make the trial representative

POD Trials
In practice this means :

1. You cannot do trials on slots and relate that to real inspection in the field
2. You cannot rely on repeat inspections of the same crack
3. The way in which the POD is reported must refer to the way in which the trial was conducted

Presentation of POD

POD is often presented as a POD curve

This curve is either nothing more than a series of individual data points, or a curve fitted to the points

The data points are calculated on the basis of number of defects detected expressed as a % of defects
that could have been detected

The resulting point estimate of POD is an experimental POD

Typical POD Curve

Ideally the curve should show a rapid change from low detection to high over a small size range - and detection
should improve with crack size!

The ICON Project

136

ICON was a major European project conducted to evaluate the performance of Offshore NDT Equipment
The trials were conducted in 3 countries using a library of fatigue cracked welded tubular connections
(mainly nodes)
The results provide POD data for a range of underwater equipment

Plotting of POD in the ICON Trials

ICON POD Data

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Comparison of different electromagnetic NDT techniques used above water and MT(MPI) used underwater
(controlled working conditions)

ICON POD Data

Comparison of different electromagnetic NDT techniques used underwater and MT (MPI) used underwater (real
subsea working conditions)

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Limitations of POD

POD does not take account of false calls

POD derived in a lab trial probably provides an optimistic assessment of what can be achieved in the
field

If you set up a POD trial properly you need a large number of real cracks in real samples - But - how do
you know what you have really got!!!

Considerations for POD Trials

Characterisation of defects - ideally all defects must be destructively sectioned in order to allow a
comparison of the trial result with the real answer. In practice this is rarely done and the sample defects
are characterised - with NDT!

Keeping operator expectation low - if the operator expects to find a defect in every sample he will try
harder - may be good, may be bad

Spurious calls

Increasing sensitivity can lead to high numbers of false calls

POD does not take account of false calls

In the extreme, if an operator said everything was cracked, this could be interpreted in terms of POD as a
good result - all areas known to contain cracks were reported as cracked! It is therefore necessary to
consider false calls along with POD

One way of considering this is using Reliability Operating Characteristics ROC. In fact this is little more
than a data point plotting % POD against % false calls

Statistical treatment of POD data

POD trials give Experimental POD results

If all defects in a group are found, then the experimental POD for that group is 100%

However, statisticians will argue that just because all the defects in a group were found, if the group were
larger, then maybe one or more defects would be missed

To account for this, binomial statistics are usually employed

Binomial Statistics

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Binomial statistics introduce the concept of Confidence Levels

If there are 29 cracks in a POD trial and all of them are found (100% experimental POD), binomial
statistics gives a 90% POD with 95% Confidence for the same data. This is referred to as the 90/95%
POD and cannot be achieved with less than 29 cracks in a size group. Thus a large number of cracks
are required.

POD Trial Samples

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141

Certification schemes

CERTIFICATION SCHEMES FOR NDT PERSONNEL

Most standards specifying NDT will require certification of NDT operators. The aim of a
certification system is to guarantee that the operator is experienced and has the necessary
qualifications to perform NDT. Such a certificate may be limited to specific NDT methods and/or
materials, welding etc. It is the duty of the surveyor to verify that the operator has the necessary
qualifications and a valid NDT certificate for the actual testing to be carried out.
Different organisations and countries have established their certification schemes. Below some of
the best known is listed:
Chapter 14.1: ASNT American Society for Non-Destructive Testing
Chapter 14.2: CSWIP Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel, United Kingdom
Chapter 14.3: EN 473:2000 Qualification and Certification of Non-Destructive Personnel - General
Principles
Chapter 14.4: ISO 9712:1999 Non-destructive testing Qualification and Certification of
Personnel
Chapter 14.5: PCN Personnel Certification in Non-Destructive Testing, United Kingdom
Chapter 14.6: Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection
Chapter 14.7: NORDTEST Nordtest Scheme for Certification of Non-Destructive Testing
Personnel

14.1 American Society for Non-Destructive Testing ASNT

(Reference document: SNT-TC. 1A (1996))
The ASNT scheme for certification of NDT personnel is basically a system that may be adopted by
a company when establishing an internal inspection system. The ASNT system has also been
adopted by inspection companies and is often referred to by other certifying bodies. The ASNT
model is therefore described in more detail below.
The ASNT-scheme has three levels:
A Level 1
NDT operator shall be qualified, under the surveillance of a level II NDT operator, to perform
specific ND tests according to written instructions and to report the results.
A Level II
NDT operator shall be qualified to calibrate instruments and evaluate results with respect to
applicable codes, standards and specifications. He shall be familiar with the scope and limitations
of NDT methods and be capable of guiding level I NDT operators. He shall be able to prepare
written instructions and to organise and report non-destructive tests.
A Level III
NDT engineer shall be competent to perform training and examination of level I and II NDT
personnel. A level III NDT engineer will have several years experience in NDT and have a
detailed knowledge of standards and specifications. He shall be able to designate NDT methods

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and techniques to be applied for a given NDT problem.

ASNT certificates are issued for level I and II for the following NDT-methods:

Ultrasonic Testing,
Radiographic Testing,
Magnetic
Particle Inspection,
Liquid Penetrant Testing,
Eddy Current Testing
Leakage Testing.

NDT engineers at level III are approved as such by appointment issued either by ASNT or by the
company.

ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP)Revision 3 (November 1997)

This document establishes the system for central certification of nondestructive testing (NDT)
personnel administered and maintained by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing
(ASNT). The purpose of the ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP) is to provide
independent, transportable NDT certification by examination to promote national and international
acceptance of NDT certification and reduce multiple audits of certification programs.
Categories of qualification are defined in terms of the skills and knowledge required in given
method(s) to perform specified NDT activity(ies).
2.1 ACCP Professional Level III:
An ACCP Professional Level III shall have the skills and knowledge to establish techniques, to
interpret codes, standards, and specifications, to designate the particular technique to be used,
and to prepare or approve procedures and instructions. An ACCP Professional Level III shall also
have general familiarity with other NDT methods. An ACCP Professional Level III shall be capable
of conducting or directing the training and examination of NDT personnel in the methods for which
the ACCP Professional Level III is qualified. An ACCP Professional Level III shall have knowledge
of materials, fabrication, and product technology in order to establish techniques and to assist in
establishing acceptance criteria when none are otherwise available.
2.2 ACCP Level II:
An ACCP Level II shall have the skills and knowledge to set up and calibrate equipment, to
conduct tests, and to interpret, evaluate, and document results in
accordance with procedures approved by an ACCP Professional Level III or ASNT NDT Level III.
An ACCP Level II shall be thoroughly familiar with the scope and limitations of the method to
which certified and should be capable of directing the work of trainees and Level I personnel. An
ACCP Level II shall be able to organize and report NDT results. An ACCP Level II shall be
capable of developing an instruction in conformance with a procedure.
2.3 ACCP Level I:
An ACCP Level I shall have the skills and knowledge to properly perform specific calibrations,
specific tests, and with prior written approval of an ACCP Professional Level III or ASNT NDT
Level III, perform specific interpretations and evaluations for acceptance or rejection and
document the results in accordance with instructions. An ACCP Level I shall receive the
necessary guidance or supervision from an ACCP Level II or ACCP Professional Level III or
ASNT NDT Level III.

Validity and Recertification:

Certification shall be valid:

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for a period not to exceed five years, at which point recertification is required in
order to maintain certification; and
when an individual performs work in an IS only if all examination(s) required
for that work have been successfully completed and endorsement issued
accordingly.

Certification shall be invalid if the:

CMC finds after reviewing evidence that the individual has violated the
applicable code of ethics, and
individual does not satisfy the annual near-distance vision examination
requirement in 7.9.1. Failure to comply with this vision requirement may cause
revocation of ACCP certification.
Employer authorization (see 2.8) shall expire when employment is terminated.

Recertification
Recertification is required in order to:

extend certification after the specified period of validity; and

maintain certification after a significant interruption of continued satisfactory work activity
in that NDT method or IS for which certification is held.

NOTE:
A significant interruption of continued satisfactory work activity occurs when the period of
interruption is:

greater than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of qualification in the
method, or
less than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of
qualification, but greater than 12 of the last 24 months, or
less than the sum of an individuals NDT experience at all levels of
qualification, but greater than 36 of the last 60 months.

With this document visit ASNT homepage on Internet for more information about certification
http://www.asnt.org/certification/ (open in new window)
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14.2 DOCUMENT No. CSWIP-ISO-NDT-11/93-R

Requirements for the Certification of Personnel Engaged in NonDestructive Testing
3rd Edition September 2001

The CSWIP is a British certification system covering application on welding of the NDT methods.
The document prescribes procedures by which personnel may be examined and, if successful,
certified for ultrasonic testing, magnetic testing, liquid penetrant testing, visual and optical testing,

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radiographic testing and/or radiographic interpretation and eddy current testing as applied to
welded joints, castings and/or wrought components.
The requirements for examination eligibility, examination format and the rules
governing certificate validity and renewal are, as a minimum in compliance with ISO
9712 (1999) and EN 473 (1993).
The certification system comprises three parts:
1. General (theory and practical common to all applications of a particular
method of NDT)
2. Sector specific (theory and practical for the method related to a specific
application in the present case this is welds made by conventional fusion
welding processes, casings and/or wrought components)
3. Job specific (practical related to the special needs of an individual employer)
the examination is conducted by the employer.

General and sector specific examinations are conducted by, or under the control of, an Examining
Body authorised by TWI Certification Ltd. The present requirements are intended to meet the
majority of users needs for the practical non-destructive testing of welds, castings and wrought
products and to provide industry with an assured minimum standard of proficiency. The majority of
users of independent certification find the general and sector specific examinations sufficient for
their needs, and do not require job specific examinations. The specialist user may add job specific
examinations related to his/her own particular needs.
The examination is designed to test the candidates grasp of the subject and his/her
understanding of the operations he/she performs. The examination procedure involves written and
practical examinations.
Visit CSWIPs homepage on Internet for more information about certification
http://www.twi.co.uk (open in new window) or contact:
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AL, UK
Telephone: +44 (0) 1223 891162
Telefax: +44 (0) 1223 894219
Email: twicertification@twi.co.uk
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14.3 EN 473:2000 Qualification and Certification of Non-Destructive

Personnel General Principles
This certification standard covers proficiency in one or more of the following methods:
1. Acoustic emission testing
2. Eddy current testing
3. Leak testing ( hydraulic pressure tests excluded)
4. Magnetic particle testing
5. Penetrant testing
6. Radiographic testing
7. Ultrasonic testing
8. Visual testing
The system described in this standard can also apply to other NDT methods provided an
approved programme of certification exists. The certification body shall fulfil the requirements of

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EN 45013.
Levels of qualification
Level 1
An individual certificated to Level 1 has demonstrated competence to carry out NDT according to
written instructions and under the supervision of level 2 or 3 personnel. Within the scope of the
competence defined on the certificate, level 1 personnel may be authorised to:
Set up NDT equipment.
Perform the test.
Record and classify the results of the tests in terms of written criteria.
Report the results.
Level 1 certificated personnel shall not be responsible for the choice of test method or technique
to be used, nor for the assessment of the test results.
Level 2
An individual certificated to Level 2 has demonstrated competence to perform non destructive
testing according to established or recognised procedures. Within the scope of the competence
defined on the certificate, level 2 personnel may be authorised to:

Select the NDT technique for the test method to be used.

Define the limitations of application of the testing method.
Translate NDT standards and specifications into NDT instructions.
Set up and verify equipment settings.
Perform and supervise tests.
Interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes or specifications.
Prepare written NDT instructions.
Carry out and to supervise all level 1 duties.

Level 3
An individual certificated to Level 3 has demonstrated competence to perform and direct non
destructive testing operations for which he is certificated. An individual certificated to level 3 may:

Assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff.
Establish and validate NDT instructions and procedures.
Interpret standards, codes, specifications and procedures.
Designate the particular test methods, procedures and NDT instructions to be used.
Carry out and to supervise all level 1 and 2 duties.

Validity
The maximum period of validity of the certificate is five years. The initial period of validity shall
commence when all of the requirements for certification (training, experience, success in
examination and satisfactory vision test) are fulfilled.
Certification shall become invalid:

1. At the option of the certification body, e.g. after reviewing evidence of unethical behaviour
incompatible with the certification procedures
2. If the individual becomes physically incapable of performing his duties based upon failure
of the visual acuity examination taken annually under the responsibility of his employer

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3. If a significant interruption takes place in the method for which the individual is certificated.

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14.4 ISO 9712:1999 Non-Destructive Testing Qualification and

Certification of Personnel
This International standard establishes a system for the qualification and certification, by a central
independent body of personnel to perform industrial non-destructive testing (NDT) using the NDT
methods listed under EN 473 above.
ISO 9712:1999 has 3 levels of qualification as described under EN473 and the certificates issued
under this scheme has the same validity as certificates issued under EN 473, however this ISO
standard has less specific requirement to practical examination compared to EN 473:2000 and the
Nordtest scheme
ISO 9712:1999 is more or less equivalent to EN 473:1993
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14.5 Personnel Certification in Non-Destructive Testing (PCN)

United Kingdom
PCN Scheme
The PCN scheme, an internationally recognised scheme, for the certification competence of NDT
personnel, is accredited as meeting the requirements of European Standards EN 45013, EN 473
and international standard ISO 9712.
Entry to PCN examinations require training and experience in accordance with published
guidelines which are available free of charge on request from Customer Services, TWI Training &
Examination Services.
The scheme offers three levels of certification specific to industry sectors and NDT methods. The
scheme offers three levels of certification specific to industry sectors and NDT methods.
PCN certification is also available in a number of sectors:

tube and pipe

aerospace
welds
castings
wrought products (forgings)
general engineering products (includes welds, castings and wrought products)
railway

TWI offers PCN examinations at permanent locations in the UK and overseas and periodically at
additional locations according to demand. To be eligible for Level 1 and Level 2 examination,
candidates must have successfully completed, prior to making application for examination, a PCN
approved course of structured training to the relevant PCN syllabus and satisfy relevant work
experience requirements in accordance with document 'PCN/GEN Issue 3'.
To successfully complete examinations the candidate shall obtain a grade of at least 70% in each
examination part and an overall composite grade (N) of at least 80%.
Certificates

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PCN certificates are valid for a period of 5 years and can be renewed by examination or
documentation. For further information, please contact:
Customer Services
Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 891162
Fax: + 44 (0) 1223 891630
E-mail: trainexam@twi.co.uk
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14.6 Japanese Scheme for Certification of NDT Personnel

(Ref. Doc. NDIS 0601:2000)
Latest document NDIS 0601:2000 is almost corresponding to ISO 9712
with three level qualification as below.
Level 3 :Management level
Prepare or approve of specification and procedure
Evaluation and judgement of inspection results.
For RT, UT, MT, PT, ET, SM
Level 2 :Senior level
Control of inspection process and prepare of test report
Instruct to Level 1 operator
For RT, UT, MT,MY, PT, PD, ET, SM
Level 1 :NDI Operator level
Inspection and prepare of inspection record.
For RT, UT, UM, MY, ME, MC, PD, PW, ET, SM
UM= Thickness measurement
MY=Yoke type MT
MC=Coil type MT
PD=Normal PT
PW=Water type PT
English version NDIS 0601:2000 is not available.
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14.7 NORDTEST SCHEME FOR EXAMINATION AND

CERTIFICATION OF NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING PERSONNEL
(NORDTEST DOC GEN 010, fourth edition 2001 -06)
The Nordtest scheme for examination and certification of non-destructive testing personnel is the
main scheme for certification of NDT personnel in the Nordic countries. The Nordtest scheme is
meeting the requirements of European Standards EN 45013, EN 473 and international standard
ISO 9712. EN 473 includes general requirements related to examination and certification.
Nordtest scheme provides more detailed requirement to the technical content, principles for
judgement or level of quality in the examination, which assure a uniform performance of
examinations and certifications.

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NDT standards

Chapter 15.1: General

Chapter 15.2: Current NDT standards etc

15.1 General
The amount and type of NDT to be performed will often be specified by reference to a standard,
code or guideline. The NDT programs may be specified at different levels:
Laws and Regulations:
Laws and regulations are issued by the authorities and are normally written in general terms. In
some cases NDT programs may be specified. Typical references are Norwegian Maritime
Directorate (NMD), Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), US Coastguard, UK Health & Safety
Executive (HSE), Marine Safety Arency (MSA) UK. EU Directives i.e. PED (Pressurised
Equipment Directive).
Standards and Codes:
A standard is a document prepared by international or national standardization organizations.
Examples are ISO (International Standardization Organization) and ANSI (American National
Standards Institute). The term code may indicate the same level of recognition as a standard. An
example is the ASME Pressure Vessel Code. EURO Norms (EN).
Guidelines and Recommendations:
Different international or national societies, organizations or bodies may issue guidelines,
recommendations etc. concerning NDT. Guidelines etc. are publications giving practical
information on specific items like for instance Ultrasonic Inspection of Weld Connections issued
by DNV (CL.No.7).
Specification:
A specification is a precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, system or service, indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by means of which it may
be determined whether the requirements given are satisfied.
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15.2 Current NDT standards etc

Below are listed some of the most applied standards and recommendations where NDT programs
are specified:
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers has issued a Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
containing 11 sections. The relevant sections are:
Section V, Nondestructive Examination, which describes in detail the performance of NDT.
Section VIII Pressure Vessels describing NDT and acceptance criteria for such vessels.
The ASME-code is extensively used throughout the world not only for pressure vessels but is
often adopted for other structures.
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials Standards are often referred to for radiography of

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steel castings. Corresponding standards exist for castings of aluminium, magnesium, tin, bronze
and copper.
IIW
International Institute of Welding has established, as a recommendation, collections of reference
radiographs of welds in steel and aluminium. In the past these collections were often referred to
when specifying acceptance criteria of welds when radiographic methods were used. Nowadays,
national or international standards are more commonly used.
According to the IIW Reference Radiographs the types of defects are given by a lettering code
and the quality of the radiographs by a colour code: black blue green brown red, where
black is the best quality and red the poorest.
Below is listed some typical standards, rules and guidelines often used in connection with NDT.

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NDT procedure specifications & reports

(examples)

Now have a look at NDT procedure specifications including

examples of reports.

NDT procedure specifications and reports (examples)

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NDT Reporting Forms (examples)

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