Ground school

Uni
Syste
m

SI

Magic No
meter

Elevati
on
distan
ce

Meter
Meter
Nautical mile

3.2

British system
american
foot

1000
3.26*
*

KM
FT
FT
6080

KM

Weight
/mass
Volum
e
/capac
ity
Tempe
rature
Force
pressu
re
speed

M
KG
L

1.6
*1850
2.2
Weight =mass a see level
but as we go far away
4.5
from earth toward space
1M^3=1000L
the weight become less
because W is the GF

M
NM
LBS
GAL

33

N
ATM

7.2
inches of 29.92
mercury

PDL
HG

Knots
Knots
Knots

600/
*600
0.51*

machMach
Meter per second

Meter2

10.76*

areea
area

Square ft

Force
Force/ is either a push or pull , we have to types of force contact
force (there gonna be touch ) and non contact force like gravity
Inertia/ is the resistance of object to outside force ,inertia is
the first law of newton which say every object stay in the
same condition in less if it had been effected by outside force
and sa the mass of object is bigger as much the inertia is
Momentum / is the second law of newton which has relation
ship between mass and velocity (acceleration) F=M*A
as you increase mass as u reduce the velocity so the relation
Description the force on aircraft
ship between M and A is inverse
As the aircraft on the runway is under two downward forces
gravity and atmosphere pressure we need to a positive net
force upward which generated by wings at the moment
when aircraft lift the net force is up ward now
(gravity=weight=mass only at ground surface as you go

Is it true
/ Mathematic

/Density

L=CL*(D*V^2/2)
*A

Dry airD:p/(T+273)*287.05

L=lift
CL= coefficient

Liquid
density
=Kg/m
*3

Moist air D:p/

(T+273)*461.49 + dry air
density

Motion equation
D=density

Why not L=M*VSI

vertical speed
Like GF=M*9.81

KG/m*3

With constant
V=acceleration
Acceleration
S=UT+AT^2 -3
V=U+AT

-1

S=VT+AT^2 -4

V^2=U^2+2AS -5

S=1/2(V+U)t -2

Impulse is the difference between momentums of the same

object if we applied a force on it for a period of time in the same
direction of its motion the acceleration will increase

Impuls equation

F=MA
A=F/M
V=U+AT
V=U+T*F/M
FT=Mv-Mu
Boyle's law----P---V---inverse---as you increase volume pressure decrease increase space air molecules will have more space to be
free opposite is true
Charles law ----T----V----proportional-----increase temperature the volume will increase because temperature energies air molecules
and star expanding opposite is true
pressure law ----T----P----proportional-----as you increase temperature the pressure increase because air molecules expand
from each other

Basic Gas law

Static pressure (ambient )

Atmospheric pressure at ideal condition which is ISA =29.92
inch of mercury in HG=14.7 pound per square inch PSI 1013.25
millibars
the ideal condition is T=15C

Density=1.225kg/m^3 Dynamic pressure

As air move through objects we can move object through air

and creat the same effect as air pass over an object it is creat
and energy know as kinetic energy wich we can measure it
based on this equation KE=1/2(P*V^2) which mean dynamic
pressure one joule of KE is one Newton of force moving the
object 1 meter in the same direction of force and to calculate
the total pressure or stagnation or pitot pressure you must
consider adding ambient pressure to the dynamic pressure
Viscosity
Is a measure of the internal frication of the fluid and ability to
flow
the relations between viscosity and flow is inverse for liquids an increase in temperature reduce viscosity which increase flow
for gases an increase in T increase the Viscosity which reduce Density
Temperature and density -----inversely as T increase *
Volume you gonna have a greater unit volume so the air mass
will only occupy a small volume
Pressure and density.proportional.pressure reduce *
volume so you gonna have less volume and the air mass will be
squeezed in that small volume
Humidity and densityinverse cause water vapor which *
is lighter than air will occupy sme of the volume leave a small
volume for air
in real live you must consider the weather reports the volume #

Vi (indicated airspeed ) the one which you see in your indicator #

Airspeed

Vc (calibrated airspeed) is the airspeed which include the right #

corrections for installation and position errors
Ve(equivalent airspeed ) as we know when we are flying below #
300knots the compressibility is negligible but as we fly higher
than that speed the compression increase
V (true airspeed) is your real speed with considering the #
atmosphere which surrounding u the equation is V=Ve/density
At FL400 the air density is 1/4 of air density at sea level and V is
twice of Ve at sea level they are the same

Angles
AOA/ the anglebetween cord line
and RW
AOI/ the anglebetween cord line
and the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft
pitch angle / theangle between the
cord line and the
horizon

Is the thicker
point in the
camber and
from that point
to the leading
edge is around
30 per cent
from the cord
line length and

Is the radius of
circle the joining
the upper and
lower surface
curve and center
with a line
tangential to the
leading edge

What does P0
?? mean

Is it true
???

THREE dimensional airflow

Three dimensional mean the 3 axis of the aircraft in other
word the wing the behavior of airflow over wing is totally
different from the behavior on an aerofoil because it is
modify the effective angle of attack ,increasing drag and
stalling and as well stability and control

Wing terminology
wing span B/ the distance from tip to tipwing area S/is the aircraft surface area of the wing S=B*C average chord C/is the geometric average aspect ration/B/C is the proportional of wing span and average chord if the C is difficult to be determined we
follow this equation B^2/S play a role in the aerodynamic
characteristic and structural weight and it around 12 for
high speed air transport aircraft for jet fighters it is 3
Root chord Cr-tip chord CtTaper ratio is the ration of Cr to CtSweep angel /is the angel between the quarter chord line
and the lateral axis of the aircraft which effect in the
minimum lift compressibility and stall characteristic
mean aerodynamic center /MAC is a line pass through the center of the wing

Wing tip vortex

Wing vortex are generated due to the pressure different
between the upper surface and lower surface this cause a span
wise flow in the upper surface toward the root of the wiing but
the most important is the one under the wing and it is move
toward
AOA the
thiswing
cause
tipa .the
reduction
one which
in theontotal
right
liftside
and
move
to keep
anti-clock
the lift
wise
constant
and the
you
one
most
which
increase
on lift moves
the AOA
clock
which
wise
costincreasing
you drag the
this
AOA in crease pressure difference which indrag
turnin
increase
inducedspan
drag
wise flow which play abig role in the strength of vortex
the angel of deflection airflow effect TAS and vortex strength induced downwash-

How does the

downwash reduce
???Howthe
effective AOA

Trailing vortices create vertical velocity around the wing

specially in front and behind the wing which cause downwash

Wake turbulence
Those wake turbulence extend behind aircraft
tangential speed to those vortices is around 90m/s -300ft/sec they can extend to 9 nmthey drift downward and level at 500ft to 1000ft from the aircraft flight path level
the distance between the two vortex is 3/4 of the aircraft wing span
weight .high AOA .low speed those are a critical element in the strength of vortex
vortex decay in decay in strong atmospheric pressure faster than a call atmospheric condition
wind direction and its speed play a big role in expecting the potential location of those vortex
as we know when the air craft is around 1000ft from ground or by 2wingspan of the aircraft the direction of vortices deflects
outward when they touch ground they move within the lateral
axis of the aircraft with 5 kts of curse cross wind play a role

the position of the tail planeThe position of the tail plane ply a big role in the pitching
moment a high mounted tail plane will not have any effect but a
low mounted tail plane will have many effect which I am going to
demonstrate here
Basically the shape of the camber do not play a role in changing
the pitching moment but the position of the tail plane and the
ground effectdownwash angel are influencing the pitching moment generally
you increase
down
wash
nosethe
up strength
pitching moment
As theasaircraft
approach
from
thethe
ground
for wing
increase
due
to
increasing
the
download
force
by
reducing
tip vortex vanish because it is epact with the ground and can the
not
effective
of down
attachwash
.the which
opposite
will be
true
get bigger which
in turnangel
reduce
reduce
induce
drag and increase the efficiency of the aircraft which effect it
changing in downwash is not only caused by ground effect longitudinal stability ,pitching moment because of changing the
there is the operation of flaps and the shockwaves which
effective angle of attack and CP
generated on wings when flying higher the Mcrit (mach critical
) faster
than sound
the impact of the ground number
effect star
appearing
when by
the330knots
aircraft is at an altitude equal to the product of the aircraft wingspan
length and as it get closer the the effect increase
how to definite RAF the relative airflow had 3 characteristic magnitude / the speed of the aircraft is the TAS direction/ parallel and opposite to the direction of the aircraft Condition / the unaffected by the presence of the aircraft
The airflow which come behind wing is all ready had dynamic
pressure so it had been effected by the presence of the aircraft
and is no more parallel with the A/C due to the downwash so we
call it effective airflow and the aingle between the chord line and
the EAF we call it EAOA

Increase down wash --------reduce EAOA---------increase download

------increase nose up pitching moment
The opposite is true
interring ground effectAs u get closer the induce drag droop down the total lift become
more veticle with weight force which increase your efficiency and
you my experience a floating .as the induce drag will be drooped
down the present thrust will give an excess speed for aircraft
which give the aircraft a tendency to float and as well due to
increasing the effective angel of attack the pilot may have to add
same positive pitching
Generally the efficiency increase so the same AOA produce more
lift comparing with the same AOA at high levels and the same
thing for thrust to maintain IAS
due to a change in the airflow around the aircraft there going to be a position errors which misread the ASI there will be any
increase in the local pressure a the static port which cause the
ASI and altimeter to under read
leaving ground effect-

Ground effect

Lift formula
L=1/2*p*V^2*CL*S

Lift

L=lift
P=air density KG/M^3
V=true air speed Knots or NMPH
CL= shape of the wing and AOA
S= wing area m^3
Dynamic pressure (IAS)=1/2*p*V^2
CL=2*W/p*V^2*S
CL=Cle*@+CLo
AOA=@
CLo=CL at 0 AOA
Cle= longitudinal stability
W/p*V^2*s-CLo*(1/Cle*2=@
to keep A/C at straight and level flight L most equal W So an increase in a level of flight will reduce the density
which reduce the wing efficiency in generating lift due to
reduction in air molecules so an increase in air speed is an
essential for example flying at FL 400 the air density droop
to of the air density value at MSL the air airspeed will
increase to 4 time due to V^2
a nother point is keeping the air craft at the same level #
flight but with an increase in air speed will require a
decrease in AOA to reduce the CL for example if u doubled
your air speed the Dynamic pressure will doubled to 4 times
and IAS double the CL most be drooped down to
Is a matter of calculating the angel in a right angled triangle

Angel of descend

Scientists found that symmetric aerofoil generate 0 lift at Zero

AOA while Asymmetric aerofoil is capable of generating lift at a
& Lift(Symmetric
negative AOA
(Asymmetric aerofoil
in a scientific way there is a difference between the absolute AOA and geometric AOA
Symmetric /GAOA=AAOA the upper suction is similar to the lower section that why it is generate 0 CL at zero AOA (the
streamtube are similar )
Asymmetric aerofoil /AAOA is bigger than GAOA and that caused by the difference of design between the upper surface and the
lower section where the one on up is curve to the out side while
the lower one is curved to inside so the is no similarities between
the upper and lower streamtube which generate difference in
pressure
extra comparing / *symmetric /the upper cross section of streamtube is bigger than the streamtube of asymmetric aerofoil
but with a lower gradual section
commercial aircrafts prefer a symmetric aerofoil at cruise FL #
why? Because it is generate less lift comparing with a symmetric
aerofoil and as we know lift generate drag so reducing lif reduce
drag which mean lower the needed thrust which in turn related to
fuel money profit and etc But it is have a disadvantage when you
reduce airspeed because it is going to increase the minimum
TAS & IAS
IAS present dynamic pressure which is related to air density and
TAS a change in air density effect IAS and drop it down which
require an increase in TAS to maintain the required IIAS a more
explanation for a climb performance which is related to dynamic
pressure is a available in straight level flight

A aerofil with a thick camber it isa such great aerofoil because it

produce a high Cl which allowed the aircraft to fly at slow speed
but it is disadvantage that it is produce a huge amounte of drag at
a cruise flight the solution was by producing an aerofoil could
change it is shape by adding a hanged and movable surface at the
trailing edge and leading edge and can be extended and retracted
as it needed (flaps and slats )

Airstream
lyers one stop the other slow down , the thickness from 1 inch at 2
leading edge to 12 inch at trailing edge in B747
Laminar/smooth les friction drag not satiable drop down suddenly

Densty

Turbulent / the opposite of laminar

Proportional / molecules are squeezed
Separation/ AOA increase the point of separation move forward
Opposite/ molecules are near
Magnus effect

Airfoil
Increase the
camber
(curvature )
which increase
cord line length
in turn small
AOA with more
efficiency
You can use area
or change the
design of air foil
flaps slotted
deflect down
ward fowler
deflect back
ward
Leading edge

Momentum
effects

Momentum effects / is the resistance of a body moves in a

Stage 2
because
the CFchanges
of the lower
curved and
pathmotion
there going
to
circular
path
and offers
in direction
amount
be (as
same
particlesmoves
throwninup
the same
of the
theair
airstream
itsmoving
path through
the direction
airfoil it will
be
airstream
whichatincrease
the air
andcentrifugal
as well theforce
most)
curved
same points
andvelocity
this is the
important
is the
the path
upper
at the
threshold
of airfoil
as part
much
is curved
curved path
as much
the
centrifugal
force
which throw air particles upward due to CF and all of that reduce
Description/ stage 1 as the upper air particles at thepressure
front of
leading edge throw down ward due to the CF this is going to
Stage
3 the trailing
hasedge
a curved
path
downward
we
increase pressure
at theedge
leading
at the
same
time the so
lower
have creating
increase in
air pressure
airparticles are going to be throw upward
a tremendous
pressure
at the lower
comber
increasing
the AOA
/1 and due to the deflection between
the upper
airparticles
increase
momentum
effect and lower air particles the velocity of
airstream under the wing is going to be decrease considering that
the secret is the the/2 the lower curved path has more CF
curved path mow much is
curve? And the length
(more mean more CF)

Momentum more mass less

velocity /less mas more
velocity on the upper
???????surface

Distribution of
Pressure of air foil

the CP (CL) moves/3

forward by increasing the
AOA
a negative AOA reverse /4
the situation by transferring
the CP to the lower comber
and this could explain why
aircraft can fly upset (it is all
about the curved path which
side create the biggest
curved path and its
direction of course )
Resultant force

the resultant force is the total of lift and drag and

and it is 90 degree

on cord line (lift is 90 degree with relative wind )

the point of
Resultant force is where it cross with cord line
and it is the same
Point of pressure or lift
The CP/CL (resultant force point) moves forward as the AOA is
increased which this effect in the performance and stability of
the aeroplane