Chapter 4: Early Quantum Theory

4-1 First Ionization Energy is One of Many Periodic Properties of the Elements
- a direct indication of the arrangement of electrons about a nucleus is given by the
ionization energies of the atom or ion
- the ionization energy of an atom or an ion is the minimum energy required to
remove an electron completely from the gaseous atom or ion
- the first ionization energy I1 of an atom is the minimum energy required to
remove an electron from a neutral gaseous atom, A, to produce a positively charged
gaseous ion A+, and an electron eo A(g) A+(g) + e-(g)
- The second ionization energy I2 is the minimum energy required to remove an
electron from a gaseous A+ ion to produce a gaseous A2+ ion
o A+(g) A2+(g) + e-(g)
- In removing successive electrons from an ion, we must overcome an increasingly
grater electrical attraction between the positively charged ion and the electron that is
being removed
o Thus I1 < I2 < I2 < !4 < IN for any given gaseous atom
- Noble gases have relatively larger first ionization energies it is relatively difficult to
remove electrons from noble gas atoms; it suggests that they are more stable
- Alkali metals have relatively low ionization energies
4-5 Electromagnetic Radiation Can Be Viewed as a Beam of Photons
- Max Planck and his study of blackbody radiation (the emission of light from a
heated body)
o All solid objects at temperatures greater than zero kelvin emit thermal
radiation
o The radiation form a blackbody depends only on its temperature and not its
specific composition
o A good emitter of radiation is also a good absorber
o An ideal emitter will absorb all radiation incident upon it and will thus appear
black
o Planck proposed that the radiation from a heated body is emitted in discrete
packets called quanta (singular is quantum), and that the energy associated
with a quantum of radiation is proportional to the frequency of the emitted
radiation
E = hv
h = Planck constant = 6.626 x 10^-34 Js
his hypothesis explains why a metal object gives off red light when it
first begins to glow and then glows white hot as it reaches higher
temperatures
red light has the lowest frequency of visible radiation so its carries the
smallest amount of energy within the visible spectrum
o as the object becomes hotter, it emits more light at higher frequencies, while
still emitting light at lower frequencies
a heated body would be produced at all frequencies, with increasing
intensity at greater frequencies
o so Plancks theory of blackbody radiation assumed that a heady body emits
radiation only in small discrete packets
- the photoelectric effect
o it was discovered that electrons are ejected from the surfaces of certain
metals when they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation
o radiation of low frequency, no matter how intense, does not eject any
electrons whatsoever from the metal surface
o as the frequency of the incident radiation is increased, however, a frequency
is reached beyond which electrons are now ejected

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the value of this minimum frequency, called the threshold frequency,

depends upon the metal
at frequencies higher than the threshold frequency, electrons are ejected from
the surface of the metal
Albert Einstein pictured electromagnetic radiation as a beam of particles that
he called photons
Each of the photons in the beam is a little packet of energy with the
value of E = hv
The intensity of the radiation is proportional to the number of photons
in the beam
We call also express the energy of a photon in terms of wavelength: E
= hc/lambda