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These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At temperatures below about
250 C PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are used. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are
used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve,
often made of a metal alloy which is chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting
and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath
must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.
Wiring configurations
Two-wire configuration
The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is only used when high
accuracy is not required, as the resistance of the connecting wires is added to that of the sensor,
leading to errors of measurement. This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. This
applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.
Three-wire configuration
In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire configuration can be used.
Using this method the two leads to the sensor are on adjoining arms. There is a lead resistance
in each arm of the bridge so that the resistance is cancelled out, so long as the two lead
resistances are accurately the same. This configuration allows up to 600 meters of cable
Four-wire configuration
The four-wire resistance configuration increases the accuracy of measurement of
resistance. Four-terminal sensing eliminates voltage drop in the measuring leads as a
contribution to error. To increase accuracy further, any residual thermoelectric voltages generated
by different wire types or screwed connections are eliminated by reversal of the direction of the 1
mA current and the leads to the DVM (Digital Voltmeter). The thermoelectric voltages will be
produced in one direction only. By averaging the reversed measurements, the thermoelectric
error voltages are cancelled out.[citation needed]
Classifications of RTDs
The highest accuracy of all PRTs is the Standard platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs).
This accuracy is achieved at the expense of durability and cost. The SPRTs elements are wound
from reference grade platinum wire. Internal lead wires are usually made from platinum while
internal supports are made from quartz or fuse silica. The sheaths are usually made from quartz
or sometimes Inconel depending on temperature range. Larger diameter platinum wire is used,
which drives up the cost and results in a lower resistance for the probe (typically 25.5 ohms).
SPRTs have a wide temperature range (-200 C to 1000 C) and approximately accurate to
0.001 C over the temperature range. SPRTs are only appropriate for laboratory use.
Another classification of laboratory PRTs is Secondary Standard platinum Resistance
Thermometers (Secondary SPRTs). They are constructed like the SPRT, but the materials are
more cost-effective. SPRTs commonly use reference grade, high purity smaller diameter
platinum wire, metal sheaths and ceramic type insulators. Internal lead wires are usually a nickelbased alloy. Secondary SPRTs are limited in temperature range (-200 C to 500 C) and are
approximately accurate to 0.03 C over the temperature range.
Industrial PRTs are designed to withstand industrial environments. They can be almost as
durable as a thermocouple. Depending on the application industrial PRTs can use thin film
elements or coil wound elements. The internal lead wires can range from PTFE insulated
stranded nickel plated copper to silver wire, depending on the sensor size and application.
Sheath material is typically stainless steel; higher temperature applications may demand Inconel.
Other materials are used for specialized applications.
Applications
Sensor assemblies can be categorized into two groups by how they are installed or interface with
the process: immersion or surface mounted.
Immersion sensors take the form of an SS tube and some type of process connection
fitting. They are installed into the process with sufficient immersion length to ensure good
contact with the process medium and reduce external influences. [16] A variation of this style
includes a separate thermowell that provides additional protection for the sensor. [17] These
styles are used to measure fluid or gas temperatures in pipes and tanks. Most sensors have
the sensing element located at the tip of the stainless steel tube. An averaging style RTD
however, can measure an average temperature of air in a large duct. [18] This style of
immersion RTD has the sensing element distributed along the entire probe length and
provides an average temperature. Lengths range from 3 to 60 feet.
Surface mounted sensors are used when immersion into a process fluid is not possible
due to configuration of the piping or tank, or the fluid properties may not allow an immersion
style sensor. Configurations range from tiny cylinders [19] to large blocks which are mounted by
clamps,[20] adhesives, or bolted into place. Most require the addition of insulation to isolate
them from cooling or heating effects of the ambient conditions to ensure accuracy.
Other applications may require special waterproofing or pressure seals. A heavy-duty underwater
temperature sensor is designed for complete submersion under rivers, cooling ponds, or sewers.
Steam autoclaves require a sensor that is sealed from intrusion by steam during the vacuum
cycle process.
Immersion sensors generally have the best measurement accuracy because they are in direct
contact with the process fluid. Surface mounted sensors are measuring the pipe surface as a
close approximation of the internal process fluid.
History
The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase their electrical resistance with
rising temperature was first described by Sir William Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871
before the Royal Society of Great Britain. The necessary methods of construction were
established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn and Wein between 1885 and 1900.
Temperature sensors are usually supplied with thin-film elements. The resistance elements are
rated in accordance with BS EN 60751:2008 as:
Tolerance Class Valid Range
F 0.3
-50 to +500 C
F 0.15
-30 to +300 C
F 0.1
0 to +150 C
Resistance thermometer elements can be supplied which function up to 1000 C. The relation
between temperature and resistance is given by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation,
Here,
is the resistance at temperature T,
is the resistance at 0 C, and the
constants (for an alpha=0.00385 platinum RTD) are
Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance changes almost linearly
with the temperature.
For positive temperature, if we resolve the quadratic equation we obtain the following
relationship between temperature and resistance:
Pt1000
in
PTC
in
NTC
in
NTC
in
NTC
in
NTC
in
NTC
in
Typ: 404 Typ: 501 Typ: 201 Typ: 101 Typ: 102 Typ: 103 Typ: 104 Typ: 105
50
80.31
803.1
1032
45
82.29
822.9
1084
40
84.27
842.7
1135
50475
35
86.25
862.5
1191
36405
30
88.22
882.2
1246
26550
25
90.19
901.9
1306
26083
19560
20
92.16
921.6
1366
19414
14560
15
94.12
941.2
1430
14596
10943
10
96.09
960.9
1493
11066
8299
98.04
980.4
1561
31389
8466
100.00
1000.0
1628
23868
6536
101.95
1019.5
1700
18299
5078
10
103.90
1039.0
1771
14130
3986
15
105.85
1058.5
1847
10998
20
107.79
1077.9
1922
8618
25
109.73
1097.3
2000
6800
15000
30
111.67
1116.7
2080
5401
11933
35
113.61
1136.1
2162
4317
9522
40
115.54
1155.4
2244
3471
7657
45
117.47
1174.7
2330
6194
50
119.40
1194.0
2415
5039
55
121.32
1213.2
2505
4299
27475
60
123.24
1232.4
2595
3756
22590
65
125.16
1251.6
2689
18668
70
127.07
1270.7
2782
15052
75
128.98
1289.8
2880
12932
80
130.89
1308.9
2977
10837
85
132.80
1328.0
3079
9121
90
134.70
1347.0
3180
7708
95
136.60
1366.0
3285
6539
100
138.50
1385.0
3390
105
140.39
1403.9
110
142.29
1422.9
150
157.31
1573.1
200
175.84
1758.4