Real Valued Functions

Linear Algebra

Formula

f x x 2

f x, y

f x, y x 2 y 2

f x1 , x2 , , xn

f x1, x2 , , xn x12 x22

Function from
R n to R

To illustarte one important way in which transformations can

arise, suppose that
f1, f 2 , , f m are real-valued functions of n real variables, say

Another way to view

w1 f1 x1, x2 , , xn

4
3
1
3

1 5
2 0 5 1 1 8

xn2

Ax:= b
Matrix A is an object acting on x by multiplication to
produce a new vector Ax or b.
Example

w2 f 2 x1, x2 , , xn
wm f m x1 , x2 , , xn

Function from
R 2 to R
Function from
R 3 to R

Introduction

These m equations assign a unique point w1 , w2 , , wm

in R m to each point x1 , x2 , , xn in R n .

Function from R to
R

f x , y , z x 2 y 2 z 2

Linear Transformations

Description

f x

f x , y , z

Linear Transformations

Example

Ax
3

b
4

Introduction

Introduction
Multiplication by A

A mn x = b

A transformation (or function or mapping) T from Rn to

Rm is a rule that assigns to each vector x in Rn, a

unique vector T(x) in Rm.
The vector T(x) is called the image of x under T. The
set Rn is called the Domain of T, and the set of all
images T(x) in Rm is called Range.
We write T:Rn -> Rm to indicate that the domain of T is
Rn and the range of T is contained in Rm.

=>

T : n m

Solving Ax = b amounts to finding all vectors x in Rn

that are transformed into the vector b in Rm under the

action of multiplication by Amn. The correspondence
from x to b is a function from one set of vectors to
another. This concept is generalization of f:R -> R.
5

Matrix Transformation

Introduction

For each x in Rn , Tx is computed as Ax, where A is

an mn matrix. We sometimes denote this Matrix

Transformation by x -> Ax. Domain of T lies in Rn
when A has n columns and range of T lies in Rm when
each column of A has m entries.

Matrix Transformation Example 1

Matrix Transformation Example 1

Example

a.
b.
c.
d.

1 3
3
3
2
A 3 5 , u , b 2 , c 2
Let
1
1 7
5
5
and define a transformation T:R2 ->R3 by
T(x)=Ax, so that

Find T(u), the image of u under the transformation T

Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b.
Is there more than one x whose image under T is b.
Determine if c is in the range of the transformation T.

1 3
x1 3x2
x1

T ( x) Ax 3 5 3x1 5 x2
x2 x 7 x
2
1 7
1
9

10

Matrix Transformation Example 1

Matrix Transformation Example 1

Solution

Row reduce the augmented matrix

a.

1 3
5
2

T(u) = Au 3 5 1
1
1 7
9

1 3 3 1 3 3 1 0 1.5
3 5 2
0 14 7
0 1 0.5

1 7 5 0 4 2 0 0
0
Hence

b. Solve Tx=b for x. That is, solve Ax=b

1 3
3
3 5 x1 2

x
2 5
1 7

1.5
x1 1.5, x2 0.5, and x

0.5

The image of this x under T is the given vector b.

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12

Matrix Transformation Example 1

Matrix Transformation Example 1

c. Any x whose image under T is b must satisfy

d. The vector c is in the range of T if c is the image of some

x in R2 , that is, if c=T(x) for some x. This is just another
way of asking if the system Ax=c is consistent. To find the
answer, row reduce the augmented matrix

1 3
3
3 5 x1 2

x
1 7 2 5

1 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3
3 5 2
0 14 7
0 1
2
0 1
2

1 7 5 0 4 8 0 14 7 0 0 35
The third equation 0=-35 shows that the system is
inconsistent. So c is not in the range of T.

We have seen in (b) that there is exactly one x whose

image is b.

13

Matrix Transformation
Example 2

14

Matrix Transformation

1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 0
Then x -> Ax projects points in R3 onto R2.
If

Let

1 3
A

0 1

Then the transformation T:R2 -> R2 defined by Ax is

called the Shear Transformation.

For example the image of

x3

1 0 0 x1 x1
0 1 0 x x

2 2
0 0 0 x3 0

2
2

15

is

1 3 2 8
0 1 2 2

16

Matrix Transformation

Linear Transformations

Shear Transformation

Theorem
If A is an mn matrix, u and v are vectors in Rn and
c is a scalar, then
a) A(u+v) = Au + Av
b) A(cu) = c(Au)

Proof
For simplicity take n=3, so A=[a1, a2, a3]

A(u v) a1

a2

17

a1 (u1 v1 ) a2 (u2 v2 ) a3 (u3 v3 )

A transformation T is linear, if

a1u1 a1v1 a2u2 a2 v2 a3u3 a3v3

1.

a1u1 a2u2 a3u3 a1v1 a2 v2 a3v3

a1

a2

a2

18

Linear Transformations

Linear Transformations

u1
a3 u2 a1

u3

u1 v1
a3 u2 v2

u3 v3

2.

v1
a3 v2

v3

T(u+v) = T(u) + T(v)

(for all u,v in the domain of T)
T(cu) = cT(u)
(for all u and all scalars c)

Property (1) says that the result T(u+v) i.e. first adding

u+v and then applying T is same as applying T first to u

and v and then adding T(u) and T(v).

Au Av
Similarly (b) can also be proved

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20

Linear Transformations
Useful Facts

Linear Transformations Example 1

If T is a linear transformation

Given a scalar r, define T:R2 -> R2 by T(x)= rx. T is called

1.
2.

T(0) = 0
T(cu+dv) = cT(u) + dT(v)

For all vectors u, v in the domain of T and all scalars c,

d.
The general case of (2) is
T(c1v1++cpvp) = c1T(v1)++cpT(vp)
This fact is referred to as Superposition Principle.

21

Linear Transformations Example 1

a Contraction when 0 r 1 and a Dilation when r > 1.

Let r = 3, and show that T is a Linear Transformation.
Solution
Let u, v be in R2 and let c, d be scalars. Then

T (cu dv) 3(cu dv )

3cu 3dv
c(3u ) d (3v)
cT (u ) dT (v)

Obviously T is a
Linear Transformation 22

Linear Transformations Example 2

Define a linear transformation T:R2 -> R2 by

0 1 x1 x2
T ( x)

1 0 x2 x1
Find the images under T of

4
2
6
u , v= , u v
1
3


4

A dilation transformation

23

24

Linear Transformations Example 2

Linear Transformations Example 2

Solution

0 1 4 1
0 1 2 3
T (u )
, T (v ) 1 0 3 2
1 0 1 4

0 1 6 4
T (u v)

1 0 4 6

Note that T(u+v) is obviously equal to

T(u)+T(v).
Also, it appears that T rotates u, v and u+v
counterclockwise about the origin through 90 degrees.
A rotation transformation
25

26

Linear transformation

27

Linear Transformation

Linear transformation

29

Composition of Transformation

30

Composition of Transformation

31

32

Composition of Transformation

Composition of Transformation

Example:

33

Composition of Transformation

34

Linear transformation (Reflections)

35

36

Linear transformation (Reflections)

Orthogonal Projections

37

Orthogonal Projections

38

Orthogonal Projections

39

40

10

Contractions & Dilations

Rotations

41

42

Rotations

Rotations

43

44

11

Example

Example (Contd.)

45

Example (Contd.)

46

Example

47

48

12

Example (Contd.)

Example (Contd.)

49

Example

50

Example

51

52

13

Example (Contd.)

Example (Contd.)

53

54

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 1

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation
Every Linear Transformation T:Rn -> Rm is a matrix

transformation x -> Ax.

The key to finding A is to observe that T is completely
determined by what it does to the columns of the nn
identity matrix In.

The columns of

1 0
I2
are
0 1

1
0
e1 and e2
0
1

Suppose T is a linear transformation from R2 into R3

such that
5
3
T (e1) 7 and T (e2 ) 8


2
0

With no additional information, find a formula for the

image of an arbitrary x in R2.

55

56

14

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 1
Solution
Write

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 1
x
T ( x ) T (e1 ) T (e2 ) 1 Ax
x2

x
1
0
x 1 x1 x2 x1e1 x2 e2
x
0
2

1

Thus

Since T is a linear transformation

5 3
A 7 8
2 0

T ( x ) x1T (e1 ) x2T (e2 )

5
3 5 x1 3 x2
x1 7 x2 8 7 x1 8 x2
2
0 2 x1 0
57

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation
Theorem
Let T:Rn -> Rm be a linear transformation. Then there
exist a unique matrix A such that

T ( x) Ax

Proof
Write x=Inx=[e1 en ]x = x1e1++xnen , and using the Linearity
of T to compute

for all x in n

T ( x) T ( x1e1 xn en ) x1T (e1 ) xnT (en )

x1
T (e1 ) T (en ) Ax

xn

In fact, A is the mn matrix whose jth column is the

vector T(ej), where ej is the jth column of the identity
matrix in Rn.

A T (e1 ) T (en )

58

The matrix A is called the Standard Matrix for the Linear

Transformation T.
59

60

15

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 1
Find

the standard matrix A for

transformation T(x) = 3x, for x in R2.
Solution
Write

the

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 2
dilation

Let T:R2 -> R2 be the transformation that rotates each

point in R2 about the origin through an angel , with

counterclockwise rotation for a positive angle. Find the
standard matrix A of this transformation.
Solution
rotates to cos
1

0
sin

and
cos sin
sin
0
=>

rotates into

1
sin cos
cos

3
0
T (e1 ) 3e1 and T (e2 ) 3e2
0

3
3 0
A

0 3
61

The Matrix of a Linear

Transformation Example 2

62

Onto mapping
A mapping T:Rn -> Rm is said to be onto Rm if each b

in Rm is the image of at least one x in Rn.

A rotation transformation
63

64

16

One-to-one mapping

Onto Mapping
m

R When the range of T is all the

codomain R m, there exists at least one solution of T(x)=b.
The mapping T is not onto when there is some b in R m for
which T(x)=b has no solution.

Equivalently, T is onto

A mapping T:Rn -> Rm is said to be one-to-one if each

b in Rm is the image of at most one x in Rn.

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66

One-to-one mapping - Example

One-to-one mapping

Let T be the linear transformation whose standard matrix

Theorem
Let T:Rn -> Rm be a linear transformation. Then
T
is
T(x)=0 has only
one-to-one if and only if the equation
the trivial solution.

is

1 4 8 1
A 0 2 1 3
0 0 0 5

Solution
A happens to be in echelon form, we can see at once that
A has a pivot position in each row.
3
For each b R , the equation Ax=b is consistent. In other
words, the linear transformation T maps ( its domain)
R 4 onto R 3 However, since the equation Ax=b has free
variables, each b is the image of more than one x , i.e., T
is not one-to-one.
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68

17

Onto and one-to-one mapping

Onto and one-to-one mapping

Theorem
Let T:Rn -> Rm be a linear transformation and let A
be the standard matrix for T, then:

In other words, if and only if for every b, the equation

a)

b)

T(x)=b has at least one solution. This is true only if

and only if T maps Rn onto Rm.
b. The equations T(x)=0 and Ax=0 are similar except
notation. T is one-to-one if only if Ax=0 has only the
trivial solution. This happens only if the columns of A
are linearly independent.

T maps Rn onto Rm if and only if the columns of A

span Rm
T is one-to-one if and only if the columns of A are
linearly independent

Proof
a. The columns of A span Rm if and only if for each b the
equation Ax=b is consistent.
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70

Onto and one-to-one mapping Example

Onto and one-to-one mapping Example

T ( x1 , x2 ) (3x1 x2 ,5 x1 7 x2 , x1 3x2. )Show

Let
that T is one-to-one linear transformation. Does T
maps R2 onto R3.
Solution

To decide if T is onto R3, examine the span of the

columns of A. Since A is 32, the columns of A span

R3 if and only if A has 3 pivot positions. This is
impossible, since A has two columns. So the columns
of A do not span R3 and the associated transformation
is not onto R3.

3 x1 x2 ? ?
3 1
x
x
T ( x ) 5 x1 7 x2 ? ? 1 5 7 1
x2
x

x1 3 x2 ? ?
1 3 2

The columns of A are linearly independent. So T is

one-to-one.
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18

Onto and one-to-one mapping Example

Onto and one-to-one mapping Example

Alternatively
Let

The augmented matrix of the above system is

b1
b b2
b3

then

be any typical vector from

3
1 b1
k1 5 k 2 7 b2
1
3 b3

3 1 b1
5 7 b
2

1 3 b3
b3
1 3
0 8 b 5b
2
3

0 8 b1 3b3

R3

must be
consistent if T
has to be onto.

R13

R3 R2

1 3 b3 R2 5 R1
5 7 b R 3R
3
1
2

3 1 b1
b3
1 3

0 8

b
5
b

2
3

0 0 b1 b2 2b3

In general b1 b2 2b3 is nonzero. Hence the system is

inconsistent. Thus T is not onto.
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74

Onto and One-to-one Mapping

Example
The Identity Transformation
Let

T : R3 R3

defined by T ( x ) x

1 0 0 x1 x1
T ( x) Ax 0 1 0 x2 x2
0 0 1 x3 x3
(a) T mapsR 3 onto R 3 since the columns of A

span

R3

T is one-to-one since the columns of A are linearly

independent.

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19