Professional Documents
Culture Documents
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 February 2012
Accepted 21 April 2013
Editor Proof Received Date 24 May 2013
Keywords:
Hyperspectral imaging
Imaging spectroscopy
Food quality
Food safety
Image processing
Image analysis
Spectrometry
a b s t r a c t
By integrating two classical optical sensing technologies of imaging and spectroscopy into one system,
hyperspectral imaging can provide both spatial and spectral information, simultaneously. Therefore,
hyperspectral imaging has the capability to rapidly and non-invasively monitor both physical and morphological characteristics and intrinsic chemical and molecular information of a food product in the purpose of
quality and safety analysis and assessment. As the rst part of this review, some fundamental knowledge
about hyperspectral imaging is reviewed, which includes the relationship between spectroscopy, imaging,
and hyperspectral imaging, principles of hyperspectral imaging, instruments for hyperspectral imaging, processing methods for data analysis, and discussion on advantages and disadvantages.
Industrial relevance: It is anticipated that real-time food monitoring systems with this technique can be
expected to meet the requirements of the modern industrial control and sorting systems in the near future.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationship between spectroscopy, imaging, and hyperspectral imaging
Principles of hyperspectral imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Classes of spectral imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Hyperspectral cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Acquisition of hyperspectral images . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
Image sensing modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyperspectral imaging instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Light sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1.
Halogen lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.
Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4.
Tunable light sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Wavelength dispersion devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Filter wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.
Imaging spectrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.
Tunable lters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.
Fourier transform imaging spectrometers . . . . . . .
4.2.5.
Single shot imagers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Area detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1.
CCD detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.
CMOS detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
Calibration of hyperspectral imaging system . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
5.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1. Introduction
Food products with high quality and safety are always expected and
demanded by consumers, leading to the introduction of legislation for
food safety and mandatory inspection of food products. The development of accurate, rapid and objective quality inspection systems
throughout the entire food process is important for the food industry
to ensure the safe production of food during processing operations and
the correct labeling of products related to the quality, safety, authenticity and compliance. Currently, human visual inspection is still widely
used, which however is subjective, time-consuming, laborious, tedious
and inconsistent. Commonly used instrumental ways are mainly analytical chemical methods, such as mass spectrometry (MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). However, they have several
disadvantages, such as being destructive, time-consuming, and unable
to handle a large number of samples, and sometimes requiring lengthy
sample preparation. Therefore, it is critical and necessary to apply accurate, reliable, efcient and non-invasive alternatives to evaluate quality
and quality-related attributes of food products.
Recently, optical sensing technologies have been researched as potential tools for non-destructive analysis and assessment for food quality and safety. In particularly, by integrating both spectroscopic and
imaging techniques into one system that can acquire a spatial map of
spectral variation, hyperspectral imaging (also called imaging spectroscopy or imaging spectrometry) has been widely studied and developed,
resulting in many successful applications in the quality assessment of
food products. A general overview of applications in quality determination for numerous food products is introduced in the second part of this
review.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
8
8
8
9
10
10
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
format. For an image stored in BIP format, the rst pixel for all
bands is in sequential order, followed by the second pixel for all
bands, followed by the third pixel for all bands, etc., interleaved up
to the number of pixels. This format is optimal for accessing the spectral information of each pixel. The disadvantages of whiskbroom are
very time-consuming for positioning the sample and need advanced
repositioning hardware to ensure repeatability. The second approach illustrated in Fig. 2.b is called as line scanning method or
pushbroom method, which records a whole line of an image as well
as spectral information simultaneously corresponding to each spatial
pixel in the line. A complete hyperspectral cube can be obtained as
the line is scanned along the direction of x dimension (Fig. 2.b),
and the obtained cube is stored in the format of band-interleavedby-line (BIL). BIL format is a scheme for storing the pixel values of
an image in a le band by band for each line, or row, of the image. Because of its characteristics of continuous scanning in one direction,
line scanning is particularly suitable in conveyor belt systems that
are commonly used in food process lines. Therefore, line scanning
is the most popular method of acquiring hyperspectral images for
food quality and safety inspection. The disadvantage of the
pushbroom technique is that the exposure time can be set at only
one value for all wavelengths. Such exposure time has to be short
enough to avoid saturation of spectrum at any wavelength, resulting
in underexposure of other spectral bands and low accuracy of their
spectral measurement.
The above two methods are spatial scanning methods, while the
area or plane scanning (also known as band sequential method or
wavelength scanning) is a spectral scanning method as illustrated
in Fig. 2.c. This approach keeps the image eld of view xed and acquires a 2-D monochrome image (x, y) with full spatial information
at a single wavelength at a time. Such scanning repeats over the
whole wavelength range, results in a stack of single band images
stored in the band sequential (BSQ) format. As a very simple format,
BSQ encodes each line of the image at the rst band is followed immediately by the next line in the same spectral band, followed by
the second band for all lines, followed by the third band for all
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of hyperspectral image (hyperspectral cube) for a piece of sh llet.
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
Fig. 2. Acquisition approaches of hyperspectral images (scanning directions are shown by arrows, and gray areas shows data acquired each time) and image sensing modes.
lines, etc., interleaved up to the number of bands. This format provides an easy access of spatial (x,y) access of at a single spectral
band. As the detector is exposed to only a single wavelength each
time, a suitable exposure time can be set for each wavelength. In addition, the area scanning does not need to move either sample or detector and is suitable for the applications where the object should be
stationary for a while, such as excitationemission in orescence imaging. A disadvantage of area scanning is that it is not suitable for a
moving sample or the inspection of real-time delivery. At last, the
single shot method records both spatial and spectral information
using a large area detector with one exposure to capture the images
(Fig. 2.d), making it very attractive when fast hyperspectral imaging
is required. However, it is still in the early stage of development and
has limited resolutions for spatial dimension and narrow ranges for
spectral dimension.
information into the sample and has less surface effects compared to reectance mode. Meanwhile, the interactance mode reduces the inuence of thickness, which is a practical advantage over transmission. It
should be noted that a special setup is required in the transmittance
mode to seal light in order to prevent specular reection directly entering the detector (Nicolai et al., 2007).
4. Hyperspectral imaging instruments
Instrumentation of hyperspectral imaging is basic and important to
acquire reliable hyperspectral images with high quality. Selection of
the components of the instruments and the design of their setup and
calibration require a good understanding of the conguration and calibration of hyperspectral imaging system.
4.1. Light sources
Light sources generate light as an information carrier to excite or illuminate the target, and are an essential part of optical inspection systems. Typical light sources used in hyperspectral imaging systems
include halogen lamps, light emitting diodes, lasers, and tunable light
sources.
4.1.1. Halogen lamps
As a broadband illumination source, halogen lamps are commonly
used for the illumination of visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions. Typically, a lamp lament made of tungsten wire is placed
in a quartz glass bulb lled with halogen gas such as iodine or bromine.
The output light is generated from incandescent emission when the lament has a high temperature. Light is a smooth continuous spectrum
in the range of wavelength from visible to infrared without sharp
peaks. The halogen lamps work with low voltage, are considered as an
all-purpose illumination sources. The tungsten halogen lamps have
been used as illumination units in hyperspectral reectance measurements (Wu, Shi et al., 2012; Wu & Sun, 2013). In hyperspectral transmittance measurements, halogen lamps with high intensity have also
been used for detecting inside information of food (Ariana & Lu,
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
both spatial and spectral information of sample by setting the wavelength dispersion device in the illumination light path instead of the imaging light path. Because only narrowband light is incident on the object
at a time, the intensity of the tunable light sources is relatively weak,
which can reduce high irradiance and heat damage of sample. Currently, tunable light sources have been used for inspecting historical documents which require weak illumination for the sample protection
(Klein, Aalderink, Padoan, de Bruin, & Steemers, 2008). In addition, tunable light sources are mainly used for area scanning and are not efcient
for point and line scanning. Therefore, tunable light sources are practically not suitable for conveyor belt systems.
4.2. Wavelength dispersion devices
Wavelength dispersion devices are important for the hyperspectral
imaging systems using broadband illuminating light sources. They
have the function of dispersing broadband light into different wavelengths. Typical examples include lter wheels, imaging spectrographs,
acousto-optic tunable lters, liquid crystal tunable lters, Fourier transform imaging spectrometers, and single shot imagers.
4.2.1. Filter wheels
A lter wheel carrying a set of discrete bandpass lters is the most
basic and simple device for wavelength dispersion. The bandpass lters
transmit the light at a particular wavelength efciently while eliminating light at other wavelengths. There is a broad range of lters from ultraviolet, visible to near infrared wavelength with various specications
commercially available to satisfy different demands. Limitations of lter
wheels include mechanical vibration from moving parts, slow wavelength switching, and image unmatched due to the lter movement.
4.2.2. Imaging spectrographs
An imaging spectrograph, which generally operates in line-scanning
mode, has the capability for dispersing incident broadband light into
different wavelengths instantaneously and generating a spectrum for
each point on the scanned line without the use of moving parts. Diffraction gratings are generally used in imaging spectrographs for wavelength dispersion. A diffraction grating is a collection of equally spaced
reecting or transmitting elements separated from one another by
a distance that is on the order of the wavelength of the light being
studied. Upon diffraction, an electromagnetic wave incident on a
grating will have its electric eld amplitude, or phase, or both, modied in a predictable manner (Palmer, 2005). There are two main
forms of imaging spectrographs, namely reection gratings (i.e., a
grating superimposed on a reective surface) and transmission
gratings (i.e., a grating superimposed on a transparent surface). In
the imaging spectrograph utilizing a transmission grating, a prism
gratingprism (PGP) is commonly used. After entranced through
the entrance slit of the spectrograph, the incoming beam is collimated by the front lens and is then dispersed at the PGP component into
different wavelengths in a transmission way. At last, the dispersed
light is projected onto an area detector through the back lens to generate a two-dimensional matrix, where one dimension stands for a
continuous spectrum and the other spatial information. Transmission gratings are nearly independent of polarization and can be easily mounted to a lens and an area detector to form a pushbroom
hyperspectral imaging camera. However, transmission gratings are
limited by the properties of the grating substrate (or resin), and cannot operate at higher angles of diffraction as the reection gratings.
As another main form of imaging spectrographs, a typical reection
grating generally includes an entrance slit, two concentric spherical
mirrors, an aberration-corrected convex reection grating, and a detector. After entranced through the entrance slit, the incoming light
is reected by one of the mirror to the reection grating, which has
the function of dispersing the incident beam so that the direction of
the light propagation depends on its wavelength. The dispersed light
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
Table 1
Main differences among imaging, spectroscopy, and hyperspectral imaging techniques.
Features
Spectral information
Spatial information
Multi-constituent
information
Detectability to objects
with small size
Flexibility of spectral
extraction
Generation of
quality-attribute
distribution
Limited
Limited
Limited
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
operating conditions, resulting in inuencing the accuracy and reproducibility of image acquisition. Therefore, wavelength calibration
is needed to identify each pixel along the spectral dimension with a
specic wavelength. The form of data from hyperspectral images is
pixel intensity versus pixel index, and will be intensity versus wavelength after wavelength calibration. The hyperspectral imaging systems using xed or tunable lters do not need wavelength
calibration as the wavelength of each lter is identied. The wavelength calibration commonly uses wavelength calibration lamps to
identify each wavelength as a function of its pixel index. The wavelength calibration lamps produce narrow, constant, intense, stable,
and specic lines from the excitation of various rare gases and
metal vapors. Various wavelength calibration lamps cover different
wavelength ranges from ultraviolet to infrared for calibrating different systems. Typical wavelength calibration lamps include pencil
style lamps, battery powered lamps, and high power lamps using
Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Mercury (Hg), Mercury/Argon (Hg/Ar),
Neon (Ne), Xenon (Xe), etc. In the wavelength calibration process,
the lamp is rst scanned by the hyperspectral imaging system and
the spectral prole is extracted along the spectral dimension of the
image. The spectral peaks with known wavelengths and their corresponding pixel indices along the spectral dimension are then identied. A quantitative regression equation is established between the
wavelength and the pixel indices. Linear, quadratic, cubic, and trigonometric equations are commonly used. As a result, the wavelengths
of all pixels along the spectral dimension are identied using the
resulting regression.
Spatial calibration for hyperspectral imaging systems has the function of determining the dimension and resolution of the eld of view.
Spatial calibration approaches are different for the hyperspectral imaging systems with different image acquisition modes. As the area
scanning acquires a series of images with the same dimension at different spectral bands, the spatial calibration is conducted on a selected image with high SNR using resolution test charts such as ISO
12233 Test Chart, NBS 1952 Resolution Test Chart, and 1951 USAF
resolution test chart. The line scanning hyperspectral imaging systems might have different resolutions for the two spatial dimensions,
because the pixels along the y direction of the hyperspectral cube are
acquired using the imaging spectrograph and the pixels along the x
direction are acquired by the stepwise movement of the sample.
The resolution of x direction is the step size of the movement per
pixel and the range of the x direction depends on the distance of
the movement. The calibration for y direction is conducted by scanning a target printed with thin parallel lines. The resolution of y direction determined by dividing the distance of a range on the target by
the number of pixels of the range within the scanned image. The
range of the y direction is calculated by multiplying the resolution
by the number of pixels on the spatial dimension of the detector.
Curvature calibration is intended to correct the reection effect of
light on the food with spherical geometry, so that the spectrum at any
pixel is independent of its location. Gomez-Sanchis et al.(2008) proposed a curvature calibration of mandarin, where the amount of light
reected is corrected according to the angle between the incident
light and the normal to the surface direction.
xy
D cos 1 D
IS I D
100
IW I D
where R is the corrected hyperspectral image in a unit of relative reectance (%); IS the raw hyperspectral image; ID the dark image, and IW the
white reference image.
5.2. Image enhancement and spectral preprocessing
Image enhancement is an important process for improving the qualities of image. Some of image enhancement techniques are intended to
make specied image characteristics more obvious, such as edge and
contrast enhancement, magnifying, pseudo-coloring, and sharpening.
Others are used to reduce the noise, such as convolution and spatial ltering, Fourier transform (FT), and wavelet transforms (WT). FT and WT
are also suitable for edge detection. Moreover, image enhancement
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
Fig. 3. Flowchart of a series of typical steps for analyzing hyperspectral image data.
subjective, and therefore this method is not suitable to be extensively applied in industry application. Image segmentation algorithms
are more efcient than manual segmentation. The most used segmentation algorithms are thresholding (like global thresholding
and adaptive thresholding), morphological processing (like erosion,
dilation, open, close, and watershed algorithms), edge-based segmentation (like gradient-based methods and Laplacian-based
methods), and spectral image segmentation.
Thresholding is a widely used image segmentation method due to
its simplicity of implementation. Images containing the object with
uniform graylevel and a background of unequal but also uniform
graylevel would be appropriate for using thresholding. Generally
there are two kinds of thresholding algorithms, global thresholding
and adaptive thresholding. The rst approach is the simplest
thresholding technique and commonly implemented when the
gray histogram is bimodal. When the graylevels of the ROI and the
background and corresponding contrast are not constant within an
image, an adaptive threshold will be competent, where a different
threshold is used for different regions in the image. Morphological
processing is exible and powerful for image segmentation. Neighborhood operations are typical binary morphological operations by
sliding a structure element containing any complement of 0 s and 1 s
with any size over the image. Erosion and dilation are two elementary
operations to morphological processing from which all other morphological operations are based. Erosion is the process of removing pixels
on object boundaries in an image, while dilation is the process of adding
pixels to the boundaries of objects. Edge-based segmentation is commonly used when pixels on edges/boundaries of objects have dramatic
and discontinue graylevel changes. Gradient-based methods detect the
edge pixels by searching the maximum in the rst derivative within the
image, while Laplacian-based methods locate edge pixels by looking for
zero-crossings in the second derivative within the image. Spectral
image segmentation is considered as a higher-level analysis compared
to traditional segmentations that are regarded as low-level operations.
Traditional segmentations operate on a monochrome image that has a
10
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
minimization principle (ERM), which is employed by conventional neural network to avoid overtting and multidimensional problem. Especially, LS-SVM, an optimized version of the standard SVM, is
commonly used for spectral analysis. It employs nonlinear map function
and maps the input features to a high dimensional space, thus to change
the optimal problem into equality constraint condition. Lagrange multiplier is utilized to calculate the partial differentiation of each feature to
obtain the optimal solution. ANN and SVM can be applied in both classication and regression tasks.
5.6. Optimal wavelength selection
Hyperspectral imaging provides more spectral data related to food
quality than multispectral images, as the numbers of wavelengths of
hyperspectral images are much larger than those of multispectral images. In most cases, the inclusion of most wavelengths does not increase
the model performance, since some wavelengths mainly include irrelevant information while others have low SNR. The elimination of irrelevant variables can predigest calibration modeling and improve the
results in terms of accuracy and robustness (Wu et al., 2009; Wu, He,
& Feng, 2008). Besides, there is a problem of multicollinearity among
contiguous variables (wavelengths). Multicollinearity (or collinearity)
means that the correlations among the independent variables (wavelengths) are strong. These variables have similar spectral information.
The presence of a high degree of collinearity between variables in a
model will tend to inuence the matrix towards singularity, and this
in turn will have a large inuence on the coefcients generated (Zou,
Zhao, Povey, Holmes, & Mao, 2010). The selection of wavelengths can
minimize the collinearity among contiguous wavelengths. Based on
the selected optimal wavelength, a reduced image cube can be generated instead of the whole hyperspectral cube, resulting in speeding up the
subsequent data processing and improving prediction results in terms
of accuracy and robustness. Moreover, wavelength selection is also an
important step in the applications of detecting the properties of interest.
The selected wavelengths are used as a reference to convert the hypercube into virtual images with maximal contrast for the properties of interest. Image processing techniques are then applied to these virtual
images for the detection of the properties of interest. In addition, if a
few optimal wavelengths that have characteristic information are selected, a multispectral imaging system with the advantages of simple
structure and low cost can be established based on these selected wavelengths and will be incomparable for process monitoring and real-time
inspection. However, most current researches selected optimal wavelengths respectively for each individual quality attribute of food products. Different optimal wavelengths are selected for different quality
attributes accordingly. When one set of optimal wavelengths is used
to design a multispectral imaging system, only one quality attribute
can be predicted and the multifunctionality of hyperspectral imaging
is lost. Recently, Wu, Sun et al. (2012) proposed the selection of instrumental effective wavelengths (IEW) and predictive effective wavelengths (PEW) that are the optimal wavelengths of several quality
attributes. The multispectral imaging systems designed based on IEW
have the multifunctionality of determining several quality attributes
simultaneously.
The aim of wavelength selection methods is to select optimal
wavelengths containing the important information related to quality
attributes, produce the smallest possible errors for qualitative discriminations or quantitative determinations. Knowledge based selection is a manual approach made from the basic knowledge about the
spectroscopic properties of the sample (Zou et al., 2010). There are
also mathematical selection algorithms for choosing optimum wavelengths in a more efcient way.
Some classical approaches include correlation coefcients,
loading and regression coefcients, analysis of spectral differences
(ASD), spectrum derivatives, and stepwise regression. Correlation
coefcient approach selects the wavelengths have the highest
11
correlation coefcient as feature wavebands. Loading and regression coefcients reect the relation between a given response and
all predictors (wavelengths). In general, wavelengths having
large values (irrespective of sign) are considered as optimal ones.
The ASD analyzes the difference between spectra of samples of different varieties. The wavelengths with large differences are important for the discrimination. The method of spectrum derivatives
calculates the difference of the derivatives of spectra and selects
the wavelengths that have large differences between samples of
different varieties as the optimal wavelengths. Stepwise regression
nds the important wavelengths by adding one wavelength with
forward addition and then testing it with backward elimination.
Successive projections algorithm (SPA) and uninformative variable
elimination (UVE) are two relatively, sophisticated methods. UVE is
based on the stability analysis of the PLSR regression coefcient. The
stability of a variable is calculated by dividing the mean of the regression coefcients by standard deviation of the regression coefcients of
the variable. SPA employs a simple projection operation in a vector
space to select subsets of variables with minimum of collinearity. In addition, UVE eliminates uninformative variables but its selected variables
might have a problem of multicollinearity and SPA selects variables
with minimal multicollinearity but its selected variables might contain
variables less related to the quality attribute. Therefore, a combination
of UVE-SPA was proposed by Ye, Wang, and Min (2008) to complementary advantages of both methods and has been applied to the spectral
analysis of food quality (Wu, Chen, Zhu, Guan, & Wu, 2011; Wu, Nie,
He, & Bao, 2012).
Elaborate search-based strategies include simulated annealing (SA)
and genetic algorithms (GAs). SA is a probabilistic metaheuristic for
the global optimization problem inspired from annealing process in
metallurgy. In the application of wavelength selection, SA generates a
numerical string containing the selected wavelengths. By analogy
with the annealing process, SA attempts to replace the current solution
by a random solution in each step. The solution is iteratively modied
using a criterion called Boltzman's probability distribution (Metropolis
criterion) that is subject to the increment of objective function and a
global parameter T, that is analogous with temperature. T is gradually
decreased during the process. As the T is decreasing, solution is increasingly difcult to be modied. Finally, if T is lowered sufciently, no further changes in the solution space are possible. To avoid being frozen at
a local optimum, the SA algorithm moves slowly through the solution
space. This controlled improvement of the objective value is accomplished by accepting non-improving moves with a certain probability
that decreases as the algorithm progresses (Chen & Lei, 2009). GA is a
search heuristic algorithm that mimics the process of Darwin's theory
of natural selection to research optimization. In the application of wavelength selection, GA evolves a population of strings called chromosomes
that encode wavelengths. A tness function is used to evaluate the
performance of chromosomes. Similar to natural selection, the chromosomes with a high tness value have a higher probability to
reproduce. The evolution process is repeated until the termination
condition has been reached. The elaborate search-based strategies
are generally more efcient than exhaustive enumeration by
researching a large part of all possible subsets in a reasonable time,
much less than the time of researching all possible subsets. However,
a main drawback of elaborate search-based strategies is that their results are unstable. Different optimal wavelengths might be selected
every time, although their prediction abilities are sometime similar.
In addition, SA and GA have many adjustable factors that affect the
results, and therefore require a considerable level of expertise for
users.
Interval base algorithms include interval partial least squares (iPLS),
windows PLS and backward interval partial least squares (biPLS). The
iPLS splits the spectra into several equal distant regions, and then establishes PLS regression models for each sub-interval. The interval region
with the lowest RMSECV is chosen as the optimal one. The siPLS
12
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
do not have good detection limits compared to chemical-based analytical methods. Moreover, as spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging
also has the well-known problem of multicollinearity. Multivariate
analysis and variable selection are two ways to reduce the effect of
this problem.Reference values of attributes cannot be measured accurately for every pixel within a sample. The quantitative relationship is usually established based on the mean spectrum of ROI
where its reference quality value can be measured using the standard method.Hyperspectral imaging is not suitable when the ROI
within the surface of a sample is smaller than a pixel or the quality
attributes have no characteristic spectral absorption.The analysis of
liquids or homogenous samples does not need hyperspectral imaging but only spectroscopy, because the value of imaging lies in the ability to visualize spatial heterogeneities in samples. A point measurement
using spectrometer will get the same spectral information of the whole
sample.Most food products have very strong absorption of light, making
them opaque over a distance of about several millimeters in visible and
near infrared region. Lammertyn, Peirs, De Baerdemaeker, and Nicola
(2000) calculated the light penetration depths in apple fruit. The depths
were up to 4 mm in the 700900 nm range and between 2 and 3 mm in
the 9001900 nm range. In another study, Hampton et al. (20022003)
reached the maximum penetration depth of 13 mm into sh tissue.
Moreover, the penetration depth of light in MIR region (usually a few
micrometers) is much shorter than NIR. Therefore, hyperspectral imaging cannot detect the information of constituents deep inside the food
sample.The variation of temperature affects the water absorption spectrum. As water is a main component of food products, there is a potential heating effect for the measured hyperspectral images of food.
7. Conclusions
Hyperspectral imaging has been proved as a promising technology for rapid, efcient and reliable measurement of different quality
attributes and their spatial distribution, simultaneously, and therefore can be used instead of human inspectors or wet chemical
methods for the automatic grading and nutrition determination of
food products. By combining spatial and spectral details together in
one system, hyperspectral imaging technique can simultaneously acquire spatial images in many spectrally contiguous bands to form a
3-D hyperspectral cube, and is considered to have the ability to complement advantages of spectroscopy and imaging techniques. The
predicted values quality or safety attributes at pixel-level can then
be used to generate the distribution map of the attribute, leading to
better characterization and improved quality and safety evaluation
results. Currently, there are still many challenges facing the full exploitation of this technique in terms of computation speed, limitations of hardware, and high cost. Therefore, hyperspectral imaging
studies are often geared towards identication of optimal wavelengths to design low cost multispectral imaging system that will
play an important role in the food industry for real-time monitoring
systems for food safety and quality assessment.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the nancial support provided by the Irish Research Council for Science, Engineering and Technology under the Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellowship scheme.
References
Antonucci, F., Pallottino, F., Paglia, G., Palma, A., D'Aquino, S., & Menesatti, P. (2011).
Non-destructive estimation of Mandarin maturity status through portable VIS-NIR
spectrophotometer. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 4(5), 809813.
Ariana, D. P., & Lu, R. (2008a). Detection of internal defect in pickling cucumbers using
hyperspectral transmittance imaging. Transactions of the ASABE, 51(2), 705713.
13
Ariana, D. P., & Lu, R. (2008b). Quality evaluation of pickling cucumbers using hyperspectral reectance and transmittance imaging: Part I. Development of a prototype.
Sensing and Instrumentation for Food Quality and Safety, 2, 144151.
Bannon, D., & Thomas, R. (2005). Harsh environments dictate design of imaging spectrometer. Laser Focus World, 41(8), 9395.
Bock, L. E., & Connelly, R. K. (2008). Innovative uses of near-infrared spectroscopy in
food processing. Journal of Food Science, 73(7), R91R98.
Bodkin, A. (2010). Hyperspectral imaging systems. In US Patent Application Publication
(Vol. US 2010/0328659 A1).
Cen, H. Y., & He, Y. (2007). Theory and application of near infrared reectance spectroscopy in determination of food quality. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 18(2),
7283.
Chen, X. J., & Lei, X. X. (2009). Application of a hybrid variable selection method for
determination of carbohydrate content in soy milk powder using visible and
near infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(2),
334340.
Chen, X. J., Wu, D., He, Y., & Liu, S. (2011). Nondestructive differentiation of panax species using visible and shortwave near-infrared spectroscopy. Food and Bioprocess
Technology, 4(5), 753761.
Cho, B., Kim, M. S., Chao, K., Lawrence, K., Park, B., & Kim, K. (2009). Detection of fecal
residue on poultry carcasses by laser-induced uorescence imaging. Journal of Food
Science, 74(3), E154E159.
Choudhary, R., Mahesh, S., Paliwal, J., & Jayas, D. S. (2009). Identication of wheat classes using wavelet features from near infrared hyperspectral images of bulk samples. Biosystems Engineering, 102(2), 115127.
Daugman, J. G. (1980). Two-dimensional spectral-analysis of cortical receptive-eld
proles. Vision Research, 20(10), 847856.
Daugman, J. G. (1985). Uncertainty relation for resolution in space, spatial-frequency,
and orientation optimized by two-dimensional visual cortical lters. Journal of
the Optical Society of America a-Optics Image Science and Vision, 2(7), 11601169.
Devaux, M. F., Taralova, I., Levy-Vehel, J., Bonnin, E., Thibault, J. F., & Guillon, F.
(2006). Contribution of image analysis to the description of enzymatic degradation kinetics for particulate food material. Journal of Food Engineering, 77(4),
10961107.
Du, C. J., & Sun, D. -W. (2005). Comparison of three methods for classication of pizza
topping using different colour space transformations. Journal of Food Engineering,
68(3), 277287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.05.044.
Du, C. J., & Sun, D. -W. (2006). Learning techniques used in computer vision for food
quality evaluation: A review. Journal of Food Engineering, 72(1), 3955.
ElMasry, G., Iqbal, A., Sun, D. -W., Allen, P., & Ward, P. (2011). Quality classication of
cooked, sliced turkey hams using NIR hyperspectral imaging system. Journal of
Food Engineering, 103(3), 333344.
ElMasry, G., Sun, D. -W., & Allen, P. (2012). Near-infrared hyperspectral imaging for
predicting colour, pH and tenderness of fresh beef. Journal of Food Engineering,
110(1), 127140.
ElMasry, G., Wang, N., ElSayed, A., & Ngadi, M. (2007). Hyperspectral imaging for nondestructive determination of some quality attributes for strawberry. Journal of Food
Engineering, 81(1), 98107.
ElMasry, G., Wang, N., & Vigneault, C. (2009). Detecting chilling injury in Red Delicious
apple using hyperspectral imaging and neural networks. Postharvest Biology and
Technology, 52(1), 18.
Gomez-Sanchis, J., Molto, E., Camps-Valls, G., Gomez-Chova, L., Aleixos, N., & Blasco, J.
(2008). Automatic correction of the effects of the light source on spherical objects:
An application to the analysis of hyperspectral images of citrus fruits. Journal of
Food Engineering, 85(2), 191200.
Gowen, A. A., O'Donnell, C. P., Taghizadeh, M., Cullen, P. J., Frias, J. M., & Downey, G.
(2008). Hyperspectral imaging combined with principal component analysis for
bruise damage detection on white mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus). Journal of
Chemometrics, 22(34), 259267.
Hampton, K. A., Wutzke, J. L., Cavinato, A. G., Mayes, D. M., Lin, M., & Rasco, B. A.
(2002-2003). Characterization of optical probe light penetration depth for noninvasive analysis. Eastern Oregon Science Journal, XVIII, 1418.
IEEE Standard 601.4-1990 (1990). IEEE standard glossary of image processing and pattern recognition terminology. Los Alamitos, CA, USA: IEEE Press.
Kester, R. T., Bedard, N., Gao, L., & Tkaczyk, T. S. (2011). Real-time snapshot
hyperspectral imaging endoscope. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 16(5), 056005.
Klein, M. E., Aalderink, B. J., Padoan, R., de Bruin, G., & Steemers, T. A. G. (2008). Quantitative hyperspectral reectance imaging. Sensors, 8(9), 55765618.
Lammertyn, J., Peirs, A., De Baerdemaeker, J., & Nicola, B. (2000). Light penetration
properties of NIR radiation in fruit with respect to non-destructive quality assessment. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 18(2), 121132.
Litwiller, D. (2005). CMOs vs. CCD: Maturing technologies, maturing markets. Photonics
Spectra, 39(8), 5458.
Liu, Y. D., Gao, R. J., Hao, Y., Sun, X. D., & Ouyang, A. G. (2012). Improvement of
near-infrared spectral calibration models for brix prediction in 'Gannan' navel oranges by a portable near-infrared device. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(3),
11061112.
Lorente, D., Aleixos, N., Gmez-Sanchis, J., Cubero, S., & Blasco, J. (2013). Selection of
optimal wavelength features for decay detection in citrus fruit using the ROC
curve and neural networks. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6, 530541.
Manley, M., Williams, P., Nilsson, D., & Geladi, P. (2009). Near infrared hyperspectral
imaging for the evaluation of endosperm texture in whole yellow maize (Zea
maize l.) kernels. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(19), 87618769.
Mendoza, F., Lu, R., Ariana, D., Cen, H., & Bailey, B. (2011). Integrated spectral and image
analysis of hyperspectral scattering data for prediction of apple fruit rmness and
soluble solids content. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 62(2), 149160.
14
D. Wu, D.-W. Sun / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 19 (2013) 114
Ngadi, M. O., & Liu, L. (2010). Hyperspectral image processing techniques. In D. -W. Sun
(Ed.), Hyperspectral imaging for food quality analysis and control (pp. 99127)
(1st ed.). 2010. San Diego, California, USA: Academic Press/Elsevier.
Nicolai, B. M., Beullens, K., Bobelyn, E., Peirs, A., Saeys, W., Theron, K. I., et al. (2007).
Nondestructive measurement of fruit and vegetable quality by means of NIR
spectroscopy: A review. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 46(2), 99118.
Palmer, C. (2005). Diffraction grating handbook (6th ed.). Rochester, NY: Newport
Corporation.
Park, B., Kise, M., Windham, W., Lawrence, K., & Yoon, S. (2008). Textural analysis of
hyperspectral images for improving contaminant detection accuracy. Sensing and
Instrumentation for Food Quality and Safety, 2(3), 208214.
Park, B., Lee, S., Yoon, S. -C., Sundaram, J., Windham, W. R., Hinton, J. A., et al. (2011).
AOTF hyperspectral microscopic imaging for foodborne pathogenic bacteria detection (802707-802707).
Park, B., Yoon, S. -C., Windham, W., Lawrence, K., Kim, M., & Chao, K. (2011). Line-scan
hyperspectral imaging for real-time in-line poultry fecal detection. Sensing and Instrumentation for Food Quality and Safety, 5(1), 2532.
Peng, Y., & Lu, R. (2006). Improving apple fruit rmness predictions by effective correction of multispectral scattering images. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 41(3),
266274.
Qiao, J., Ngadi, M. O., Wang, N., Gariepy, C., & Prasher, S. O. (2007). Pork quality and
marbling level assessment using a hyperspectral imaging system. Journal of Food
Engineering, 83(1), 1016.
Qiao, J., Wang, N., Ngadi, M. O., Gunenc, A., Monroy, M., Gariepy, C., et al. (2007). Prediction of drip-loss, pH, and color for pork using a hyperspectral imaging technique. Meat Science, 76(1), 18.
Qin, J. W., Burks, T. F., Ritenour, M. A., & Bonn, W. G. (2009). Detection of citrus canker
using hyperspectral reectance imaging with spectral information divergence.
Journal of Food Engineering, 93(2), 183191.
Qin, J., Chao, K., & Kim, M. S. (2011). Investigation of Raman chemical imaging for detection of lycopene changes in tomatoes during postharvest ripening. Journal of
Food Engineering, 107(34), 277288.
Schaare, P. N., & Fraser, D. G. (2000). Comparison of reectance, interactance and transmission modes of visible-near infrared spectroscopy for measuring internal properties of kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 20(2),
175184.
Singh, C. B., Jayas, D. S., Paliwal, J., & White, N. D. G. (2010a). Detection of midge-damaged
wheat kernels using short-wave near-infrared hyperspectral and digital colour imaging. Biosystems Engineering, 105(3), 380387.
Singh, C. B., Jayas, D. S., Paliwal, J., & White, N. D. G. (2010b). Identication of
insect-damaged wheat kernels using short-wave near-infrared hyperspectral and
digital colour imaging. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 73(2), 118125.
Sinija, V., & Mishra, H. (2011). FTNIR spectroscopic method for determination of moisture content in green tea granules. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 4(1), 136141.
Sun, D. -W., & Brosnan, T. (2003). Pizza quality evaluation using computer vision Part 1 - Pizza base and sauce spread. Journal of Food Engineering, 57(1), 8189.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00275-3 (PII S0260-8774(02)00275-3).
Tkaczyk, T. S., Kester, R. T., & Gao, L. (2011). Image mapping spectrometers. In US Patent
Application Publication (Vol. US 2011/0285995 A1).
Vermeulen, P., Pierna, J. A. F., van Egmond, H. P., Dardenne, P., & Baeten, V. (2012). Online detection and quantication of ergot bodies in cereals using near infrared
hyperspectral imaging. Food Additives and Contaminants Part a-Chemistry Analysis
Control Exposure & Risk Assessment, 29(2), 232240.
Wang, W., Li, C., Tollner, E. W., Gitaitis, R. D., & Rains, G. C. (2012). Shortwave infrared
hyperspectral imaging for detecting sour skin (Burkholderia cepacia)-infected onions. Journal of Food Engineering, 109(1), 3848.
Wei, X., Xu, N., Wu, D., & He, Y. (2013). Determination of branched-amino acid content in
fermented Cordyceps sinensis Mycelium by using FT-NIR spectroscopy technique.
Food and Bioprocess Technology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-013-1053-4 (in
press).
Wu, D., Chen, X. J., Shi, P. Y., Wang, S. H., Feng, F. Q., & He, Y. (2009). Determination of
alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in edible oils using near-infrared spectroscopy improved by wavelet transform and uninformative variable elimination.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 634(2), 166171.
Wu, D., Chen, X., Zhu, X., Guan, X., & Wu, G. (2011). Uninformative variable elimination
for improvement of successive projections algorithm on spectral multivariable selection with different calibration algorithms for the rapid and non-destructive determination of protein content in dried laver. Analytical Methods, 3(8), 17901796.
Wu, D., Feng, L., He, Y., & Bao, Y. (2008). Variety identication of Chinese cabbage
seeds using visible and near-infrared spectroscopy. Transactions of the ASABE,
51(6), 21932199.
Wu, D., He, Y., & Feng, S. (2008). Short-wave near-infrared spectroscopy analysis of
major compounds in milk powder and wavelength assignment. Analytica Chimica
Acta, 610(2), 232242.
Wu, D., Nie, P. C., He, Y., & Bao, Y. D. (2012). Determination of calcium content in powdered milk using near and mid-infrared spectroscopy with variable selection and
chemometrics. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 5(4), 14021410.
Wu, D., Shi, H., Wang, S., He, Y., Bao, Y., & Liu, K. (2012). Rapid prediction of moisture
content of dehydrated prawns using online hyperspectral imaging system.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 726, 5766.
Wu, D., & Sun, D. -W. (2012). Colour measurements by computer vision for food quality
control A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 29(1), 520.
Wu, D., & Sun, D. -W. (2013). Potential of time series-hyperspectral imaging (TS-HSI)
for non-invasive determination of microbial spoilage of salmon esh. Talanta,
111, 3946.
Wu, D., Sun, D. -W., & He, Y. (2012). Application of long-wave near infrared
hyperspectral imaging for measurement of color distribution in salmon llet. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 16, 361372.
Wu, D., Wang, S., Wang, N., Nie, P., He, Y., Sun, D. -W., et al. (2013). Application of time
series-hyperspectral imaging (TS-HSI) for determining water distribution within
beef and spectral kinetic analysis during dehydration. Food and Bioprocess Technology.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-0928-0 (in press).
Yang, C. -C., Kim, M. S., Kang, S., Cho, B. -K., Chao, K., Lefcourt, A. M., et al. (2012). Red to
far-red multispectral uorescence image fusion for detection of fecal contamination on apples. Journal of Food Engineering, 108(2), 312319.
Ye, S. F., Wang, D., & Min, S. G. (2008). Successive projections algorithm combined with
uninformative variable elimination for spectral variable selection. Chemometrics
and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 91(2), 194199.
Yoon, S., Lawrence, K., Smith, D., Park, B., & Windham, W. (2008). Embedded bone fragment detection in chicken llets using transmittance image enhancement and
hyperspectral reectance imaging. Sensing and Instrumentation for Food Quality
and Safety, 2(3), 197207.
Yoon, S. C., Park, B., Lawrence, K. C., Windham, W. R., & Heitschmidt, G. W. (2011).
Line-scan hyperspectral imaging system for real-time inspection of poultry carcasses with fecal material and ingesta. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture,
79(2), 159168.
Zou, X. B., Zhao, J. W., Povey, M. J. W., Holmes, M., & Mao, H. P. (2010). Variables selection methods in near-infrared spectroscopy. Analytica Chimica Acta, 667(12),
1432.
Zheng, C. X., Sun, D. -W., & Zheng, L. Y. (2006). Recent developments and applications of
image features for food quality evaluation and inspection - A review. Trends in Food
Science & Technology, 17(12), 642655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2006.06.005.