Jhon Lee Gas Reserves

Chapter 10
Gas Volumes and Material-Balance

Calculations
10.1 Introduction
This chapter presents methods for estimating original gas in place,
gas reserves, and recovery factors' for a variety of reservoir drive
mechanisms. The first section discusses volumetric methods, including data requirements, calculation techniques, and limitations
of the methods. This first section includes equations for volumetric dry reservoirs, dry-gas reservoirs with water influx, and volumetric wet-gas and gas-condensate reservoirs. Next, we discuss
analysis techniques based on material-balance concepts. We begin
by deriving an equation for a volumetric gas reservoir in which
gas expansion is the primary source of energy. This equation is
then modified to include other external and internal energy sources
(e.g . water influx, compressibility of connate water, and rock PV)
and the effects of water vaporization and hydrocarbon phase
changes. Applications of both volumetric and material-balance
methods are illustrated with examples.
10.2 Volumetric Methods
Volumetric methods consider the reservoir PV occupied by
hydrocarbons at initial conditions and at later conditions after some
fluid production and associated pressure reduction. The later conditions often are defined as the reservoir pressure at which production is no longer economical. Volumetric methods are used early
in the life of a reservoir before significant development and production. These methods, however, can also be applied later in a
reservoir's life and often are used to confirm estimates from
material-balance calculations. The accuracy of volumetric estimates
depends on the availability of sufficient data to characterize the reservoir's areal extent and variations in net thickness and, ultimately,
to determine the gas-bearing reservoir PV. Obviously, early in the
productive life of a reservoir when few data are available to establish subsurface geologic control, volumetric estimates are least accurate. As more wells are drilled and more data become available,
the accuracy of these estimates improves.
Data used to estimate the gas-bearing reservoir PV include, but
are not limited to, well logs, core analyses, bottomhole pressure
(BHP) and fluid sample information, and well tests. These data typically are used to develop various subsurface maps. Of these maps,
structural and stratigraphic cross-sectional maps help to establish
the reservoir's areal extent and to identify reservoir discontinuities, such as pinchouts, faults, or gas/water contacts. Subsurface
contour maps, usually drawn relative to a known or marker formation, are constructed with lines connecting points of equal elevation and therefore portray the geologic structure. Subsurface
isopachous maps are constructed with lines of equal net gas-bearing

formation thickness. With these maps, the reservoir PV can then
be estimated by planimetering the areas between the isopachous lines
and using an approximate volume calculation technique, such as
the pyramidal or trapezoidal methods. Refs. I and 2 provide additional details for estimating reservoir PV.
After the gas-bearing reservoir PV has been estimated, we can
calculate the original gas in place and, for some abandonment conditions, estimate the gas reserves. The form of the volumetric equations varies according to the drive mechanism and type of gas. In
the following sections, we present equations for dry-gas reservoirs,
dry-gas reservoirs with water influx, and wet-gas reservoirs.
10.1.1 Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoirs. As the name implies, a
volumetric reservoir is completely enclosed by low-permeability
or completely impermeable barriers and does not receive pressure
support from external sources, such as an encroaching aquifer. In
addition, if the expansion of rock and the connate water are negligible, then the primary source of pressure maintenance is gas expansion resulting from gas production and the subsequent pressure
reduction.
When we usc "dry gas," we are referring to a reservoir gas made
up primarily of methane with some intermediate-weight hydrocarbon molecules. The dry-gas-phase diagram) in Fig. 10.1 indicates
that, because of this composition, dry gases do not undergo phase
changes following a pressure reduction and therefore are solely gases
in the reservoir and at the surface separator eonditions. In this sense,
"dry" does not refer to the absence of water but indicates that no
liquid hydrocarbons form in the reservoir, wellbore, or surface
equipment during production.
Beginning with the real-gas law, the gas volume at initial reservoir conditions is
Vgi
zi nRT
- - ...................................
(10.1)
Pi
Similarly, the gas volume at standard conditions is
Vsc=G=
zscnRTsc
.............................. (10.2)
Psc
Equating the number of moles of gas at initial reservoir conditions to the number at standard conditions and rearranging, we can
solve for the initial volume of gas at standard conditions:
GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIALBALANCE CALCULATIONS
231
Pi Vgi ZSCTSC
G = - - - - . .............................. (10.3)
Zi T
Psc
Assuming that the PV occupied by the gas is constant during the
producing life of the reservoir gives
Vgi =43.56Ahcp(1-Swi)' ................. . ...... (10.4)
Substituting Eq. lOA into Eq. lD.3 yields
G=43.56Ahcp(l-Sw;)
PizscTsc
o..y g ..
. ................. . (l0.5)
PscZi T
If we express the reservoir PV in barrels, Eq. 10.5 becomes
G=
7,758Ahcp(l-Sw;)
.......................... (10.6)
Bgi
5.02z;T
where Bgi
............... (l0.7)
Pi
Eq. 10.7, which assumes standard conditions of Psc= 14.65 psia,

Tsc =60oP=520oR, and zsc=1.0, also was derived in Chap. 1.
We can estimate the gas reserve or the total cumulative gas production, Gp ' over the life of the reservoir as the difference between
original gas in place, G, and gas in place at some abandonment
conditions, Ga :
Gp =G-Ga . ................................... (l0.8)

In terms of Eq. 10.6, the gas reserve is
7,758Ahcp(l-Swi)
........ (10.9)
Bg; )
, .............. (lO.lD)
Bga
Fig. 10.1-Phase diagram for a dry-gas reservoir fluid (after

William D. McCain Jr.'s Proper1ies of Petroleum Fluids, Second Edition, Copyright Pennwell Books, 1990 3 ).
5.02(0.860)( 180+460)
1.105 RB/Mscf.
2,500
Pi
2. The original gas in place for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir

is given by Eq. lD.6:
7,758Ahcp(1-Sw;)
G=-----Bg;
(7,758)(1,000)(10)(0.20)(1-0.25)
1.105
10,531 X I03 Mscf=IO.5 Bcr.
where the gas recovery factor F= I
Bga
Simple gas expansion is a very efficient drive mechanism. Even
though gas saturations at abandonment can be quite high, ultimate
recoveries of 80% to 90% ofthe original gas in place are routinely
achieved in volumetric gas reservoirs. The percentage of the original
volume of gas in place that can be recovered depends on the abandonment pressure, which usually is determined by economical rather
than technical considerations. Note that we developed Eq. 10.10
with the assumption that the initial connate water saturation does
not change. This assumption is valid in volumetric gas reservoirs
where the initial connate water saturation is immobile.
Example 1O.1-Calculating Original Gas In Place in a Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoir. The following reservoir data were estimated from subsurface maps, core analysis, well tests, and fluid
samples obtained at several wells. Use these data with the volumetric method to estimate original gas in place. Assume a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
= 2,500
psia.
1,000 acres.
180F.
cp
20%.
Swi = 25%.
h = lD ft.
zi = 0.860.
Pi
A
T
Solution.
I. First, calculate B gi . Zi was estimated with methods presented
in Chap. 1.
10.2.2 Dry-Gas Reservoirs With Water Influx. Many gas reservoirs are not completely closed but are subjected to some natural
water influx from an aquifer. Water encroachment occurs when
the pressure at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is reduced following gas production from the reservoir. Recall that we derived the
equation for a volumetric reservoir with the assumption that the
reservoir PV occupied by gas remained constant over the reservoir's productive life. However, in gas reservoirs with water influx, this PV decreases by an amount equal to the net volume of
water entering the reservoir and remaining unproduced. Therefore,
if we can estimate both the initial gas saturation and the residual
gas saturation at abandonment (i.e., the endpoint saturations), we
can use volumetric equations to calculate the gas reserves in a gas
reservoir with water influx.
Under these conditions, we consider the initial gas volume and
the remaining gas volume plus the volume of water that has entered the reservoir. Beginning with Eq. 10.8, the equation for the
cumulative gas production in terms of the initial and final water
saturations is
7,758Ahcp(l-Swi)
7, 758Ahcp(l- Swa)
.. .... (10.11)
Bga
In terms of the residual gas saturation, Sg" at abandonment, Eq.
1O.11 becomes
7,758AhcpSgr
........... (10.12)
GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
232
Here, the recovery factor, F=
Zi = O.S60.
Swi = 25%.
Pa = 750 psia.
h = 10 ft.
Za = 0.550.
Sgr = 0.35.
<I> = 20%.
T = 180F.
Ev = 100%.
II
Eqs. 10.11 through 10.13 were derived with the implicit assumption that the volumetric sweep efficiency for gas is 100%. In fact,
water may displace gas inefficiently in some cases. Results from
early corellood studies 4 5 suggest that significant gas volumes can
be bypassed and eventually trapped by an advancing water front.
In addition, because of reservoir heterogeneities (i.e., natural fractures and layering) and discontinuities (i.e., sealing faults and lowpermeability shale stringers), the encroaching water does not sweep
some portions of the reservoir effectively, resulting in high residual gas saturations in these unswept areas and higher abandonment
pressures than for volumetric dry-gas reservoirs. To account for
the unswept portions of the reservoir, we introduce a volumetric
sweep efficiency, E v , into the volumetric equation. With Ev, Eq.
10.8 can be rewritten as
Solution.
I. First, calculate the gas FVF at initial and abandonment conditions. The gas FVF at initial conditions, calculated in Example
10.1, is Bgi = 1.105 RB/Mscf. The gas FVF at abandonment is
5.02(0.550)(180+460)
- - - - - - - =2.356 RB/Mscf.
750
2. The gas reserve at an abandonment pressure of 750 psia is
estimated with Eq. 10.16:
Gp=G-[EvGa +(l-Ev)Ga . ................... (10.14)

Eq. 10.14 can be rewritten in a form similar to Eq. 10.10,
7,758Ah<l>(l-Sw;)
7,758Ah<I>(1-Swa)
Bgi
Bga
Gp = - - - - - - -
7,758Ah<I>(I-Swi)
+(1
Eq. 10.15 can be rearranged to yield
Here F=[I-E v Bgi (Sgr + l-E v )].

.
Bgo Sgi
Ev .
Because gas often is bypassed and trapped by the encroaching
water, recovery factors for gas reservoirs with waterdrive can be
significantly lower than for volumetric reservoirs produced by simple gas expansion. In addition, the presence of reservoir heterogeneities, such as low-permeability stringers or layering, may reduce
gas recovery further. As noted previously, ultimate recoveries of
SO% to 90% are common in volumetric gas reservoirs, while typical recovery factors in waterdrive gas reservoirs can range from
50% to 70%.
Eq. 10. 16 requires estimates of Sgr and E v. Coreflood studies
of representative reservoir samples are the best method for determining residual gas saturations. In the absence of laboratory studies,
Agarwal 6 proposed correlations for estimating this saturation.
Although they are based on laboratory data representing a wide
range of lithologies and petrophysical properties, these correlations,
summarized in Appendix J, may not be accurate for all situations
and should be applied judiciously. We also can use numerical simulation to estimate volumetric sweep efficiencies if sufficient reservoir data are available.
Example lO.2-Calculating Gas Reserves and Recovery Factor

for a Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Calculate the gas reserve
and the gas recovery factor using the data given in Example 10. I
and assuming that the residual gas saturation is 35 % at an abandonment pressure of 750 psia. Assume that the volumetric sweep
efficiency is 100%.
2,500 psia.
A = 1,000 acres.
=
3. The gas recovery factor is
BgiSgr
(1.105)(0.35)
Bga(l-Sw)
(2.356)(1-0.25)
---"'---"-- = 1- - - - - - - 0.781=78.1%.
F=I
Bgi(Sgr I
l-E v-+
.
Bga Sgi
Ev
................... (10.16)
Pi
(1.105)(0.35)
(2.356)(1-0.25)
1.105
7,758Ah<l>(I- S wi) [
Bgi
[I _
=S,226x 10 3 Mscf=S.2 Bcf.

................. (10.15)
Bga
Gp =
= (7 ,75S)(I,000)(l0)(0.20)(I-0.25)
Example lO.3-Calculating Gas Reservoir and Recovery Factor for a Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Using the same data
from Example 10.2, calculate the gas reserve and the gas recovery
factor if Sgr =35 % at Po =750 psia and Ev=60%.
A
Zi
Swi
Pi
Bgi
h
za
Sgr
Po
Bga
<I>
T
Ev
1,000 acres.
= 0.860.
25%.
2,500 psia.
1.105 RB/Mscf.
to ft.
0.550.
0.35.
750 psia.
2.356 RB/Mscf.
20%.
ISOF.
60%.
Solution.
I. Gp is calculated with Eq. 10.16.
Gp
7,758Ah<l>(l-Swi)
Bgi
t-Ev)l
Bgi (Sgr
I-Ev- - + - Bga Sgi
Ev
(7,75S)(I,000)(1O)(0.20)(1-0.25)
1.105
1.105(0.35 1-0.60)]
x 1 (0.60)-- - - + - - 2.356 0.75
0.60
172x 10 3 Mscf==7.2 Bcf.
233
GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS
"' ewe JNlIIi

I. , ., ....Ir
w.,
T.mp..........
T.mp .... ' .....
Fig. 10.2-Phase diagram for a wet-gas reservoir fluid (after

William D. McCain Jr.'s Properties of Petroleum Fluids, Second Edition, Copyright Pennwell Books, 1990 3 ).
2. The gas recovery factor is
- +1-E
- -)
Bgi (Sgr
F=l- E v -
Bga
Sgi
Ev
1.105 (0.35 1-0.60)

=1-(0.60)-- - - + - - 2.356 0.75
0.60
Fig. 10.3-Phase diagram for a gas-condensate reservoir (after William D. McCain Jr. 's Properties of Petroleum Fluids,
Second Edition, Copyright Pennwell Books, 1990 3 ).
According to Gold et al. ,7 for a three-stage separation system

consisting of a high-pressure separator, a low-pressure separator,
and a stock tank, the reservoir gas gravity is estimated from a recombination of the produced well stream,
R!'YI +4,602'Yo+ R 2'Y2 +R 3'Y3
'Yw=
R1+
+R2+R3
Mo
=0.681
Similarly, for a two-stage separation system consisting of a highpressure separator and stock tank, the reservoir gas gravity is estimated with
=68.1 %.
10.2.3 Volumetric Wet-Gas and Gas-Condensate Reservoirs.

Like dry gases, the primary composition of a wet gas is methane;
however, unlike dry gases, wet gases have more of the intermediateand heavier-weight hydrocarbon molecules. Because of this composition, formation of a liquid phase in the wellbore and surface
production equipment accompanies pressure and temperature reductions during production. In this context, "wet" does not mean that
a gas is wet with water but refers to the hydrocarbon liquid that
condenses at surface conditions.
The behavior of wet-gas systems is best illustrated with the phase
diagram 3 in Fig. 10.2. The reservoir fluid is classified as a wet
gas if it is single-phase gas at reservoir conditions but surface pressure and temperature conditions fall within the two-phase region. 3
The reservoir pressure path in Fig. 10.2 does not enter the twophase envelope; thus, no liquid hydrocarbons are formed in the
reservoir. The separator conditions, however, lie within the twophase envelope, and some gas condenses at the surface.
For a wet-gas reservoir, the total initial gas in place, G r , which
includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of produced liquid hydrocarbons, is
Gr =
............ (10.18)
133,3161'0
7,758Ahct>(1-S wi )
, ........................ (10.17)
Bgi
where Bgi is defined by Eq. 10.7. Because of the gas condensation at the surface, the surface and reservoir gas properties are different. Consequently, the use of Eq. 10.17 requires knowledge of the
gas properties at reservoir conditions. A laboratory analysis of the
recombined surface fluid production is the most accurate source
of these properties; however, in the absence of such an analysis,
we can estimate these properties using correlations of surface production data. These correlations are recommended for fluids in
which the total nonhydrocarbon components (i.e., CO 2 , H 2 S, and
N 2 ) do not exceed 20%.7
R1'Y1 +4, 602'Yo+ R 3'Y3
'Yw=
Rl +
.................. (10.19)
133,3161'0
+R3
Mo
If the molecular weight of the stock-tank liquid (i.e., the condensates produced at the surface) is unknown, we can estimate it
using either
5,954
Mo =
............................. (10.20)
I' API -8.811
or Mo=
42.431' 0
.............................. (10.21)
1.008-1'0
Accurate estimates of gas properties at reservoir conditions require that all surface gas and liquid production be recombined according to Eq. 10.18 or 10.19. However, gas production from
low-pressure separators and stock tanks often is not measured. Gold
et al. 7 developed correlations for estimating the additional gas production from the secondary separator and stock tank, Gpa , and the
vapor equivalent pf the primary separator liquid, Veq' These correlations, express~ in terms of generally available production data,
are presented in Chap. 1 and are used in Eq. 10.22 to estimate the
reservoir gas gravity:
'Yw=
RIl'l +4, 602'Yo+ Gpa
..................... (10.22)
Rl + Veq
After the gas gravity at reservoir conditions is known, we can
use the method established previously to estimate the gas deviation
factor. Using this value, we can estimate the total original gas in
place with Eq. 10.17.
234
Because of condensation, some gas at reservoir conditions is produced as liquids at the surface. The fraction of the total initial gas
in place that will be produced in the gaseous phase at the surface is
fg=
(59,550)(0.72) +(4,602)(0.76) +(415)(1 .23)

(133,316)(0.76)
59,550+
+415
130.3
Rf
, ......................... (10.23)
=0.77.
132,800yo
Rf +----
Mo
where R f includes gas and condensate production from all separators and the stock tank. The fraction of the original total gas in place,
G r , that will be produced in the gaseous phase is
G=fgGr. .............................. . .... (10.24)
and the original oil (condensate) in place is
3. Using the method presented in Chap. 1, the pseudocritical pressure and temperature are estimated to be Ppe =655 psia and
Tpe =395R, With these pseudocritical values, calculate the pseudo reduced pressure and temperature, respectively:
Pi
5,500
Ppr=- =
Ppe
1.000fgGr
N ----"'---'-. ...... ...................... . (10.25)
288+460
---=1.89.
395
Rf
Note that this calculation procedure is applicable to gas-condensate

reservoirs only when the reservoir pressure is above the original
dewpoint pressure, Gas-condensate reservoir fluids also are characteristically rich with intermediate- and heavier-weight hydrocarbon molecules. Because of this composition, a liquid phase forms
not only in the wellbore and surface equipment but also in the
reservoir.
The behavior of a ga~-condensate fluid is illustrated with the phase
diagram 3 in Fig. 10.3. Upon discovery, if the reservoir pressure
is above the dewpoint pressure and if the temperature lies between
the critical temperature and thc cricondentherm, then a single-phase
fluid (i.e., gas) exists in the reservoir. Once the reservoir pressure
falls below the dewpoint pressure, however, liquid hydrocarbons
form in the reservoir, and we cannot use surface production data
to estimate reservoir fluid properties accurately. Under these conditions, accurate estimates of the gas and condensate in place require a laboratory analysis of the reservoir fluid.
Finally, using the method in Chap. 1 to estimate the gas deviation factor at original reservoir conditions gives Zj 1.06.
4. The gas FVF at initial reservoir conditions is
5.20z;T
B gj =---=
Pj
Pi = 5,500 psia.
h=50ft.
T = 288F.
tjJ = 0.21.
A = 1,000 acres.
Swi = 0.32.
(5.02)(1.06)(288+460)
=0.72 RB/Mscf.
5,500
From Eq. 10.17, the total initial gas in place, which includes gas
and the gaseous equivalent of condensates, is
7,758Ah4>(l-Sw;)
Gr = - - - - - Bg;
(7,758)( 1.000)(50)(0.21)(1-0.32)
0.72
=76.9x
Example 10.4-Calculating Original Gas and Condensate in

Place for a Volumetric Wet-Gas Reservoir. Estimate the total
initial gas in place, the fraction of the total initial gas in place that
will be produced in the gaseous phase, and the initial oil (condensate) in place using the data given below. Table 10.1 gives the initial surface production data.
=8.40
655
10 6
Mscf=76.9 Bcf.
5. The fraction of the total initial gas in place that will be produced in the gaseous phase at the surface is
Rf
132.800yo
Rr+---Mo
where the total producing GOR is
Rf =R 1 + R3 =59,550+415 =59,965 scflSTB.

Therefore,
Rf
Solution.
I. First, calculate the properties of the stock-tank oil (i.e., condensate). The specific gravity is
132,800yo
f =
Rf +
Mo
59,965
132,800(0.76)
59,965+----130.3
=0.99.
The volume of surface gas production is
141.5
141.5
131.5+'YAPI
131.5+54.5
'Yo =
=0.76.
6. The original volume of condensate in place is
From Eq. 10.20, the molecular weight of the condensate is

5,954
5,954
G=fgGr=(0.99)(76.9)=76.1 Bcf.
1,000fgGr
N=--""----Rf
130.3 Ibmllbm-mol.
54.5-8.811
2. For a two-stage separation system, use Eq. 10.19 to calculate
the gas gravity at reservoir conditions:
(1,000)(0.99)(76.9 x 10 6 Mscf)
59,965 scf/STB
= 1.3 x 10 6 STH.
10.3 MaterlalBalance Methods

Material-balance methods provide a simple. but effective, alternative to volumetric methods for estimating not only original gas in
235
TABLE 10_1-INITIAL SURFACE PRODUCTION DATA, EXAMPLE 10_4
Primary separator
Stock-tank gas
Stock-tank oil
Specific Gravity
of Surface Fluids
Field
Production
0.72
1.230
54.5API
59,550 scflSTB
415 scf/STB
1,050 STBID
place but also gas reserves at any stage of reservoir depletion. A

material-balance equation is simply a statement of the principle of
conservation of mass, or
(original hydrocarbon mass) -(produced hydrocarbon mass)
=(remaining hydrocarbon mass).
In 1941, Schilthuis 8 presented a general form of the materialbalance equation derived as a volumetric balance based on the simple
assumption that the reservoir PV either remains constant or changes
in a manner that can be predicted as a function of change in reservoir pressure. With this assumption, he equated the cumulative observed surface production (expressed in terms of fluid production
at reservoir conditions) to the expansion of the remaining reservoir fluids resulting from a finite decrease in pressure. We also
can include the effects of water influx, changes in fluid phases, or
PV changes caused by rock and water expansion.
Sometimes called production methods, 9 material-balance
methods are developed in terms of cumulative fluid production and
changes in reservoir pressure and therefore require accurate measurements of both quantities. Unlike volumetric methods, which can
be used early in a reservoir's life, material-balance methods cannot be applied until after some development and production. However, an advantage of material-balance methods is that they estimate
only the gas volumes that are in pressure communication with and
that may be ultimately recovered by the producing wells. ConverseIy, volumetric estimates are based on the total gas volume in place,
part of which may not be recoverable with the existing wells because of unidentified reservoir discontinuities or heterogeneities.
Therefore, comparisons of estimates from both methods can provide a qualitative measure of the degree of reservoir heterogeneity
and allow a more accurate assessment of gas reserves for a given
field-development strategy.
Another advantage of material-balance methods is that, if sufficient production and pressure histories are available, application
of these methods can provide insight into the predominant reservoir drive mechanism, whereas the correct use of volumetric
methods requires a priori knowledge of the primary source of reservoir energy. As we shall see in the next section, a plot of plz vs.
Gp will be a straight line for a volumetric gas reservoir in which
gas expansion is the primary reservoir drive mechanism. However,
consistent deviations from this straight line indicate other internal
or external energy sources.
Once the predominant reservoir drive mechanism has been identified, we can apply the correct material-balance plotting functions
to estimate original gas in place and gas reserves. Like volumetric
methods, the form of the material-balance equation varies depending on the drive mechanism. In the following sections, we present
the material-balance equations for volumetric dry-gas reservoirs,
dry-gas reservoirs with water influx, volumetric geopressured gas
reservoirs, and volumetric gas-condensate reservoirs.
10.3.1 Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoirs. As stated, volumetric
reservoirs are completely enclosed and receive no external energy
from other sources, such as aquifers. If rock and connate water
expansions are negligible sources of internal energy, then the
dominant drive mechanism is gas expansion as reservoir pressure
decreases. Comparison of typical values of gas and liquid compressibilities shows that gases can be as much as 100 or even 1,000
times more compressible than relatively incompressible liquids, so
simple gas expansion is a very efficient drive mechanism, often
allowing up to 90% of in-place gas to be recovered.
Separator
Conditions
Pressure
Temperature
(psia)
(oF)
200
14.7
14.7
62
60
60
Assuming a constant reservoir PV over the producing life of the

reservoir, we can derive a material-balance equation by equating
the reservoir PV occupied by the gas at initial conditions to that
occupied by the gas at some later conditions following gas production and the associated pressure reduction. Referring to the tanktype model in Fig. 10.4, we write the material-balance equation as
GBgi=(G-Gp)B g , ............................. (10.26)
where GBgi=reservoir volume occupied by gas at initial reservoir

pressure, res bbl, and (G-Gp)B g = reservoir volume occupied by
gas after gas production at a pressure below the initial reservoir
pressure, res bbl.
We can rewrite Eq. 10.26 as
Gp=G(I- ::). ............................. (10.27)
If we substitute the ratio of the gas FVF evaluated at initial and

later conditions, Bg/B g =(ziP)/(zp), into Eq. 10.27, we obtain an
equation in terms of the measurable quantities, surface gas production, and BHP:
ZiP
Gp=G ( 1 - ) , .............................. (10.28)
ZPi
where the gas recovery factory is

( 1- ZiP).
ZPi
Further, we can rewrite Eq. 10.28 as

P
Pi (
Gp )
Pi
Pi
Zi
Zi
ZiG
- = - 1 - - = - - - Gp ' ................. (10.29)
Similar to van Everdingen et al. 's 10 and Havlena and Odeh' s 11

graphical analysis techniques, the form ofEq. 10.29 suggests that,
if the reservoir is volumetric, a plot of plz vs. Gp will be a straight
line, from which we can estimate both original gas in place and
gas reserve at some abandonment conditions.
As stated earlier, if sufficient pressure and production data are
available to define the line fully, we also can determine the dominant
drive mechanism from the shape of the plot. Although consistent
deviations from a straight line suggest other sources of reservoir
energy, errors in pressure and production measurements also can
cause departures from a straight line. Obviously, early in the productive life of a reservoir when few data are available, this plotting
technique may not be accurate. Fig. 10.5 shows typical shapes of
plz plots for selected gas reservoir drive mechanisms.
The same material balance is applicable to wet-gas reservoirs,
but we must base Z and Zi on the reservoir gas gravity and Gp must
include the vapor equivalent of the condensate produced. The original gas in place, G, and the gas reserve to abandonment includes
the vapor equivalent of liquid and must be corrected to determine
dry-gas and gas-condensate reserves,
Example 10.5-Calculating Original Gas in Place Using Material Balance for a Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoir. Estimate the
original gas in place for the reservoir described below using the
material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir where
236
Gp
Geopressured
WealcWater
Drive
GBgi
Initial Conditions (p =
(G - Gp) Bg
pJ
Later Conditions (p <
pJ
G
Fig. 10.4-Material-balance model for a volumetric dry-gas

reservoir showing reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial and
later conditions.
the original reservoir pressure at discovery was Pi =4,000 psia.

Table 10.2 gives the reservoir pressure and production history.
Solution.
I. First, prepare a plot of plz vs. Gp (Fig. 10.6) using the data
in Table 10.3.
2. Extrapolation of the best-fit line through the data to plz =0
indicates that G=42 MMscf. Note that, if no measurements of initial reservoir pressure are available, we also can estimate Pi from
the extrapolation of the line to Gp =0. For this example, Pi =4,000
psia or P;lZi =5.000 psia.
In addition, the trend of the data (i.e., a straight line) suggests
that the reservoir is volumetric. As mentioned, consistent deviations from a straight line often indicate that gas expansion is not
the predominant reservoir drive mechanism.
Fig. 10.5-Shapes of plz plots for various drive mechanisms.
of water influx but also by the amount of water produced at the

surface:
/lVp=We-WpBw' ............................. (10.31)
Combining Eqs. 10.30 and 10.31 yields

GBgi=(G-Gp)B g + We - WpBw . ................. (10.32)
where GB$; = reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial reservoir pressure, res bbl; (G-Gp ) = reservoir PV occupied by gas following
gas production at a pressure below the initial pressure, res bbl; and
/l Vp =change in reservoir PV occupied by gas at later conditions
due to water influx, res bbl.
Referring to Fig. 10.7, we can see that the change in reservoir
PV at some reduced pressure is affected not only by the volume
If water influx and production are ignored, a plot of plz vs. Gp

may appear as a straight line initially but eventually will deviate
from the line. The deviation will occur early for a strong waterdrive
and later for a weak aquifer support system. Chierici and Pizzi 12
studied the effects of weak or partial waterdrive systems and concluded that accurate gas-in-place estimates are difficult to obtain,
especially early in the production period or when the aquifer characteristics are unknown. Similarly, Bruns et ai. 13 showed that significant errors in gas-in-place estimates occur ifthe effects of water
encroachment are ignored in the material-balance calculations~
Before the effects of water influx on gas reservoir behavior were
completely understood, early deviations from a straight line on a
plot of plz vs. Gp often were attributed to measurement errors. In
some instances, errors in field pressure measurements can mask
the effects of water influx, especially if a weak waterdrive is present; however, consistent deviations from a straight line suggest that
the reservoir is not volumetric and that additional energy is being
supplied to the reservoir. Bruns et al. studied the effects of water
influx on the shape of the plot of plz vs. Gp and showed that the
shape and direction of the deviation from straight line depend on
the strength of the aquifer support system and on the aquifer properties and the reservoir/aquifer geometry.
If the initial gas in place is known from other sources, such as
volumetric estimates, we can calculate We from Eq. 10.32. In
practice, however, usually both We and G are unknown, and calculation of initial gas in place requires an independent estimate of
water influx. Therefore, in the next section we discuss three methods
for estimating water influx.
Methods/or Estimating Water Influx. Water influx results from
a reduction in reservoir pressure following gas production. Water
influx tends to maintain, either partially or wholly. the reservoir
pressure. In general, both the effectiveness of the pressure support
system and the water influx rates are governed by the aquifer char-
TABLE 10.2-RESERVOIR PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION

HISTORY, EXAMPLE 10.5
TABLE 10.3-MATERIAL-BALANCE PLOTTING FUNCTIONS,

EXAMPLE 10.5
10.3.2 Dry-Gas Reservoirs With Water Influx. In the previous

section, we derived a material-balance equation for a volumetric
gas reservoir. A critical assumption in this derivation is that the
reservoir PV occupied by the gas remained constant throughout the
productive life of the reservoir. However, if the reservoir is subjected to water influx from an aquifer, this PV is reduced by an
amount equal to the volume of encroaching water. In addition, the
water entering the reservoir provides an important source of energy (I.e., pressure support) that must be considered in materialbalance calculations.
We can derive a material-balance equation for a waterdrive system by equating the reservoir PV occupied by the gas at initial conditions to that occupied by the gas at later conditions plus the change
in PV resulting from water influx (Fig. 10.7). A general form of
the material-balance equation is
GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+/lVp ........................ (10.30)
plz
(MMscf)
Gp
(psia)
(MMscf)
(psia)
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
0
2.460
4.920
7.880
11.200
0.80
0.73
0.66
0.60
0.55
0
2.460
4.920
7.880
11.200
5,000
4,795
4,545
4,167
3,636
Pi
Gp
237
6000
'--pi
5000
4000
'R
~
It; = 5.000 psla
-~
co
3000
"'2000
1000
'"
,..-__............G
vp., Wp
""-
GBgi
~.
,
'"
I'
-----
G=~2IMMscf
Initial Conditions (p
=pU
Later Conditions (p
< pU
30
40
10
20
Cumulative Gas Production,Gp (MMscf)
50
Fig. 10.6-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir, Example 10.5.
acteristics, which principally include the penneability, thickness,

areal extent, and the pressure history along the original reservoir/aquifer boundary. Note that, in practice, estimating water influx is very uncertain, primarily because of the lack of sufficient
data to characterize the aquifer (especially its geometry and areal
continuity) completely. Because wells are seldom drilled intentionally into an aquifer to gain information, these data must be elther
assumed or inferred from the geologic and reservoir characteristics.
Generally, reservoir/aquifer systems are classified as either edgewater or bottomwater drive. In edgewater-drive systems, water
moves into the reservoir flanks, while bottomwater drive occurs
in reservoirs with large areal extents and gently dipping structures
where the aquifer completely underlies the reservoir. van Everdingen and Hurst's l4 and Carter and Tracy's 15 methods are applicable only to edgewater-drive geometries or for combined geometries
that can be modeled as edgewater-drive systems, while the Fetkovich
method l6 is applicable for all geometries. Refs. 17 and 18 address
the problem of water influx from bottomwater-drive systems and
propose models for these geometries. In this chapter, we discuss
the van Everdingen and Hurst, Carter and Tracy, and Fetkovich
methods.
van Everdingen-Hurst 14 Method. In 1949, van Everdingen and
Hurst presented an unsteady-state model for predicting water influx. As Fig. 10.8 shows, the reservoir/aquifer system is modeled
as two concentric cylinders or sectors of cylinders. The inside cylindrical surface, defined by radius rn represents the reservoir/aquifer boundary, while the outer surface is the aquifer boundary defined
by r a' Radial flow of water from the aquifer to the reservoir is described mathematically with the radial diffusivity equation "
o2po
1 oPo
oPo
oro
ro oro
Olo
- 2 - + - - = - ' ....................... (10.33)
WI!
Fig. 10.7-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial and later conditions for a dry-gas reservoir with water influx.
where the dimensionless variables are defined in terms of the aquifer properties. The dimensionless pressure for constant-rate conditions at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is
oJX)708kh( Pi - p)
.. (10.34)
Po=
For constant-terminal-pressure conditions,
Pj-P
Po
- - . .,............. . ................ (10.35)

P;-Pr
The dimensionless radius is defined in tenns of rr:

ro=r/r" .................................... (10.36).
and for
in days.
0.OO633kt
cPP,Crr~
............................... (10.37)
van Everdingen and Hurst derived solutions to Eq. 10.33 for two
reservoir/aquifer boundary conditions-constant terminal rate and
constant terminal pressure. The water influx rate for the constanttenninal-rate case is assumed constant for a given period, and the
pressure drop at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is calculated. For
the constant-pressure case, the water influx rate is determined for
a constant pressure drop over some finite time period. Reservoir
engineers usually are more interested in determining the water influx than the pressure drop at the reservoir/aquifer boundary, so
~~ .......-=--_:::-1.
~'t
f~
>-
~Ps
-------------
IQ
II.!
ffi
~~ o
Fig. 10.S-Radial geometry for the van Everdlngen-Hurst 14
reservoir/aquifer model.
------------------2
3
TIME PERIODS
AP'
5
Fig. 10.9-Step-by-step pressure-history approximation used

In the van Everdingen-Hurst 14 model (after Craft and
Hawkins 2 ).
238
TABLE 10.4-PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR/
AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.6
Gas
Reservoir
p,
Time
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
o
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Aquifer
TABLE 10.S-SUMMARY OF INTERMEDIATE RESULTS,

EXAMPLE 10.6
Time
(days)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
p
(psia)
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
90.6
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
!1Pn
(psi)
0
2.5
9.5
20.0
32.5
34.0
33.0
QeD(tDnl
0
10.1
17.0
23.1
29.0
34.5
40.0
we will focus on water-influx calculations under constant-pressure

conditions. Ref. 14 gives additional details on the constant-rate solution.
van Everdingen and Hurst derived the constant-pressure solutio~s
in terms of a dimensionless water influx rate defined by
Fig. 10.10-Linear geometry for the van Everdingen-Hurst 14

reservoir/aquifer model.
and end of the period. Thus. for an initial aquifer pressure, Pi, the
average pressure during the first time period is PI 1/2 (Pi+Pl)'
Similarly, for the second time period. P2 = '12 ( p, + P2)' In general, for the nth time period, Pn Ih(Pn_1 +Pn)'
We can then calculate the pressure changes between time periods as follows.
Between the initial and first time periods.
t.PO=Pi-P,=Pi
1/2 (Pi+PI)
Ih(Pi-P,),
Similarly, between the first and second time periods,

I1Pl
qD
... (10.38)
0.OO708kMp
Integrating both sides of Eq. 10.38 with respect to time yields
In general, for the (n

I1Pn=Pn-l-Pn
I) and nth time periods,
1/2 (P n -2+Pn-l)
'12(Pn_' +Pn)
= '12( Pn-2 -Pn)'

>'D
,I
p.
)(0.OO633k)I"
0.OO708kht.p
p.clr~
qDdtD
.'
\
1.119clhr~ t.p 0
q dt
W
During each time increment, the pressure is assumed constant

(i.e., constant-pressure solution), and the cumulative water influx
for n time periods is
n
qwdt . .............. (10.39)
We(tn)=B
I1PiQpD(tn -ti-I)D, ............... (10.44)
i= 1
In material-balance calculations, we are more interested in the

cumulative water influx than in influx rate. Therefore. because cumulative water influx. We. is
where B= LlI9cthr~ . ........................... (10.45)

If the angle subtended by the reservoir is less than 360 0 (Fig.
10.8), then B is adjusted as follows:
We = J qwdt .............. .
. ..... (10040)
B=
1.119clhr~( 3~)'
........................ (10.46)
and dimensionless cumulative water influx is

'ID
QpD= \ qDdtD. ................... (10041)
I1p;=
we can combine Eqs. 10.39 through 10.41 to obtain

QpD=
We
l. 1I9c thr~ t. P
Thus, We
.......................... (10.42)
\.l19clhr~t.pQpD'""""'' .(10.43)
If the total productive reservoir life is divided into a finite num

ber of pressure reductions or increases, we can use superposition
of the solution givcn by Eq. 10.43 to model the water-influx behavior for a given pressure history. This method assumes that the
pressure history at the original reservoir/aquifer boundary can be
approximated by a series of step-by-step pressure changes. Fig.
shows the modeling of a pressure history.
Referring to Fig. 10.9, we define the average pressure in each
period as the arithmetic average of the pressures at the beginning
ro.9
The pressure change during each time increment, as explained

above, is calculated with
I/Z
(Pi_2 -p;l. i= 1,2 ... n .................. (10.47)
and Pi-l =Po =initial pressure. Each I1Pi in Eq. 10.44 is multiplied by the dimensionless cumulative water influx, QpD' evaluated at a dimensionless time corresponding to the time for which I1Pi
has been in effect. For example. I1Pl will have been in effect for
the total productive life of the reservoir. so QpD will be evaluated
at (tl -OlD' In general, I1Pn will have been in effect for the time
period t-tn_I' so QpD that multiplies I1Pn will be evaluated at
(t-tn-1)D'
To simplify calculations, Tables E-4 and E-5 in Appendix E present values for dimensionless cumulative water influx as a function
of time for both infinite-acting and finite aquifers. 19 AlternativeIy, for the special case of infinite-acting aquifers, Edwardson et
al. 20 developed polynomial expressions for calculating QpD' These
expressions, Eqs. 10.48 through 10.50, depend on dimensionless
time:
239

TABLE 10.6-SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS,
EXAMPLE 10.6
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLE 10.7-PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIRI

Time
(days)
We
(psia)
(RB)
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
0
11,471
62,898
191,374
436,219
781,237
1,212,890
(days)
p, at Reservoirl
Aquifer Boundary
(psia)
9
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3.709
3,680
3,643
For 'D<O.OI,
QPD(1D)=2~.
tD =
............................. (10.48)
tjlp.clr~
and for a linear flow geOmetry,

'D=
QpD(tD) =
1.2838tJ' + 1.19328tD +0.269872tJ/2 +0.0085529418
I +0.6 I65991J' +0.04 I 30081D

................................ (10.49)
For tD>200,
-4.29881 +2.025661D
tjlp.c l L2
................ (10.50)
Similarly, Klins et al. 21 developed polynomial approximations

for both infinite-acting and finite aquifers.
The van Everdingen and Hurst method also is applicable to linear
flow geometries (Fig. 10.10). For linear flow, we define a dimensionless time in terms of the reservoir length, L, as
0.00633kt
tjlp.c l L2
We<1n) =B
voir/aquifer system given below. Assume an infinite-acting aquifer. The estimated properties of the aquifer are given below; Table'
10.4 summarizes the reservoir/aquifer pressure history.
................................ (l0.51)
tjI
p.
180.
275 md.
6x 10- 6 psia- I .
= 19.2 ft.
rr = 5,807 ft.
IlPiQpD(tn-ti-l)D, ............... (10.52)
Solution.
I. Calculate Busing Eq. 10.46:
B=0.178tj1c1hL. ............................... (l0.53)
Ref. 14 gives dimensionless cumulative prodUction numbers,
= 0.209.
= 0.25 cpo
k
ci
h
i=1
where the parameter B is defined in terms of the reservoir length,
IlPiQpD(tn -(i-I)D' ............... (10.44)
Example 10.6-Estimating Water Innux With the van

Everdingen-Hurst Method. Calculate the water influx for the reser-
r;
r;
i=1
Following a derivation similar to that presented for radial flow,

we find that the cumulative water influx for n time periods is
We(tn)=B
................................ (W.5i.)
4. For each tD computed in Step 3, calculate a dimensionless

water cumulative influx, QpD(tD)' For an infinite-acting aquifer,
we can use Eqs. 10.50 through 10.52, use Klins e1 al. 's21 equations, or read the values directly from Table E-4. For finite aquifers, we must use Klins et ai.'s equations or Table E-5.
5. Calculate the water influx:
In(tD)
tD=
, ............................... (10.37)
0.00633k1
For 0.01 <1D<200,
QpD(tD) =
0.00633kt
B=
1.119tj1clhr~(-{}-)
360
QpD' for this case.
Derived from exact solutions to the diffusivity equation, the van

Everdingen and Hurst method models all aquifer flow regimes (i.e.,
transient and pseudosteady-state) and is applicable to both infiniteacting and finite aquifers. Example 10.6 illustrates the following
calculation procedure.
l. First, calculate the parameter B for radial flow,
B=1.I19tj1Clhr~C~)
=1.119(0.209)(6 x 10 -6)(19.2)(5,807)2 (~:)

=454.3 RB/psi.
2. For each time period, calculate IIp defined by
ilPn= Ih(Pn-2-Pn)' For example, at n=1
......................... (10.46)
or for a linear flow geometry,

B=0.178tj1c1hL. ............................... (10.53)
2. Calculate the pressure change, IlPi, between each time

period,
IlPi=Ih(Pi-2-Pi), i=I,2 .. .n.
3. Calculate the t D that correspond to each time period on the

production history. For a radial flow geometry,
IlpI
= Ih(Pi-P 1)= lh(3,793-3,788)=2.5 psi
For n=6,
IlP6 = Ih(P4 -P6)= lh(3,709-3,643)=33.0 psi.
3. Calculate dimensionless times that correspond to each time

on our schedule. Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq. 10.37
for a radial system:
0.00633k1
'D=---tjlp.clr~
(0.00633)(275)1
0.1651.
(0.209)(0.25)(6 x 10 -6)(5,807)2
240
For example, at t=91.5 days, lD=0.165(91.5)=15.1.
4. For each tD computed in Step 3, calculate a dimensionless cumulative water influx. Because we are assuming an infinite-acting
aquifer, we can use either Eqs. 10.48 through 10.50 or Table E-4.
For this example, we have chosen to use the equations.
The value of tD determines which equation to use. For example, at 91.5 days (n=I), ID=15.1, so we use Eq. 10.49.
i-I
We(IDj)=
I:
qDn(tDn+I-IDn)+
n=O
I:
qDn(tDn+l-tDn)
n=i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... (10.55)
j
or We(tDj)=We(tDi) +
I:.
qDn(tDn+l-tDn)' ......... (10.56)
n=l
QpD(tD) =
1.2838t; + 1.19328tD +0.269872152 +0.00855294tJ
1+0.616599t; +0.04130081D
Using the convolution integral, 14 we also can express the cumulative water up to the jth interval as a function of variable
pressure:
=[1.2838(15.1) 'h + 1.19328(15.1) +0.269872(15.1)3/2

+0.00855294(15.1)2]/[1 +0.616599(15.1) v, +0.0413008(15.1)]
= 10.1.
Table 10.5 summarizes the intermediate results from Steps 2

through 4.
5. Next, calculate We using Eq. lO.44. Note that, although this
calculation procedure assumes equal time intervals, the method also
is applicable for unequal time intervals with slight modifications.
I:
.6.PiQpD(tn- t i-I)D
1=1
For example, at n = 1
I
We(tDl)=B
I:
Il.PiQpD(t1 -ti-l)D
i=1
.6.p( iI)-[QpD(t- iI)]dil ............ (l0.57)
dil
Combining Eqs. 10.56 and 10.57, we use Laplace transform

methods to solve for the cumulative water influx in terms of the
cumulative pressure drop, .6.pn:
Wen=Wen-l +(tDn-tDn-l)
We(tDn)=B
" ID]
W e(IDj) =B \
B.6.Pn-Wen-IpD(tDn)
"
PD{tDn)-tDn-1PD(tDn)
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ................ (l0.58)
where Band ID are the same variables defined previously for the
van Everdingen-Hurst method. The subscripts nand n-I refer to
the current and previous timesteps, respectively, and
Il.P n =Paq.i -P w .............................. (l0.59)
PD is a function of tD and for an infinite-acting aquifer, can be
computed from the following curve-fit equation 20 :
=B[.6.PI QpD(tl -tOlD] =B[Il.PI QpD(tDl)]
=454.3[(2.5)( 10.1)]
370.529tlf
PD(tD)
=1l,471 RB.
Similarly, for n=6,
+ 137.582tD +5.69549152
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157tD+t52
.... (10.60)
In addition, the dimensionless pressure derivative, PD" ean be

approximated by a curve-fit equation, 20
W e(tD6)=B
I:
.6.PiQpD(t6- t l-I)D
PD(tD) =
716.441
=B[Il.PIQpD(t6 -to)D+.6.P2QpD(t6 -tl)D +Il.P3QpD(t6 -t2)D
'8
+Il.P4QpD(tD3) + Il.P5QpD(tD2) + Il.P6QpD(tDl)]
=454.3[(2.5)(40.0) +(9 .5)(34.5) +(20)(29.0)

+(32.5)(23.1) +(34)( 17.0) + (33)(10.1)1
=
1,212,890 RB.
6. Table 10.6 summarizes the final results.

Carter-Tracy 15 Method. van Everdingen and Hurst's method
was developed from exact solutions to the radial diffusivity equation and therefore provides a rigorously correct technique for calculating water influx. However, because superposition of solutions
is required, their method involves rather tedious calculations. To
reduce the complexity of water influx calculations, Carter and Tracy
proposed a calculation technique that does not require superposition and allows direct calculation of water influx.
If we approximate the water influx process by a series of constantrate influx intervals, then the cumulative water influx during the
jth interval is
............................... (10.61)
Eqs. lO.6O and 10.61 model infinite-acting aquifers; however,
Klins et al. 21 developed similar polynomial approximations for
both infinite and finite aquifers.
We should stress that, unlike the van Everdingen-Hurst technique,
the Carter-Tracy method is not an exact solution to the diffusivity
equation, but is an approximation. Research conducted by Agarwal,6 however, suggests that the Carter-Tracy method is an accurate alternative to the more tedious van Everdingen-Hurst calculation
technique. The primary advantage of the Carter-Tracy method is
the ability to calculate water influx directly without superposition.
The Carter-Tracy method, which also is applicable to infiniteacting and finite aquifers, is illustrated with the following calculation procedure and Example lO. 7.
I. First, calculate the van Everdingen-Hurst parameter B for radial flow,
B=
\.119t/>cchr~
C:) .........................
(10.46)
or for a linear flow geometry,

B=0.178t/>cchL . ............................... (10.53)
2. Calculate the pressure change, .6.Pn' for each time period,
j -\
I:
iP
I ,296. 86t; + 1,204. 73tD+618.618t 12 +538.072tJ + 142.41t
+Il.P4QpD(t6 -t3)D +Il.P5 QpD(t6 -14)D +Il.P6QpD(t6 -t5)D]

=B[Il.PI QpD(tD6) + .6.P2 QpD(tD5) + Il.P3 QpD{tD4)
+ 270.0381D +71
%n(tDn+ \ -tDn)' ................. (l0.54)
.6.Pn=P aq ,i-Pn' ............................... (lO.59)
Eq. lO.54 can be rewritten as the sum of the cumulative water

influx through the ith interval and between the ith and jth intervals:
3. Calculate the van Everdingen-Hurst dimensionless times, tD'

that correspond to each time period on the production history. For
a radial flow gcometry,
We(tDj)
n=O
241
TABLE 10.S-SUMMARY OF INTERMEDIATE RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.7
(days)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
tl.Pn
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
90.6
tOn-l
tOn -tOn - 1
(psi)
port On )
Po,(t on )
0
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
0
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
0
5
19
45
84
113
150
0
1.83
2.15
2.34
2.48
2.59
2.67
0
0.0296
0.0155
0.0105
0.0080
0.0064
0.0054
For example, at n
0.OO633kt
(10.37)
<pJ.l.Ctr~
I,
API =Paq,i-PI =3,793-3,788=5 psi.

For n=2,
and for a linear flow geometry,
AP2=Paq.;-P2=3,793-3,774
0.00633kt
, ." ............. , .............. (10.51)
tD=
<PJ.l.ctL2
4. For each tD computed in Step 3, calculate a PD and a PD"
For infinite-acting radial aquifer, we can use Eqs, 10.60 and 10.61
to calculate PD and PD' respectively:
370.529t;
PD(tD)
+ 137.582tD+5.69549t612
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157ID+1612
... (10.60)
and PO(ID) =
716.441
+270.038tD+71
1,296,86t; + I ,204. 73tD+618.618t612+538.072t5+142.4lrb'2
0.00633kt
tD=---<pJ.l.c,r;
(0.00633)(275)t
----------=0.165t.
(0.209)(0.25)(6 X 10 -6)(5,807)2
For example, at t=91.5 days,

tD =0.165(91.5) = 15.1.
4. Calculate dimensionless pressures and pressure derivatives at
each of the dimensionless times computed in Step 3. The dimensionless pressures are calculated with Eq. 10.60. For example, at
tD= 15.1,
370.529t;
.. , . .. . ....... , ......... ' ...... (10.61)
+ I 37.582tD+5.69549t612
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157ID+t612
We also can use Klins et al. '5 21 equations. For finite aquifers,
we must use Klins et ai.'s equations.
5. Calculate the water influx:
370.529(15.1) 'I! + 137.582(15.1) +5.69549(15.1)312

328.834+265.488(15.1) 'I! +45.2157(15.1) +(15.1)312
BAPn-Wen-IPO(tDn) ]
Wen=Wen-1 +(tDn-tDn-l) [
19 psi.
3. Calculate dimensionless times that correspond to each time

on the schedule. Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq. 10.37
for a radial geometry:
I '
PD(tDn)-tDn-IPD(tDn)
................................ (10.58)
1.83.
Similarly, the dimensionless pressure derivatives are calculated

with Eq. 10.61. For example. at tD=15.1,
pb(tD) =
Example 10.7-Estimating Water Influx With the Carter-Tracy

Method. Calculate the water influx for the reservoir/aquifer system described in Example 10.6 and compare the results with those
from the van Everdingen-Hurst method. Assume an infinite-acting
aquifer. The properties of the aquifer are given below; Table 10.7
summarizes the reservoir/aquifer pressure history.
<p = 0.209.
J.I. = 0.25 cpo
()
180
k 275 md.
e, 6x 10- 6 psia- I .
h = 19.2 ft.
rr = 5,807 ft.
0
Solution.
1. Calculate the parameter Busing Eq. 10.46:
B = 1. 119<pc
thr~
c: )
=1. I 19(0.209)(6 x 10- 6)(19.2)(5,807)2 (~:)

=454.3 RB/psi.
2. For each time period, calculate Ap,. defined by Eq. 10.59:
APn=Paq,i-Pn'
716.441
+ 270.038tD +71
1,296.86t; +l ,204. 73tD+618.618t6'2+538.072t5+ 142.41tJ12 .

=[716.441 +46.7984(15.1) 'h +270.038(15.1)
+ 71.0098(15.1)312 ]/[1,296.86(15.1) liz + 1,204.73(15.1)
+618.618(15.1)312 + 538.072(15.1)2 + 142.41 (15.1 )512]
=0.0296.
Table 10.8 summarizes the intermediate results.
5. Calculate the water influx using Eq. 10.58:
Wen-I +(tDn-tDn-l) [
Bt::..Pn
Wen-1PO(tDn)
J,
PD(tDn) -tDn-IPO(tDn)
TABLE 10.9-SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS,

EXAMPLE 10.7
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time
(days)
(psia)
(RB)
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
18,743
84,482
230,461
489,431
819,766
1,245.061
We
242

TABLE 10.l0-AQUIFER PI's
J for Radial Flow
J for Linear Flow
(STB/D-psi)
(STB/D-psi)
0.00708kh(O/360)
J = ----'---'p.[ln(r air ,) - 0.75)
J = 3(0.001127)kwh
Finite, constant
pressure
0.00708kh(O/360)
J=-----p. In(r air r)
0.001127kwh
J""----p.L
Infinite
J=
Type of Outer
Aquifer Boundary
Finite, no flow
p.L
kwh
0.00708kh(O/360)
--r:====p.
InJO.0142ktJ,pp.clr~
J=
---;====1 ,000p.JO.0633ktl,pp.c t
is defined as the initial amount of encroachable water and represents the maximum possible aquifer expansion. After differentiating Eq. 10.64 with respect to time and rearranging, we have
For example, at n = I,
Wei dPaq
- - ................. " ........ (10.66)

=0+(15.1)
454.3(5) -0
Pi
Combining Eqs. 10.62 and 10.66 and integrating yields
1.83-0
' IJaq dPaq _

r I JPi I
- - - - I - d t , ......... , ........... (10.67)
\
;aq.i Paq -Pr
0 Wei
= 18,743 RB.
For n=2,
454.3(19)-18,743(0.0155)
=18,743(15.
2.15 -15.1(0.0155)
=84,482 RB.
6. Table 10.9 gives the final results.
Fetkovich l6 Method. To simplify water influx calculations further, Fetkovich proposed a model that uses a pseudosteady-state
aquifer PI and an aquifer material balance to represent the system
compressibility. Like the Carter-Tracy method. Fetkovich' s model
eliminates the use of superposition and therefore is much simpler
than van the Everdingen-Hurst method. However, because Fetkovich neglects the early transient time period in these calculations,
the calculated water influx will always be less than the values predicted by the previous two models.
Similar to fluid flow from a reservoir to a well, Fetkovich used
an inflow equation to model water influx from the aquifer to the
reservoir. Assuming constant pressure at the original reservoir/aquifer boundary, the rate of water influx is
qw=
dWe
dt
=J(Paq-Pr)n"., ..... , ..... " .. , .... (10.62)
dt
where n=exponent for inflow equation (for flow obeying Darcy's

law, n=l; for fully turbulent flow, n=0.5).
Assuming that the aquifer flow behavior obeys Darcy's law and
is at pseudosteady-state conditions, n = I. Based on an aquifer material balance, the cumulative water influx resulting from aquifer
expansion is
We=ctWi(Paq,i-Paq)' .......................... (10.63)
Eq. 10.63 can be rearranged to yield an expression for the average aquifer pressure,
=Pa q,{ 1-
We), ........ (10.64)

WeI
.............. , ......... (10.65)
Table 10.10 summarizes the equations for calculating the aquifer

PI for various reservoir/aquifer boundary conditions and aquifer
geometries. Note that we must use the aquifer properties to calculate J.
From Eq. 10.67, we can derive an expression for (Paq -Pr) , and
following substitution into Eq. to.68 and rearranging, we have
dWe
(-JPi t )
--=J(Paq.i-Pr)exp - - , ..... , .......... (10.69)
dt
Wei
which is integrated to obtain the cumulative water influx, We:

........ (10.70)
Recall that we derived Eq. 10.70 for constant pressure at the reservoir/aquifer boundary. In reality. this boundary pressure changes
as gas is produced from the reservoir. Rather than using superposition, Fetkovich assumed that, if the reservoir/aquifer boundary
pressure history is divided into a finite number of time intervals,
the incremental water influx during the nth interval is
Wei (JPaq./ltn)]
.1Wen =--(Paq,n-l-Pm) l-exp .
'
Paq,l
WeI
. ..................... , ........ (10.71)

TABLE 10.11-PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIRI
t
(days)
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
p,
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3.643
243
From Eq. 10.65,

................ (10.72)
where Paq,n-I =Paq,i( 1
and Pm =
Pm-l +Pm
............................ (10.73)
2
Although it was developed for finite aquifers, Fetkovich's method
can be extended to infinite-acting aquifers. For infinite-acting aquifers, the method requires the ratio of water influx rate to pressure
drop to be approximately constant throughout the productive life
of the reservoir. Under these conditions, we must use the aquifer
PI for an infinite-acting aquifer.
The following calculation procedure illustrates this method.
1. Calculate the maximum water volume, Wei' from the aquifer
that could enter the gas reservoir if the reservoir pressure were reduced to zero.
Wei=C/Paq,iWj ............................... (10.65)

where Wi depends on the reservoir geometry and the PV available
to store water.
2. Calculate J. Note that the equations summarized in Table 10.10
depend on the boundary conditions and aquifer geometry.
3. Calculate the incremental water influx, ~Wen' from the aquifer during the nth time interval.
~Wen =
JPaq,i~tn
Wei. (Paq.n-l -Pm{ 1-exp ( )

Paq.1
We.
................................ (10.71)
4. Calculate Wen:
Wei =c/Paq.i Wi =(6 X 10- 6)(3,793)(7.744 X 10 9 )

176.3x 10 6 RB.
2. Calculate J. For radial flow in an aquifer with a finite no-flow
outer boundary, from Table 10.10,
0.00708kh(01360)
J=-----p,[ln(ra/r r) -0.75]
(0.00708)(275)(19.2)(180/360)
0.25[ln(83,26O/5,807) -0.75]
=39.1 STBID-psi.
3. For each time period, calculate the incremental water influx
using Eq. 10.71.
LlWen
Wei (Paq,n-I -Pm{ l-exp ( Paq"

where (from Eq. 10.72)
JPaq,i~ln )
We,
Wen-I)
Paq,n-l =Paq.i ( 1- ~ ,
e,
and from Eq. 10.73,
Pm-I +Pm
Pm=---2
Wen =
~Wei'
PaqO=Paq,i(1
i=l
WeO )=3,793(10
6 )=3,793 psi.
Wei
176.254 X 10
The average pressure at the aquifer/reservoir boundary is
Example lO.8-Estimating Water Influx With the Fetkovich

Method. Calculate the water influx for the reservoir/aquifer system described below. Assume a finite radial aquifer with an area
of 250,000 acres and having a no-flow outer boundary. The estimated aquifer properties are given below; Table 10.11 summarizes the pressure history at the reservoir/aquifer boundary. Note
that the aquifer is a sector of a cylinder where 0= 180 0
rf>
= 0.209.
rr
p,
k =
0=
c/ =
h =
5,807 ft.
0.25 cpo
275 md.
180.
6xlO-6 psia- l
19.2 ft.
_
Prj
3,793+3,788
-----=3,790.5 psia.
2
PrO+Prl
2
Therefore, the incremental water influx during Timestep 1 is
q i~tl
Wei (PaqO-Prl) 1-exp (JPa
LlWel =--.
' .
Paq"
We,
=
176.3 X 10 6
[
(3,793-3,790.5) l-exp
3,793
.
x [- (39.1)(3,793)(91.5)]J
176.3 X 10 6
Solution.
1. Calculate the maximum volume of water from the aquifer,
Wei' that could enter the reservoir if the reservoir pressure were
reduced to zero. Note that the aquifer shape is a sector of a cylinder, so the initial volume of water in the aquifer is
=8,587 RB.
Similarly, at n=2,
Wei)
1f(r5 -r~)hr/>(0/36O)
We;
8,587
176.3 X 10
(43,560)(250,000) (360)
11'
180
_
Pri +Pr2
Pr2=
2
=3,792.8 psi.
3,788+3,774
3,781 psia.
2
The incremental water influx during Timestep 2 is
=83,260 ft.
Wei Paq.1
LlI
(JPa q,i . 2
We,
~We2=--. (Paql-Pr2) l-exp -
Therefore,
11'(83,260 2 - 5,807 2 )(19 .2)(0.209)(180/360)
5.615
The average pressure at the aquifer/reservoir boundary is
where
=7.744x 10 9 RB.
Paql =Paq.i ( 1 - - =3,793 1-
W=------,
5.615
Wi=
)1
176.3x106
[
----(3,792.8-3,781) 13,793
)1
244
TABLE 10.12-SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.8

(psia)
(psia)
Prn
Paq.n
(psla)
Paq.n-l -Prn
(psia)
3.793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3.680
3.643
3.793.0
3,790.5
3,781.0
3,761.0
3.728.5
3,694.5
3.661.5
3,793
3,792,8
3,791.9
3,789.7
3.785.1
3,778.4
3.769,8
0
2.5
11.8
30.9
61.2
90,6
116.9
Prn
-0n
1
2
3
4
5
6
(39.1)(3.793)(91.5)
expX [ -
176.3x 10 6
=40,630 RB.
4. Calculate the cumulative water influx during each timestep.
For example, at the end of the first timestep,
n=J
WeI =
.1. Wei =.1. WeI =8,587 RB.
i=1
Similarly. the cumulative water influx at the end of the second

timestep is
n=2
We2 =
E
;=1
Table 10.12 summarizes the final results.
Estimating Original Gas in Place With Material Balance for

a Dry-Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Once the water influx
has been calculated, we can estimate the original gas in place with
material-balance concepts. Recall from Sec, 10.3.2 the general form
of the material-balance equation including water influx:
GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+We-BwWp ....... , ... ,., ... (10,74)
which can be rearranged to yield

GpBg + WpBw
We
(Bg-Bg)
(Bg-B gi )
--'.-2.---.!..-=G+
.............. (10.75)
If we define a water influx constant, C, in terms of the cumulative water influx as

We=Cf(p,t), ......... , ................. , ... ,. (10.76)
0
8.587
40.630
106,399
210,285
311,642
402.060
=G+
(Bg -Bgi )
Cf(p,t)
.1.pn
'I2(P n -2 -Pn)'
For example, at n= 1 (Le., t= 182.5 days),
'h(PO-Pl)
= 0.24.
1.0 cpo
r, = 3,383 ft.
'12(5,392-5,368)
12.0 psi.
At n=5 (i.e., t=912.5 days),

.1.ps = 'h(P3 -Ps)= 'h(5,245-5, 147) =49.0 psi.
2. Calculate dimensionless times for each of the real times given.

Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq, 10.37 for a radial geometry.
tD=
0.00633kt
(0.00633)(50)t
<pp.Ctr~
(0.24)(1.0)(6 X iO -6)(3,383)2
=0.019[,
For example, at n= I (i.e., t= 182.5 days), tD=(0.019)(l82.5)

=3.5.
3, For each dimensionless time computed in Step 2, calculate a
dimensionless cumulative water influx. We are assuming an infiniteacting aquifer, so we can use Eq. 10.49.
QpD(tD) =
1.2838t5 + 1, 19328tD +0.269872t612 +0.00855294t5
, .... ,., . . . . , .... 00.77)
(B g -Bgi )
Example 1O.9-Estimating Original Gas In Place With Material Balance for a Dry-Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Estimate
the original gas in place and water influx constant using the materialbalance equation developed for water influx in a dry-gas reservoir.
Assume an unsteady-state, infinite-acting aquifer. According to
McEwen,22 the volumetric estimate of original gas in place is
200 X 10 6 Mscf. Table 10.13 gives the pressure and production
histories; the estimated aquifer properties are summarized below.
p.
I +0.616599t5 +0.0413008tD
The form of Eq. 10,77 suggests that, if water influx is the

predominant reservoir drive mechanism, then a plot of
[(GpBg)+(WpBw)]/(Bg-Bg;) vs, f(p,I)/(Bg-B g!) will be a
straiglit line with a slope equal to C and an intercept equal to G,
The functional form of f(p.t) varies according to the water influx
model used. Any water influx model, such as steady state, unsteady
state, or pseudosteady state, can be used with Eq. 10.77. Note that,
if the incorrect water influx model is assumed, the data may not
exhibit a straight line, Example 10.9 illustrates the application of
Eq. 10.77 for an unsteady-state water influx model.
<p
0
8,587
49,217
155.616
365.901
677.543
1,079,603
Solution. Using a procedure similar to that illustrated for the van

Everdingen and Hurst method, estimate water influx for each
timestep as described below.
I. Calculate .1.Pn , where
then Eq. 10.75 becomes

GpBg+WpBw
We
(RB)
k = 50 md.
e t = 6xlO-6 psia
(J = 360.
h
20.0 ft.
Bw = 1.0 RB/STB.
.1.Pl
.1.Wei =.1.Wel + .1.We2 =8,587 +40,630=49,217 RB,
AWe
QpD(tDl) =[1.2838(3.5) y, + 1.19328(3.5) +0.269872(3.5)312

+0.00855294(3.5)2]1[1 +0.616599(3.5) y, +0.0413008(3.5)]
QpD=3.68.
4. Now, estimate the original gas in place and water influx constant using the material-balance plotting method. Calculate the plotTABLE 10.13-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES,
EXAMPLE 10.9
t
(days)
Gp
Wp
(psia)
(MMscf)
(STB)
0
182.5
365
547.5
730
912.5
1.095
1.2n.5
1,460
1.642.5
1.825
2,007.5
2.190
5.392
5,368
5,292
5.245
5,182
5,147
5.110
5,066
5,006
4,994
4.997
4,990
4,985
0
6n.7
2.952.4
5.199.6
7.132.8
9.196.9
11,171.5
12.999.5
14,769.5
16,317.0
17,868.0
19,416.0
21,524.8
0
3
762
2.054
3.300
4.644
5,945
7,148
8.238
9,289
10,356
11.424
12.911
Bg
-z1.0530
1.0516
1.0470
1.0442
1,0404
1,0383
1.0360
1.0328
1.0285
1.0276
1.0278
1.0273
1.0270
(RB/Mscf)
0.6775
0.6796
0.6864
0.6907
0.6965
0.6999
0.7033
0.7072
0.7127
0.7138
0.7136
0.7142
0.7147
245
TABLE 10.14-MATERIAL-BALANCE PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXAMPLE 10.9

t
(days)
0
182.5
365
547.5
730
912.5
1,095
1,277.5
1,460
1,642.5
1,825
2,007.5
2,190
(psia)
(1,000 psilR -Mscl)
3.68
5.82
7.76
9.56
11.21
12.84
14.42
15.91
17.40
18.87
20.26
21.68
0
12.0
50
61.5
55.0
49.0
36.0
40.5
52.0
36.0
4.5
2.0
6.0
3.5
6.9
10.4
13.9
17.3
20.8
24.3
27.7
31.2
34.7
38.1
41.6
21.0
28.5
46.3
55.8
71.0
83.1
93.1
99.1
116.7
136.0
151.7
166.7
219.3
227.7
272.6
260.9
287.6
304.5
309.3
298.8
320.8
352.9
378.3
413.6
ting functions defined in the previous section, [(GpBg)+(WpBw)]/

(Be.--Bgi) vs. f(p,t)/(Bg-B gi ), where f(p,t)=EilpQpD'
ror example, at n = I the plotting function for the vertical axis,
y, is
(677.7 x 10 3)(0.6796)+(3)(1.0)
(0.6796-0.6775)
=219.3xI06 Mscf=219.3 Bscf.
The plotting function for the horizontal axis, x, is
x=
EilpQpD
(Bg-Bgi)
(l2){3.68)
(0.6796-0.6775)
= 21. 0 x 10 3 psi/RB-Mscf.
5. The material-balance plotting functions, summarized in Table 10.14, are plotted in Fig. 10.11.
6. From the slope of the line through the data points in Fig. 10.11,
e is estimated to be 1195 RB/psi, and the original gas in place estimated from the intercept is G= 197 Bscf = 197 x 10 6 Mscf, which
agrees with the volumetric estimate of G=200x 10 6 Mscf.
The general problem that reservoir engineers face when analyzing gas reservoirs with water influx is simultaneous determination
.....u
'"
~
~
~
....
!:9,
500
400
'")
Slope,
10.3.3 Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoirs. We developed

the material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir
assuming that gas expansion was the dominant drive mechanism
and that expansions of rock and water are negligible during the
productive life of the reservoir. These assumptions are valid for
normally pressured reservoirs (i.e., reservoirs with initial pressure
gradients between 0.43 and 0.5 psi/ft) at low to moderate pressures
when the magnitude of gas compressibilities greatly exceeds the
effects of rock and connate water compressibilities. However, for
abnormally or geopressured reservoirs, pressure gradients often approach values equal to the overburden pressure gradient (i.e., "'" 1.0
psi/ ft). In these and other higher-pressure reservoirs, the changes
in rock and water compressibilities may be important and should
be considered in material-balance calculations.
Following, Ramagost et al. 's23 derivation, we begin with Eq~
10.26 for a normally pressured volumetric gas reservoir and include
the effects of changing water volume, il Vw' and formation (rock)
volume, ilVj- As Fig. 10.12 shows, the general form of the
material-balance equation for a volumetric geopressured reservoir is
GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+ilVw+ilVj' .................. (10.78)
where G l!.~ = reservoir volume occupied by gas at initial reservoir

pressure, KH; (G-Gp)Bg = reservoir volume occupied by gas after
gas production at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure, RB;
il Vw = increase in reservoir PV occupied by connate water and following water expansion at a pressure below the initial reservoir
pressure, RB; and ilVj=increase in reservoir PV occupied by formation (rock) at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure, RB.
The expansion of the connate water following a finite pressure
decrease can be modeled with isothermal water compressibility:
c= 1,19S~/psi
300
j
200
of G, e, aquifer size or an aquifer/reservoir size ratio, ra/r" and

the relationship between real time, t, and dimensionless time, tD'
Simultaneous determination of these variables that best fit a pressure/production history is a complex problem in regression analysis.
----------I------f---------.-~.-..
(GpBg + WpBw)/(Bg - B gi )
(Bscl)
~Pn
E~PQpO/(B!f3-Bgi)
Q pon
tOn
100
(G - Gp) Bg
-------~--------t-----...--.-~-------.-
~ =197 !iMMMscf !,
!
GBgj
!I'
-----..-T----------l------...--.-,.-..----.......
so
ISO
100
LIlpQpD1(B, - B,i)' MMpsilRB / Mscf
200
Fig. 10.11-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for a dry-gas reservoir with water Influx, Example 10.9.
Initial Conditions (p ::: pJ
Later Conditions (p < pJ
Fig. 10.12-Materlal-balance model showing reservoir PVoccupled by gas at initial and later conditions for a volumetric
geopressured gas reservoir.
246
TABLE 10.15-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES,
EXAMPLE 10.10
p
(psla)
9,507
9,292
8,970
8,595
8,332
8,009
7,603
7,406
7,002
6,721
6,535
5,764
4,766
4,295
3,750
3,247
cw= _ _
l
Vw
VW
ap
p/z
(psia)
p/z[1-(c w S w; +
(psia)
0
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
6,602
6,553
6,467
6,395
6,331
6,247
6,136
6,081
5,954
5,860
5,799
5,500
4,878
4,628
4,209
3,802
6,602
6,515
6,374
6,239
6,133
5,998
5,825
5,740
5,556
5,424
5,339
4,951
4,261
3,985
3,563
3,167
Gp
(MMscf)
o
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
_
T
(MMscf)
Gp
1.440
1.418
1.387
1.344
1.316
1.282
1.239
1.218
1.176
1.147
1.127
1.048
0.977
0.928
0.891
0.854
TABLE 10. 16-PLOTTING FUNCTIONS FOR EXAMPLE 10.10
............... (10.79)
Vwi Ap
where Vwi = initial reservoir volume occupied by the connate

water. We can arrange Eq. 10.79 in terms of the change in water
volume,
where cj=average formation compressibility over the finite pressure interval, Ap. In terms of the change in PV. Eq. 10.83 becomes
AVp=CjVpiAP ........................... (10.84)
where Ap=p-p;. Again. we can write the original rock PV in

terms of the original gas in place as
AVw=-CwVw;Ap, ............................ (10.80)
where Ap = P - Pi' We can also write the original water volume in

terms of the original gas in place:
Vwi=
SwiGBg,
................................ (10.81)
(l-Sw;)
Substituting Eg. 10.81 into Eg.

-Ap=Pi-P yields
AVw=cw(Pj-p)
SwiGBgi
10.80 and noting that
Vpi=
GB g;
................................. (10.85)
(i-Swi)
Substituting Vp; from Eg. 10.85 into Eg. 10.84 and noting that
-AP=Pi-P and AVp = -AVj (the change in rock volume) yields
_
-AVp=Cj(Pi-P)
GB gi
(i-Sw;)
............. '" ...... (10.82)
(I-Sw;)
-p)/(1- S w;)]
=AVj . ................ (10.86)
Substituting Egs. 10.82 and 10.86 into Eq. 10.78, we can now
write a general material-balance equation for a volumetric geopressured reservoir:
Similarly, the decrease in PV, AVI" caused by a finite reduction in pore pressure can be modeled with
Cj= :p
C~
T .............................. (1O.83a)
.. (10.87)
After simplification, Eg. 10.87 becomes
and thus,
_
I AVp
Cj=---' ............................... (l0.83b)
Vp; Ap
GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+
7000
7000
'"
6000
6000
""'i
5000
4000
1-
3000
2000
'I
~
S
5000
;:;;:
S
_
(CwSwi+Cj) ....... (10.88)
(I-Swi)
''';
""
GBgi(Pi-P)
'il
{""
"
...
4000
3000
2000
1000
1000
0
0
20
80
100
Cumulative Gas Production, G, (Bet)
40
60
120
Fig. 10.13-Graphical solution to the material-balance

equation for a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir,
Example 10.10.
'"
~G;=8~.3Bd
N
I
20
40
60
80
100
Cumulative Gas Production, G, (Bet)
120
Fig. 10.14-lncorrect graphical analysis of a volumetric

geopressured gas reservOir, Example 10.10.
247
TABLE 10.17-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES,

EXAMPLE 10.11
p
(psi a)
9,507
9,292
8,970
8,595
8,332
8,009
7,603
7,406
7,002
6,721
6,535
5,764
4,766
4,295
3,750
3,247
(MMscf)
1.440
1.418
1.387
1.344
1.316
1.282
1.239
1.218
1.176
1.147
1.127
1.048
0.977
0.928
0.891
0.854
Bg
Gp
ISO
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
><
.;;;
100
.!?:
::;'
,
-;r
~
SO
ti
50
:::.
-50
10
12
14
Fig. 10.15-Graphlcal solution to the materlalbalance

equation for simultaneous estimation of original gas In place
and formation compressibility In volumetric geopressured gas
reservoirs, Example 10.11.
=G-Gp . ......... (10.89)
Substituting Bg/Bg =PZ/PiZ into Eq. 10.89 and rearranging, we

have
Pi Gp
- - - ......... (10.90)
Zi G
Note that, when the effects of rock and water compressibility are
negligible, Eq. 10.90 reduces to the material-balance equation in
which gas expansion is the primary source of reservoir energy (Eq.
10.29). Failure to include the effects of rock and water compressibilities in the analysis of high-pressure reservoirs can result in errors
in both original gas in place and subsequent gas reserve estimates.
We present two analysis techniques based on Eq. 10.90 for volumetric geopressured reservoirs.
Estimating Original Gas in Place When A verage Formation

Compressibility Is Known. If cf is assumed to be constant with
time, the form of Eq. 10.90 suggests that a plot of
(Fig. 10.13)-G=10.1 Bcf; normally pressured reservoir analysis

(Fig. 10.14)-G=89.3 Bcf.
The results show that, if we analyze this geopressured reservoir
using techniques for normally pressured reservoirs, we will overestimate the original gas in place by more than 25%. In addition,
note that the data in Fig. 10.14 are beginning to trend downward,
which indicates that a normally pressured analysis of the available
data is not valid.
We developed the material-balance equation for a high-pressure
gas reservoir using a single value for formation compressibility over
the life of the reservoir. In reality, fonnation compressibility may
vary during pressure depletion, especially at the highest pressures.
Further, the previous derivation assumed that values for formation.
compressibility are readily available. However, these values are
very difficult to measure accurately in the laboratory, especially
as a function of changes in pore pressure. Therefore, in the next
section, we present a graphical technique for simultaneously estimating original gas in place and an average value of formation
compressibility .
Simultaneous Determination of A verage Formation Compressibility and Original Gas in Place. Roach 25 developed a materialwill be a straight line with slope equal to -Pi/ZjG and an interceptequal tOPj/Zi' Atp/z=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the line
to p/z=O provides an estimate of original gas in place. Example
10.10 illustrates this analysis technique.
balance technique for simultaneously estimating formation compressibility and original gas in place in geopressured reservoirs.
Beginning with Eq. 10.90, Roach presented the material-balance
equation in the following form:
I (Pi
(p,-p)
Example 10.10-Estimating Original Gas in Place With Material Balance for a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For
the following data taken from an abnormally pressured reservoir
(the Anderson "L" sand 24 ) , estimate the original gas in place
using the material-balance equation developed for a high-pressure
gas reservoir. In addition, use the material-balance equation for a
normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the initial gas estimates from both equations. Table 10.15 gives the pressure and production histories.
Pi
9,501 psia.
= 3.2xlO-6 psi-I.
Swi = 0.24.
Original pressure gradient=0.843 psi/ft.
cI=19.5xlO-6 psi- 1 (assumed constant).
Cw
l)=~[ ~~
PiZ]_ SWi:W+Cf.
G (p, p) PZj
I Swi
PZi
................................ (10.91)
Again, if cf is constant, the form of Eq. 10.91 suggests that a
plot of
Z
(Pi
(Pi-P) pZi
-I)
VS
[~PiZ]
(Pj-p) PZi
will be a straight line with a slope that equals I/G and an intercept
that equals -(Swjcw +cil-Swj). We can then calculate the original gas in place, G, and the average fonnation compressibility, cI'
using the slope and intercept, respectively. Poston and Chen 26 applied this method to the geopressured gas reservoir data presented
in Example 10.10. Their analysis is reproduced in Example 10.11.
Solution.
I. Calculate the geopressured and normally pressured pressure
plotting functions for each data point (Table 10.16).
2. From the two plots, estimate original gas in place from the
intercept with the horizontal axis: high-pressure reservoir analysis
Example 10.ll-Simultaneous Determination of Average Formation Compressibility and Original Gas in Place With Material Balance in a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For
the following data taken from the Anderson "L" sand,24 estimate
248
TABLE 10.18-PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXAMPLE 10.11
plz
(psia)
Gp
(MMscf)
1/(p; -p)[(p;zlpz;)-11
10 -6 psi 1
Gp/(Pi -pH P;zlPZi)

(Mscf/psi)
6,602.1
6,552.9
6,467.2
6.395.1
6,331.3
6,247.3
6.136.4
6,080.5
5,954.1
5,859.6
5,798.6
5,500.0
4,878.2
4,628.2
4.208.8
3.802.1
0
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10.509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22.890.8
28.144.6
32,566.7
36.819.9
34.9
38.9
35.5
36.4
37.9
39.9
40.8
43.4
45.4
46.6
53.5
74.5
81.8
98.8
117.6
1,840
3,120
3.650
3.780
3,880
4,260
4,520
4,650
4,760
4,900
5,540
6,530
7.700
8,870
10,210
original gas in place using Eq. 10.91 and an average value for formation compressibility. Table 10.17 gives the pressure and production histories.
B. The average formation compressibility is determined from the

intercept of the line, b:
Pi = 9,507 psia.
6
w = 3.2xlO- psi-I.
Original pressure gradient = 0.843 psi/ft.
Swi
0.24.
C
Solution.
1. First, we must generate the plotting functions developed by
Roach.25 Example calculations for Gp =392.5 MMscf=3.925 x
105 Mscf follow. For the variable on the vertical axis, we plot
I
(P;Z 1)
(Pi -p) PZi-
(9,507)(1.418)
------1
(9,507-9,292)
(9,292)(1.440)
=34.9xlO- 6 psi I
For the variable on the horizontal axis, we plot
(3.92 X 10 5)
(9,507)(1.418)
(9,507 -9,292) (9,292)( 1.440)

1.84 x 10 3 Mscf/psi.
-18.5x 10- 6 psi 1=_ [
(0.24)(3.2 x 10 -6)+Cfl
(1-0.24)
The data plotted in Fig. 10.15 do not lie completely on a straight

line. Poston and Chen 26 concluded that, initially, most ofthe formation resistance to the overburden pressure is provided by the fluids
in the pore spaces. However, as fluids are withdrawn from these
pore spaces, the formation compacts, resulting in more resistance
to the overburden being transferred to the rock matrix. Under these
conditions, the formation compressibility is not a constant but
changes with time, as indicated by the initial nonlinear portion of
the data in Fig. 10.15.
10.3.4 Volumetric Gas-Condensate Reservoirs. In this section, we
develop material-balance equations for a volumetric gas reservoir
with gas condensation during pressure depletion. We also include
the effects of connate water vaporization. Both phenomena are most
prevalent in deep, high-temperature, high-pressure gas reservoirs
and must be included for accurate material-balance calculations.
Depending on whether the pressure is above or below the dewpoint, two or three fluid phases may be present in a gas-condensate
2. Prepare a plot (Fig. 10.15) of the plotting functions summarized in Table 10.18.
3. Estimate the original gas in place and average formation compressibility from Fig. 10.15.
A. The original gas in place, G, is estimated from the slope of
the line, m:
=slope=13.3xIO-6 (MMscf)-I,
G
or G=
13.3x 10- 6 MMscf- 1
Vhcvi
=75,190 MMscf.
Note that, in Example 10.10, we estimated the original gas in

place assuming an average value of formation compressibility. while
in this example we calculated the original gas in place and formation compressibility simultaneously. As a result, the two estimates
of gas in place are slightly different.
Initial Conditions V > pJ
Later Conditions
V < pJ
Fig. 10.16-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV

occupied by gas and liquid hydrocarbon phases at Initial and
later conditions .or a gas-condensate reservoir.
reservoir. Above the dewpoint, the vapor phase consists of not only
hydrocarbon and inert gases but also water vapor. As the reservoir
pressure declines, the water in the liquid phase continues to vaporize to remain in equilibrium with the existing water vapor, thus
decreasing the saturation of the liquid water in the reservoir and
increasing the PV occupied by the vapor phases. As the reservoir
pressure decl ines further, the amount of water vapor present in the
gas phase may increase significantly. However, as the reservoir
pressure decreases below the dewpoint, the fraction of PV available for the vapor phases decreases as liquids condense from the
hydrocarbon vapor phase.
To develop a material-balance equation that considers the effects
of gas condensation and water vaporization requires that we include
the changes in reservoir PV resulting from these phenomena. We
begin with a material-balance equation for gas-condensate reservoirs. We then extend this equation to include the effects of connate water vaporization. In addition, because changes in formation
compressibilities often are significant in these deep, high-pressure
gas reservoirs. we include geopressured effects.
Gas-Condensate Resenoirs. We derived the material-balance
equations in previous sections for dry gases with the inherent assumption that no changes in hydrocarbon phases occurred during
pressure depletion. Unlike dry-gas reservoirs, gas-condensate reservoirs are characteristically rich with intermediate and heavier
hydrocarbon molecules. At pressures above the dewpoint, gas condensates exist as a single-phase gas; however, as the reservoir pressure decreases below the dewpoint. the gas condenses and forms
a liquid hydrocarbon phase. Often, a significant volume of this condensate is immobile and remains in the reservoir. Therefore, correct application of material-balance concepts requires that we
consider the liquid volume remaining in the reservoir and any liquids produced at the surface.
Assuming that the initial reservoir pressure is above the dewpoint, the reservoir PV is occupied initially by hydrocarbons in the
gascous phase (Fig. 10.16), or
Vpi = Vhvi ' .. . ................................ (10.92)
The reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons in the gaseous phase

also can be written as
Vh,'i=GTB gi , ................................ (10.93)
where G T includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of produced condensates and Bgi is defined by Eq. 10.7.
At later conditions following a pressure reduction below the dewpoint, the reservoir PV is now occupied by both gas and liquid
hydrocarbon phases, or
Vp
Vhv + VhL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.94)
where Vp=reservoir PV at later conditions, RB; Vhy=reservoir

volume occupied by gaseous hydrocarbons at later conditions, RB;
and VhL reservoir PV occupied by liquid hydrocarbons at later
conditions, RB.
Eq. 10.94 assumes that rock expansion and water vaporization
are negligible. In terms of the condensate saturation, So, we can
write
Vh,.=(l-So)Vp ............................... (10.95)
and VhL =SoVp' ................................. (10.96)

In addition, the hydrocarbon vapor phase at later conditions is
Vhy=(GT-GpT)Bg' ............................ (10.97)
where Bg is evaluated at later conditions.

Equating Eqs. 10.95 and 10.97, the reservoir PV is
(GT-GpT)B g
............................. (10.98)
(1-So)
Substituting Eq. 10.98 into Eq. 10.95 and combining with Eq.
10.97 yields an expression for the reservoir PV at later conditions:
(GT-GpT)B g +
So(GT-GpT)B g
I-So
.................. (10.99)
249
Now, combining Egs. 10.92 and 10.99 yields the following

material-balance equation:
So(GT-GpT)B g
GTBgi=(GT-GpT)Bg+--=-------<:..=---....
..... (10.100)
I-So
or, if we substitute BgiIBg=(pz;)/(PiZ) into Eq. 10.100 and rearrange.
p.(
~I
Zi
; ; ) , .............. .. .... (10.101)
~hich suggests that a plot of (l-:So)(plz) vs. G pT wi~1 be a straight

Ime from which GT can be estimated. Correct appltcation of Eg.
10.101, however. requires estimates of the liquid hydrocarbon
volumes formed as a function of pressure below the dewpoint. The
most accurate source of these estimates is a laboratory analysis of
the reservoir fluid samples. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of
fluid samples often are not available.
An alternative material-balance technique is
G TB 2gi = (GT-GpT)B2g' ....................... (10.102)
where G TB 2gi =reservoir PV occupied by the total gas, which includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates,
at the initial reservoir pressure above the dewpoint, RB;
(GT-GpT)B2g reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon vapor
phase and the vapor equivalent of liquid phase after some production at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure and dew point
pressure, RB; and B2 i and B 2g = gas FVF's based on two-phase
z factors at initial anJ later conditions, respectively, RB/Mscf.
If we substitute B2giIB2g=(PZ2i)/(PiZ2) into Eq. 10.102 and rearrange, we have
P
Pi
z2i
(I
G pT ), ......................... (10.103)
GT
where Z2i and Z2 = two-phase gas deviation factors evaluated at initial reservoir pressure and at a later pressure, respectively.
The fo~m of Eq. 10.103 sugge?ts that a plot of pIZ2 vs. G pT will
be a straight Ime for a volumetriC gas-condensate reservoir when
two-phase gas deviation factors are used.
Two-phase gas deviation factors account for both gas and liquid
phases in the reservoir. Fig. 10.17 is an example of the relationship between the equilibrium gas (I.e., single-phase gas) and twophase deviation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir. At pressures
above the dewpoint, the single- and two-phase z factors are equal;
at pressures below the dewpoint, however, the two-phase z factors
are lower than those for the single-phase gas.
Ideally, two-phase gas deviation factors are determined from a
laboratory analysis of reservoir fluid samples. Specifically, these
two-phase z factors are measured from a constant-volume depletion study. 27-29 However, in the absence of a laboratory study,
correlations 29 are available for estimating two-phase z factors from
properties of the well-stream fluids.
Gas-Condensate Resenoirs With Water Vaporization. In this
section, we develop a material-balance equation for gas-condensate
reservoirs in which both phase changes and water vaporization
occur. Similar to Humphreys'30 work. we include the effects of
rock and water compressibilities, which are often significant in deep,
high-pressure reservoirs. The reservoir PV is occupied initially by
hydrocarbon and water vapor phases as well as the connate liquid
phase, or
Vpi=VVi+Vwi ................................ (10.104)
where Vvi = initial reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon and

water vapors. RB, and Vwi = initial reservoir PV occupied by the
liquid water, RB.
If the reservoir pressure is above the dewpoint, connate water
is the only liquid phase present. From the definition of water saturation. we can write the initial reservoir PV occupied by the liquid
phase as
V wi =SwiVpi' ................................. (10.105)
250
1.0....-----------------,
0.9
OJ
Vwvi
Vwi
i1Vf
Initial Conditions V > pJ
Later Conditions V > pJ
OJ
0.'
Fig. 10 .la-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons and water at Initial and later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization.
~+----~----r---~~--~
1000
:lOOO
3000
Pressure, psia
Flg.l0.17-Example of equilibrium and two-phase gas deviation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir. 29
Similarly, we can express the initial reservoir volume of the vapor

phases as
If we substitute Eq. 10.113 into Eq. 10.115, we can write an

expression for the hydrocarbon vapor phase in terms of the current reservoir PV:
Vp(l-Sw)(l-yw)' ....................... (10.116)
Vhv
The current hydrocarbon vapor phase is

Vhv=(G-Gp)Bg . ............................. (10.117)
Combining Eqs. 10.116 and 10.117 gives the current reservoir

PV:
Vvi=(l-SWiWpi' ............................. (10.106)

(G-Gp)Bg
Now, we define the fraction of the initial vapor phase volume

that is water vapor as
Ywi = Vwv;lVvi ............................... (10.107)
and the fraction occupied by the hydrocarbon gases as
(i-Ywi)= Vhv;lVvi ............................ (W.WS)
where V!Wi = initial reservoir PV occupied by water vapor, RB, and

Vhvi = initial reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon vapor, RB.
Substituting Eq. 10.106 into Eq. W.WS gives an expression for
the hydrocarbon vapor-phase volume in terms of the initial reservoir PV:
Vhvi=Vpi(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)' ...................... (10.109)
Finally, because the initial hydrocarbon vapor phase is the original

gas in place,
...................... . (10.110)
then VPi=
GB gi
----'--~-.
Like geopressured gas reservoirs, deep, high-pressured gascondensate reservoirs often experience significant changes in PV
during pressure depletion. Therefore, using a method similar to that
presented in the section on geopressured gas reservoirs, we .can
express the change in reservoir formation (rock) volume in terms
of the formation compressibility as
LlVj=
The form of the material-balance equation at some pressure lower

than the initial reservoir pressure depends on the value of the dewpoint. Therefore, we will develop material-balance equations for
depletion at pressures above and below the dewpoint.
DepJetWn at Pressures Above Ihe Dewpoint. Because the reservoir pressure is still above the dewpoint, no hydrocarbon gas has
condensed. However, as the pressure declines, mOre of the liquid
water vaporizes, thus reducing the liquid water saturation. Therefore, the volume of liquid phase becomes (Fig. 10.18)
V w=SwVp- .................................. (10.112)
where Sw=current value of connate water saturation. Similarly,

the volume of the vapor phase is
Vv=(l-SwWp ' .............................. (10.113)
In addition, we define the fraction of the vapor phase that is water
vapor as
Yw=VwvlVv .................................. (10.114)
and the fraction of vapor phase that is hydrocarbon as
(l-yw)= VhvlVv' ............................. (10.115)
Cj(Pi-p)GB gi
........................ (10.119)
(l-Swi)(I-Ywi)
In terms of Eq. 10.119, the material-balance equation for pressures above the dewpoint becomes
(G-Gp)Bg
Cj(p;-p)GB gi
(l-Sw)(l-yw)
(l-Swj)(1-Ywj)
---"'---"'-- +
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
............................... (10.120)
....................... (10.111)
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
.. ...................... (W.llS)
(l-Sw)(l-yw)
Rearranging terms gives

G
(i-Sw) (l-yw) Bgi

-[I-Cj(Pi-P)]=G-Gp ' ... (10.121)
(l-SWi) (l-yw;) Bg
Substituting Bg/Bg=pz;lp;z into Eq. 10.121 and rearranging

yields
(I-S w ) (i-yw)
_
P Pi
------[I-cj(p;-p)]-=(I-Swi) (I-Ywi)
z Zi
Pi Gp
-Zj G
.. (10.122)
The form of Eq. 10.122 suggests that a plot of

(l-Sw) (l-yw)
p
------[I-Cj(Pi-P)]- vs. Gp
(I-Swi ) (I-Ywi)
z
will be a straight line with a slope equal to -p;lziG and an intercept equal to p/Zj. At plz=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the
straight line to plz =0 provides an estimate of original gas in place.
Note that, if the water saturation remains constant during the life
of the reservoir (i.e., Sw=Swi and Yw=Yw;) and when formation
compressibility is negligible, Eq. 10.122 reduces to Eq. 10.29 for
a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
251
6000
sooo
V hcv
4000
V hcvi
.!!
IS. 3000
Vwvi
2000
L1V,
Initial Conditions
t > pJ
Later Conditions
1000
VJ<
Pd)
Fig. 10.19-Materlal-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons and water at Initial and later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization.
Depletion at Pressures Below the Dewpoint. When reservoir pressures decrease below the dewpoint, the gas phase condenses. In
many gas-condensate reservoirs, the liquid hydrocarbons formed
in the reservoir remain immobile. Therefore, we must modify Eq.
10.120 to include this additional liquid phase (Fig. 10.19).
Adding the liquid phase gives
GBgi
(G-Gp)Bg
-----"---"'--- + --"------"-
(l-Swi)(l-ywi)
(l-Sw-So)(l-yw)
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
............................... (10.123)
where So =liquid hydrocarbon phase (i.e., condensate) saturation.
After rearranging Eq. 10.123, we write a material-balance equation similar in form to Eq. 10.122:
(l-Sw-So) (l-yw)
(l-Swi)
(l-Ywi)
......... .... . .. ......... .. ... . (10.124)

Again, the form of Eq. 10.124 suggests that a plot of
(I-Sw-So) (l-yw)
(I-SKi)
(l-Ywi)
will be a straight line with a slope equal to -Pi/ZiG and an intercept equal to p/Zj. Aat p/z=O, Gp=G. so extrapolation of the
straight line to p/z =0 provides an estimate of original gas in place.
Again, the gas deviation factors in Eqs. 10.122 and 10.124 should
be two-phase Z factors representing both gas and liquid hydrocarbon phases in the reservoir. In addition, gas production should include not only production from all separators and the stock tank
but also the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates.
The water vapor content of a gas has been shown 31 to be dependent on pressure, temperature, and gas composition. Gas composition also has more effect on water vapor content at higher
pressures. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of gas usually do not
quantify the amount of water vapor; however, as discussed in Chap.
I, empirical methods 32 ,33 are available for estimating the water
vapor content of a gas.
Correct application of Eq. 10.124 also requires estimates of the
liquid hydrocarbon volumes formed at pressures below the dewpoint. The most accurate source of these estimates is a laboratory
analysis ofthe reservoir fluid samples. These liquid saturations are
obtained from a constant-volume depletion study.27,28 Note that
this type of laboratory fluid study assumes that the liquid hydrocarbons formed in the reservoir are immobile. This assumption is valid
for most gas-condensate reservoirs; however, some very rich gascondensate fluids may be characterized by mobile liquid saturations.
For these conditions, compositional simulators are required to model
the multiphase flow and predict future performance accurately.
Fig, 10.20-plz plot for Exercise 10.3.
10.4 Summary
Reading this chapter should prepare you to do the following.
Calculate original gas in place in a volumetric dry-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
Calculate gas reserves and recovery factor for a gas reservoir
with water influx using volumetric methods.
Calculate original gas in place and condensate in place for a
volumetric wet-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
State the principle of conservation of mass and derive a general material-balance equation from that principle.
Calculate original gas in place using material balance for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
Estimate water influx using the van Everdingen-Hurst, CarterTracy, and Fetkovich methods and state the assumptions and limitations of each method.
Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a drygas reservoir with water influx.
Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir .
Determine average formation compressibility and original gas
in place simultaneously using material balance in a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir.
Derive material-balance relationships for volumetric gascondensate reservoirs, gas-condensate reservoirs with water vaporization, gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures above
the dewpoint, and gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures below the dewpoint.
Questions for Discussion

1. Your company is planning to drill a wildcat well in an area
believed to have great potential for natural gas. In planning for the
well (and assuming gas is discovered), what data should be gathered?
Why?
2. The well does discover gas. Using information from the discovery well alone, you are asked to estimate reserves and forecast
future production. What methods will you use? What additional data
will you need?
3. Several additional wells are planned. What sort of information should be obtained from these wells? Why?
4. Two years after the discovery well was drilled, the field is
highly developed. You are again asked to estimate reserves and
forecast future production. What methods will you use? What data
will you need?
5. How would your strategy be affected if the reservoir is geopressured? Is a retrograde gas reservoir? Has a waterdrive? Is the
gas cap of a oil reservoir, a fact discovered only much later? How
can you determine whether any of these possibilities is a fact?
6. How would you determine optimal well spacing? Optimal
depletion plan? In answer to both these questions, what data would
you need, and what study methods would you use?
7. What are the potential errors in the volumetric method? The
material-balance method?
252
TABLE 10.19-PROOUCTION AND PRESSURE HISTORIES,

EXERCISE 10.4
Cumulative Gas
Production
(MMscf)
Pressure
(psia)
factor
0
10
20
30
40
50
2,751
2,381
2,223
2,085
1,940
1,801
0.742
0.739
0.737
0.742
0.747
0.755
....-9=60
Sealing
Fault
TABLE 10.20-PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.5
Time
(days)
Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure
(psi a)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Sealing
Fault
Fig. 10.21-Reservoir configuration for Exercise 10.10.
mulative gas production and the recovery factor at Pa = 500

psia, where Bga =6.45 RB/Mscf.
3.150 psia.
640 acres.
10 ft.
8.882 X 10 6 Mscf.
tf> = 0.22.
Sw; = 0.23.
Bg;
0.947 RB/Mscf.
Pi =
A =
h =
G
TABLE 10.21-PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10~
Time
(days)
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
10.2 For the reservoir data given below. estimate the gas reserves
and the recovery factor using the volumetric method.
Pi
3,150 psia.
A = 640 acres.
h = 10 ft.
Bg;
TABLE 10.22-PRESSURE HISTORY. EXERCISE 10.7
Time
(days)
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Exercises
For the reservoir data given below, calculate the total cu-
0.947 RB/Mscf.
0.22.
Sw; = 0.23.
Sgr
Bga
= 0040.
1.48 RB/Mscf.
10.3 Using the data given below and the plot of plz vs. Gp in Fig.
10.20, estimate the cumulative gas production at an abandonment pressure of 500 psia. In addition, estimate the recovery factor at the abandonment pressure.
3,643
8. What are typical recovery factors for volumetric gas reservoirs? How may we estimate abandonment pressure to calculate
recovery factor? At what point does abandonment pressure enter
the recovery factor calculation?
9. Compare typical recoveries in waterdrive gas reservoirs with
those from volumetric gas reservoirs and explain the reasons for
the difference.
to. Explain two methods for improving the recovery from
waterdrive gas reservoirs.
11. Describe the different types of aquifer that may be in association with a reservoir.
12. How does the aquifer offset pressure decline in the reservoir?
13. If the time elapsed since production began doubled, do you
think the amount of water influx into a gas reservoir would double? Or would it be more or less than double? Why? If additional
infonnation is required to answer this question, what is that additional information?
10.1
tf>
Pi = 4,000 psia.
Pa
500 psia
Zi = 0.80 psia.
za = 0.94 psia.
lOA
Using the reservoir pressure and cumulative gas production

given below, estimate the original gas in place, gas reserves
at P a =500 psia, and the gas recovery factor.
Pi
za
2,751 psia.
= 0.92.
P a = 663 psia.
Table 10.19 gives the reservoir production and pressure

histories.
10.5 Calculate the water influx at time step n=3 (i.e., 1=274.5
days) for the reservoir/aquifer system described below. Use
the van Everdingen-Hurst method and assume an infiniteacting aquifer.
tf>
= 0.209.
= 0.25 cpo
h
19.2 ft.
() = 180.
JA.
253
TABLE 10.23-PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10.8

Reservoir
Pressure
(psia)
11,444
10,674
10,131
9,253
8,574
7,906
7,380
6,847
6,388
5,827
5,409
5,000
4,500
4,170
Cumulative Gas
Production
0
9,920
28,620
53,600
77,670
101,420
120,360
145,010
160,630
182,340
197,730
215,660
235,740
245,900
plz
(psia)
7,650
7,423
7,252
6,957
6,698
6,428
6,191
5,933
5,693
5,375
5,132
4,840
4,478
4,221
plz!1-(c wS wi
-p)/(1 -Swill
7,650
7,276
7,008
6,561
6,202
5,839
5,539
5,229
4,950
4,594
4,330
4,035
3,674
3,425
TABLE 10.24-PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10.9

Cumulative Gas
Production
(MMscf)
Reservoir
Pressure
(psia)
11,444
10,674
10,131
9,253
8,574
7,906
7,380
6,847
6,388
5,827
5,409
5,000
4,500
4,170
(Mscf/psi)
9,920
28,620
53,600
77,670
101,420
120,360
145,010
160,630
182,340
197,730
215,660
235,740
245,900
k = 275 md.
c r = 6xlO- 6 psia- I .
r, = 5,807 ft.
Table 10.20 gives the pressure history at the initial

reservoir-aquifer interface.
10.6 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (i.e., 1=274.5
days) for the reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the
Carter-Tracy method and assume an infinite-acting aquifer.
4> == 0.209.
I-t
0.25 cpo
h = 19.2 ft.
8
180".
k
275 md.
c/ = 6xlO- 6 psia- I .
r, = 5,807 ft.
Table 10.21 gives the pressure history at the initial
reservoir-aquifer interface.
10.7 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (Le., 1=274.5
days) for the reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the
Fetkovich method and assume a finite aquifer.
4> = 0.209.
p,
0.25 cpo
h == 19.2 ft.
8
180 0
k
275 md.
c/ = 6x 10- 6 psia
r,
5,807 ft.
A
250,000 acres.
Gp/(Pi -p)(PiPlzz/)
13,300
12,900
26,900
30,900
34,100
36,600
40,700
42,700
46,200
48,800
52,900
58,000
61,300
39.7
41.8
45.4
49.5
53.7
58.0
63.0
68.0
75.4
81.3
90.1
102.0
111.7
TABLE 10.25-PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.10

Time
(days)
o
10
200
400
500
days was 40,630+8,587=49,217 RB.

10.8 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana,23 estimate the original gas in place using the material-balance
method for geopressured reservoirs. Also use the materialbalance method for a normally presS!L~4 gas reservoir, and
compare the initial gas estimates from both equations. The
plotting functions for both material-balance methods are tabulate in Table 10.23.
p, = 11,444 psia.
cf
19.5xlO- 6 psia- I .
Swi
Cw
Table 10.22 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir/aquifer interface. The cumulative water influx after 183
(psia)
4,000
3,990
3,900
3,820
3,760
0.22.
3.2xlO- 6 psia- I .
10.9 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana, 23 estimate the original gas in place and formation compressibility
using the material-balance method for geopressured reservoirs. In addition, use the material-balance method presented for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the
initial gas estimates from both equations. The plotting functions are tabulated in Table 10.24.
254
Pr
Cw
Swi
= 11,444 psia.
= 3.2xlO-6 psia- I .
0.22.
10.10 The reservoir shown in Fig. 10.21 is undergoing edgewater

influx. The pressure has been measured at the reservoir/aquifer boundary after several time periods, and this pressure
history is given in Table 10.25. The reservoir radius is 1,000
ft and the aquifer radius is 10,000 ft. The aquifer has a porosity of 10%, a permeability of 10 md, and a thickness of 600
ft. The water has a compressibility of I X 10 -5 psia -I and
a viscosity of 0.6323 cpo
A. Calculate B.
B . Calculate the relationship between dimensionless time and
time in days.
C. Calculate I.lPI for 10 days.
D. Calculate I.lP4 for 500 days.
E. Calculate water influx in reservoir barrels after 500 days.
Nomenclature
A = well drainage area, L2, acres
b
intercept
B
van Everdingen-Hurst constant, RB/psi
Bg = gas FVF, RB/Mscf
Bga = gas FVF at reservoir abandonment pressure and
temperature conditions, RB/Mscf
B gi = gas FVF at initial reservoir pressure and
temperature, RB/Mscf
Bw
water FVF, RB/STB
B2g
gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor,
RB/Mscf
B 2gi = gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor at
initial reservoir pressure and temperature,
RB/Mscf
C = water influx constant from material-balance
calculations, RB/psi
cf
in-situ formation compressibility, Lt2/m, pSia- 1
c/ = total aquifer compressibility, cf+cw, Lt2/m, psia- I
C w = water compressibility, Lt2/m, psia- I
E v = volumetric sweep efficiency, fraction
fg = fraction of reservoir gas produced as liquid at
surface, fraction
F = gas recovery factor
G = original gas in place, L3, Mscf
Ga
gas in place at reservoir abandonment, L3, Mscf
Gp = cumulative gas production, L3, Mscf
Gpa = additional gas production from secondary separator
and stock tank, L3 /L3, scf/STB
GpT = cumulative gas production from primary and
secondary separators, stock tank, and the gaseous
equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf
Gp !
cumulative gas production from primary separator,
L3, Mscf
Gp2 = cumulative gas production from secondary separator,
L3, Mscf
Gp3 = cumulative gas production from stock tank, L3, Mscf
G/ = reservoir volume occupied by gas trapped by
encroaching water, L3, Mscf
G T = total initial gas in place, including gas and gaseous
equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf
h = net formation thickness, L, ft
J = aquifer PI, L3t/m, STBID-psi
k = reservoir permeability, L2, md
L = length of linear-shaped reservoir, L, ft
m = slope
Mo = molecular weight of stock tank liquids, m,
Ibm/Ibm-mol
n = number of moles of gas
N = original oil (condensate) in place, L3, STB
Np
P
= cumulative oil
(condensate) production, L3, STB

reservoir pressure, m/Lt2, psia
Pa
abandonment pressure, m/Lt 2 , psia
Paq = aquifer pressure, m/Lt 2 , psia
Paq,i = initial aquifer pressure, m/Lt2, psia
Pd = dewpoint pressure of gas-condensate reservoir,
m/Lt2, psia
PD = dimensionless pressure
dimensionless pressure derivative
Pi
initial reservoir pressure, m/Lt2, psia
p" = pressure at time interval n, m/Lt 2 , psia
Pr = pressure at aquifer/reservoir interface, m/Lt2, psia
Psc = pressure at standard conditions, m/Lt2, psia
I.lp = difference between initial aquifer pressure and
pressure at original reservoir/aquifer boundary,
miLt 2, psia
qD
dimensionless water influx rate
q w water influx rate, L3/t, STBID
QpD = dimensionless cumulative water influx
Ta = radius of aquifer, L, ft
Te = outer radius of reservoir, L, ft
T r = radius to aquiferlreservoir interface, L, ft
R = universal gas constant, 10.73 psia-ft 3/lbm-mol- OR
R,
total gas/stock-tank liquid ratio, scf/STB
RI
ratio of high-pressure separator gas volume to stocktank liquid volume, L3 /V, scf/STB
R2 = ratio of low-pressure separator gas volume to stocktank liquid volume, L3 /V, scf/STB
R3 = ratio of stock-tank gas volume to stock-tank liquid
volume, L3 /L3, scf/STB
Sgi = initial gas saturation, fraction
Sgr
residual gas saturation, fraction
So = condensate saturation, fraction
Sw
connate water saturation, fraction
Swa = water saturation at abandonment conditions, fraction
Swi = initial connate water saturation, fraction
t = time, t, days
t D == dimensionless time
T
reservoir temperature, T, OR
Tsc = temperature at standard conditions, T, OR
Veq = vapor equivalent of primary separator liquid, L3 /L 3 ,
scf/STB
V = reservoir formation (rock) volume, L3, res bbl
f
Vgi = gas volume at initial conditions, L3, res bbl
VhL = volume of hydrocarbon liquids, L3, res bbl
Vhv := volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl
VhVi = initial volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl
Vp
reservoir PV, V, res bbl
Vpi
initial reservoir PV, L3, res bbl
Vsc = gas volume at standard conditions, L3, res bbl
Vv = volume of vapor phase. L3, res bbl
V vi = initial volume of vapor phase, L3, res bbl
V w = volume of water, L3, res bbl
Vwi
initial volume of water, L3, res bbl
V.."
volume of water vapor phase, L3, res bbl
V wvi = initial volume of water vapor phase, L3, res bbl
I.lVf = change in reservoir formation (rock) volume, L3,
res bbl
I.l Vw = change in water volume, L 3, res bbl
w
width of linear reservoir, L, ft
We = cumulative water influx volume, L3, res bbl
Wei
initial "encroachable" volume of water in aquifer,
L3, res bbl
Wi
initial volume of water in aquifer, L3, res bbl
Wp = cumulative water production, L3, STB
Yw = fraction of total vapor-phase volume that is water
Ywi = initial fraction of total vapor phase volume that is
water
PD
255

Z ;;
za
Zj ;:
zsc
z2 =
Z2j
gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
= gas compressibility factor at abandonment, dimen-
l' 0 =
l'w ::::
1'1 =
1'2 =
1'3
6
" =
p.
=
sionless
gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless
gas compressibility factor at standard conditions,
dimensionless
two-phase gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
two-phase gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless
specific gravity of condensate (water = 1.0 g/cm 3 )
specific gravity of reservoir gas at reservoir conditions (air::: 1.0)
specific gravity of high-pressure separator gas
(air = 1.0)
specific gravity of low-pressure separator gas
(air = 1.0)
specific gravity of stock-tank gas (air= 1.0)
angle encompassed by aquifer, degrees
dummy integration variable for Eq. to.57
viscosity, miLt, cp
porosity, fraction
SUbscript
aq = aquifer
Superscript
- = average
References
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, Physical Properties, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New
York City (1961).
2. Craft, B.C. et al.: Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. second
edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1991).
3. McCain, W.D. lr.: The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, second edition, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, OK (1989).
4. Geffen, T.M. et al.: "Efficiency of Gas Displacement From Porous
Media by Liquid Hooding," Trans .. AIME (1952) 195,29.
5. Keelan, D.K. and Pugh, V.J.: "Trapped-Gas Saturations in Carbonate
Formations," SPEI (April 1975) 149-60; Trans., AIME, 259.
6. Agarwal, R.G.: "Unsteady-State Performance of Water-Drive Gas
Reservoirs," PhD. dissertation, Texas A&M U., College Station (1967).
7. Gold, D.K., McCain, W.D. Jr., and Jennings, I.W.: "An Improved
Method for the Determination of the Reservoir-Gas Gravity for Retrograde Gases," JPT (July 1989) 747-52; Trans., AIME, 287.
8. Schilthuis, R.J.: "Active Oil and Reservoir Energy," Trans., AIME
(1936) 118, 33-52.
9. Katz, D.L. et al.: Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGrawHill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1959).
10. van Everdingen, A.F., Timmerman, E.H., and McMahon, J.J.: "Application of the Material-Balance Equation to a Partial Water-Drive
Reservoir," Trans., AIME (1953) 198,51.
11. Hav[ena, D. and Odeh, A.S.: "The Material-Balance Equation as an

Equation of a Straight Line," JPT (Aug. [963) 896-900; Trans., AlME,
228.
12. Chierici, G.L. and Pizzi, G.: "Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs: Uncertainty in Reserves Evaluation From Past History," JPT (Feb. 1967)
237-44; Trans., AIME, 240.
13. Bruns, J.R, Fetkovich, M.J., and Meitzen, V.C.: "The Effect of Water
on plz-Cumulative Gas Production Curves, " JPT (March 1965) 287-91.
14. van Everdingen, A.F. and Hurst, W.: "Application of the Laplace
Transformation to How Problems in Reservoirs," Trans., AIME (1994)
186, 305-24.
15. Carter, R.D. and Tracy, G.W.: "An Improved Method for Calculating Water Influx." JPT (Dec. [960) 415-17; Trans., AIME, 219.
16. Fetkovich, M.J.: "A Simplified Approach to Water Influx
Calculations-Finite Aquifer Systems," JPT (July 1971) 814-28.
17. Allard, D.R. and Chen, S.M.: "Calcu[ation of Water Influx for Bottomwater Drive Reservoirs," SPERE (May 1988) 369-79.
18. Olarewaju, J.S.: "A Mathematical Model of Edgewater and Bottomwater Drives for Water Influx Calculations," paper SPE 18764 presented
at the 1989 SPE California Regional Meeting, Bakersfield. April 5-7.
19. Lee, W.J.: Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series, Richardson, TX (1982)
1.
20. Edwardson, M.J. et ai.: "Calculation of Formation Temperature Disturbances Caused by Mud Circulation," JPT(April 1962) 416-26;
Trans . AIME, 225.
21. Klins, M.A., Bouchard, A.J., and Cable, C.L.: "A Polynomial Approach to the van Everdingen-Hurst Dimensionless Variables for Water
Encorachment," SPERE (Feb. 1988) 320-26.
22. McEwen, C.R.: "Material Balance Calculations With Water Influx in
the Presence of Uncertainty in Pressures," JPT (June 1962) 120-28;
Trans., AIME, 225.
23. Ramagost, B.P. and Farshad, F.F.: "p/z Abnormally Pressured Gas
Reservoirs," paper SPE 10125 presented at the 1981 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Oct. 5-7.
24. Duggan, J.O.: "The Anderson "L"-An Abnormally Pressured Gas
Reservoir in South Texas," JPT (Feb. 1972) 132-38.
25. Roach, R.H.: "Analyzing Geopressured Reservoirs-A MaterialBalance Technique, " paper SPE 9968 available at SPE, Richardson, TX.
26. Poston, S.W. and Chen, H.Y: "Simultaneous Determination of Formation Compressibility and Gas-in-Place in Abnormally Pressured
Reservoirs," paper SPE 16227 presented at the 1987 SPE Production
Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, March 8-10.
27. Moses, P.L.: "Engineering Applications of Phase Behavior of Crude
Oil and Condensate Systems," JPT (July 1986) 715-23.
28. Moses, P.L. and Donohoe, C.W.: Petroleum Engineering Handbook,
H.B. Bradley et af. (eds.), SPE, Richardson, TX (1987) 39-1-39-28.
29. Rayes, D.G. et ai.: "Two-Phase Compressibility Factors for Retrograde Gases," SPEFE (March 1992) 87-92; Trans., AIME, 293.
30. Humphreys, N.V.: "Material-Balance Equation for a Gas-Condensate
Reservoir With Significant Water Vaporization," paper SPE 21514
presented at the 1991 SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Houston, Jan.
22-24.
31. GPSA Engineering Data Book. 10th edition, Gas Processors Suppliers
Assn., Tulsa, OK (1987).
32. McKetta, J.J. and Wehe, A.H.: "Use This Chart for Water Vapor Content of Natural Gases," Petroleum Refiner (Aug. 1958) 153-54.
33. Bukacek, R.F.: "Equilibrium Moisture Content of Natural Gases," Inst.
of Gas Technology Bulletin (1955) 8.

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Chapter 10

Gas Volumes and Material-Balance

isopachous maps are constructed with lines of equal net gas-bearing

GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIALBALANCE CALCULATIONS

Substituting Eq. lOA into Eq. lD.3 yields

Eq. 10.7, which assumes standard conditions of Psc= 14.65 psia,

Gp =G-Ga . ................................... (l0.8)

Fig. 10.1-Phase diagram for a dry-gas reservoir fluid (after

2. The original gas in place for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir

where the gas recovery factor F= I

GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Here, the recovery factor, F=

Gp=G-[EvGa +(l-Ev)Ga . ................... (10.14)

Eq. 10.15 can be rearranged to yield

Here F=[I-E v Bgi (Sgr + l-E v )].

Example lO.2-Calculating Gas Reserves and Recovery Factor

3. The gas recovery factor is

=S,226x 10 3 Mscf=S.2 Bcf.

GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS

"' ewe JNlIIi

T.mp .... ' .....

Fig. 10.2-Phase diagram for a wet-gas reservoir fluid (after

2. The gas recovery factor is

1.105 (0.35 1-0.60)

According to Gold et al. ,7 for a three-stage separation system

R!'YI +4,602'Yo+ R 2'Y2 +R 3'Y3

10.2.3 Volumetric Wet-Gas and Gas-Condensate Reservoirs.

R1'Y1 +4, 602'Yo+ R 3'Y3

I' API -8.811

RIl'l +4, 602'Yo+ Gpa

GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

(59,550)(0.72) +(4,602)(0.76) +(415)(1 .23)

Note that this calculation procedure is applicable to gas-condensate

Example 10.4-Calculating Original Gas and Condensate in

Rf =R 1 + R3 =59,550+415 =59,965 scflSTB.

The volume of surface gas production is

6. The original volume of condensate in place is

From Eq. 10.20, the molecular weight of the condensate is

10.3 MaterlalBalance Methods

GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS

TABLE 10_1-INITIAL SURFACE PRODUCTION DATA, EXAMPLE 10_4

place but also gas reserves at any stage of reservoir depletion. A

Assuming a constant reservoir PV over the producing life of the

where GBgi=reservoir volume occupied by gas at initial reservoir

If we substitute the ratio of the gas FVF evaluated at initial and

where the gas recovery factory is

Further, we can rewrite Eq. 10.28 as

- = - 1 - - = - - - Gp ' ................. (10.29)

Similar to van Everdingen et al. 's 10 and Havlena and Odeh' s 11

GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Later Conditions (p <

Fig. 10.4-Material-balance model for a volumetric dry-gas

the original reservoir pressure at discovery was Pi =4,000 psia.

Fig. 10.5-Shapes of plz plots for various drive mechanisms.

of water influx but also by the amount of water produced at the

Combining Eqs. 10.30 and 10.31 yields

If water influx and production are ignored, a plot of plz vs. Gp

TABLE 10.2-RESERVOIR PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION

TABLE 10.3-MATERIAL-BALANCE PLOTTING FUNCTIONS,

10.3.2 Dry-Gas Reservoirs With Water Influx. In the previous

GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS

It; = 5.000 psla

acteristics, which principally include the penneability, thickness,

- 2 - + - - = - ' ....................... (10.33)