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Pope Pius IX
nationalists, which included the assassination of his Minister of the Interior, Pellegrino Rossi, among others, and
which forced him briey to ee Rome in 1848 led to
his growing skepticism towards the liberal, nationalist
agenda. Through the 1850s and 1860s, Italian nationalists made military gains against the Papal States, which
culminated in the seizure of the city of Rome in 1870.
Thereafter, Pius IX refused to accept the Law of Guarantees from the Italian government, which would have made
the Holy See dependent on legislation that the Italian parliament could modify at any time. His Church policies
towards other countries, such as Russia, Germany and
France, were not always successful, due in part, to changing secular institutions and internal developments within
these countries. However, concordats were concluded
with numerous states such as Austria-Hungary, Portugal,
Spain, Canada, Tuscany, Ecuador, Venezuela, Honduras,
El Salvador and Haiti.
Overview
2
are suering as a result of war, oppression, natural disaster, and disease.[6] In his Syllabus of Errors, still highly
controversial,[7] Pius IX condemned the heresies of secular society, especially modernism.
He was a Marian pope, who in his encyclical Ubi primum
described Mary as a Mediatrix of salvation. In 1854,
he promulgated the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, articulating a long-held Catholic belief that Mary,
the Mother of God, was conceived without original sin.
In 1862, he convened 300 bishops to the Vatican for the
canonization of Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan. His most
important legacy is the First Vatican Council, which convened in 1869. This Council discussed many issues, especially the dogma of papal infallibility, which Pius was eager to have ocially dened by the council; but the council was interrupted as Italian nationalist troops threatened
Rome. The council is considered to have contributed to
a centralization of the Church in the Vatican.[8]
PAPAL ELECTION
3 Papal election
Main article: Papal conclave, 1846
The conclave of 1846, following the death of Pope Gregory
XVI (183146), took place in an unsettled politiAn 1819 picture showing Mastai-Ferretti at his rst Holy Mass
cal climate within Italy. Because of this, many foreign
Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was the ninth child born Cardinals decided not to attend the conclave. At its start,
in Senigallia into the noble family of Girolamo dei conti only 46 out of 62 cardinals were present.
3
a move that contradicted the general mood throughout
Europe. By the second day of the conclave, on 16
June 1846, during an evening ballot, Mastai-Ferretti was
elected pope. He was a glamorous candidate, ardent,
emotional with a gift for friendship and a track-record of
generosity even towards anti-Clericals and Carbonari. He
was a patriot, known to be critical of Gregory XVI "[14]
Because it was night, no formal announcement was given,
just the signal of white smoke. Many Catholics had assumed that Gizzi had been elected successor of St. Peter.
In fact, celebrations began to take place in his hometown,
and his personal sta, following a long-standing tradition,
burned his cardinalitial vestments.
4 Papacy
The election of the liberal Pius IX created much enthusiasm in Europe and elsewhere. Although he was not unknown and had done nothing on an administrative level
before his election, and although there were no utterances
from him, he increased in fame and popularity.
4 PAPACY
largely French and Austrian. The Pope considered moving to Germany (see below).
After the French loss in the Franco-Prussian War of
18701871, the Papal States lost its protector and were
absorbed by Italy. Germany actively persecuted the
Church for a decade after the war.[21]
4.1
4.1.1
The end of the Papal States was not the only important
event in the long ponticate of Pius. His leadership of
the Church contributed to an ever-increasing centralization and consolidation of power in Rome and the papacy.
While his political views and policies were hotly debated,
his personal life style was above any criticism; he was considered a model of simplicity and poverty in his every day
aairs.[20] More than his predecessors, Pius used the papal pulpit to address the bishops of the world. The First
Vatican Council, which he convened to consolidate papal
authority further, was considered a milestone not only in
his ponticate but also for Church history.[8]
4.1.2
Church rights
4.1.3 Jubilees
Pius IX celebrated several jubilees including the 300th
anniversary of the Council of Trent. Pius celebrated the
1,800th anniversary of the martyrdom of the Apostle Peter and Apostle Paul on 29 June 1867 with 512 bishops,
20,000 priests and 140,000 lay persons in Rome.[22] A
large gathering was organized in 1871 to commemorate
the 25th anniversary of his papacy. The Italian government in 1870 outlawed many popular pilgrimages. The
faithful of Bologna organized a nationwide spiritual pilgrimage to the pope and the tombs of the apostles in
1873.[23] In 1875, Pius declared a Holy Year that was
celebrated throughout the Catholic world. On the 50th
anniversary of his episcopal consecration, people from
all parts of the world came to see the old ponti from 30
5.1
April 1877 to 15 June 1877. He was a bit shy, but he valued initiative within the Church and created several new
titles, rewards and orders to elevate those who in his view
deserved merit.[24]
4.1.4
Consistories
5
Sovereign Ruler of the Papal States. His rule was considered secular, and as such, he was occasionally accorded
the title king.[26] However, whether this was ever a title
accepted by the Holy See is unclear. One of the most
fervent contemporary critics of his infallibility dogma,
Ignaz von Dllinger, considered the political regime of
the pope in the Papal States as wise, well-intentioned,
mild-natured, frugal and open for innovations.[27] Yet
there was controversy. In the period before the 1848 revolution, Pius was a most ardent reformer advised by such
innovative thinkers as Rosmini who were able to reconcile the new free thinking concerning human rights with
the classical natural law tradition of the Churchs teaching in political aairs and economic order (social justice
teachings). After the revolution however, his political reforms and constitutional improvements were considered
minimalist, remaining largely within the framework of
the 1850 laws mentioned above.[28]
5.2
Governmental structure
5.3
Finance
5.4
5.5
Justice
The justice system of the Papal States was subject to numerous accusations, not unlike the justice systems in the
rest of Italy. There was a general lack of legal books
and standards and accusations of partiality of the judges.
5.6 Military
A unique position was granted to the papal army, at that
time consisting almost exclusively of foreigners: the Roman Black Nobility was not willing to serve, and the population resisted military service despite a decent salary
structure and the potential for promotion. A main element of the papal army was the Swiss Guard. The number of papal soldiers in 1859 was 15,000.[32]
5.6.1 Universities
The two papal universities in Rome and Bologna suered
much from revolutionary activities in 1848 but their standards in the areas of science, mathematics, philosophy
and theology were considered adequate.[33] Pius recog-
5.7
Social life
5.8 Arts
nized that much had to be done and instituted a reform The Papal States were a theocracy in which the Catholic
commission in 1851.
Church and Catholics had more rights than members of
During his tenure, Catholics and Protestants collaborated other religions. Pius IXs policies became increasingly
to found a school in Rome to study international law reactionary over time: At the beginning of his pontiand train international mediators committed to conict cate, together with other liberal measures, Pius opened
resolution.[34]
the Jewish ghetto in Rome. After returning from exile
their previous activities and his concessions only provoked greater demands as patriotic Italian groups sought
not only a constitutional government which he was sympathetic to but also the Unication of Italy under his
leadership and a war of liberation against Catholic Austria, which claimed the northern Italian provinces as its
own.[40]
The statue of Saint Peter was placed in the basilica by Pope Pius
IX
By early 1848, all of Western Europe began to be convulsed in various revolutionary movements.[41] The Pope,
claiming to be above national interests, refused to go to
war with Austria, which totally reversed the up to now
popular view of him in his native Italy.[40] In a calculated, well-prepared move, Rossi was assassinated on 15
November 1848, and in the days following, the Swiss
Guards were disarmed, making the Pope a prisoner in his
palace.[42]
Pius IX was the last pope who was also a secular ruler
as monarch of the Papal States. As sovereign-ruler of
the Papal States, he ruled over 3 million people and conducted diplomatic relations with other states, the most
important of which was Italy, which in 1870 ended the
independent Papal States and reduced the papacy to a A Roman Republic was declared in February 1849.
Pius responded from his exile by excommunicating all
miniature state.
participants.[43]
6.1
Italy
6.3
United Kingdom
9
in the Vatican one night after she voiced anxiety about her
safety. She and her assistant were the rst women to stay
the night inside the Vatican.[46]
England for centuries was considered missionary territory for the Catholic Church.[47] Pius IX changed that
with the Bull Universalis Ecclesiae (29 September 1850).
He re-established the Catholic hierarchy in England and
Wales, under the newly appointed Archbishop and Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman with 12 additional episcopal
seats: Southwark, Hexham, Beverly, Liverpool, Salford,
Shrewsbury, Newport, Clifton, Plymouth, Nottingham,
Birmingham and Northampton.[48] Some violent street
protests against the papal aggression resulted in the
Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851 being passed by Parliament, which on penalty of imprisonment and nes forbade any Catholic bishop to use any episcopal title 'of any
city, town or place, or of any territory or district (under
any designation or description whatsoever), in the United
Kingdom'.[49] The law was never enforced and was revoked twenty years later.[50]
Netherlands
drink only what was prepared for him, fearful that everything else might be poisoned. The pope, though alarmed, Pope Pius IX approved the unanimous request of
was accommodating to her and even agreed to let her stay American bishops that the Immaculate Conception be in-
10
6.9 Austria
The 1848 revolution had mixed results for the Catholic
Church in Austria-Hungary. It freed the Church from the
heavy hand of the state in its internal aairs, which was
applauded by Pius IX. Similar to other countries, AustriaHungary had signicant anti-Catholic political movements, mainly liberals, which forced the emperor FranzJoseph I in 1870, to renounce the 1855 concordat with the
Vatican. Austria had already in 1866 nullied several of
its sections concerning the freedom of Catholic schools
and prohibition of civil marriages.[55] After diplomatic
approaches failed, Pius responded with an encyclical on
7 March 1874, demanding religious freedom and freedom of education. Despite these developments, there
was no equivalent to the German Kulturkampf in Austria, and Pius created new dioceses throughout AustriaHungary.[56]
voked as the Patroness of the United States of America Expulsion of the Russian envoy to the Holy See Felix von Meyenon 7 February 1847.
dor by Pope Pius IX for insulting the Catholic faith
A letter Pius IX wrote to Jeerson Davis, addressing him
as the Illustrious and Honorable President of the Confederate States of America, was seen by some as the 6.10 Russia
highest international recognition the Confederate States
of America ever received.[53]
Main article: Pope Pius IX and Russia
Pius IX elevated John McCloskey as the rst American
to the College of Cardinals on 15 March 1875.
The Ponticate of Pius IX began in 1847 with an Accomodamento, a generous agreement, which allowed Pius
to ll vacant Episcopal Sees of the Latin rites both in Russia (Baltic countries) and the Polish provinces of Rus6.7 Canada
sia. The short-lived freedoms were undermined by the
Orthodox Church, Polish political aspirations in the ocPius IX increased the number of Canadian dioceses from
cupied lands and the tendency of imperial Russia to act
four to 21 with 1,340 churches and 1,620 priests in
against any dissent. Pius rst tried to position himself in
1874.[54]
the middle, strongly opposing revolutionary and violent
opposition against the Russian authorities, and, appealing to them for more Church freedom. After the failure
6.8 Concordats
of the Polish uprising in 1863, Pius sided with the persecuted Poles, protesting their persecutions, infuriating the
Pius IX signed concordats with Spain, Austria, Tuscany, Tsarist government to the point that all Catholic dioceses
Portugal, Haiti, Honduras, Ecuador, Nicaragua, El Sal- were eliminated by 1870.[57] Pius criticized the Tsar
without naming himfor expatriating whole communivador and Russia.[25]
11
ties to Siberia, exiling priests, condemning them to labour
camps and abolishing Catholic dioceses. He pointed to
Siberian villages Tounka and Irkout, where in 1868, 150
Catholic priests were awaiting death.[58]
6.11 Poland
Main article: Pope Pius IX and Poland
Several times during his ponticate, Pius IX considered leaving Rome. One occurrence was in 1862, when
Giuseppe Garibaldi was in Sicily gathering volunteers for 8 Theology
a campaign to take Rome under the slogan Roma o Morte
(Rome or Death). On 26 July 1862, before Garibaldi and
Main article: Theology of Pope Pius IX
his volunteers were stopped at Aspromonte:
Pius was adamant about his role as the highest teaching
authority in the Church.[62] He promoted the foundations
Pius IX conded his fears to Lord Odo
of Catholic Universities in Belgium and France and supRussell, the British Minister in Rome, and
ported Catholic associations with the intellectual aim to
asked whether he would be granted political
explain the faith to non-believers and non-Catholics. The
asylum in England after the Italian troops had
Ambrosian Circle in Italy, the Union of Catholic Workers
marched in. Odo Russell assured him that he
in France and the Pius Verein and the Deutsche Katholiswould be granted asylum if the need arose, but
che Gesellschaft in Germany all tried to bring the Catholic
said that he was sure that the Popes fears were
faith in its fullness to people outside of the Church.[63]
unfounded.[59]
Two other instances occurred after the Capture of Rome 8.1 Mariology
and the suspension of the First Vatican Council. Otto von
Bismarck conded these to Moritz Busch:
Pius shared a strong devotion to the Virgin Mary with
many of his contemporaries, who contributed to Roman
As a matter of fact, he [Pius IX] has already
Catholic Mariology. Marian doctrines featured promiasked whether we could grant him asylum. I
nently in 19th century theology, especially the issue of
have no objection to itCologne or Fulda. It
the Immaculate Conception of Mary. During his ponwould be passing strange, but after all not so
ticate, petitions increased requesting the dogmatization
of the Immaculate Conception. In 1848 Pius appointed
inexplicable, and it would be very useful to us
a theological commission to analyze the possibility for a
to be recognised by Catholics as what we really
Marian dogma.[64]
are, that is to say, the sole power now existing
12
8.2
Thirty-eight Encyclicals
pope make such decisions without the bishops? This foreshadowed one topic of the First Vatican Council, which
he later convened for 1869.[67] The Pope did consult the
bishops beforehand with his encyclical Ubi primum (see
below), but insisted on having this issue claried nevertheless. The Council was to deal with Papal Infallibility,
enhancing the role of the papacy and decreasing the role
of the bishops.[67] The role of the bishops was to be dealt
with at the Council, but it was disbanded because of the
imminent attack by Italy against the Papal States. Thus,
the major achievements of Pius IX are his Mariology and
Vatican I.[67]
8.4 Inuence
8.3
Pius decisively acted on the century-old disagreement between Dominicans and Franciscans regarding the Immaculate Conception of Mary, deciding in favor of the Franciscan view.[66] However, this decision, which he formulated as an infallible dogma, raised a question: Can a
13
could say Mass again on his own in standing position, enjoying the popular celebration of the 75th anniversary of
his rst communion. Bronchitis, a fall to the oor, and
rising temperature worsened his situation after 4 February 1878. He continued joking about himself, when the
Cardinal Vicar of Rome ordered bell-ringing and nonstop prayers for his recuperation. Why do you want to
stop me from going to heaven?" he asked with a smile. He
told his doctor that his time had come.[72] Pope Pius IX
died on 7 February 1878, aged 85, concluding the longest
ponticate in papal history, after that of St Peter whom
tradition holds had reigned for 37 years. His last words
were Guard the church I loved so well and sacredly, as
recorded by the Cardinals kneeling beside his bedside.
His body was originally buried in St. Peters grotto, but
was moved in a night procession on 13 July 1881 to the
Basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls. When the
cortege approached the Tiber River, a group of anticlerical Romans threatened to throw the con into the river
but a contingent of militia arrived.[73]
10
Beatication
14
11
Legacy
The art of photography developed during Pius IXs ponticate, and he was the rst pope to be photographed,
mainly in his later years.
Some contemporaries of Pius IX like Cardinal Giuseppe
Pecci considered photography inferior to painting and refused to be photographed. Pius, however, was open to the
new form of art.
15
13
Memorabilia
One enduring popular touch lies in Pius IXs artistic legacy as author of the Italian-language lyrics of
Italys best-known indigenous Christmas carol, Tu
scendi dalle stelle (From starry skies descended),
originally a Neapolitan language song written by
Saint Alphonsus Liguori.
During his stay at the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, on 8
September 1849, Pope Pius IX had the experience
of a train trip from Portici to Pagani, so he became
enthusiastic about this modern invention. When he
went back to his seat in Rome, he promoted the
growth of a railroad network, starting in 1856 with
the Rome and Frascati Rail Road. By 1870, the
length of railway lines built in the Papal States was
317 kilometres (197 mi). He also introduced gas
lighting and the telegraph to the Papal States.
In two nights after his 1846 pardon freeing all political prisoners, thousands of Romans with torches
roamed to the Quirinal Palace, where Pius IX lived,
celebrating the pope with Evvivas, speeches and music through both nights. The Pope went several times
to the balcony to give his blessing. On the third
day, when his horse-drawn carriage left the Palace to
move to the Vatican, Romans unhitched the horses
and pulled the papal carriage on their own[79]
On 16 November 1848, an excited mob of revolutionaries moved to the Quirinal and the Parliament
to present to the Pope their demands, especially war
Pope Pius IX Funeral.
against Austria. The Pope reportedly replied, his
dignity as head of state and of the Church does not
permit him to full conditions of rebels. Following
To commemorate his term as pope, there is a street
this, the Quirinal was covered by cannon re, which
in Montreal called Pie-IX (Pie-Neuf), French for
caused several deaths. After that, to save lives, the
Pius IX. There is also a stop on the Montreal Metro
Pope agreed to a list of proposed ministers, although
system called Pie-IX serving the street, located at
stating that he would abstain from any cooperation
[80]
the foot of the Olympic Stadium. In addition, there
with them.
are streets in Santiago, Chile, and Macon, Georgia,
After the French troops, who protected the Papal
called Po Nono, Italian for Pius IX and a secondary
States, left Rome, an Italian army with 60,000 men
school with the same name (Pio IX) in Buenos
approached the city, which was defended by only
Aires, Argentina.
10,000 papal soldiers. The Pope instructed his soldiers to give only token resistance and to enter an
Pope Pius IX died aged 85 on 7 February 1878 afarmistice after the rst defeat because the Deputy
ter a ponticate of 32 years. It was his last wish
of Christ does not shed blood. When the old Porta
to be buried not in the Vatican but in the Basilica
Pia was bombarded, opening a huge hole for the indi San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, his casket to be orvaders, the Pope asked the white ag to be shown. It
nated with a simple cross that was not to cost more
was his last act as King of the Papal States.[81] The
than 400 Scudi. At the request of Italian authorities,
last papal shot at the Porta Pia was red by an Austhe funeral took place three years later in the middle
trian alumnus of the Stella Matutina.[82]
of the night on 12/13 July 1881. It was accompanied by the clergy and Roman society. The houses
Pius IX was lampooned by reference to the Italian
along the streets were illuminated with torches, and
version of his name (Pio Nono), as Pio No No.
people threw owers from the window on the horse His occasional mood changes and emotional outdrawn carriage. A group of anti-Catholic nationalbursts have been interpreted as symptoms of his
ists screaming, Long live Italy! Death to the Pope!
epilepsy.[83][84]
Death to the Priests!" tried to steal the body of the
16
15
pope and throw it into the Tiber River.[85] The simple grave of Pius IX was changed by his successor,
John Paul II, after his beatication.
REFERENCES
14
Notes
15
References
[28] Schmidlin 47
[29] Stehle 47
[30] Schmidlin 52
[31] Schmidlin 49
[32] Schmidlin 50
[33] Schmidlin 53
[35] Schmidlin 55
[36] Capitelli, 17147.
[37] Schmidlin 61
Rapport.
[42] Schmidlin 35
[43] Piux IX, Roberto De Mattei, Page 33. Books.google.com.
Retrieved 2013-06-23.
[44] casa imperial de Mexico. Casaimperial.org. Retrieved
2013-06-23.
[45] The Cactus Throne; the Tragedy of Maximilian and Carlotta
[19] Schmidlin 23
17
[79] Schmidlin 26
[53] Google Books. Jeerson Davis: The Man and His Hour
Escrito by William C. Davis
[54] Schmidlin 212
[55] Franzen 362
[56] Schmidlin 141143
[57] Shea 274 .
[80] Schmidlin 29
16 Further reading
About, Edmund (1859). The Roman Question. New
York: D. Appleton and Company.
Acta et decreta Pii IX, Ponticis Maximi, VolI-VII,
Romae 1854
Acta et decreta Leonis XIII, P.M. Vol I-XXII, Romae, 1881,
Actae Sanctae Sedis, (ASS), Romae, Vaticano 1865
[78] IX. Piusz, don Bosco ppja, in: Don Bosco Kalendrium
2011, Szalzi Szent Ferenc Trsasga Budapest 2010, site
8.
18
17
Hasler, August Bernhard (1981). How the Pope Became Infallible: Pius IX and the Politics of Persuasion. Doubleday.
Hasler, August Bernhard (1979). Wie der Papst unfelhlbar wurde: Macht und Ohnmacht eines Dogmas.
R. Piper & Co. Verlag.
Kertzer, David I. (2004). Prisoner of the Vatican:
The Popes Secret Plot to Capture Rome from the
New Italian State. Houghton Miin. ISBN 0-61822442-4.
Martina, S.J. Pio IX (18461850) Roma: Editrice
Ponticia Universita Gregoriana, Vol I-III, 1974
1991
Mooney, John A. Pius IX and the Revolution, 1846
1848, The American Catholic Quarterly Review,
Vol. XVII, 1892.
Pougeois, Histoire de Pie IX, son ponticat et son
siecle, Vol I-VI, Paris, 1877
Schmidlin, Josef, Papstgeschichte, Vol I-IV, KstelPusztet Mnchen, 19221939
John Gilmary Shea, The Life of Pope Pius IX, New
York, 1877
Sylvain, Histoire de Pie IX le Grand et de son ponticat, Vol I,II, Paris, 1878
Franz Spirago, Pldatr (Examples from life; from
6. German edition translated Bezerdj Lszl),
Szent Istvn-Trsulat Budapest, 1927
Woodward, Kenneth L. (1996). Pius IX and
the Posthumous Politics of Canonization. Making
saints: how the Catholic Church determines who becomes a saint, who doesn't, and why. Simon and
Schuster. pp. 30935. ISBN 978-0-684-81530-5.
Retrieved 16 July 2010.
17
External links
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19
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1873 book on Pope Pius IX
Original artist:
Karl Benzinger
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book on Pope Pius IX Original artist: Karl Benzinger
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Original artist: Published by P.D. Farrell, 23 & 25 Spring St. NY Entered according to the act of Congress in the year 1872 by P.D.
FARRELL in the oce of the Librarian of Congress at Washington D.C.
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1873 book on Pope Pius IX
Original artist:
Karl Benzinger
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