Control Valves

6-1

CONTROL VALVES

The economic performance of most

processes- and certainly their
safety and operability - depend to
a large extent on how well they
are controlled.
- F. G. Shinskey

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Control Valves

Synopsis
An automatic control valve is defined with an eye to the similarities to an orifice
plate and those elements of a manufacturing process relevant to valve selection are
reviewed.
Different valve operating principles are surveyed: plug-in-seat, rotatable plug,
rotating vane, eccentric, cage-guided, deformable flow passage.
A discussion of packing and valve construction materials, precedes a look at valve
characteristics and sizing using S.I. and traditional equations. The consequences of
incorrect sizing are examined.
Some physical phenomena which can occur when trying to control processes are
introduced (i.e. cavitation, flashing and noise), with a discussion on how to control
these potentially damaging effects by correct valve selection.
External devices are discussed: Actuators, Positioners and I/Ps. Regulators are
briefly examined.
The case study concludes with a detailed look at a field mount I/P.

Introduction
A valve is a device for adjusting, or manipulating the flow rate of liquid or gas in a pipeline. The
valve contains a flow passage, or port, whose flow area can be varied. The valve stem transmits
some external motion to the port, thus changing its flow area. The external motion can originate
manually (eg. from a hand wheel or a lever) or from some actuator which is positioned pneumatically,
electrically or hydraulically in response to some external positioning signal. This combination of
valve and actuator is called an automatic control valve, or simply, a control valve.

Definition
The valve allows the passage of liquid through an orifice which is variable. As such, we can create
an analogy between it and an orifice plate such that, for liquid sizing:
P
Qv = k
SG

Where the constant (K) is called the flow coefficient.

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Valve Requirements
There are many different designs of valve. Many of these designs have been developed to meet
specific needs. It follows, then, that a valve suitable for one particular application may be unsuited
to another. Before a valve design can be chosen, the application must be known. Some factors
which should be considered are:
1.

The maximum and minimum fluid flow rates and densities (which affect the size of the
valve selected).

2.

The corrosive properties of the fluid (which determine the materials from which the valve
is made).

3.

The nature of any solids present in the fluid.

4.

P - the difference in pressure between the valve intake and its discharge.

5.

The allowable leakage limits across the closed valve and around the stem.

6.

The maximum amount of noise which can be tolerated from the valve.

7.

Whether the valve is required for isolation purposes or for flow manipulation.

8.

If a liquid is flowing through the valve, whether the liquid is close to its vapour pressure.

9.

Means of connecting the valve to the process piping, e.g. screwed, flanged or butt welded.

Valve Types
1.

Plug-in-Seat

A typical valve employing the plug-in-seat principle is the globe valve. The stem raises or lowers
a plug into a seat. The plug tip can be shaped so that as the plug rises, the annular space between the
plug tip and the seat ring bore varies in the manner which achieves smooth flow manipulation over
the full valve stroke. At the fully closed position, the bevelled edge of the plug is forced against a
mating surface on the seat. The plug-in-seat combination is called the trim or inner valve.

Fig. 6.1

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Fig. 6.1a

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2.

Control Valves

Rotatable Plug

The ball valve, is a typical valve employing this principle. The ball or plug can be rotated within the
body through a quarter of a turn. The plug has a passage through it.
There are three common variations upon this principle. In the first, the
plug is a ball with a line sized circular flow passage; such a valve offers
minimal flow restriction when fully open. The second is a ball with a
V-shaped passage (the V-ball); this allows smooth control at low flows
as well as at high flows. The third is the cock which uses a conical
shaped plug. Whilst cocks are traditionally popular in the gas industry,
they are seldom used as automatic control valves because the plug tends
to jam in the body.
Fig. 6.2

Valves employing rotatable plug achieve tight shutoff. This is the

function of a ball valves seat rings, which are normally made of elastrometric material.

3.

Rotating Vane

The butterfly valves vane is shaped so that it closes off the flow passage when it is positioned
normal to it. The vane can be rotated with a quarter turn actuator.
The rotating vane principle may be used for rectangular as well as circular shaped ducts. It is called
a butterfly valve when the flow-passage is circular and a damper when rectangular. For large
rectangular ducts, a set of louvres is used instead of a single vane.
However, valves employing the rotating vane principle share some
common features.

Fig. 6.3

Firstly, it is difficult to eliminate all leakage between vane and body

when the valve is closed; various butterfly valves have been designed
so that the vane (or disc) seats against some elastometer to overcome
this difficulty. Secondly, aerodynamic effects generate large
unbalance forces on the vane when it is nearly fully open or fully
closed; the actuator must therefore be designed to resist these forces.

4. Eccentric Rotation
Another method of rotary valve
design has the shaft centerline
different from the body
centreline. The result is that the
spherical surface of the closure
member only contacts the seal
near the closed position.As the
shaft rotates toward the open
position, there is no contact
between the closure member
and the seal. All eccentric
Fig. 6.4
designs must have rotation in
only one quadrant. If the valve
and actuator are incorrectly assembled to allow rotation in the wrong direction, damage to the
internal parts may result.
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5.

6-5

Cage-Guided

Cage guided valves are similar to plug in seat

valves differing by having a cage member
around a flat bottomed plug. This cage
member has shaped flow passages and as the
plug rises this passage or window is opened
allowing flow to be established and
controlled.
They may be balanced or unbalanced in
design. An unbalanced valve is one in which
the P across the valve acts upon the full
unbalanced area of the seat ring. A balanced
valve is one which normally employs the use
of a piston seal ring, which allows the
downstream pressure to act on both sides of
the valve plug, thereby nullifying most of
the static unbalance force. Balancing allows
the use of much smaller actuators than those
used in unbalanced valves on the same
service conditions. Interchangeability of trim
permits choice of several flow characteristics
or of noise attenuation or anti cavitation components.

Fig. 6.5

For most designs, the standard direction of flow is in through the cage openings and down through
the seat ring.

6.

Deformable Flow Passage

Valves utilising this principle have a flow passage made wholly or in part of an elastometer. The
actuator is arranged to squeeze the elastometer so that the flow passage becomes constricted.

Fig. 6.6a

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Fig. 6.6b

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Control Valves

There are two common variations on this time. The diaphragm valve (also known as the Saunders
valve) uses a linear actuator to squeeze the diaphragm onto a hard seat formed in the valve body. In
the pinch valve, the fluid flows through a hose which is pinched with a suitable linear actuator.
The applications for these valves are governed largely by the characteristics of the elastometric
material. In general, the elastometers are acid resistant and seal tight when the valve is closed.
There are no glands to leak.
However, the elastometer deteriorates at temperatures above 1000C and its strength limits operating
pressure to 500kPa or less. A further disadvantage is that variations in process pressure result in a
change of valve position because of the unbalanced design.

Packing
The purpose of packing in a valve is to provide a tight seal against the valve stem so that process
fluid does not escape. The packing must also result in low enough friction so that the actuator can
stroke the valve. One other factor is that the packing parts must be chemically compatible with the
process, and should have long cycle life.
The standard PTFE packing system is a very common type of packing because it:
a.

has low friction

b.

is chemically resistant

c.

makes a tight seal

d.

has long cycle life

e.

has constant loading

The rule of Thumb for packing is:

If the packing temperature is less than 4500F use PTFE.
If the packing temperature is over 4500F (2300C), use graphite packing.

Construction Materials
The following materials are commonly used to make valve bodies:
Cast iron
Cast steel
Bronze
Stainless steel
High temperature alloy steel
Hastelloy
Plastic, e.g. polyvinyl chloride
Lined steel, e.g. rubber lined, enamelled.

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6-7

Generally the process piping material will be selected according to the pressure, temperature and
corrosive nature of the process fluid. A safe rule is to make the valve body from the same material
as the process piping.
The valve internals must be aligned to close tolerances, especially for small valves, if the valve is
not to leak when closed. Consequently, iron, steel and bronze are generally not used for these parts.
Furthermore, where erosion can occur, the valve port can be hard faced, e.g. with stellite.
Most valves employ metal-to-metal seating, which generally has an acceptably low leakage rate.
Where tighter shutoff is needed rubber other than soft materials can be used for the seat if the fluid
pressure and temperature are not severe.

Valve Characteristics
The inherent valve flow characteristic describes the relationship between valve travel or rotation
and the change in flow coefficient.
Linear

The linear characteristic results in the change in flow coefficient being

directly proportional to a change in valve travel.

Equal Percent

With equal percent characteristic, equal increments of valve travel produce

equal percentage changes in the existing flow coefficient.

Quick Opening

The quick opening characteristic results in a rapid increase in flow coefficient

with the valve reaching almost maximum capacity in the first 50% of its
travel.

Shape of Opening

The characteristic is caused by the change in the shape of the port as valve
travel changes. For example, in sliding stem valves, the equal percentage is
achieved by having a small opening at the low travels.

Capacity Differences

Generally, the larger the opening, the greater the flow coefficient. Therefore,
at maximum valve travel, the equal percentage characteristic will have the
lowest flow coefficient.

Fig. 6.7

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Control Valves

Valve Characteristics
These shapes are typical of the windows
used in cage characterised valves.
Plug-in-seat valves have a machined
plug tip to provide the characterisation.
Typical Equal Percentage and Linear
Plug types have a parabolic curve or
core-like tip . Quick opening have a flat
bottom or no tip.

Fig. 6.8

Valve Sizing
While selection of appropriate control valve materials and pressure temperature ratings warrant
careful consideration, choosing the correct valve size is no doubt equally important. Simply
specifying a valve size to match an existing pipeline size leaves much to chance and will likely
create an impractical situation in terms of initial investment and adequacy of control. Obviously, a
valve too small will not pass the required amount of flow. A valve too large will be unnecessarily
expensive and may well create instability problems as it attempts to control at very low increments
of travel.

Sizing for Liquid Service

Using the principle of conservation of energy, Daniel Bernoulli discovered that as a liquid flows
through an orifice, the square of the fluid velocity is directly proportional to the pressure differential
across the orifice and inversely proportional to the specific gravity of the fluid. Therefore, the
greater the pressure differential, the higher the velocity; the greater the density, the lower the velocity.
Logically, the volume flow rate for liquids can be calculated by multiplying the fluid velocity times
the flow area.
By taking into account units of measurement, the proportionality relationship previously mentioned,
energy losses due to friction and turbulence, and varying discharge coefficients for various types of
orifices (or valve bodies), a basic liquid sizing equation can be written as follows:

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Control Valves

liquids

Kv = .
31.6.R
p

6-9

p
Q = 31.6 . R . Kv

Kv = It is known as the valve sizing coefficient and is numerically equal to the number of m3\h of
water at 4C that will flow through the valve in 1 minute with a differential pressure of 1 bar.
Q = flow in m3/h
p = pressure differential
= density in kg/m3
R = reduction factor. This reflects the ratio of pressure drops across the valve (due to flashing and
cavitation) and the pressure recovery profile of the system. It varies with the type of valve
employed.
For a given flowrate, a high Kv corresponds to a lower
p.

Traditional Valve Sizing Equation

Traditionally valve sizing has been done by using the equation:

Q = CV p/G
Where Q = U.S. gallons per minute
p = pressure drop in psi
G = specific gravity
CV = sizing coefficient for liquids
Is numerically equal to the number of U.S. gallons of water at 600F that will flow through the valve
in one minute when the pressure differential is one pound per square inch. It varies with the size
and style of the valve.
For a given flowrate, the higher the CV the lower the p.

The Choice
To size a valve, calculate the required KV, CV at maximum flow conditions using a p which is
allowable.
Make an initial valve selection by using a graph or chart allowing a valve travel of less than 90% at
maximum flow and no less than 10% at minimum flow.

Cavitation
A liquid will boil if it is heated to its boiling point or its pressure is reduced sufficiently. The
vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure at which the liquid boils. Vapour pressure is a function
of liquid temperature.
If a liquid whose temperature is close to its boiling point flows through a control valve, the liquid
can attain a velocity fast enough to lower its pressure to its vapour pressure. When this happens, the
liquid partially vaporises. As the liquid-and-vapour mixture leaves the valve, the velocity falls, the
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Control Valves

pressure rises and the bubbles of vapour formed within the valve collapse. This whole phenomenon
is called cavitation.
Cavitation generates shock waves in the liquid. Not only do these shock waves produce noise, they
also cause damage to the valve. Thus cavitation must be avoided as much as possible.

Fig. 6.9
Cavitation may be reduced by staging the pressure drop across a series of abrupt turns - tortuous
path design.

(b) Spaced Plates

Fig. 6.10a and 6.10b Conceptual tortuous path trim designs.

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Flashing
If the pressure at the valve outlet remains below the vapour pressure of the liquid, the bubbles
remain in the down-stream system and the process is said to be flashed. This severely erodes a
valve plug and seat ring.

Choked Flow
Formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid flowstream causes a crowding at the vena contracta which
tends to limit flow through the valve. So, while the basic liquid sizing equation implies that there is
no limit to the amount of flow through a valve as long as the differential pressure across the valve
increases, the realities of flashing and cavitation prove otherwise. If valve pressure drop is increased
slightly beyond the point where bubbles begin to form, a choked flow condition is reached. With
constant upstream pressure, further increases in pressure drop (by reducing downstream pressure)
will not produce increased flow through the valve.
Initial cavitation and choked flow occur nearly simultaneously in globe-style or low-recovery valves.
However, in high-recovery valves such as ball or butterfly valves, significant cavitation can occur
at pressure drops below that which produces choked flow.

Noise
When a fluid flows through a valve, some of its potential energy is dissipated. For gases where the
pressure difference across the valve is high, the amount of energy so dissipated can become large.
Some of this dissipated energy is acoustical in the form of sonic noise. The engineer specifying a
control valve must ensure that any noise from the valve does not exceed a tolerable level in todays
environmentally conscious society.
Control valve noise can arise from the following sources:
a.

Mechanical vibration, which arises from loosely fitting valve components rattling in service.

b.

Aerodynamic, arising from the dissipation of potential energy when a gas flows through the
valve.

c.

Hydrodynamic, which can occur under some liquid flow conditions.

Various control valves have been designed to minimise noise. One technique is to use a large
number of small ports rather than a single large port. The cage type inner valve is particularly
suited to this task and many low-noise valves feature specially designed cage inner valves.

Fig. 6.11

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Control Valves

Any aerodynamic noise generated within the valve can be transmitted by the downstream piping
where it is subsequently re-radiated. To mitigate this problem, various designs of grille-type baffle
plates are available. They are usually installed on the valve outlet flange.

Actuators
Actuator - a part of the final control element that translates the control signal into action of the final
control device in the process eg. motors, solenoids, cylinders.
Actuator Sizing
Use of too large an actuator adds unnecessary expense and increased response time at a control
valve, while use of an undersized actuator might make it impossible to open the valve or close it
completely.

Fig. 6.12
After a valve has been selected to meet given service conditions, the valve must be matched with an
appropriate actuator to achieve maximum efficiency. The actuator must provide sufficient force to
stroke the valve plug to the fully closed position with sufficient seat loading to meet the required
leak class criteria. With spring-return actuators, the spring selected must be sized to properly
oppose the force provided by the air supply pressure.
Sizing an actuator involves solving a problem in statics.
To stroke the valve to the fully closed position, the actuator must provide enough force to overcome
friction forces and to overcome the unbalance force due to the flow through the valve. The actuator
force available is the product of the air supply pressure and the area against which that pressure is
applied (i.e., the diaphragm area of piston area). Packing friction varies with stem size, packing
material(s) and packing arrangement.
Actuators for Rotary-Shaft Valves
The actuator selected must be capable of providing adequate torque output to overcome the dynamic
torque forces on the disc or ball of the valve under flowing conditions. The actuator must also be
capable of exceeding the breakout torque requirements of the disc or ball at shutoff, in order to
initiate rotation of the rotary valve shaft.

Current to Pressure Transducers and Positioner

Transducers and positioners convert electronic instrumentation signals into pneumatic or hydraulic
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pressures that control actuators and valves. A

positioner is normally used when it is necessary
to position a valve stem accurately with repect
to the value of the instrumentation signal. When
less accurate positioning is allowable, a
transducer can be used to provide a more
economical installation.

Fig. 6.13

Fig. 6.14

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Control Valves

The output side of a flow controller loop can be typified:

Fig. 6.15

An effective I/P must provide air quickly, accurately and in sufficient quantity to a receiver. It must
be able to exhaust air quickly when the signal decreases and be physically strong enough to withstand
the difficult environmental conditions often found on industrial sites.
Traditional I/Ps are generally as shown in Fig. 6.16. The input current signal, through a coil/
armature arrangement, acts on a beam. The beam, a flapper, positions itself against a nozzle. This
restricts the flow of air from the nozzle creating a back pressure which provides feedback via a
bellows to position the flapper accurately. The result is a pneumatic signal proportional to the 420mA signal. This relatively small signal is fed to the booster replay to provide the final 20-100
kPa (or 3-15 psi) output.

Fig. 6.16
If a rack mounted I/P is mounted at some distance from the final actuator, usually simple operations,
for example observing the reaction of a valve actuator to changes of the I/P signal, become difficult.
Especially when there is no clear line-of-sight between the two pieces of equipment.

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The length of the pneumatic signal lines create further difficulties. It is more likely a booster or
positioner will be necessary and the control loop gains another lag, adding to the difficulty of
tuning the loop and sometimes degrading the resulting control.

Fig. 6.17

Other locally mounted I/P types include the piezoceramic bender/nozzle and deflector/nozzle.
The bender does away with the coil arrangement required to push and pull the flapper to and from
the nozzle. It consists of a piezoceramic laminate of different materials, approximately 0.06 cm
thick. A voltage across the bender
causes it to flex. The 4-20 mA
incoming signal is converted to a
rather high voltage (in the region of
30V) and this is applied across the
bender.
A deficiency of the piezoceramic
bender is creep.
Creep is a condition which causes
the bender to be mechanically nonrepeatable (ie. it will not flex to the
same position for a given voltage
differential). To overcome this
condition, a very efficient feedback

Course 9050 - October 1996

Fig. 6.18

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Control Valves

network is required, and even then, frequent recalibration is often necessary. After frequent recalibrations, the adjustment can reach a point where further calibration is not possible.
The second alternative, the deflector/nozzle pilot, has proven more successful. It consists of two
small nozzles, positioned such that a constant air flow exiting the jet nozzle is directed at the
entrance of the receiver nozzle. A small portion of the supply air coming into the I/P is directed to
the pilot stage (jet nozzle), the main flow going to the booster stage. Each nozzle has a bore of 0.04
mm and the distance between them is 0.25 mm.
A small tungsten carbide deflector is positioned between the nozzles at 90 angle to the direction of
air flow. The deflector is 0.05 mm diameter. It is bonded to the deflector mount which is connected
to the magnetic actuator. The actuator has linear motion (up and down) and is driven by the
electronic signal. The deflectors position within the flow stream determines the pressure at the
receiver nozzle. The receiver nozzle pressure controls the boosterstage and the full flow output
signal of the I/P. There is no flow through the receiver nozzle.

Fig. 6.19
The use of the deflector/nozzle pilot stage is significant for three reasons. First, very low mass and
mechanical damping contribute substantially to the I/Ps stability in vibrating conditions. Secondly,
the free flow design provides very good tolerance to dirty air by reducing the effects of contaminate
buildup, erosion, and plugging. Lastly, the deflector/nozzle provides a very precise booster control.
The low mass high magnetic efficiency of the actuator allow the deflector to be repositioned very
rapidly when the input current changes. The booster is controlled crisply, greatly contributing to
the I/Ps ability to dynamically adjust to a wide variety of end volume conditions.
Feedback is managed electronically using a solid state pressure sensor. This measures the difference
between input and output and adjusts accordingly.

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Pressure Reducing Regulators

Description
A pressure reducing regulator maintains a desired reduced outlet pressure while providing the required
fluid flow to satisfy a variable downstream demand. The value at which the reduced pressure is
maintained is the outlet pressure setting of the regulator.

Direct-Operated Regulator
As shown in the accompanying figures, a direct-operated pressure-reducing regulator senses the
downstream pressure through either an internal pressure tap or an external control line. This
downstream pressure opposes a spring, which moves the diaphragm and valve plug to change the
size of the flow path through the regulator.

Fig. 6.20

Pilot-Operated Regulator
The addition of a pilot to a regulator provides a two-path control system. The main valve diaphragm
responds quickly to downstream pressure changes, causing an immediate correction in the main
valve plug position. The pilot diaphragm responds simultaneously, diverting some of the reduced
inlet pressure to the other side of the main valve diaphragm to control the final positioning of the
main valve plug.

Fig. 6.21

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Control Valves

Case Study

Model 3311 Current-to-Pressure Transducer

Introduction
The Rosemount Model 3311 Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer combines engineering innovation
and solid-state electronics into a rugged, field-mountable transducer. Special attention has been
given to features that contribute to long-term, reliable operation in harsh outdoor environments.
Significant features includes a revolutionary, patented, deflector/nozzle pilot stage, a patented,
electronic feedback control network, master module construction, and special diagnostic
capabilities.
The Model 3311 provides superior performance, particularly vibration stability, contaminated air
tolerance, and dynamic air delivery. Also, unitised subassembly design allows easy and rapid
maintenance. The Model 3311 has a balance of performance and features that contribute to process
control optimization and low cost of ownership.

Fig. 6.22

Instrument Overview
The Model 3311 is an electronic transducer designed to accept an electrical input and produce a
pneumatic output. Its most common application is to convert an electrical output signal from a
controller to a pneumatic signal necessary to operate a control valve actuator or pneumatic positioner.
The 4-20 mA input is converted to a pneumatic control signal in the Model 3311s pilot stage.
This control signal drives the booster stage, which controls the output signal of the Model 3311.

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Features
Deflector/Nozzle Pilot Stage
Rosemount Inc. has patented a revolutionary deflector/nozzle pilot stage. Its very low mass and
mechanical damping contribute substantially to the stability of the Model 3311 under vibration. In
addition, the free-flow design provides excellent tolerance to dirty air by reducing the effects of
contaminant buildup and erosion.
The deflector/nozzle design consists of two nozzles positioned so that the constant air flow exiting
the supply nozzle is directed at the entrance of the receiver nozzle. Each nozzle has a large bore of
0.016 inches (.041 mm), which provides good resistance to plugging. The input current signal
positions a deflector bar within the nozzles flow stream. Deflector bar adjustments alter the flow
stream establishing a pilot pressure at the receiver nozzle. Pilot pressure, in turn, controls the
booster stage and output of the Model 3311.
Master Module Construction
Major mechanical and electrical components have been incorporated into a single field-replaceable
module. An innovative design allows access to the master module by simply unscrewing the module
cover. A significant benefit of this construction is that the Model 3311 does not have to be removed
from its mounting to facilitate troubleshooting or servicing. Module exchange can be done in the
field. Time and money can be saved by not having to remove air and electrical connections, and
unbolt the I/P from its mount.

Fig. 6.23 Detail of deflector/nozzle pilot stage

Electronic Feedback Control Network
A Patented electronics feedback control network constantly compares the value of the pneumatic
output signal with the input current signal. A Rosemount solid-state pressure sensor is part of the
electronics package monitoring the pneumatic output.
A comparator circuit in the control network detects input-output deviations and adjusts the output
by moving the deflector in the pilot stage to a corrected position. Because of this feedback network,
the Model 3311 can dynamically correct for many error-producing effects, such as variations in

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Control Valves

supply pressure and downstream leakage. The Model 3311 knows the condition of the final
element and can optimise its air delivery to achieve the desired output pressure in a rapid and crisp
manner.

Fig. 6.24 Model 3311

Functional Block Diagram
Diagnostic Capabilities
Two unique diagnostic functions allow users to quickly check the functionality of the Model 3311.
With Remote Pressure Reading, a frequency directly proportional to the output pressure is
superimposed on the input signal wires. By using the Rosemount Model 268 SMART FAMILY
Interface, an operator can receive a digital display of the Model 3311s output. A frequency counter
also can be used. A single formula easily converts the frequency counters display to output pressure:
(Display Hz - 5,000 Hz) 100 = psi
The other diagnostic function is the Stroke Port.

Fig. 6.25 Model 3311 Master

Module Construction

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The constant bleed from the pilot stage is vented through a hole in the module cover. By covering
the hole, the user increases the transducer output and can confirm the general functionality of the
pilot and booster stages, and stroke the actuator.

Fig. 6.26 Equivalent circuit

Specifications
(Reference conditions: 4-20 ma, 3-15 psig
output, and 20 psig supply pressure.)
Functional Specifications
Input
Standard Performance:
4-20 mA dc, 4-12 mA dc, and 12-20 mA dc.
Field-adjustable split ranging.
Multirange Performance:
4-20 mA dc. Consult factory for split range
input.
Output
Standard Performance (Consult factory for split
range output):
Direct Action (Minimum span of 6 psi)
3-15 psi, 0.2-1.0 kg/cm 2, or 0.2-1.0 bar
typical.
Reverse Action (Minimum span of 11 psi)
15-3 psi, 1.0-0.2 kg/cm 2, or 1.0-0.2 bar
typical.
Multirange Performance:
Direct Action
Typical outputs: 3-27 psi, 6-30psi, and 5-25
psi.
Wide rangeability available between 0.5 and
30.0 psi (metric calibration also available), with
minimum span of 6 psi. Consult factory.

Course 9050 - October 1996

Reverse Action
Typical outputs: 27-3 psi, 30-6 psi, and 255 psi.
Wide rangeability available between 30.0 psi
and 0.5 psi(metric calibration also available),
with minimum span of 11 psi. Consult factory.
Supply Pressure
Standard Performance
18-24 psi (1.2-1.6 kg/cm2)
Multirange Performance
Minimum: 3 psi (0.2 kg/cm2) greater than
the maximum calibrated output pressure.
Maximum: 35 psi (2.4 kg/cm2)
Units with Option E9 - CENELEC Flameproof
Approval:
20 psi maximum.
Air Consumption
0.20 SCFM (0.3 Nm3/hr) at 20 psi (1.4-kg/cm2)
supply pressure.
Output Air Capacity
4.0 SCFM (6.7 Nm3/hr) at 20 psi (1.4-kg/cm2)
supply pressure.
Temperature Limits
Operating:-40 to 185F (-40 to 85C)
Storage:-40 to 200F (-40 to 93C)
Span and Zero
Screwdriver adjustments located in terminal
compartment.

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Control Valves

Humidity Limits
0-100% condensing relative humidity.
Remote Pressure Reading
ON and OFF are jumper-selectable.
Frequency Range: 5,000-8,000 Hz.
Amplitude: 0.4-1.0 Vp-p
Required Operating Voltage
Remote Pressure Reading OFF:
Min. 6.0 V (at 4 mA)
Max 7.2 V (at 20 mA)
Remote Pressure Reading ON:
Min. 6.4 V (at 4 mA)
Max. 8.2 V (at 20 mA)
Hazardous Locations (Optional)
Factory Mutual (FM) Approvals:
Explosion-proof: Class 1, Divisions 1 and 2,
Groups B, C, and D. Dust Ignition Proof: Class
II, Divisions 1 and 2, Groups E, F, and G.
Suitable for use in: Class III, Divisions 1 and
2. Indoor and outdoor use. NEMA 4X.
Intrinsically safe for Class 1, Division 1,
Groups A, B, C, and D; Class II, Division 1,
Groups E, F, and G; and Class III, Division 1.
Non-Incendive for Class 1, Division 2, Groups
A, B, C, and D.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
Approvals:
Explosion-proof for Class 1, Division 1,
Groups C and D. Dust Ignition-proof for
Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F, and G.
Suitable for Class III, Division 1, hazardous
locations. CSA Enclosure 4. Intrinsically
safe for Class 1, Division 1, Groups A, B,
C, and D; Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F,
and G; and Class III, Division 1. NonIncendive for Class 1, Division 2, Groups
A, B, C, and D.
CENELEC Intrinsic Safety Approval:
EEx ia IIC T5 (Tamb = 40C),
EEx ia IIC T4 (Tamb = 80C), IP65
Parameters: U max: in = 30 V dc,
Pmax: in = 0.8 W, Imax: in = 200 mA
BASEEFA Approval:
Nonincendive Type N:ExNII T5, (T amb =
70C), IP65

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Parameter: 10 V dc max.
CENELEC Flameproof Approval:
EExd IIC T6, IP65
Performance Specifications
(Reference Conditions: 4-20 mA input, 3-15
psig output, and 20 psig supply pressure)
Linearity, Hysteresis, and Repeatability
0.3% of span. Reference SAMA PMC 31.1
Temperature Effect (total effect including
zero and span)
0.045%/F (0.07%/C) of span.
Vibration Effect (tested while operating)
0.3%/g of span during the following
conditions:
5-15 Hz at 4 mm constant displacement
15-150 Hz at 2 g. 150-2,000 Hz at 1 g.
Reference SAMA PMC 31.1-1980, Sec.
5.3, Condition 3, Steady State.
Supply Pressure Effect
Negligible
Reverse Polarity Protection
No damage occurs from reversal of
normal supply current (4-20 mA) or from
misapplication of up to 100 mA.
RFI/EMI Effect
0.1% of span at 30 V/m, Class 3 (wire in
conduit), ABC.
1.0% of span at 10 V/m, Class 2 (wire not in
conduit), ABC.
Reference SAMA PMC 33.1C-1978.
Overpressure Effect
Less than 0.25% of span for misapplication of
up to 100-psi 7.0-kg/cm2) supply pressure for
less than 5 minutes to the input port.
Shock Effect
0.5% of span. Reference SAMA PMC 31.1,
Sec. 5.4
Leak Sensitivity
Less than 1.0% of span for up to 3.0 SCFM
(5.0 Nm3/hr) downstream leakage.

Course 9050 - October 1996

Control Valves

Physical Specifications
Housing Material
Low-copper aluminum with epoxy-polyester
paint, NEMA 4X, IP65.
O-Ring Material
Buna-N, except silicone for sensor O-rings.

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6 - 23

Supply Air, Output Signal, and Output Gage

Connections
1.4 - 18 NPT
Electrical Connection
1/2 - 14 NPT.
Weight
6.5lb (2.9kg) excluding options.

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Control Valves

Summary
The automatic control valve consists of valve body and trim, actuator and perhaps positioner. It
presents a variable orifice to the process such that:
QV = K P/SG

where the constant (K) is a coefficient embodying valve characteristics and flow conditions.
The correct selection of a valve depends upon the knowledge of the process, Considerations include:
max/min flowrates, densities, possible corrosives, pressure differentials, leakage limits, noise, vapour
pressure of process flow, mounting and amounts of extraneous solids.
Valve operating principles:
i.

Plug-in-seat An obstruction is raised and lowered to block the flow. Typically, such
valves have a short stroke and produce unbalanced forces which must be compensated
for by internal design or careful choice of actuator.

ii.

Rotary Vane An obstruction rotates within the flow port eg. butterfly valves and dampers.
These suffer large unbalance forces when nearly fully open or closed.

iii.

Deformable Flow Passage These operate by constriction of the flow port. The
elastometric material forming the port usually wont handle high temperatures and
pressures.

iv.

Rotatable Plug eg. ball valve. These generally achieve tight shutoff.

v.

Eccentric Rotation Provides less wear on the seals.

vi.

Cage Guided Provides the ability to utilise balancing designs and employ special
products to minimise the effects of cavitation and flashing.

The proportionality factors linking (Qv) flowrate and pressure drop (P) across a valve are KV , CV.
These are the valve sizing coefficients and reflect physical parameters of construction.
Valve characteristics may be
(i) linear - flowrate is proportional to valve travel.
(ii) Equal percentage - one gets more sensitive control nearer shut off
(iii) quick opening - not used for control.
Cavitation - shock waves formed by the collapse of vapour
pressure after egress from a valve.
Flashing - formation of erosive bubbles downstream of the valve.
Noise - may be vibrational or hydrodynamic/aerodynamic in origin.
Correct actuator sizing establishes a balance between providing sufficient power to close a valve
completely and unnecessary expense through oversizing. It must take into account dynamic
conditions and breakout conditions at shutoff.

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Course 9050 - October 1996

Control Valves

6 - 25

Positioners work in conjunction with I/Ps to accurately align a valve in response to a signal from
the controller.
Current-to-pressure transducers (I/P) provide a 20-100 kPa output proportional to a 4-20 mA signal.
Technologies have involved flapper/nozzle, piezo-ceramic bender and more recently deflector/
nozzle pilot. More effective control may be exercised through local mounting of these devices but
vibration and contaminants must be avoided.
Regulators are self-correcting units, satisfying variable downstream demand for process fluid or
gas.

Discussion
Use the Case Study material provided to answer the following.
1.

Which 3311 I/P transducer features facilitate:

- easy maintenance
- reliability
- crisp output performance
- convenient functionality checking

2.

What is the value of direct/reverse action functionality?

3.

Is the 3311 safe in hazardous areas?

4.

The 3311 is calibrated at 24C in the factory for 0-100 kPa output. It is to operate at a
maximum temperature of 35C. How much will the instrument possibly be out in its midrange operation. What can be done to improve this?

Course 9050 - October 1996

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

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Control Valves

Test
1.

Define the following terms:

Actuator: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Flashing: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Cavitation: _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Regulator: _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
I/P Transducer: _________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Positioner: _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Trim: _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2.

Describe the significance of the term Kv

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3.

In a particular situation assume the relevant relationship for a valve is:

p
Q = 18 Kv

A liquid flows through the valve such that with p of 100 kPa. What is the new p if Kv
halves yet the flowrate and liquid characteristics dont change.

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Control Valves

4.

6 - 27

We assume a constant head of 100 kPa discharging through a valve to atmosphere via a very
short level length (less than 1m say) of outflow pipe.
i.

What is the p of the valve is shut?

Ans. _______________________

ii.

What is the p if the valve is half open?

Ans. _______________________

iii.

What is the p if the valve is fully open?

Ans. _______________________

Do the answers above change if the outlet pipe is no longer short? (300 m say) Explain.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q. 5 (a)

Describe how valve noise is reduced (1 method).

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

(b)

Define the equal percentage characteristic.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

(c)

Define vena contracta

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Course 9050 - October 1996

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Control Valves

(d)

Explain how characteristics (e.g. equal percentage) are designed into a valve.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

(e)

Explain choked flow.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Third Printing: October 1996

Second Printing: March 1994
First Printed: October 1991

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996