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VijayanagaraEmpire
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheVijayanagaraEmpire(alsocalledKarnata
Empire),referredtoastheKingdomofBisnegarbythe
Portuguese,wasanempirebasedinSouthIndia,inthe
DeccanPlateauregion.Itwasestablishedin1336by
HariharaIandhisbrotherBukkaRayaIofSangama
Dynasty.[1][2][3]Theempirerosetoprominenceasa
culminationofattemptsbythesouthernpowerstoward
offIslamicinvasionsbytheendofthe13thcentury.It
lasteduntil1646althoughitspowerdeclinedaftera
majormilitarydefeatin1565bytheDeccansultanates.
Theempireisnamedafteritscapitalcityof
Vijayanagara,whoseruinssurroundpresentdayHampi,
nowaWorldHeritageSiteinKarnataka,India.[4]The
writingsofmedievalEuropeantravelerssuchas
DomingoPaes,FernoNunesandNiccolDaConti,and
theliteratureinlocallanguagesprovidecrucial
informationaboutitshistory.Archaeologicalexcavations
atVijayanagarahaverevealedtheempire'spowerand
wealth.
Theempire'slegacyincludesmanymonumentsspread
overSouthIndia,thebestknownofwhichisthegroupat
Hampi.TheprevioustemplebuildingtraditionsinSouth
IndiacametogetherintheVijayanagaraArchitecture
style.Theminglingofallfaithsandvernacularsinspired
architecturalinnovationofHindutempleconstruction,
firstintheDeccanandlaterintheDravidianidioms
usingthelocalgranite.Efficientadministrationand
vigorousoverseastradebroughtnewtechnologiessuch
aswatermanagementsystemsforirrigation.The
empire'spatronageenabledfineartsandliteratureto
reachnewheightsinKannada,Telugu,Tamiland
Sanskrit,whileCarnaticmusicevolvedintoitscurrent
form.TheVijayanagaraEmpirecreatedanepochin
SouthIndianhistorythattranscendedregionalismby
promotingHinduismasaunifyingfactor.

Contents
1Alternativename
2History
3Governance
4Economy
5Culture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire

VijayanagaraEmpire
KingdomofBisnegar

13361646

ExtentofVijayanagaraEmpire,1446,1520CE

Capital

Vijayanagara

Languages

Kannada,Telugu

Religion

Hindu

Government
King
13361356
16421646

Monarchy

History
Established
Earliestrecords
Disestablished
Precededby
Hoysala
Empire
Kakatiya
dynasty
Pandyan
Empire
Reddy

HariharaRayaI
SrirangaIII
1336
1343
1646
Succeededby
Kingdomof
Mysore
KeladiNayaka
Nayaksof
Tanjore
Nayaksof
Madurai
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5.1Sociallife

dynasty

Nayakasof
Chitradurga
Bijapur
Sultanate
QutbShahi
dynasty
Nayaksof
Gingee

5.2Religion
5.3Literature
5.4Architecture
5.5Language
6Seealso
7Notes
8References

VijayanagaraEmpire

9Furtherreading
10Externallinks

Alternativename
KarnataEmpire(KarnataRajya)wasanothernameforthe
VijayanagaraEmpireandithasbeenusedinsome
inscriptions.[5][6]andliteraryworksoftheVijayanagaratimes
includingtheSanskritworkJambavatiKalyanambyKing
KrishnadevarayaandTeluguworkVasuCharitamu.[7]

History
Differingtheorieshave
beenproposedregarding
theVijayanagaraempire's
origins.Manyhistorians
proposeHariharaIand
Bukka,thefoundersof
theempire,were
Kannadigasand
commandersinthearmy
oftheHoysalaEmpire
MapofSouthIndiain15th
stationedinthe
century
Tungabhadraregionto
wardoffMuslim
[8][9][10][11]
invasionsfromtheNorthernIndia.
Othersclaim
thattheywereTelugupeoplefirstassociatedwiththe
KakatiyaKingdomwhotookcontrolofthenorthernpartsof
theHoysalaEmpireduringitsdecline.[12]Irrespectiveoftheir
origin,historiansagreethefoundersweresupportedand
inspiredbyVidyaranya,asaintattheSringerimonasteryto
fighttheMusliminvasionofSouthIndia.[13][14]Writingsby
foreigntravelersduringthelatemedievaleracombinedwith
recentexcavationsintheVijayanagaraprincipalityhave

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Sangamadynasty
HariharaRayaI

13361356

BukkaRayaI

13561377

HariharaRayaII

13771404

VirupakshaRaya

14041405

BukkaRayaII

14051406

DevaRayaI

14061422

RamachandraRaya

1422

ViraVijayaBukkaRaya

14221424

DevaRayaII

14241446

MallikarjunaRaya

14461465

VirupakshaRayaII

14651485

PraudhaRaya

1485

Saluvadynasty
SaluvaNarasimhaDevaRaya 14851491
ThimmaBhupala

1491

NarasimhaRayaII

14911505

Tuluvadynasty
TuluvaNarasaNayaka

14911503

ViraNarasimhaRaya

15031509

KrishnaDevaRaya

15091529

AchyutaDevaRaya

15291542

VenkataI

1542

SadasivaRaya

15421570

Aravidudynasty
AliyaRamaRaya

15421565

TirumalaDevaRaya

15651572

SrirangaI

15721586

VenkataII

15861614

SrirangaII

1614

RamaDevaRaya

16171632

VenkataIII

16321642

SrirangaIII

16421646
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uncoveredmuchneededinformationabouttheempire's
history,fortifications,scientificdevelopmentsand
architecturalinnovations.[15][16]
Beforetheearly14thcenturyriseoftheVijayanagaraEmpire,theHindustatesoftheDeccan,the
YadavaEmpireofDevagiri,theKakatiyadynastyofWarangal,thePandyanEmpireofMadurai,andthe
tinykingdomofKampilihadbeenrepeatedlyinvadedbyMuslimsfromthenorth,andby1336theyhad
allbeendefeatedbyAllauddinKhiljiandMuhammadbinTughluq,theSultansofDelhi.TheHoysala
EmpirewasthesoleremainingHindustateinthepathoftheMusliminvasion.[17]Afterthedeathof
HoysalakingVeeraBallalaIIIduringabattleagainsttheSultanofMaduraiin1343,theHoysala
EmpiremergedwiththegrowingVijayanagaraempire.

VirupakshaTemple,Hampi

Inthefirsttwodecadesafterthefoundingoftheempire,HariharaI
gainedcontrolovermostoftheareasouthoftheTungabhadrariver
andearnedthetitleofPurvapaschimaSamudradhishavara("master
oftheeasternandwesternseas").By1374BukkaRayaI,successor
toHariharaI,haddefeatedthechiefdomofArcot,theReddysof
Kondavidu,theSultanofMaduraiandgainedcontroloverGoain
thewestandtheTungabhadraKrishnaRiverdoabinthe
north.[18][19]TheoriginalcapitalwasintheprincipalityofAnegondi
onthenorthernbanksoftheTungabhadraRiverintoday's
Karnataka.ItwaslatermovedtonearbyVijayanagaraontheriver's
southernbanksduringthereignofBukkaRayaI.

WiththeVijayanagaraKingdomnowimperialinstature,HariharaII,thesecondsonofBukkaRayaI,
furtherconsolidatedthekingdombeyondtheKrishnaRiverandbroughtthewholeofSouthIndiaunder
theVijayanagaraumbrella.[20]Thenextruler,DevaRayaI,emergedsuccessfulagainsttheGajapatisof
Odishaandundertookimportantworksoffortificationandirrigation.[21]ItaliantravelerNiccolode
ContiwroteofhimasthemostpowerfulrulerofIndia.[22]DevaRayaII(calledGajabetekara)[23]
succeededtothethronein1424andwaspossiblythemostcapableoftheSangamadynastyrulers.[24]He
quelledrebellingfeudallordsaswellastheZamorinofCalicutandQuiloninthesouth.Heinvadedthe
islandofLankaandbecameoverlordofthekingsofBurmaatPeguandTanasserim.[25][26][27]The
empiredeclinedinthelate15thcenturyuntiltheseriousattemptsbycommanderSaluvaNarasimha
DevaRayain1485andbygeneralTuluvaNarasaNayakain1491toreconsolidatetheempire.
Afternearlytwodecadesofconflictwithrebelliouschieftains,theempireeventuallycameunderthe
ruleofKrishnaDevaRaya,thesonofTuluvaNarasaNayaka.[28]Inthefollowingdecadesthe
VijayanagaraempiredominatedallofSouthernIndiaandfoughtoffinvasionsfromthefiveestablished
DeccanSultanates.[29][30]TheempirereacheditspeakduringtheruleofKrishnaDevaRayawhen
Vijayanagaraarmieswereconsistentlyvictorious.[31]Theempireannexedareasformerlyunderthe
SultanatesinthenorthernDeccanandtheterritoriesintheeasternDeccan,includingKalinga,while
simultaneouslymaintainingcontroloverallitssubordinatesinthesouth.[32]Manyimportantmonuments
wereeithercompletedorcommissionedduringthetimeofKrishnaDevaRaya.[33]
KrishnaDevaRayawasfollowedbyhisyoungerhalfbrotherAchyutaDevaRayain1529.When
AchyutaDevaRayadiedin1542,SadashivaRaya,theteenagenephewofAchyutaRayawasappointed
kingthoughrealpowerwaswieldedbyRamaRaya,KrishnaDevaRaya'ssoninlaw.WhenSadashiva
wasoldenoughtoclaimabsolutepower,AliyaRamaRayahadhimimprisonedandbecamethedefacto
ruler.[34]EagertotakeadvantageofthedisunityamongtheSultanatesofBijapur,Ahamednagar,Berar,
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Golkonda,andBidar,RamaRayainvolvedhimselfinthepoliticalaffairsofthepowersacrossthe
Krishnarivertothenorth.[35]HisployofsupportingmilitarilyoneSultanateagainstanother,often
changingalliances,broughtrichrewardsforawhile.However,by1563,exhaustedwithhisintrigues,
thebitterrivalsfromthenorthformedanalliance.TheymarchedagainstRamaRayaandclashedwith
theVijayanagara'sforcesinJanuary1565.[36]
ThecaptureandkillingofAliyaRamaRayainthefamousBattleofTalikota,afteraseeminglyeasy
victoryfortheVijayanagaraarmies,createdhavocandconfusionintheVijayanagararanks,whichwere
thencompletelyrouted.TheSultanates'armylaterplunderedHampiandreducedittotheruinousstate
inwhichitremainsitwasneverreoccupied.TirumalaDevaRaya,RamaRaya'syoungerbrotherwho
wasthesolesurvivingcommander,leftVijayanagaraforPenukondawithvastamountsoftreasureon
thebackof1500elephants.[37]
Theempirewentintoaslowdeclineregionally,althoughtradewiththePortuguesecontinued,andthe
BritishweregivenalandgrantfortheestablishmentofMadras.[6][38]TirumalaDevaRayawas
succeededbyhissonSrirangaIlaterfollowedbyVenkataIIwhowasthelastkingofVijayanagara
empire,madehiscapitalChandragiriandVellore,repulsedtheinvasionoftheDeccanSultanatesand
savedPenukondafrombeingcaptured.[39]
HissuccessorRamaDevaRayatookpowerandruleduntil1632,afterwhosedeathVenkataIIIbecame
kingandruledforabouttenyears.TheempirewasfinallyconqueredbytheSultanatesofBijapurand
Golkonda.[39]ThelargestfeudatoriesoftheVijayanagarempiretheMysoreKingdom,KeladiNayaka,
NayaksofMadurai,NayaksofTanjore,NayakasofChitradurgaandNayakKingdomofGingee
declaredindependenceandwentontohaveasignificantimpactonthehistoryofSouthIndiainthe
comingcenturies.TheseNayakakingdomslastedintothe18thcenturywhiletheMysoreKingdom
remainedaprincelystateuntilIndianIndependencein1947althoughtheycameundertheBritishRajin
1799afterthedeathofTipuSultan.[40]

Governance
TherulersoftheVijayanagaraempiremaintainedthewell
functioningadministrativemethodsdevelopedbytheirpredecessors,
theHoysala,KakatiyaandPandyakingdoms,togoverntheir
territoriesandmadechangesonlywherenecessary.[41]TheKing
wastheultimateauthority,assistedbyacabinetofministers
(Pradhana)headedbytheprimeminister(Mahapradhana).Other
importanttitlesrecordedwerethechiefsecretary(Karyakarthaor
Rayaswami)andtheimperialofficers(Adhikari).Allhighranking
NaturalfortressatVijayanagara
ministersandofficerswererequiredtohavemilitarytraining.[42]A
secretariatneartheking'spalaceemployedscribesandofficersto
maintainrecordsmadeofficialbyusingawaxsealimprintedwiththeringoftheking.[43]Atthelower
administrativelevels,wealthyfeudallandlords(Goudas)supervisedaccountants(KaranikasorKarnam)
andguards(Kavalu).Thepalaceadministrationwasdividedinto72departments(Niyogas),eachhaving
severalfemaleattendantschosenfortheiryouthandbeauty(someimportedorcapturedinvictorious
battles)whoweretrainedtohandleminoradministrativemattersandtoservemenofnobilityas
courtesansorconcubines.[44]

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Theempirewasdividedintofive
mainprovinces(Rajya),eachunder
acommander(Dandanayakaor
Dandanatha)andheadedbya
governor,oftenfromtheroyal
family,whousedthenative
languageforadministrative
purposes.[45]ARajyawasdivided
intoregions(VishayaVenteor
RoyalInsignia:boar,sun,moon
Kottam),andfurtherdividedinto
anddagger
counties(SimeorNadu)themselves
subdividedintomunicipalities
(KampanaorSthala).Hereditaryfamiliesruledtheirrespective
territoriesandpaidtributetotheempirewhilesomeareas,suchasKeladi
andMadurai,cameunderthedirectsupervisionofacommander.

Kannadainscriptiondated
1509A.D.,ofKing
KrishnadevaRayaatthe
VirupakshatempleinHampi
describeshiscoronationand
theconstructionofthelarge
openmantapa

Onthebattlefields,theking'scommandersledthetroops.Theempire's
warstrategyrarelyinvolvedmassiveinvasionsmoreoftenitemployed
smallscalemethodssuchasattackinganddestroyingindividualforts.
TheempirewasamongthefirstinIndiatouselongrangeartillery
commonlymannedbyforeigngunners.(Gunnersfrompresentday
Turkmenistanwereconsideredthebest).[46]Armytroopswereoftwo
types:Theking'spersonalarmydirectlyrecruitedbytheempireandthe
feudalarmyundereachfeudatory.KingKrishnadevaraya'spersonalarmyconsistedof100,000infantry,
20,000cavalrymenandover900elephants.Thisnumberwasonlyapartofthearmynumberingover1.1
millionsoldiers,afigurethatvariedasanarmyoftwomillionhasalsobeenrecordedalongwiththe
existenceofanavyasevidencedbytheuseofthetermNavigadaprabhu(commanderofthenavy).[47]
Thearmyrecruitedfromallclassesofsociety(supportedbythecollectionofadditionalfeudaltributes
fromfeudatoryrulers),andconsistedofarchersandmusketeerswearingquiltedtunics,shieldmenwith
swordsandpoignardsintheirgirdles,andsoldierscarryingshieldssolargesthatnoarmourwas
necessary.Thehorsesandelephantswerefullyarmouredandtheelephantshadknivesfastenedtotheir
tuskstodomaximumdamageinbattle.[48]
Thecapitalcitywascompletelydependentonthewatersupplysystemsconstructedtochannelandstore
water,andensureaconsistentsupplythroughouttheyear.Theremainsofthesehydraulicsystemshave
givenhistoriansapictureoftheprevailingsurfacewaterdistributionmethodsinuseatthattimeinSouth
India'ssemiaridregions.[49]Contemporaryrecordsandnotesofforeigntravelersdescribehowhuge
tankswereconstructedbylabourers.[50]Excavationshaveuncoveredtheremainsofawellconnected
waterdistributionsystemexistingsolelywithintheroyalenclosureandthelargetemplecomplexes
(suggestingitwasfortheexclusiveuseofroyalty,andforspecialceremonies)withsophisticated
channelsusinggravityandsiphonstotransportwaterthroughpipelines.[51]Theonlystructures
resemblingpublicwaterworksaretheremainsoflargewatertanksthatcollectedtheseasonalmonsoon
waterandthendriedupinsummerexceptforthefewfedbysprings.Inthefertileagriculturalareasnear
theTungabhadraRiver,canalsweredugtoguidetheriverwaterintoirrigationtanks.Thesecanalshad
sluicesthatwereopenedandclosedtocontrolthewaterflow.Inotherareastheadministration
encouragedthediggingofwellsmonitoredbyadministrativeauthorities.Largetanksinthecapitalcity
wereconstructedwithroyalpatronagewhilesmallertankswerefundedbywealthyindividualstogain
socialandreligiousmerit.

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Economy
Theempire'seconomywaslargelydependentonagriculture.
Sorghum(jowar),cottonandpulselegumesgrewinsemiarid
regions,whilesugarcane,riceandwheatthrivedinrainyareas.
Betelleaves,areca(forchewing),andcoconutweretheprincipal
cashcrops,andlargescalecottonproductionsuppliedtheweaving
centersoftheempire'svibranttextileindustry.Spicessuchas
turmeric,pepper,cardamomandgingergrewintheremoteMalnad
hillregionandweretransportedtothecityfortrade.Theempire's
Ancientmarketplaceand
capitalcitywasathrivingbusinesscentrethatincludeda
plantationatHampi
burgeoningmarketinlargequantitiesofpreciousgemsandgold.[52]
Prolifictemplebuildingprovidedemploymenttothousandsof
masons,sculptors,andotherskilledartisans.
Landownershipwasimportant.Mostofthegrowersweretenantfarmersandweregiventherightofpart
ownershipofthelandovertime.Taxpoliciesencouragingneededproducemadedistinctionsbetween
landusetodeterminetaxlevies.Forexample,thedailymarketavailabilityofrosepetalswasimportant
forperfumers,socultivationofrosesreceivedalowertaxassessment.[53]Saltproductionandthe
manufactureofsaltpanswerecontrolledbysimilarmeans.Themakingofghee(clarifiedbutter),which
wassoldasanoilforhumanconsumptionandasafuelforlightinglamps,wasprofitable.[54]Exportsto
Chinaintensifiedandincludedcotton,spices,jewels,semipreciousstones,ivory,rhinohorn,ebony,
amber,coral,andaromaticproductssuchasperfumes.LargevesselsfromChinamadefrequentvisits,
somecaptainedbytheChineseAdmiralChengHo,andbroughtChineseproductstotheempire's300
ports,largeandsmall,ontheArabianSeaandtheBayofBengal.TheportsofMangalore,Honavar,
Bhatkal,Barkur,Cochin,Cannanore,MachilipatnamandDharmadamwerethemostimportant.[55]
Whenmerchantshipsdocked,themerchandisewastakenintoofficialcustodyandtaxesleviedonall
itemssold.Thesecurityofthemerchandisewasguaranteedbytheadministrationofficials.Tradersof
manynationalities(Arabs,Persians,Guzerates,Khorassanians)settledinCalicut,drawnbythethriving
tradebusiness.[55]Shipbuildingprosperedandkeeledshipsof10001200bahares(burden)werebuilt
withoutdecksbysewingtheentirehullwithropesratherthanfasteningthemwithnails.Shipssailedto
theRedSeaportsofAdenandMeccawithVijayanagaragoodssoldasfarawayasVenice.Theempire's
principalexportswerepepper,ginger,cinnamon,cardamom,myrobalan,tamarindtimber,anafistula,
preciousandsemipreciousstones,pearls,musk,ambergris,rhubarb,aloe,cottonclothandporcelain.[55]
CottonyarnwasshippedtoBurmaandindigotoPersia.ChiefimportsfromPalestinewerecopper,
quicksilver(mercury),vermilion,coral,saffron,colouredvelvets,rosewater,knives,colouredcamlets,
goldandsilver.PersianhorseswereimportedtoCannanorebeforeatwoweeklandtriptothecapital.
SilkarrivedfromChinaandsugarfromBengal.
Eastcoasttradehummed,withgoodsarrivingfromGolkondawhererice,millet,pulseandtobaccowere
grownonalargescale.Dyecropsofindigoandchayrootwereproducedfortheweavingindustry.A
mineralrichregion,Machilipatnamwasthegatewayforhighqualityironandsteelexports.Diamond
miningwasactiveintheKollurregion.[56]Thecottonweavingindustryproducedtwotypesofcottons,
plaincalicoandmuslin(brown,bleachedordyed).Clothprintedwithcolouredpatternscraftedby
nativetechniqueswereexportedtoJavaandtheFarEast.Golkondaspecialisedinplaincottonand
Pulicatinprinted.Themainimportsontheeastcoastwerenonferrousmetals,camphor,porcelain,silk
andluxurygoods.[57]

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Culture
Sociallife
Mostinformationonthesociallife
inVijayanagaraempirecomesfrom
thewritingsofforeignvisitorsand
evidencethatresearchteamsinthe
Vijayanagaraareahaveuncovered.
TheHinducastesystemwas
prevalentandrigidlyfollowed,with
eachcasterepresentedbyalocal
Horizontalfriezesinrelief
Nga(snake)stoneworshipat
bodyofelderswhorepresentedthe
ontheouterwallenclosure
Hampi
community.Theseelderssetthe
ofHazaraRamatemple,
rulesandregulationsthatwere
depictinglifeinthekingdom
implementedwiththehelpofroyaldecrees.Untouchabilitywaspartof
thecastesystemandthesecommunitieswererepresentedbyleaders
(Kaivadadavaru).TheMuslimcommunitieswererepresentedbytheirowngroupincoastal
Karnataka.[58]Thecastesystemdidnot,however,preventdistinguishedpersonsfromallcastesfrom
beingpromotedtohighrankingcadreinthearmyandadministration.Incivillife,byvirtueofthecaste
system,Brahminsenjoyedahighlevelofrespect.Withtheexceptionofafewwhotooktomilitary
careers,mostBrahminsconcentratedonreligiousandliterarymatters.Theirseparationfrommaterial
wealthandpowermadethemidealarbitersinlocaljudicialmatters,andtheirpresenceineverytown
andvillagewasacalculatedinvestmentmadebythenobilityandaristocracytomaintainorder.[59]
However,thepopularityoflowcastescholars(suchasMollaandKanakadasa)andtheirworks
(includingthoseofVemanaandSarvajna)isanindicationofthedegreeofsocialfluidityinthesociety.
ThepracticeofSatiwascommon,thoughvoluntary,andmostlypracticedamongtheupperclasses.
OverfiftyinscriptionsattestingtothishavebeendiscoveredintheVijayanagaraprincipalityalone.
TheseinscriptionsarecalledSatikal(Satistone)orSativirakal(Satiherostone).Satikals
commemoratedthedeathofawomanbyenteringintofireafterthedeathofherhusbandwhileSati
virakalsweremadeforawomanwhoperformedSatiafterherhusband'sheroicdeath.Eitherway,the
womanwasraisedtothelevelofademigoddessandproclaimedbythesculptureofaSunandcrescent
moononthestone.[60]
Thesocioreligiousmovementsofthepreviouscenturies,suchasLingayatism,providedmomentumfor
flexiblesocialnormstowhichwomenwereexpectedtoabide.BythistimeSouthIndianwomenhad
crossedmostbarriersandwereactivelyinvolvedinmattershithertoconsideredthemonopolyofmen,
suchasadministration,businessandtrade,andinvolvementinthefinearts.[61]TirumalambaDeviwho
wroteVaradambikaParinayamandGangadeviwhowroteMadhuravijayamwereamongthenotable
womenpoetsoftheera.[18]EarlyTeluguwomenpoetslikeTallapakaTimmakkaandAtukuriMolla
becamepopularduringthisperiod.ThecourtoftheNayaksofTanjoreisknowntohavepatronised
severalwomenpoets.TheDevadasisystemexisted,aswellaslegalisedprostitutionrelegatedtoafew
streetsineachcity.[62]Thepopularityofharemsamongstmenoftheroyaltyiswellknownfromrecords.
WelltodomenworethePethaorKulavi,atallturbanmadeofsilkanddecoratedwithgold.Asinmost
Indiansocieties,jewellerywasusedbymenandwomenandrecordsdescribetheuseofanklets,
bracelets,fingerrings,necklacesandearringsofvarioustypes.Duringcelebrations,menandwomen
adornedthemselveswithflowergarlandsandusedperfumesmadeofrosewater,civetmusk,muskor
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sandalwood.[63]Instarkcontrasttothecommonerswhoselivesweremodest,thelivesoftheempire's
kingsandqueenswerefullofceremonialpompinthecourt.Queensandprincesseshadnumerous
attendantswhowerelavishlydressedandadornedwithfinejewellery,theirdailydutiesbeinglight.[64]
Physicalexerciseswerepopularwithmenandwrestlingwasan
importantmalepreoccupationforsportandentertainment.Evenwomen
wrestlersarementionedinrecords.[58]Gymnasiumshavebeen
discoveredinsideroyalquartersandrecordsspeakofregularphysical
trainingforcommandersandtheirarmiesduringpeacetime.[65]Royal
palacesandmarketplaceshadspecialarenaswhereroyaltyandcommon
peoplealikeamusedthemselvesbywatchingmatchessuchascock
fights,ramfightsandwrestlingbetweenwomen.[65]Excavationswithin
theVijayanagaracitylimitshaverevealedtheexistenceofvarioustypes
ofcommunitybasedactivitiesintheformofengravingsonboulders,
rockplatformsandtemplefloors,implyingthesewereplacesofcasual
socialinteraction.Someofthesegamesareinusetodayandothersare
yettobeidentified.[66]

Religion

"Clothingof
Bisnagar(Vijayanagar),"a
Dutchengravingby
CorneliusHazart

TheVijayanagarakingsweretolerantofallreligionsandsects,as
writingsbyforeignvisitorsshow.[67]Thekingsusedtitlessuchas
GobrahamanaPratipalanacharya(lit,"protectorofcowsand
Brahmins")andHindurayasuratrana(lit,"upholderofHindufaith")that
testifiedtotheirintentionofprotectingHinduismandyetwereatthe
sametimestaunchlyIslamicateintheircourtceremonialsanddress,as
PhilipWagonerpointsoutinhis1996article'SultanAmongHindu
Kings'publishedintheJournalofAsianStudies.TheEmpire'sfounders,
HariharaIandBukkaRayaI,weredevoutShaivas(worshippersof
Shiva),butmadegrantstotheVaishnavaorderofSringeriwith
Vidyaranyaastheirpatronsaint,anddesignatedVaraha(theboar,an
AvatarofVishnu)astheiremblem.[68]Itisalsoimportanttonotehere
thatoveronefourthofthearchaeologicaldigfounda"IslamicQuarter"
notfarfromthe"RoyalQuarter."NoblesfromCentralAsia'sTimurid
kingdomsalsocamedowntoVijayanagara.ThelaterSaluvaandTuluva
kingswereVaishnavabyfaith,butworshippedatthefeetofLord
LakshmiNarasimha(Avatar
Virupaksha(Shiva)atHampiaswellasLordVenkateshwara(Vishnu)at
ofVishnu)atHampi
Tirupati.ASanskritwork,JambavatiKalyanambyKing
Krishnadevaraya,calledLordVirupakshaKarnataRajyaRakshaMani
("protectivejewelofKarnataEmpire").[69]Thekingspatronisedthesaintsofthedvaitaorder
(philosophyofdualism)ofMadhvacharyaatUdupi.[70]
TheBhakti(devotional)movementwasactiveduringthistime,andinvolvedwellknownHaridasas
(devoteesaints)ofthattime.LiketheVirashaivamovementofthe12thcentury,thismovement
presentedanotherstrongcurrentofdevotion,pervadingthelivesofmillions.Theharidasasrepresented
twogroups,theVyasakutaandDasakuta,theformerbeingrequiredtobeproficientintheVedas,
UpanishadsandotherDarshanas,whiletheDasakutamerelyconveyedthemessageofMadhvacharya
throughtheKannadalanguagetothepeopleintheformofdevotionalsongs(Devaranamasand
Kirthanas).ThephilosophyofMadhvacharyawasspreadbyeminentdisciplessuchasNaraharitirtha,
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Jayatirtha,Sripadaraya,Vyasatirtha,Vadirajatirthaandothers.[71]Vyasatirtha,theguru(teacher)of
Vadirajatirtha,Purandaradasa(FatherofCarnaticmusic[72][73])andKanakadasa[74]earnedthedevotion
ofKingKrishnadevaraya.[75][76][77]ThekingconsideredthesainthisKuladevata(familydeity)and
honouredhiminhiswritings.[78]Duringthistime,anothergreatcomposerofearlycarnaticmusic,
AnnamacharyacomposedhundredsofKirthanasinTeluguatTirupatiinpresentdayAndhra
Pradesh.[79]
ThedefeatoftheJainWesternGangaDynastybytheCholasinearly11thcenturyandtherising
numbersoffollowersofVaishnavaHinduismandVirashaivisminthe12thcenturywasmirroredbya
decreasedinterestinJainism.[80]TwonotablelocationsofJainworshipintheVijayanagaraterritory
wereShravanabelagolaandKambadahalli.
IslamiccontactwithSouthIndiabeganasearlyasthe7thcentury,a
resultoftradebetweentheSouthernkingdomsandArablands.Jumma
MasjidsexistedintheRashtrakutaempirebythe10thcentury[81]and
manymosquesflourishedontheMalabarcoastbytheearly14th
century.[82]Muslimsettlersmarriedlocalwomentheirchildrenwere
knownasMappillas(Moplahs)andwereactivelyinvolvedinhorse
tradingandmanningshippingfleets.Theinteractionsbetweenthe
VijayanagaraempireandtheBahamaniSultanatestothenorthincreased
thepresenceofMuslimsinthesouth.TheintroductionofChristianity
beganasearlyasthe8thcenturyasshownbythefindingofcopper
platesinscribedwithlandgrantstoMalabarChristians.Christian
travelerswroteofthescarcityofChristiansinSouthIndiaintheMiddle
Ages,promotingitsattractivenesstomissionaries.[83]Thearrivalofthe
Portugueseinthe15thcenturyandtheirconnectionsthroughtradewith
theempire,thepropagationofthefaithbySaintXavier(1545)andlater
thepresenceofDutchsettlementsfosteredthegrowthofChristianityin
thesouth.

Ornatepillars,Virupaksha
templeHampi

Literature
DuringtheruleoftheVijayanagaraEmpire,poets,scholarsand
philosopherswroteprimarilyinKannada,TeluguandSanskrit,andalso
inotherregionallanguagessuchasTamilandcoveredsuchsubjectsas
WallpanelreliefinHazare
religion,biography,Prabandha(fiction),music,grammar,poetry,
RamaTempleatHampi
medicineandmathematics.Theadministrativeandcourtlanguagesof
theEmpirewereKannadaandTeluguthelatterwasthecourtlanguage
andgainedevenmoreculturalprominenceduringthereignofthelastVijayanagarakings.[84][85][86]
Teluguwasapopularliterarymedium,reachingitspeakunderthepatronageofKrishnadevaraya.[85]
MostSanskritworkswerecommentarieseitherontheVedasorontheRamayanaandMahabharata
epics,writtenbywellknownfiguressuchasSayanaandVidyaranyathatextolledthesuperiorityofthe
AdvaitaphilosophyoverotherrivalHinduphilosophies.[87]OtherwriterswerefamousDvaitasaintsof
theUdupiordersuchasJayatirtha(earningthetitleTikacharyaforhispolemicialwritings),Vyasatirtha
whowroterebuttalstotheAdvaitaphilosophyandoftheconclusionsofearlierlogicians,and
VadirajatirthaandSripadarayabothofwhomcriticisedthebeliefsofAdiSankara.[88]Apartfromthese

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saints,notedSanskritscholarsadornedthecourtsoftheVijayanagarakingsandtheirfeudatory
chiefdoms.ManykingsofthedynastywerethemselveslitterateursandauthoredclassicssuchasKing
Krishnadevaraya'sJambavatiKalyana,apoeticanddramaticallyskillfulwork.[7]
TheKannadapoetsandscholarsoftheempireproducedimportantwritingssupportingtheVaishnava
BhaktimovementheraldedbytheHaridasas(devoteesofVishnu),BrahminicalandVirashaiva
(Lingayatism)literature.TheHaridasapoetscelebratedtheirdevotionthroughsongscalled
Devaranama(lyricalpoems)inthenativemetersofSangatya(quatrain),Suladi(beatbased),Ugabhoga
(melodybased)andMundige(cryptic).[89]TheirinspirationsweretheteachingsofMadhvacharyaand
Vyasatirtha.PurandaradasaandKanakadasaareconsideredtheforemostamongmanyDasas(devotees)
byvirtueoftheirimmensecontribution.[90]KumaraVyasa,themostnotableofBrahminscholarswrote
GaduginaBharata,atranslationoftheepicMahabharata.ThisworkmarksatransitionofKannada
literaturefromoldKannadatomodernKannada.[91]ChamarasawasafamousVirashaivascholarand
poetwhohadmanydebateswithVaishnavascholarsinthecourtofDevarayaII.HisPrabhulingaLile,
latertranslatedintoTeluguandTamil,wasaeulogyofSaintAllamaPrabhu(thesaintwasconsideredan
incarnationofLordGanapathiwhileParvatitooktheformofaprincessofBanavasi).[92]
AtthispeakofTeluguliterature,themostfamouswritinginthePrabandhastylewasManucharitamu.
KingKrishnadevarayawasanaccomplishedTeluguscholarandwrotethecelebrated
Amuktamalyada.[93]Inhiscourtweretheeightfamousscholarsregardedasthepillars(Ashtadiggajas)
oftheliteraryassembly.ThemostfamousamongthemwereAllasaniPeddanahonouredwiththetitle
Andhrakavitapitamaha(fatherofTelugupoetry)andTenaliRamakrishna,Krishnadevaraya'scourtjester
whoauthoredseveralacclaimedworks.[94]TheothersixpoetswereNandiThimmana(Mukku
Timmana),AyyalarajuRamabhadra,MadayyagariMallana,BhattuMurthi(RamarajaBhushana),
PingaliSurana,andDhurjati.ThiswastheageofSrinatha,thegreatestofallTelugupoetsinlegend,
whowrotebookslikeMarutratcharitamuandSalivahanasaptasati.HewaspatronisedbyKing
DevarayaIIandhisstaturewasequaltothemostimportantministersinthecourt.[95]
ThoughmuchoftheTamilliteraturefromthisperiodcamefromTamilspeakingregionsruledbythe
feudatoryPandyawhogaveparticularattentiononthecultivationofTamilliterature,somepoetswere
patronisedbytheVijayanagarakings.SvarupanandaDesikarwroteananthologyof2824verses,
Sivaprakasapperundirattu,ontheAdvaitaphilosophy.Hispupiltheascetic,Tattuvarayar,wrotea
shorteranthology,Kurundirattu,thatcontainedabouthalfthenumberofverses.Krishnadevaraya
patronisedtheTamilVaishnavapoetHaridasawhoseIrusamayaVilakkamwasanexpositionofthetwo
Hindusystems,VaishnavaandShaiva,withapreferencefortheformer.[96]
NotableamongsecularwritingsonmusicandmedicinewereVidyaranya'sSangitsara,PraudhaRaya's
Ratiratnapradipika,Sayana'sAyurvedaSudhanidhiandLakshmanaPandita'sVaidyarajavallabham.[97]
TheKeralaschoolofastronomyandmathematicsflourishedduringthisperiodundersuchwellknown
scholarsasMadhava(c.13401425)whomadeimportantcontributionstoTrigonometeryandCalculus,
andNilakhanta(c.14441545)whopostulatedontheorbitalsofplanets.[98]

Architecture
VijayanagaraarchitectureisavibrantcombinationoftheChalukyan,Hoysalan,PandyanandCholan
styles,idiomsthatprosperedinpreviouscenturies.[99][100]Itslegacyofsculpture,architectureand
paintinginfluencedthedevelopmentoftheartslongaftertheempirecametoanend.Itsstylistic
hallmarkistheornatepillaredKalyanamantapa(marriagehall),Vasanthamantapa(openpillaredhalls)
andtheRayagopura(tower).Artisansusedthelocallyavailablehardgranitebecauseofitsdurability
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sincethekingdomwasunderconstantthreatofinvasion.Whiletheempire'smonumentsarespreadover
thewholeofSouthernIndia,nothingsurpassesthevastopenairtheatreofmonumentsatitscapitalat
Vijayanagara,aUNESCOWorldHeritageSite.[101]
Inthe14thcenturythekingscontinuedtobuildvesaraorDeccanstylemonumentsbutlater
incorporatedDravidastylegopuramsto
meettheirritualisticneeds.ThePrasanna
Virupakshatemple(undergroundtemple)of
BukkaandtheHazareRamatempleofDeva
RayaareexamplesofDeccan
architecture.[102]Thevariedandintricate
ornamentationofthepillarsisamarkof
theirwork.[103]AtHampi,thoughthe
Vitthalatempleisthebestexampleoftheir
pillaredKalyanamantapastyle,theHazara
Ramaswamytempleisamodestbut
perfectlyfinishedexample.[104]Avisible
aspectoftheirstyleistheirreturntothe
Yalipillarsin
simplisticandsereneartdevelopedbythe
AghoreshwaraTempleat
StonetemplecarinVitthala
Chalukyadynasty.[105]Agrandspecimenof
IkkeriinShimoga
TempleatHampi
Vijayanagaraart,theVitthalatemple,took
District
severaldecadestocompleteduringthereign
oftheTuluvakings.[106]
AnotherelementoftheVijayanagarastyleisthecarvingand
consecrationoflargemonolithssuchastheSasivekalu(mustard)
GaneshaandKadalekalu(groundnut)GaneshaatHampi,the
Gommateshvara(Bahubali)monolithsinKarkalaandVenur,andthe
NandibullinLepakshi.TheVijayanagaratemplesofKolar,Kanakagiri,
ShringeriandothertownsofKarnatakathetemplesofTadpatri,
Lepakshi,Ahobilam,TirumalaVenkateswaraTempleandSrikalahastiin
AndhraPradeshandthetemplesofVellore,Kumbakonam,Kanchiand
SrirangaminTamilNaduareexamplesofthisstyle.Vijayanagaraart
includeswallpaintingssuchastheDashavataraandGirijakalyana
(marriageofParvati,Shiva'sconsort)intheVirupakshaTempleat
Hampi,theShivapuranamurals(talesofShiva)attheVirabhadratemple
atLepakshi,andthoseattheKamaakshiandVaradarajatemplesat
Kanchi.[107]ThisminglingoftheSouthIndianstylesresultedina
richnessnotseeninearliercenturies,afocusonreliefsinadditionto
sculpturethatsurpassesthatpreviouslyinIndia.[108]

Aviewfrominsidethe
HazaraRamatemple
complexatHampi

Balustradeentrancetoornate
openmantapaatVittala
temple,Hampi

AnaspectofVijayanagaraarchitecturethatshowsthecosmopolitanism
ofthegreatcityisthepresenceofmanysecularstructuresbearing
Islamicfeatures.Whilepoliticalhistoryconcentratesontheongoing
conflictbetweentheVijayanagaraempireandtheDeccanSultanates,thearchitecturalrecordreflectsa
morecreativeinteraction.Therearemanyarches,domesandvaultsthatshowtheseinfluences.The
concentrationofstructureslikepavilions,stablesandtowerssuggeststheywereforusebyroyalty.[109]
ThedecorativedetailsofthesestructuresmayhavebeenabsorbedintoVijayanagaraarchitectureduring
theearly15thcentury,coincidingwiththeruleofDevaRayaIandDevaRayaII.Thesekingsare
knowntohaveemployedmanyMuslimsintheirarmyandcourt,someofwhommayhavebeenMuslim
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architects.Thisharmoniousexchangeofarchitecturalideasmusthavehappenedduringrareperiodsof
peacebetweentheHinduandMuslimkingdoms.[110]The"GreatPlatform"(Mahanavamidibba)has
reliefcarvingsinwhichthefiguresseemtohavethefacialfeaturesofcentralAsianTurkswhowere
knowntohavebeenemployedasroyalattendants.[111]

Language
Kannada,TeluguandTamilwereusedintheirrespectiveregionsofthe
empire.Over7000inscriptions(Shilashasana)including300copper
plateinscriptions(Tamarashasana)havebeenrecovered,almosthalfof
whichareinKannada,theremaininginTelugu,Tamiland
Sanskrit.[112][113]Bilingualinscriptionshadlostfavourbythe14th
century.[114]TheempiremintedcoinsatHampi,PenugondaandTirupati
withNagari,KannadaandTelugulegendsusuallycarryingthenameof
theruler.[115][116]Gold,silverandcopperwereusedtoissuecoinscalled
Gadyana,Varaha,Pon,Pagoda,Pratapa,Pana,KasuandJital.[117]The
coinscontainedtheimagesofvariousgodsincludingBalakrishna(infant
Krishna),Venkateshwara(thepresidingdeityofthetempleatTirupati),
goddessessuchasBhudeviandSridevi,divinecouples,animalssuchas
bullsandelephantsandbirds.TheearliestcoinsfeatureHanumanand
Garuda(divineeagle),thevehicleofLordVishnu.KannadaandTelugu
inscriptionshavebeendecipheredandrecordedbyhistoriansofthe
ArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia.[118][119]

Poeticinscriptionin
KannadabyVijayanagara
poetManjaraja(1398CE)

Seealso
Hampi
HistoryofIndia
HistoryofSouthIndia
Karnataka
MilitaryofVijayanagara
PoliticalhistoryofmedievalKarnataka

Notes
1. ^ByJamesManselLongworthpage204
2. ^editedbyJCmorrispage261
3. ^ByOmGupta,page428429
4. ^"MasterPlanforHampiLocalPlanningArea"
(http://www.bellary.nic.in/HMP/REPORT%20PDFs/CHAPTER2.pdf).
5. ^K.V.Ramesh."TeluguInscriptionsfromVijayanagarDynasty,vol16,Introduction"
(http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com/).ArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia.WhatIsIndiaPublishers(P)Ltd.,
Saturday,December30,2006.Retrieved20061231.
6. ^abK.A.NilakantaSastry,HistoryofSouthIndia,FromPrehistorictimestofallofVijayanagar,1955,
OUP,(Reprinted2002),p268
ab

7. ^ NewLightonHampi,RecentresearchinVijayanagara,editedbyJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell, 12/18
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7.

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^abNewLightonHampi,RecentresearchinVijayanagara,editedbyJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell,
MARG,2001,p14

8. ^HistorianssuchasP.B.Desai(HistoryofVijayanagarEmpire,1936),HenryHeras(TheAraviduDynasty
ofVijayanagara,1927),B.A.Saletore(SocialandPoliticalLifeintheVijayanagaraEmpire,1930),G.S.Gai
(ArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia),WilliamCoelho(TheHoysalaVamsa,1955)andKamath(Kamath2001,
pp157160)
9. ^Karmarkar(1947),p30
10. ^KulkeandRothermund(2004),p188
11. ^Rice(1897),p345
12. ^RobertSewell(AForgottenEmpireVijayanagar:AContributiontotheHistoryofIndia,1901),Nilakanta
Sastri(1955),N.Ventakaramanayya(TheEarlyMuslimexpansioninSouthIndia,1942)andB.Surya
NarayanaRao(HistoryofVijayanagar,1993)inKamath(2001)pp157160.
13. ^NilakantaSastry(1955),p216
14. ^Kamath(2001),p160
15. ^PortuguesetravelersBarbosa,BarradasandItalianVarthemaandCaesarFredericciin1567,PersianAbdur
Razzakin1440,Barani,Isamy,Tabataba,NizamuddinBakshi,FerishtaandShiraziandvernacularworks
fromthe14thcenturytothe16thcentury.(Kamath2001,pp157158)
16. ^Fritz&Michell(2001)pp111
17. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p216
18. ^abKamath(2001),p162
19. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p317
20. ^ThesuccesswasprobablyalsoduetothepeacefulnatureofMuhammadIIBahmani,accordingtoNilakanta
Sastri(1955),p242
21. ^FromthenotesofPortugueseNuniz.RobertSewellnotesthatabigdamacrosswasbuilttheTungabhadra
andanaqueduct15miles(24km)longwascutoutofrock(NilakantaSastri1955,p243).
22. ^ColumbiaChronologiesofAsianHistoryandCulture,JohnStewartBowmanp.271,(2013),Columbia
UniversityPress,NewYork,ISBN0231110049
23. ^AlsodecipheredasGajaventekara,ametaphorfor"greathunterofhisenemies",or"hunterofelephants"
(Kamath2001,p163).
24. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p244
25. ^FromthenotesofPersianAbdurRazzak.WritingsofNunizconfirmsthatthekingsofBurmapaidtributes
toVijayanagaraempire(NilakantaSastri1955,p245)
26. ^Kamath(2001),p164
27. ^FromthenotesofAbdurRazzakaboutVijayanagara:acitylikethishadnotbeenseenbythepupilofthe
eyenorhadanearheardofanythingequaltoitintheworld(Hampi,ATravelGuide2003,p11)
28. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p250
29. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p239
30. ^Kamath(2001),p159
31. ^FromthenotesofPortuguesetravelerDomingoPaesaboutKrishnaDevaRaya:Akingwhowasperfectin
allthings(Hampi,ATravelGuide2003,p31)
32. ^ThenotesofPortugueseBarbosaduringthetimeofKrishnaDevaRayaconfirmsaveryrichandwell
providedVijayanagaracity(Kamath2001,p186)
33. ^Mostmonumentsincludingtheroyalplatform(MahanavamiDibba)wereactuallybuiltoveraperiod
spanningseveraldecades(Dallapiccola2001,p66)
34. ^Eaton2005,pp9092
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35. ^Kamath2001,p172
36. ^Eaton2005,pp9698
37. ^SomescholarssaythewarwasactuallyfoughtbetweenRakkasagiandTangadigiinmodernBijapur
district,closetoTalikota,andthebattleisalsocalled"BattleofRakkasaTangadi".Shervaniclaimedthatthe
actualvenueofthebattlewasBannihatti(Kamath2001,p170)
38. ^TheTeluguworkVasucharitamureferstoAraviduKingTirumalaDevaRaya(1570)asthereviverofthe
KarnataEmpire.(Ramesh2006)
39. ^abKamath(2001),p174
40. ^Kamath(2001),p220,p226,p234
41. ^Awaradministration,(K.M.PanikkarinKamath2001,p174)
42. ^FromthenotesofPersianAbdurRazzakandresearchbyB.A.Saletore(Kamath2001,p175)
43. ^FromthenotesofNuniz(Kamath2001,p175)
44. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p286
45. ^FromthenotesofDuarteBarbosa(Kamath2001,p176).However,thekingdommayhavehadnine
provinces(T.V.MahalingaminKamath2001,p176)
46. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p287
47. ^FromthenotesofAbdurRazzaqandPaesrespectively(Kamath2001,p176)
48. ^FromthenotesofNuniz(NilakantaSastri1955,p288)
49. ^DavisonJenkins(2001),p89
50. ^FromthenotesofDomingoPaesandNuniz(DavisonJenkins2001,p98)
51. ^DavisonJenkins(2001),p90
52. ^FromthenotesofDuarteBarbosa(Kamath2001,p181).
53. ^FromthenotesofAbdurRazzakinNilakantaSastri(1955),p298
54. ^FromthenotesofAbdurRazzakinNilakantaSastry(1955),p299
55. ^abcFromthenotesofAbdurRazzakinNilakantaSastri(1955),p304
56. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p305
57. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p306
58. ^abKamath(2001),p179
59. ^AccordingtoSirCharlesElliot,theintellectualsuperiorityofBrahminsjustifiedtheirhighpositionin
society(NilakantaSastri1955,p289)
60. ^Verghese(2001),p41
61. ^B.A.SaletoreinKamath(2001),p179
62. ^Kamath,p180
63. ^Kamath(2001),p.180
64. ^FromthewritingsofPortugueseDomingoPaes(NilakantaSastri1955,p.296)
65. ^abNilakantaSastri(1955),p296
66. ^Mack(2001),p39
67. ^FromthenotesofDuarteBarbosa(Kamath2001,p178)
68. ^Kamath(2001),p177
69. ^Fritz&Michell,p14
70. ^Kamath(2001),p177178
71. ^ShivaPrakashinAyyappapanicker(1997),p192,pp194196
72. ^Iyer(2006),p93
73. ^Owingtohiscontributionstocarnaticmusic,PurandaradasaisknownasKarnatakaSangitaPitamaha.
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(Kamat,SaintPurandaradasa)
74. ^ShivaPrakash(1997),p196
75. ^ShivaPrakash(1997),p195
76. ^Kamath(2001),p178
77. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p324
78. ^Pujar,NarahariS.ShrishaRaoandH.P.Raghunandan."SriVyasaTirtha"
(http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/).DvaitaHomePage.Retrieved20061231.
79. ^Kamath(2001),p185
80. ^Kamath(2001),pp.112,132
81. ^FromthenotesofArabwriterAlIshtakhri(NilakantaSastry1955,p396)
82. ^FromthenotesofIbnBatuta(NilakantaSastri1955,p396)
83. ^FromthenotesofJordanusin132021(NilakantaSastri1955,p397)
84. ^Pollock,Sheldon(http://books.google.com/books?
id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=vijayanagar+court+language+telugu+nagaraj+pollock&source
=bl&ots=zaeme9rIgy&sig=z9jw5c8GhIwN1ll1JWXgYAWR_TE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cvPuUauACuH8igLsxY
GAAw&ved=0CCkQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=vijayanagar%20court%20language%20telugu%20nagaraj%2
0pollock&f=false).Retrieved20130723."Quote:"TeluguhadcertainlybeenmoreprivilegedthanKannada
asalanguageofcourtlycultureduringthereignofthelastVijayanagarakings,especiallyKrsnadevaraya
(d.1529)",NagarajinPollock(2003),p378
85. ^abQuote:"Royalpatronagewasalsodirectedtothesupportofliteratureinseverallanguages:Sanskrit(the
panIndianliterarylanguage),Kannada(thelanguageoftheVijayanagarahomebaseinKarnataka),and
Telugu(thelanguageofAndhra).Worksinallthreelanguageswereproducedbypoetsassembledatthe
courtsoftheVijayanagarakings".Quote:"TheTelugulanguagebecameparticularlyprominentintheruling
circlesbytheearly16thcentury,becauseofthelargenumberofwarriorlordswhowereeitherfromAndhra
orhadservedthekingdomthere",AsherandTalbot(2006),pp7475
86. ^"TeluguLiterature"(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586439/Teluguliterature).Retrieved
20130719."Teluguliteraturefloweredintheearly16thcenturyundertheVijayanagarempire,ofwhich
Teluguwasthecourtlanguage."
87. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p321
88. ^NilakantaSastry(1955),p324
89. ^ShivaPrakashinAyyappapanicker(1997),p164,pp193194,p203
90. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p365
91. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p364
92. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p363
93. ^DuringtheruleofKrishnadevaraya,encouragementwasgiventothecreationoforiginalPrabandhas
(stories)fromPuranicthemes(NilakantaSastri1955,p372)
94. ^LiketheNinegemsofKingVikramaditya'scourt,theAshtadiggajasofKrishnadevara'scourtarefamousin
legend(NilakantaSastri1955,p372)
95. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p370
96. ^NilakantaSastri(1955),p347
97. ^Prasad(1988),pp.268270
98. ^"HistoryofScienceandPhilosophyofScience:AHistoricalPerspectiveoftheEvolutionofIdeasin
Science",editor:PradipKumarSengupta,author:SubhashKak,2010,p91,volXIII,part6,Publisher:
PearsonLongman,ISBN9788131719305
99. ^ArtcriticPercyBrowncallsVijayanagaraarchitectureablossomingofDravidianstyle(Kamath2001,

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99. ^ArtcriticPercyBrowncallsVijayanagaraarchitectureablossomingofDravidianstyle(Kamath2001,
p182)
100. ^Arthikaje,LiteraryActivity
101. ^"Sointimatearetherocksandthemonumentstheywereusedformake,itiswassometimesimpossibleto
saywherenatureendedandartbegan"(ArtcriticPercyBrown,quotedinHampi,ATravelGuide,p64)
102. ^Fritz&Michell,p9
103. ^NilakantaSastriabouttheimportanceofpillarsintheVijayanagarstyleinKamath(2001),p183
104. ^"Dramainstone"wroteartcriticPercyBrown,muchofthebeautyofVijayanagaraarchitecturecamefrom
theirpillarsandpiersandthestylesofsculpting(Hampi,ATravelGuide,p77)
105. ^AboutthesculpturesinVijayanagarastyle,seeKamath(2001),p184
106. ^SeveralmonumentsarecategorisedasTuluvaart(Fritz&Michell2001,p9)
107. ^Someofthesepaintingsmayhavebeenredoneinlatercenturies(RajashekharinKamath2001,p184)
108. ^HistoriansandartcriticsK.A.NilakantaSastri,A.L.Basham,JamesFergussonandS.K.Saraswathihave
commentedaboutVijayanagaraarchitecture(ArthikajeLiteraryActivity).
109. ^Fritz&Michell(2001),p10
110. ^Philon(2001),p87
111. ^Dallapiccola(2001),p69
112. ^G.S.GaiinKamath(2001),p10,157.
113. ^Arthikaje,Mangalore."TheVijayanagarEmpire"
(http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm).19982000OurKarnataka.Com,Inc.
Retrieved20061231.
114. ^Thapar(2003),pp39395
115. ^"VijayanagaraCoins"(http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htm).Government
MuseumChennai.Retrieved20061231.
116. ^Prabhu,GovindarayaS."Catalogue,Partone"(http://prabhu.50g.com/vijayngr/vij_cat.html).Vijayanagara,
theforgottenempire.Prabhu'SWebPageOnIndianCoinage.Retrieved20061231.
117. ^HarihariahOruganti."Coinage"(http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm).Catalogue.
VijayanagaraCoins.Retrieved20061231.
118. ^Ramesh,K.V."Stones125"
(http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/stones_1_to_25.html).South
IndianInscription,Volume16:TeluguInscriptionsfromVijayanagarDynasty.NewDelhi:Archaeological
SurveyofIndia.Retrieved20061231.
119. ^Sastry&Rao,Shama&Lakshminarayan."MiscellaneousInscriptions,PartII"
(http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/vijayanagara.html).South
IndianInscription,Volume9:KannadaInscriptionsfromMadrasPresidency.NewDelhi:Archaeological
SurveyofIndia.Retrieved20061231.

References
Arthikaje."LiteraryActivity,ArtandArchitecture"
(http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka47.htm).Historyofkarnataka.
OurKarnataka.Com.Retrieved20061231.
Dallapiccola,AnnaL.(2001)."Reliefcarvingsonthegreatplatform".InJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell
(editors).NewLightonHampi:RecentResearchatVijayanagara.Mumbai:MARG.ISBN818502653X.
DavisonJenkins,DominicJ.(2001)."Hydraulicworks".InJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell(editors).New

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DavisonJenkins,DominicJ.(2001)."Hydraulicworks".InJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell(editors).New
LightonHampi:RecentResearchatVijayanagara.Mumbai:MARG.ISBN818502653X.
DurgaPrasad,J.(1988).HistoryoftheAndhrasupto1565A.D.(http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi
res/hcu_images/G2.pdf)(PDF).Guntur:P.G.Publisher.Retrieved20070127.
Eaton,RichardM.(2006).AsocialhistoryoftheDeccan,13001761:eightIndianlives.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521716277.
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87780177,LCCN2003334582(http://lccn.loc.gov/2003334582).
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Mumbai:MARG.ISBN818502653X.
Kamath,SuryanathU.(2001)[1980].AconcisehistoryofKarnataka:fromprehistorictimestothepresent.
Bangalore:Jupiterbooks.LCCN80905179(http://lccn.loc.gov/80905179).OCLC7796041
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7796041).
Karmarkar,A.P.(1947)[1947].CulturalhistoryofKarnataka:ancientandmedieval.Dharwad:Karnataka
VidyavardhakaSangha.OCLC8221605(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8221605).
KulkeandRothermund,HermannandDietmar(2004)[2004].AHistoryofIndia.Routledge(4thedition).
ISBN0415329191.
Mack,Alexandra(2001)."ThetempledistrictofVitthalapura".InJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell
(editors).NewLightonHampi:RecentResearchatVijayanagara.Mumbai:MARG.ISBN818502653X.
NilakantaSastri,K.A.(2002)[1955].AhistoryofSouthIndiafromprehistorictimestothefallof
Vijayanagar.NewDelhi:IndianBranch,OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195606868.
Iyer,PanchapakesaA.S.(2006)[2006].KarnatakaSangeetaSastra.Chennai:ZionPrinters.
Philon,Helen(2001)."PlasterdecorationonSultanatestyledcourtlybuildings".InJohnM.FritzandGeorge
Michell(editors).NewLightonHampi:RecentResearchatVijayanagara.Mumbai:MARG.ISBN81
8502653X.
Pujar,NarahariS.ShrishaRaoandH.P.Raghunandan."SriVysaTrtha(14601539)ashortsketch"
(http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/).DvaitaHomePage.Retrieved20061231.
Ramesh,K.V."Introduction"
(http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/introduction_2.html).South
IndianInscription,Volume16:TeluguInscriptionsfromVijayanagarDynasty.NewDelhi:Archaeological
SurveyofIndia.Retrieved20061231.
ShivaPrakash,H.S.(1997)."Kannada".InAyyappapanicker.MedievalIndianLiterature:AnAnthology.
SahityaAkademi.ISBN8126003650.
Rice,B.L.(2001)[1897].MysoreGazatteerCompiledforGovernmentvol1.NewDelhi,Madras:Asian
EducationalServices.ISBN8120609778.
Verghese,Anila(2001)."Memorialstones".InJohnM.FritzandGeorgeMichell(editors).NewLighton
Hampi:RecentResearchatVijayanagara.Mumbai:MARG.ISBN818502653X.
Thapar,Romila(2003)[2003].ThePenguinHistoryofEarlyIndia.NewDelhi:PenguinBooks.ISBN014
3029894.
Michell,George(editor)(2008).Vijayanagara:SplendourinRuins.Ahmedabad:MapinPublishingandThe
AlkaziCollectionofPhotography.ISBN9788189995034.
Nagaraj,D.R.(2003)."TensionsinKannadaLiteraryCulture".InSheldonPollock.LiteraryCulturesin
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Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521005395.

Furtherreading
Bang,PeterFibigerKolodziejczyk,Dariusz,eds.(2012)."IdeologiesofstatebuildinginVijayanagaraIndia".
UniversalEmpire:AComparativeApproachtoImperialCultureandRepresentationinEurasianHistory.
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9781107022676.

Externallinks
HampiHistoryandTourism
(http://www.hampionline.com/)
www.Hampi.in(http://www.hampi.in/)Photos,
descriptions&mapsoftheHampiRuins.
ArchaeosMappingProjectatVijayanagaraSeasons1
(http://www.archaeos.org/vmpseason1/)

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