Pageiii

CahuachiintheAncientNascaWorld
ByHelaineSilverman

Pageiv

UniversityofIowaPress,IowaCity52242
Copyright1993bytheUniversity
ofIowaPress
Allrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
DesignbyKarenCopp
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedor
utilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,
electronicormechanical,including
photocopyingandrecording,without
permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
PublishedwiththeassistanceoftheGetty
GrantProgram
Printedonacidfreepaper
LibraryofCongressCatalogingin
PublicationData
Silverman,Helaine.
CahuachiintheancientNascaworld/
byHelaineSilverman.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesand
index.
ISBN0877454078
1.CahuachiSite(Peru).2.Nazcaculture.
3.Nazca(Peru)Antiquities.I.Title.
F3429.1.N3S551993
985'.27dc209242223
CIP
9796959493C54321

Pagev

para
JosuLanchoRojas
ArmandoValdivia
y
losniosdelacuencadelroGrandedeNazca
and
infondmemoryofmytwoprofessorsofPeruvianarchaeology
GaryS.Vescelius
EdwardP.Lanning

Pagevii

Contents
ANoteonOrthography

ix

Preface

xi

Acknowledgments

xiii

ChapterOne
ThePhysicalSetting

ChapterTwo
AHistoryofFieldworkintheNazcaRegion

14

ChapterThree
NascaChronology

30

ChapterFour
Strong'sFieldworkatCahuachi:ChronologyandCulture

43

ChapterFive
SurfaceSurveyofCahuachi

55

ChapterSix
ArchitectureandSpatialOrganizationatCahuachi

88

ChapterSeven
LootersandLooting

100

ChapterEight
ExcavationStrategyandMethodology

110

ChapterNine
ExcavationsinanOpenArea

116

ChapterTen
ExcavationatUnitF

126

ChapterEleven
TestPits

129

Pageviii

ChapterTwelve
ExcavationofMoundArchitecture

143

ChapterThirteen
ExcavationoftheRoomofthePosts

174

ChapterFourteen
BurialsatCahuachi

195

ChapterFifteen
TrophyHeadsatCahuachi

218

ChapterSixteen
NascaPotteryatCahuachi

227

ChapterSeventeen
OtherCeramicArtifacts

260

ChapterEighteen
TextileArtifacts

264

ChapterNineteen
ArtifactsinOtherMedia

275

ChapterTwenty
BotanicalRemains

289

ChapterTwentyOne
MalacologicalAnalysis
byMaradelCarmenRodrguezdeSandweiss

294

ChapterTwentyTwo
TheIdentificationofCahuachiasaCeremonialCenter

300

ChapterTwentyThree
TheSignificanceandBroaderContextofCahuachi

320

Bibliography

345

Index

361

Pageix

ANoteonOrthography
ExceptwhenIamquotingothers,NascaspecificallyreferstothefamousarchaeologicalculturedatingtotheEarlyIntermediatePeriodthatischaracterizedbyprefire
slippaintingoficonographicallycomplexmotifs.Nazcadenotesthegeographicalarea,river,moderntown,andalloftheprehispanicandpostconquestsocietiesthat
existedinthedrainage.Iadvocatethisorthographicconventiontoavoidsemanticconfusion.Insodoing,IrecognizethatMenzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:8)view
NazcaasamisspellingandNascaasthehistoricallycorrectform.Nevertheless,thesandzdistinctionservesausefulpurpose,andIhopeitwillbeadoptedbymy
colleagues.
VariouswordsaremoreappropriateinSpanishandQuechuathanintheirwordyEnglishtranslation.TheyarewellknowntoAndeanistsandaredefinedinthetextat
themomentoffirstusage.FollowingPeruvianconvention,certainQuechuawordshavebeenpluralizedintheirSpanishform.Forinstance,thepluraloftheQuechua
word"huaca"is"huacas."
AllLatinplantandanimalnamesareitalicizedfollowingconvention.

Pagexi

Preface
EversinceitsscientificorofficialdiscoverybyMaxUhlein1901,Nascaarthasattractedtheattentionandcapturedtheimaginationofarchaeologists,arthistorians,
looters,andthepublic.Untilrecently,however,archaeologistshaveconfusedtheirfamiliaritywiththeNascastylewitharealunderstandingoftheculturethat
producedit.Onthebasisofthescantfielddataavailable,therewaswidespeculationaboutthenatureandlevelofsocioculturalintegrationinNascasociety(e.g.,
Rowe1963:1112Proulx1968:9699Lumbreras1974a:123124Silverman1977).PeruvianistscreatedanimageofNascasocietythatwasanarchaeological
constructdevoidofsocietalcontentacultureidentifiedonthebasisofartanditsregionaldistributionratherthanontheculture'sinfrastructuralandorganizational
manifestationsinthearchaeologicalrecord.
TheissueofthenatureofNascacultureandsocietyisimportanttounderstandingthedevelopmentofcomplexsocietyintheCentralAndes,oneoftheareasof
primarygenesisofthestate(e.g.,Service1975).Furthermore,elucidationofthenatureandfunctionofCahuachi,manifestlythemostimportantNascasite,isrelevant
toawidebodyofliteratureandtheoryconcerningtheevolutionofurbanismandtherelationshipoftheceremonialcentertothecity(e.g.,Adams1966Wheatley
1971Schaedel1966a,b,1969,1978,1980a,bLumbreras1981,1982SandersandPrice1968SandersandWebster1988).Theseproblemsfirstarousedmy
interestinNascaandsubsequentlyguidedmylongtermresearch.
Basedonhis19521953fieldworkonthesouthcoast,WilliamDuncanStrong,uponwhoseworkvirtuallyallinterpretationtillnowhashadtorest,assessedthe
culturalsignificanceofNascainthefollowingterms:"IntheFormative,Florescent,andlaterepochslargeceremonialconstructionsaswellastownsweremadeinthe
NazcaIcaregionand,...ofallthese,theceremonialstructuresoftheMiddleNazcaculturephaseatCahuachiarebyfarthemostimpressivewenoted.Inour
opinion,Cahuachiwasthegreatest,andprobablythemaincapitalsiteoftheNazcacivilizationinthetimeofitsownpeculiarhighestflorescence"(Strong1957:32
33).
Strong'sstatementshavebeencorrectlyinterpretedbyarchaeologistsasimputingsomekindofmultivalleyintegrationtotheearlyNasca(Strong'sMiddleNazca)
socialformation.Nonetheless,thepoliticalcorrelatesofthisregionalcohesionhavebeendebatedandarenotuniformlyagreedupon.Basedonthebroadareal
distributionofanessentiallyhomogeneousNascaceramicstyle,theseemingintrusionofNasca3potteryintotheAcarvalleyinassociationwiththesudden
appearanceoflarge,reputedlyfortifiedsitesinthatvalley,andtheprimacyofCahuachi,ithaslongbeenarguedthatNascawasanexpansioniststate(e.g.,Rowe
1963:1112Proulx1968:9699Lumbreras1974a:123124MatosMendieta1980:489,495Massey1986seealsoSilverman1987,1988a).Problemswith
theascriptionofstatehoodtotheearlyNascasocialformationhavebeenindicated,however,andanotherorganizationalmodelhasbeenproposedinwhicha
chiefdomlevelofsociopoliticalintegrationandparticipationinasharedculturaltraditionwouldhaveintegratedthevariousindependentNascasocietiesintheregion
(Silverman1977,1985a,b,1986,1990a).
Asisevidentabove,Ihaveheldboth"partylines"ontheNascastatehoodissuedependingonthedataavailabletomeatthetimeofwriting.Basedonpreliminary
analysisofsurveydataIcollectedduringninemonthsofintensivefieldwork(concludedinAugust1989)intheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleysandonDavid
Browne's1987and1989surveysofthePalpavalley,thedataappeartobefavoringanonstateconfiguration.Finalanalysisofthenewlycollectedsurveydataand
futureexcavationsatseveralkeysitesshoulddefinitivelyresolvetheNascastatehoodproblemalthough,asindicatedinthefinalchapterofthisbook,Iregardthat
issue

Pagexii

asatheoreticalredherring(seeGledhill1988andPaynter1989forexcellentcritiquesofthechiefdomstatedebateseealsoSilverman1990b:450454).
HandinhandwiththemodelofanearlyNascacentralizedstateorlittleempire,Cahuachiwasalsofrequentlydescribedintheliteratureasagreatcity(e.g.,Rowe
1963:1011Lanning1967:116117Lumbreras1974a:123),eventhoughStrong(1957)didnotmakeanyclaimsastothesite'sdegreeofurbanism.Whilethe
primacyofCahuachihasneverbeenindoubt,itsnaturehas.CahuachiisclearlythemostimportantsiteofearlyNascasociety,butatthetimeIbeganmyresearch
preciouslittlewasknownaboutitand,asitturnsout,muchofwhatwethoughtweknewisinerror.Evenworseisthatmuchofwhatwecouldhaveknownislostto
archaeologistsbecauseofthedestructionwroughtbymassiveillicitexcavationsatthesiteoverthepastcentury.
My19841985researchatCahuachiwasabletoaddressandredresstheprecedingissueswithvaryingdegreesofsuccess.TheurbannatureofCahuachihasbeen
disproven,butasaresultIwasunabletoaddmeaningfuldataondomesticlifeinearlyNascasociety.Ontheotherhand,Ihavebeenabletoconstruct,onthebasisof
theempiricaldatarecoveredinthefieldandthroughethnographicanalogy,aparsimoniousand,aboveall,AndeanmodelofhowCahuachimighthavefunctionedasa
greatAndeanceremonialcenter(seechap.22).WiththeaidoftherecentlycollectedsettlementpatterndataandimportantethnohistoricinvestigationsbyGaryUrton
(1990),CahuachicannowbecontextualizedintheancientNascaworld(seechap.23).
Theresearchreporteduponhereinwasthefirststageinwhathasbecomealongterm,multistageprogramofinvestigationintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage
system.Thedatapresentedinthisbookwereoriginallypresentedinmy1986doctoraldissertation.Thesedatahavebeenthoroughlyreviewed,andseveralerrors
(typographical,analytical,andinterpretive)intheoriginalmanuscripthavebeencorrected.Thetexthasbeensignificantlyreorganizedandexpandedtoreflectmynew
interpretationsofthefielddataaswellastheliteraturesubsequentlyavailabletome.Giventhedramaticallyincreasedpaceoffieldworkonthesouthcoastsince
excavationsatCahuachiwerecompletedin1985,Ibelieveitisimportanttoputthebodyofdataandhypothesesencompassedhereinintothepublicdomainsothat
thismaterialcanbeusedandtested.Inclusionoftheoreticalliteratureoncomplexsocietyhasbeenkepttoanabsoluteminimumintheinterestofmaintainingthisbook
asasitereport.Thefinalchapterdoes,however,includeaverybriefsummaryoftheresultsofmyrecentlycompletedsurveysincethesedatahavegreatbearingon
thereconstructionofearlyNascasociety.Indeed,itwasthesuccessofthe19881989surveyprojectthatmademerealizetheurgencyofthisbook'spublication.This
bookisoffered,then,asacontributiontowhatwillsurelybeavastandimportantnewliteratureontheprehistoryofthesouthcoast.

Pagexiii

Acknowledgments
The19841985programofexcavationsatCahuachiwasauthorizedbyResolucinSuprema16584ED.IamverygratefultotheInstitutoNacionaldeCulturafor
facilitatingfieldwork.TheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologaextendedmeaffiliation.Itsdirector,HermilioRosasLaNoire,wasmosthelpfulin
expeditingexportationofthe14CsamplesunderExpedienteNo.15507andInformeNo.173CGMNAA85.
TheCahuachiProjectwasfundedwithresearchgrantsfromtheInstituteofInternationalEducation(FulbrightHaysAct),NationalScienceFoundation(BNS
8401085),SocialScienceResearchCouncil,OrganizationofAmericanStates,andInstituteofLatinAmericanStudiesattheUniversityofTexasatAustin.Tothese
organizationsIexpressmydeepestthanksfortheirsupport.MarciaKothdeParedes,executivedirectoroftheComisinFulbrightinLima,washelpfulinmanyways
andissincerelythanked.
MiguelPazos,adearfriendandcolleague,workedwithmeparttimeatCahuachi,andIamverygratefultohim.Ialsobenefitedfromthesequentialparticipationof
fourexcellentarchaeologystudentswhoseassistanceisaffectionatelyandgratefullyacknowledged:FrancesHayashida(thenofStanford),DennisScott(Yale),Juan
AntonioMurro(PontificiaUniversidadCatlicadelPer),andJosPabloBaraybar(UniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcos).Inaddition,Ihadawonderful
crewofworkerscomposedofArmandoValdivia,JulioTueros,GerardoRojas,AbelGuevarra,andGuillermoTinkuy.HugoVerneNavasandCenenandEstela
GuzmnmademewelcomeintheirhomesatCahuachi,andIrememberthemwithaffection.
Mythankstothespecialistswhoundertooktheanalysisofparticularclassesofmaterialremains.Burial1wasstudiedbySoniaGuillnBurial11wasanalyzedby
AlfonsoMadrid.JosPabloBaraybarstudiedthetrophyheads.MaradelCarmenRodrguezdeSandweissanalyzedtheshellfishremains.BernardinoOjeda
identifiedallbotanicalremains.Theirfindingsarereportedherein.
ThenewmapofCahuachipresentedherewasdrawnbyarchitectJosPinedaonthebasisofaerialphotogrammetricprojection,supplementedbyfield
reconnaissanceandgroundverification.
IamverygratefultoJosuLanchoRojasofNazcaandhiswife,Isabel(Chabuca)PereyradeLancho,whowerealwayswarmhostsduringmymanyvisitstotheir
homeandhelpedmeinmorewaysthanIcanpossiblyenumerate.IhavebenefitedgreatlyfrommanystimulatingconversationswithJosu,whosefundofknowledge
aboutNazcaisvirtuallyunlimited.
Dr.TerenceD'AltroyatColumbiaUniversityhasbeenexceedinglykindovertheyearsinfacilitatingaccesstoStrong'scollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.Reviewof
thecollectionsin1988wasmadepossiblebyagrantfromtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties.Dr.RobertFeldmankindlyfacilitatedaccesstotheKroeber
CollectionsfromCahuachi,whicharecuratedattheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistoryinChicago.
Manycolleaguesvisitedmeinthefield,andothersgavegenerouslyoftheirtimetodiscussNascaandotherrelatedissueswithmeinLimaandintheUnitedStates.I
benefitedgreatlyfromthevisitsofIdilioSantillana,DanielSandweiss,WilliamIsbell,LuisLumbreras,RobertFeldman,andFritzRiddellandfromtheconversations
withRuthShady,DuccioBonavia,FedericoKauffmannDoig,CarlosWilliamsLen,MaraRostworowski,DonaldProulx,DwightWallace,andPatriciaKnobloch.I
mostespeciallywishtothankRichardBurger,LucySalazarBurger,KarenMohrChavez,andSergioChavezfortheirhelpandadviceatCahuachiandbackinthe
UnitedStates.
Igivedeepthankstomyoutstandingdraftsman,StevenHolland,andgratefullyacknowledgeagrantfromtheCampusResearchBoardoftheUniversityofIllinoisat
UrbanaChampaignthatpartiallyunderwrotethecostofproducingthefiguralmaterialforpublication.

Pagexiv

DavidMinor,staffphotographerintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign,withcheerandpatienceworkedmiracleswith
oftenpoornegatives.WarmthanksalsogotoMarilynBridgeswhotookthemagnificentphotographofCahuachithatappearsonthejacketofthisbook.
Finally,unendingthankstomyhusband,EnriqueMayer,forhisconstantlove,support,enthusiasm,patience,andhelp.Hehasbeenmyforemostintellectual
companion,andlivingwithhimalltheseyearshasbeenthebestanthropologicalandPeruvianisteducationanyonecouldeverhopetoreceive.

Page1

ChapterOne
ThePhysicalSetting
TheRoGrandedeNazcaDrainage
TheheartlandofNascacultureisconsideredtobetheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(figs.1.11.3seechap.2).Theriversystemencompassessome10,750square
kilometers(ONERN1971:2).Itsupperreachesareinthedepartments(states)ofAyacuchoandHuancavelicaitslowerportionisinthedepartmentofIca.Although
thesearecontemporarypoliticaldivisions,theyappeartoreflect,tosomeextent,precolumbianculturalfrontiers.
TheGrandedrainagesystemonthePeruviancoastisexceptionalbecauseitisformedofmanyaffluentswithonlyoneoutlettothesea,theGrandeRiveritself.Thisis
becauseupliftingeologicaltimesblockedtheGrandetributaries'accesstothesea.ThetributaryriversoftheGrandesystemare,beginninginthewestandmoving
eastandsouth:SantaCruz,Grande,Palpa,Viscas,Ingenio,Aja,TierrasBlancas,Nazca,Taruga(Pajonal),andLasTrancas(Poroma,Tunga).Alloftheserivers
originateinthehighlandsasaresultofsummerrainfall(ONERN1971:30).Theyareseparatedfromeachotherbynarrowmountainrangesordesertstretches.A
drivethroughtheriversystemisbreathtaking,asbarrenhillsandaridplainsrepeatedlygivewaysuddenlytogreen,irrigatedvalleys.
TheGrandeRiverdoesnotexhibitthewidedeltaandrichalluvialdepositstypicalofmostoftheotherrivervalleysofthePeruviancoast.Rather,mostoftheearthrich
sedimentscarriedinsuspensionbytheriveraredepositedinthemiddlestretchoftheGrandeRiverbetweenChiquerilloattheunionoftheGrandeandIngeniorivers
andCerroColoradowheretheNazcaRiverenterstheGrande(ONERN1971:31)thisistherichestagriculturalareaofthewholedrainage.However,whenthereis
reallyabundanthighlandrainfallandthetributariesfullycharge,thenitispreciselythisCabildostretchthatcanbedetrimentallyaffected.Localinformantsstatethatthe
soilscanbecomewaterloggedandthecottonplantsmayyellowandwither.Thus,1989,abeneficentrainyear,broughtbumpercropstotherarelywateredSanta
CruzvalleywhileproducingsomewhatdeleteriouseffectsinthemiddleGrande.
Ecology
ThatpartoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageinwhichNascaculturedevelopedisecologicallyclassifiedasa"premountaindesertformation"ora"subtropical
dessicateddesert"bytheOficinaNacionaldeEvaluacindeRecursosNaturales(NationalOfficefortheEvaluationofNaturalResourceshenceforthONERN)
(ONERN1971:2).ThelatterdesignationisarefinementofTosi's(1960)earliersystemusedbytheONERNandrepresentsthestandardizationofecologicalcriteria
followingHoldridge's(1967)worldwideecologicalclassificationoflifezones.Basically,itmeansthattheNazcaregion(RoGrandedeNazcadrainage)isverydry
and,inthesummer,extremelyhot.
AlthoughtheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagebelow2,000metersabovesealevelisclassifiedbytheONERN(1971)underonemajorecologicaltype,avery
importantecologicaltransitionoccursjustwestofthetown

Page2

1.1.
MapofthesouthcoastofPeruindicatingthecomponentriversoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandthelocationofCahuachi.
BasedonStrong(1957:fig.1).

ofNazca,aroundMajoro,Venturosa,Conventillo,andAguaSanta.Fromthere,westwardanddowntothesea(i.e.,600metersabovesealeveltosealevel),weare
inthatpremountaindesertzoneofthecoastcalledchalabyPulgarVidal(n.d.:2954).Herethetemperatureaverages21.3degreesC(ONERN1971:2),butthereis
significantdiurnalandseasonalvariation.
FromthetownofNazcaeastwardthereisarapidecologicaltransitionuptowardthehighlands.Thisnaturalregionbetweenthecoastandhighlands,between600and
2,000metersabovesealevel,isknownasyunga,thehot,dry,narrowvalleyorquebrada(PulgarVidaln.d.:5571).
Kosok(1965:50)correctlyobservesthattheNazcaregion"isnotstrictlycoastal.ItisevenlessSierra.Indeed,itscharacterincludeselementsofboth."Hedescribes
Nazcaasa"peculiartransitionzone,"pointingoutthattheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage"formsthebeginningofanincreasinglyelevatedseriesofintensively
cultivatedbranchvalleysofthewesternsemiSierraregionwhichextendssoutheasttowardsArequipa."HealsonotesthattheNazcaregion"hasalwaysbeenthe
naturalsoutherncoastalentranceintothesouthernSierrasproperconnectingthissectionoftheCoastwithAyacucho,Abancay,CuzcoandevenLake
Titicaca"(Kosok1965:50).
Kroeber(1944:24)voicesasimilarviewinemphasizingthattheareainwhichNascaculturedevelopedis"coastalbutnotmaritime."Thisisnotsurprisingconsidering
thattheGrandedoesnothaveadevelopeddeltaanditsmouthisjustanarrowstretchofmarshylandextendingafewhundredmetersbeyondthemagnificent,high
walled,multicolored,narrowlowerGrandecanyon.Engel(1981:21)reportsseeingthisSantaAnaareacoveredwithmonte(treesandbushyvegetation,sometimes
quitedense)around1960andnotestheexistenceoftwopossiblelatepreceramicsitesatthemouthoftheGrandeRiveranotherissaidtohaveunidentifiableeroded
pottery.Strong(1957:811)foundpreceramicshellmoundsalongSanNicolsBayperma

Page3

nentNascalittoralsitesareasyetunreportedforthemouthoftheGrandeRiveranditsadjacentcoastline.Thefirstrich,arableoasisinlandfromtheseaisatMonte
Grande.1
ThetinyMaijoChico,MaijoGrande,andCaracolesoasesandthelargerMonteGrandeoasiscouldhaveplayedasignificantroleintheeconomyoftheNascaperiod
(andinprecolumbiantimesingeneral)becausetheyarewithineasywalkingdistanceofthesea.EarlyNascaiconographyplacessignificantemphasisonmaritime
motifs,and,eventhoughtherealsubsistencewealthoftheNazcaregionliesintheagriculturaltractsinland,shellremainsarefoundatCahuachi(seechap.21)andon
thesurfaceofmanyNascahabitationsitesidentifiedonthe19881989survey.Furthermore,atitsmouththeGrandeiswithinsightofthemouthoftheIcaRiver.
PeopleinthelowerIcaandlowerGrandevalleyswouldhavehadrelativelyquickcontactwitheachotherthroughtheuseofcoasthuggingseacraftoracislittoral
overlandtrail.DespitethehypothesizedimportanceofthelowerGrande,however,thereisnodoubtthatthemajordevelopmentofNascaculturewaslargelyaninland
affair,andtherethecrucialproblemwaswater,forthetributaryriversarechargedonlybyvaryinglyintense,summerhighlandrainfall.
Besidestheecologicalzonesalreadyreferredto(littoral,coastalorchala,andyunga),theprecolumbianinhabitantsoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagecouldalso
havetakenadvantageofthelomas(winterfogmeadows)stillfoundtodayintherelativelynearbyareasofSanFernandoBay,SanJuanBay,andSanNicolsBay
(seeStrong1957:fig.1),aswellasinquebradapocketslocatedinlandinthevalleys(Silverman1989a:45).
PrecipitationPatterns
PrecipitationoccursinthesummermonthsofJanuaryandFebruary.InrareyearsitmayoccurearlierinDecemberandlaterinMarch.Inthecoastalsectorofthe
drainage,precipitation,whenitoccurs,variesbetweenvirtuallynonetoperhaps25millimeters(ONERN1971:4244).
Otoca,locatedatmorethan1,800metersabovesealevelintheupperIngeniovalleyandattheupperendoftheyungazone,receivesanaverageof84millimetersof
rainfallperyear(ONERN1971:44).Thereisnopublishedrecordofrainfallintherestoftheyungaecologicalzone,butobservationindicatesthatthecoastalpattern
prevails.Nascasettlementsarefoundinthisyungazone,totheexclusionofanyothersofthesametimeperiod.
Inthehighlandsectionsofthedrainage'svalleys,between2,000and3,000metersabovesealevel,rainfallincreasesandvariesbetween125and250millimetersper
year.At3,400to3,600metersabovesealevelrainfallisgreaterstillandrangesbetween250and300millimeters(ONERN1971:4445).At4,000metersabove
sealevelannualrainfallcanreach500millimeters(ONERN1971:45).
Rainfallisnoteventhroughoutthedrainage.TheONERN(1971:44)observesthatrainfalloccursatloweraltitudesinthenorthernpartofthedrainage(theIngenio,
Grande,Palpa,Viscas,andSantaCruzvalleys)andathigherelevationsinthesouthernvalleysofNazca,Taruga,andLasTrancas.
Soils
Geologically,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageiscomposedofQuaternarysedimentaryrockformationsthatareprimarilyriverineandriverinealluvial(ONERN
1971:map2).Thesoilseriesisriverine,andthegroundisfairlylevel(ONERN1971:map3).Surfacesoil(050centimeters)isthickintexture(ONERN1971:map
5).Thesoilsofthedrainagevaryfromthoseappropriateforagriculturewithoutmajorlimitationstolandscharacterizedasaptforirrigationagriculturewithmoderateto
stronglimitations(ONERN1971:maps3,5).
WaterRegime
Kosok(1965:51)aptlydescribestheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageascomposedof"minute,isolatedvalleysthatliescatteredoveroneoftheworld'sdriest
deserts."Kroeber(1944:25)observesthatthe"amountofcultivablelandinIcaandRoGrandevalleysisstrictlylimited,andhoweverdensethepopulation,itcould
neverhavebeenverygreatabsolutely."Inadditiontoasmallamountofland,thevalleyssufferfromchronicwatershortage.Thissituationisfurtherworsenedby
periodiclongdroughts,thelastoneofwhichblightedallofsouthernPeruin1983whilethenorthcoastwassimultaneouslyandcatastrophicallyinundatedbyrainand
floodsasaresultofasevereNio.TheONERN(1971:181)concludesthattodayonly12,920hectaresofprecariousagriculturecanbemaintainedinthedrainage.
Ironically,whentheseasonalhighlandrainscomeandthecoastalriverscharge,theresultisnotalwaysbeneficialforthepeopleoftheNazcaregion.Inthesummerof
1985Iwitnessedadramaticevent.IthadbeguntorainheavilyinthehighlandswheretheAjaandTierrasBlancasriversoriginate.ThetownofPuquio,forinstance,
wasfeaturedonthenationalnewsforitsgaleforcewindsanddrivingrains.InlateJanuary1985theAjaandTierrasBlancasriverssimultaneouslychargedto

Page4
Page5

1.2.
TopographicmapoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.BasedonInstitutoGeogrficoMilitar(Nacional)maps30mand30ninthe1:100,000series.

Page6
Page7

1.3.
MapoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageshowingthemajorcontemporarytownsandmodernextentofagriculturallands.
BasedonInstitutoGeogrficoMilitar(Nacional)maps30mand30ninthe1:100,000series.

Page8

1.4.
PhotographiccompositeofHaciendaCahuachi.NotethemeanderingcourseoftheNazcaRiver.Alsonotethe
uncultivatedfieldbehind(farleft)thehaciendahousewhereTestPit16wasexcavated.

overflowingandonthesamenightbrokethroughtheembankmentsprotectingthetownofNazca,disastrouslyfloodingthecityandcausingmuchlossofproperty.
BecauseeachofthecomponentriversoftheGrandesystemhasitsheadwatersinadifferentpartoftheadjacenthighlands,thedrainage'sriversusuallydonotcharge
atthesametime.Inasmuchastheareaisarid,mostvernaculararchitectureisoftypicalcoastalconstruction:canereedorwattleanddaubshacksforthepoor,adobe
housesforthosebetteroff,andcementstructuresfortherich.Theperishableandsolublehousesclosesttotheriversweresweptawayormelteddown.Atthesame
timeitrainedratherheavilyinNazca.Theriverscontinuedtochargeandfloodforseveraldays.DownstreamatCahuachitheriversweptawaymanyhectaresofHugo
VerneNavas'sfields(fig.1.4)andalmostdrownedthefamilyofoneofmyworkers.
TheONERN(1971:181)considerstheGrande,Ingenio,Palpa,Viscas,andNazcariverstobetheonlyrealriversofthesystemtheothers,itsays,havesuchscarce
waterandtheirwaterregimeissovariablethattherecanbelongdroughtsduringwhichabsolutelynoagriculturecanbepracticed.IntheGrande,Ingenio,Palpa,
Viscas,andNazcarivervalleys,althoughdroughtscanbefrequentandsevere,agricultureisnottotallyinhibited.Indeed,theNazcaregion'sirregularriversandbarren
surroundingplainsandhillsbeliethefertilityoflargesectorsofthedrainage.ItisnotwithoutreasonthatFelipeGuamanPomadeAyala(1936:1043,1044)portrayed
thecolonialvillaofNazcainasettingofgrapeorchards.TheJesuits'tworichesthaciendasinthedrainagewerelocatedintheIngeniovalleyatSanJosandSan
Javierwherewinewasproducedinadditiontoagriculturalproducts(Quijandra1961).Asrecentlyastwentyyearsago,HaciendaCahuachiwasfamousforitswine
andpisco(HugoVerneNavasandJosuLanchoRojas,personalcommunication1984),andpiscoisstillbeingproducedinTunga.
Yetincomparisontothelarge,richvalleysofthePeruviannorthcoast,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageispoor.Kosok(1965:5859)suggeststhatthescarcityof
arablelandandwaterintheNazcadrainagemayhaveplayedalimitingroleinthedevelopmentofcomplexsocietythere."InthesmallvalleysoftheRoGrandeno
greatwealthcouldaccumulatethusnolargeconstructionscouldbeundertaken.Atbest,afewsmalladobemoundscouldbeerected.Consequently,conditionsnever
arosewherebyasecularstatecouldappearexceptatrareintervalsandthenprobablyonlyasanoutsideintrusion.AndtheNazcaareawastoopoortoattractany
butthetemporaryinterestofpassingconquerors...[therewasa]retentionofthereligious

Page9

ceremonialemphasisamongthepoorerNazcans."ThefieldworkatCahuachiandthesettlementpatterndataobtainedin19881989fromtheIngenioandmiddle
GrandevalleyswillpermitustoevaluatetheveracityofKroeber'sandKosok'sstatements.
SubsurfaceWaterResources.
IntheareaofthelowerAjaandTierrasBlancasriversandcontinuingwestofthetownofNazcaforsome10kilometers,subsurfaceorwatertablewaterhasbeen
effectivelyexploitedforcenturiesthroughasystemofsubterraneanfiltrationgalleries,leadercanals,andreservoirs(MejaXesspe1940RossellCastro1977
GonzlezGarca1978SchreiberandLanchoRojas1988).Theprinciplebywhichthesefunctionisrelativelysimple.Atpointsofseepage,onedugtowardthewater
tablewhileattemptingtoconservethecorrespondingslopesothatthewaterwouldruntowardthereservoir.Anothertechniquewastoopenaseriesof"eyes"(ojos),
orverticalairshafts,20to30metersdistantfromeachother.These"eyes"weredugdownuntilthewatertablewashit.Abravesoulwoulddescendintoan"eye"and
acompanionworkerwouldentertheadjacent"eye,"andthetwowoulddigtunnelsuntiltheyconnectedwitheachother.Thisprocedurewasfolloweduntilthewater
wasabletobedrawnouttothesurface,whenceitwaschanneledintoanopenditchthatledtoareservoir.
GonzlezGarca(1978:132,134mytranslation)correctlyobservesthat"asthecanaladvances[intothegroundandawayfromthepointofseepage]thelevelofthe
watergetsdeeperanddeeperwithrespecttosurfacelevelbecausethecanalismovingwithalessergradientthanthesurface.Whenthedifferencebetweenthetwo
levels(thatofthegroundandthatoftheaqueduct)getstoabout3meters,theaqueductgoesundergroundandatthispointthe`box'begins."Oncethegallerieswere
connectedbeneaththeground,thelateralwallswerebuiltwithrivercobbles,andoverthese,stoneslabroofswereplaced.
Therearecomplexreasonsforthepresenceofthissubsurfacewater.TheAcarRivereffectivelyblocksproperdrainageinthesouthernGrandedrainagebycuttingoff
theupperreachesoftheAja,TierrasBlancas,andLasTrancasrivers(seefig.1.5).Thiscontrastswiththe"normal"hydrographicregimeofthenorthernvalleys
(Ingenio,Palpa,Viscas,Grande,andSantaCruz).Some5kilometerseastofNazcathesurfacewaterflowingintheNazcaRiverdisappearsthroughsurfacecracks
anddoesnotemergeagaintill10kilometerswestofNazca,atwhichpointtheriverhassurfacewaterallthewaytoitsunionwiththeGrande.Dryzones,suchasthe
onecharacterizingthemiddleNazcavalley,arefoundinthetwosouthernmostriversofthedrainageand,there,too,filtrationgalleriesarepresent.
Thedepthofthewatertablevariesinthedrainagesystembutisneverthelessquitehigh.InthebarrenSantaCruzbranch,thewatertableisat15to32metersbeneath
thesurfaceinPalpaandViscasitisat3to12metersintheGrandeproperitisatonly1to5meters(ONERN1971:199).InSantaCruzthegradientof
subterraneanwatervariesbetween0.7and2.0percentfortheGrandeitisbetween0.8and1.0percentforPalpaandViscasitis1.25percent(ONERN1971:
199).Itisreasonabletosupposethatpriortoindustrializedagriculture,withitselectricpumpsandtubularwells,thewatertablewouldhavebeenevenhigherandthe
dischargegreaterthantoday.Furthermore,irrespectiveoflosstomodernagriculturalmethods,thewatertableisnotstableyearround.Whenitrainsinthehighlands,
thewatertablerisesandcarriesmorewater.
Thereisanongoingdebateoverthedateofthefiltrationgalleries.ScholarshaveindicatedthatthetechnologyoftheNazcafiltrationgalleriesissimilar(thoughnot
identical)tothewayqanatsintheNearEastfunction(Cressey1958Wulff1968English1968SchreiberandLanchoRojas1988).Qanatlikesystemsarealso
knowninChileandtheTehuacnvalleyofMexico.TheresemblancesbetweentheOldWorldandNewWorldsystemshavepromptedsometosuggestthatthe
Nazcasystemistheresultofdiffusion.Cressey(1958:44),forinstance,proposesthatthe"Arabsbroughtthefoggara[qanat]ideaintoSpain,andtheSpanishbrought
ittotheNewWorld"(seealsoBarnesandFleming1991).English(1968:178)leavestheissueofdiffusionopen,statingthattheqanatsystemsintheAtacamaregion
mayantedatethearrivaloftheSpanishintheNewWorld.
Otherscholarsdefendindependentinvention(GonzlezGarca1978RossellCastro1977Ravines1978:129).SchreiberandLanchoRojas(1988)argue,basedon
shiftsinsettlementpatterns,thatitislikelythatthefiltrationgalleriesinthewidemiddlesectoroftheNazcavalleyproperarenotonlyprehispanicindatebutthatthey
werefirstbuiltinNasca5times,C.A.D.500to600.Theycontendthatwithoutirrigation,settlementinthelower,waterlessstretchesoftheAjaandTierrasBlancas
riverswouldhavebeenrestricted.Accordingtothem,theexistenceoflargehabitationsitesinthisareapresupposesthepracticeofagriculture,whichwouldhavebeen
possibleonlywithirrigation.Theearliestdateof

Page10

1.5.
MapofthesouthcoastofPeruindicatingthecomplexhydrologyofthecomponentriversystems.NotehowtheAcar
Riversweepsnorth,cuttingoffthedrainageoftheheadwatersoftheAjaandTierrasBlancasrivers(theNazcaRiver)
andsoutherntributariesoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.

thosesiteswouldbeaminimaldateforthefiltrationgalleries.Theexistenceanddatingofcemeteries,ontheotherhand,arenotgoodindicatorsofwhenthefiltration
galleriesweremadesincecemeteriesarenotsubjecttothesameconstraintsaslivingcommunities.
Ibelievethatthepeculiar"nowyouseeit,nowyoudon't"behaviorofNazca'ssurfacewatermustnothavegoneunnoticedamongthearea'sprecolumbianinhabitants.
Theancientsmusthaveobservedwherewaterseepedouttothesurfaceafterdisappearingfora15kilometerlongdrystretch.Furthersupportforaprecolumbian
datecomesfromlocallegendscollectedbyGary

Page11

Urton(citedinReinhard1988).TheselegendsareoriginmythsaboutthefiltrationgalleriesandrefertoCerroBlanco,thesacredmountainofNazca,asthesourceof
theirwater.ClarksonandDorn(1991)havereportedtwo14CdatesforNazca'sfiltrationgalleriestheirdatesarewithintheA.D.550to650rangeandconformto
SchreiberandLanchoRojas's(1988)suggestionthatthefiltrationgallerieswereinitiallyconstructedinNasca5times.TheClarksonandDorn14Cdatesshouldsettle
theissueofindependentorigins.
SubsurfacewateralsoseepstothesurfaceatCorralones,ManchaVerde,EstaqueraAlta,EstaqueraBaja,Jumana,andCahuachi.Butnofiltrationgallerieswere
constructedintheseplacesbecausethereisalsogroundwaterfromtheNazcaRiver.
Wesee,then,thatinadditiontoitsmultipletributaries,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageisexceptionalbecausetwodifferentwaterregimesoperate,anorthernone
whichgeneratesamoreorlessstandardcoastalirrigationsystemandasouthernonewhoseproblematicnaturewasresolvedinthepastthroughtheconstructionofan
ingenioussystemofundergroundcanalsandsurfacereservoirs.Thetwowaterregimeshadthepotentialtogeneratedifferentkindsofsettlementpatternsandsocial
andpoliticalorganization.WhenDavidBrowneandIfinishouranalysisofthenortherndrainagesurveydataandKatharinaSchreiberanalyzesthedatafromher
surveyofthesouthernportionofthedrainage,itshouldbepossibletodetermineifthereareanysystematicwaterrelateddifferencesbetweenthevalleys.
Population
In1961acensuswascarriedoutintheRiGrandedeNazcadrainagebytheVICensoNacionalandrevealedaruralpopulationofalmost15,000individuals(cited
inONERN1971).In1971theONERNestimatedthepopulationofthedrainageatapproximately55,000individuals.Approximately40percentofthesepeople
residedinthe"urban"centersofNazca(about18,400inhabitants)andPalpa(about3,800inhabitants),withatotalofapproximately2,000individualslivinginthe
smalltownsofElIngenio,Changuillo,RoGrande,Llipata,andSantaCruz.Ruralpopulationwasfiguredatapproximately20,500.Thepopulationofthedrainage
southofChanguillodoesnotappeartohavebeenincludedin1971.Iwouldaddnomorethanathousandindividualsforthatarea.In1971theruralpopulationforthe
entiredrainagecertainlydidnotexceed22,000.Iregard15,000to22,000asareasonablestandardagainstwhichtheprehispanicpopulationofthedrainagecan
eventuallybeestimatedandcompared.
TheLocalSettingofCahuachi
ThearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiisabout500kilometerssouthofLimaand18kilometerswestofthemoderndaytownofNazca(asthecrowflies).Itislocatedin
a500meterwidesectionoftheNazcavalleyonthesouthbankoftheNazcaRiver.Thesitesitsonaseriesofbrownbarrenriverterracesjustabovethenarrow
valleyfloorandbeneaththePampadeAtarcoitisapproximately365metersabovesealevel.InmoderngeopoliticaltermsCahuachiisintheprovinceofNazcainthe
departmentofIca.
Tothenorthandsouth,Cahuachifacesapampa(PampadeSanJosandPampadeAtarco,respectively).Itisonthesepampas,particularlythePampadeSanJos
northofCahuachi,thatthemajorityofthefamousgrounddrawingsoftheNazcadesertwereetched(seeAveni1986,1990Reiche1968Reinhard1988Silverman
1990a,b).
Cahuachiissubjecttofierceparacas(verystrongwindsthatcanwhipthemselvesupinintensitytobecomeveritablesandstorms)thattypicallygustupfromCerro
Tungatothesouthwest.Althoughmyworkersassociatedparticularlybadwindswitha"changeofthemoon"(forthem,thefullmoon)andalthoughthewindisreputed
tobeworstinthesummermonths,IfoundthatduringtheyearIspentatCahuachiitwastheabsenceofwindthatwasthemorenoteworthyevent.Frequentlythe
windwasalreadyhowlingwhenIarrivedatthesiteat6A.M.Sometimesitwoulddiedownandsometimesitwouldnot.Ilostseveraldaysofworkwhenthewind
wassobellicosethatitwasliterallyimpossibletostandupstraight,letaloneexcavateorscreen.OnNovember21,1984,Iperformedanexperimenttoassessthe
processesofinflationanddeflationatthesite.Everymorningwewouldbeginworkbysweepinguptheaeoliansandthathadaccumulatedinourpitsovernight.Onthis
particularmorningwesweptupenoughfinesandfroma2by2meterunittofillabucketmeasuring36centimetershighby22centimetersonasidetowithin1
centimeterofitstop.Itisthissamewindblownsandthatfillsinlooters'holesandlootedarchitecture,makingthesefeatureseasytorecognize.
ThefrequencyofsandstormsbringsupthedesertificationissueraisedbygeologistGeorgPetersen(1980).Petersen(1980:13mytranslation)contendsthatCahuachi
inparticularandtheNazcaregioningeneralbeganto"graduallysuffertherigorsofanencroachingdesert"andtothisheattributesthedemiseofNascacivilization.We
shallseeinchapters9through13thatevi

Page12

1.6.
AerialshotofthecentralzoneofCahuachi.Thesiteisbuilt
overthenaturalhillsborderingthesouthbankoftheNazca
River.Thenaturalhillslookliketheartificially
terracedmounds.

1.7.
Reservoirconstructedin1984infront(north)ofCenen
Guzmn'shouse.UnitVVisseeninthecenterforeground.
Thisareaofthesiteismassivelylooted.Excavationand
constructionofthereservoirbroughtnoarchaeological
materialstothesurfaceeventhoughthelargeUnitVV
moundisnearby.

denceofthisclimaticchangewasnotforthcomingfromourexcavations.
TheterracesonwhichCahuachisitsarecharacterizedbyhillsthesehillsformthecoreofthemajorityofartificialconstructionsatthesite(seechap.5).Millenniaof
winderosionhaveflattenedthetopsofthesegravelcoveredhills.Inaddition,theirsedimentarystratahavebeeneroded,therebygivingthehillsanaturallytruncated,
pyramidalappearance(fig.1.6).Itisdifficulttodistinguishanerodedadobewallreinforced,terracedmoundfacefromanaturallyflattenedhillwithhorizontallayersof
exposed,lightcoloredrock.
AtCahuachiwealsoseetheeffectsofwatererosion.Thesitesurfaceismarkedbygulleyscreatedbywateractionfrominfrequentstrongrainsmanyofthemounds,
suchasUnit2,showerosionchannelscausedbyrainwater.TheRoomofthePostsonUnit19(seechap.13)showsevidenceofseverewaterdamageonitseastern
wallandnortheastcorner.ArchitectGiuseppeOrefici(personalcommunication1989)excavatedamajoradobewallonUnit10thathadcollapsedinantiquity,
presumablyastheresultofagreatflashfloodheiscurrentlypostulatingafreakclimaticdisastertoaccountforthedemiseofCahuachi.
Asaresultoftherecentflooding,theNazcaRiverhasaltereditscoursesomewhat,comingmuchclosertothesite'seasternandwesternsectorsthis,ofcourse,has
implicationsforsettlementpatternsatCahuachi.ExcavationandsurveyatCahuachi,aswellasthefrequencyandunpredictabilitywithwhichtheNazcaRiverfloods,
suggestthatitisunlikelythatthenorthernmostterracesofthesitewerealocusofpermanentdomesticoccupationorthatmanyhabitationmoundsexistedinthevalley
bottom.Furthermore,allthefarmersIintervieweddeniedeverseeingsherdscomeuptothesurfaceinthevalleybottomlandswhenfieldswereopened.Thissituation
appearstobeconfirmedbythefollowing.InJuly1984RamnEliasbuiltalargecementreservoirontheedgeofthisbottomlandinfrontofCenenGuzman'shouse
(fig.1.7seechap.11).DayafterdayIwatchedtheexcavationofthehugepit.Neverdidanyarchaeologicalmaterialappear,eventhoughamajorartificialmound,
UnitVV,isonlyafewdozenmetersbehindthereservoir.Thisfact,combinedwiththenegativeresultsoftestpitsinsimilarlocations(chap.11),leadsmetosuspect
thatthevalleybottomherewasscarcelyinhabitedandthatitwas,instead,maintainedasagriculturallandandasasourceofvariousrawmaterials(forinstance,cane
forwattleanddaubstructures).ButeventheagriculturalpotentialofthelandaroundCahuachiwassomewhatlimiteduntiltherecentinstallationofelectricirrigation
pumpswhichhavealleviatedthenaturallymarshyandpoorlydrainedconditionofthesoilnearthearchaeologicalsite.Todaythislandishighlyproductiveand,like
mostofthelandofthedrainage,isdevotedtocommercialcottonproductionpotatoesmayalsobefarmedinsomeyearsasacashcrop,dependingonmarket
conditions.
Cahuachiislocallyfamousasaplace"wherewaterappears"(seealsoONERN1971:205).Therewasalways

Page13

water(albeitlittlesaveduringthesummerfloodmentionedabove)intheNazcaRiveratCahuachiduringthetimeIwasthere.Localinformantsshowedmetheplace
ofpermanentseepagejustabovetheleveloftheriverthisiswheretheseveraldozenresidentsofmodernCahuachiobtaintheirdrinkingwater.Myolderworkers
recalledthatintheiryouth(the1930sand1940s)thenarrowvalleyflooraroundCahuachiwascoveredbymonteincludinghuarango(Prosopischilensis),calato
(Bulnesiaretamo),sauce(Salixhumboldtiana),andespino(Acaciamacracantha),aswellasriverreedssuchascarrizo(Phragmitescommunis)andcaabrava
(Gyneriumsagittatum).Overtheyearsthehardwoodhuarangoshavebeencutdownandburnedforfuelormadeintocharcoalasthelandwasclearedfor
agriculture,withlargecommercialplotsbeinglaidoutinthe1940sand1950sduringtheheydayoftheCahuachihaciendaundertheNavasfamily(HugoVerne
Navas,personalcommunication1984).Thepatternoflandusefiftyyearsagowasprobablynotmuchdifferentthanthatwhichmighthaveprevailedtwothousand
yearsearlier.
Note
1.HereamajorMiddleHorizon3funerarylocuswasexcavated(Menzel1964:63Pezzia1969:127128Rowe1984)PatrickCarmichael(personal
communication1990)recordedalargeearlyNascasiteandtwosmallEarlyHorizonepoch8(withOcucaje8typepottery)sitesatMonteGrande.

Page14

ChapterTwo
AHistoryofFieldworkintheNazcaRegion
ThehistoryofthearchaeologicalinvestigationofNascasocietyis,inlargepart,areflectionofthetrajectoryofthestudyofPeru'spast.Theearlyperiodof
investigationsatCahuachiandelsewherewasoverwhelminglyconcernedwithcemeteryexcavationsandtheestablishmentofatimespaceframework.Themiddle
period,motivatedandinfluencedbytheVirValleyProject,broughttothesouthcoastanewfoundinterestinsettlementpatternsandstratigraphy.Thiswasfollowed
byanintenseconcerninthe1950sthroughthe1970swiththeconstructionofafinerelativechronology.ThemostrecenteraofNascainvestigations,the1980s
throughthepresent,hasseenareturntothefieldtotackleproblemsofsocialandpoliticalorganizationandculturalchangethroughthestudyofsettlementpatterns.
Uhle:1901and1905
In1888MaxUhle,ayoungGermanlinguistwithexperienceinzoologyandethnography,begantoworkintheMuseumfrVlkerkundeinBerlin.Whilethere,hehad
theopportunitytoexaminefiveNascavesselsinthecollections(Proulx1970:89).ThebeautyofthemagnificentpolychromepotteryattractedUhleandkindledin
himadesiretolocateitssourcesincethevessels'proveniencewasnotedonlyasPeru'ssouthcoast.Uhlewassuccessfulinlocatingthenewlyrecognizedpotterystyle
onhisfirstexpeditiontothesouthcoastin1901.IntheOcucajeBasininIcaheexcavatedthirtytwoNascatombswhosecontentsweresenttothemuseumatthe
UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley(seeProulx1970).Uhlecalledthestyle"ProtoNazca"(Uhle1914).
OnhissecondexpeditiontothesouthcoastofPeruin1905UhledirectedhiseffortsattheNazcavalley.Hedidnotexcavatetherebutpurchasedalargecollectionof
potteryhisformerIcaworkershadlooted(Rowe1960:31).ThiscollectionwasalsosenttoBerkeley,andthevesselsfromUhle'stwoexpeditionsformthecoreof
theLowieMuseum'soutstandingcollectionofNascapottery.Generally,Uhle(1914seealsoGaytonandKroeber1927)didnotclearlyspecifyanyofthesitesinthe
NazcaandPalparegionsfromwhichhiscollectionswereexcavated,incontrasttothepreciserecordsofproveniencehekeptforIca,buthedidnotethatheobtained
threepotsatCahuachithoughwecannotknowifthevesselscamefromthearchaeologicalsiteorthegeneralgroundsofthehacienda.
Itisimportanttonotethatalreadyby1912itwastheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage,ratherthantheIcavalleywherethestylewasfirstdiscovered,thatwas
consideredtobetheNascaheartland.Joyce(1912),forinstance,speaksofthe"Nascastyle"and"Nascapottery."ThisviewwaslaterexplicitlystatedbyGayton
andKroeber(1927:2),whoexplainthatthenameofthestyleis"derivedfromthefocalpointofitsregionaldistribution."
Tello:
1915
In1915PeruvianarchaeologistJulioC.TellocarriedoutfieldworkintheNazcaregion"fromTierraBlancatoMonteGrande,withthepurposeofstudyingthe
differentclassesofcemeteriesthere."Hereferredoncetogold

Page15

2.1.
Kroeber'ssketchplanofCahuachi.HehasmadeanenlargedinsetofUnitA.HisfieldnotebookgivesthefollowingkeyfortheUnitAmound:
(c)naturalsandterrace,6metersabovea(d)firstslopeofhill(e)firstterrace,7metersabovec(f)secondterrace,6metersabovee(g)burial
terrace,1meterbelowh(h)summitterrace,5metersabovef(i)burial(?)terrace,2metersbelowh(j)levelterrace,1meterbelowh(k)
unworkedhill,connectingwithB(1)burialterrace,3metersbelowg(m)burialterrace,1meterbelow1(n,0)squarechambergrave(p)wall,
65meterslong.Lettersaandb,notshown,referredto"cultivation,3metersaboveriver"and"slope"respectively.
CourtesyRobertFeldman,FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory,Chicago.

piecesfrom"acemeteryatCahuachiofdifferentstyleandepoch"(Tello1917:283mytranslation)andalsonotedthepresenceofartificialhillsormoundsatthesite.
Byhisenumerationoflocationsatwhichheworked(Majoro,Ocongalla,Estaquera,LasSalinas,LasCaas,Tunga),however,wemayinferthatalthoughTello
visitedCahuachihedidnotexcavatethereatthistime.
Farabee:1922
WilliamC.Farabee,whilecuratoroftheAmericancollectionsattheUniversityMuseuminPhiladelphia,workedintheNazcaregionfromApril13toMay20,1922.
For30mileshefollowedtheNazcaRiver,"excavatingineverysitewhichofferedanypromiseofresult"(Mason1926:134).Amongthosesitesthatreceivedthe
attentionofhisshovelwas"Cahuacha,"whereFarabeenoted"thepresenceofruins....Inmanyplacesthetopsofthehillshavebeenleveled,builtupwithadobeand
madeintoterracessothattheystandabovethelineofthehills.Inotherplacessmallmoundsbuiltofadobebricksofawedgeshapeareseen.Linesofadobewallsrun
forhundredsofyards,butmostofthesearenowcrumbledanddisintegrated,reachingaheightoftwofeetinonlyoneplace"(Mason1926:138).
Proulx(1968)studiedsevenNasca3Band4gravelotsexcavatedbyFarabeeatCahuachiandParedones.Carmichael(1988:Appendix1)listsatotalofseventeen
burialsfromFarabee'sexcavationsatCahuachitheserangefromNasca2toNasca6indate.NofurtherproveniencedatawerenotedbyFarabee,andwecannot
knowifheexcavatedintheactualarchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiorinoneofthemanycemeteriesthatexistedonthegroundsofwhatwasthentheHacienda
Cahuachi,whichcoveredmoreareathanthearchaeologicalsiteitself.
Kroeber:1926
ThegreatAmericanistAlfredLouisKroebercarriedoutfieldworkintheNazcaareabetweenJuly26andOctober12,1926,leadingthesecondMarshallFieldExpe

Page16

2.2.
Strong's(1957:fig.4)planofCahuachi.NotethatStrongorientsthesitewiththenortharrowpointingtothe
bottomofthepagewhereasKroeberorientedthesitewithnorthtothetop.TheareaencompassedbyStrong's
mapissmallerthanthatportrayedonKroeber'ssketchmap.Whencomparedwithfigure2.4,itcanbeseenthat
Strongportraysseveralartificiallymodifiedfeaturesasnatural.

ditiontoPeru.KroeberworkedfromCahuachieasttoCantalloc,justoutsidethetownofNazca.Thepurposeofhisexpeditionwastoexamine"gravecontentsand
interrelationsoftheseasintactunits[rather]thanonsettlementsandbuildings"becausehewasdissatisfiedwiththeceramicseriationhehadworkedoutwithAnna
Gayton(seeGaytonandKroeber1927)andbecause"Nazcaruinsandstructures[are]verymodestincomparisonwiththefineceramicsandtextilescontainedin
Nazcacemeteries"(KroeberandCollierms.:In1).ByobtaininganewsampleofNascapotteryfromcarefullycontrolledgraveexcavations,Kroeberhopedtobe
abletosubstantiateormodifytheGaytonKroebersequencethathadreliedonpotterywithoutgraveandotherdefinitelocalprovenience(GaytonandKroeber
1927:4seealsoKroeber1956:330).
KroeberspentthelastweekofhisfieldseasonatCahuachi.DuringthattimehefocusedhisattentiononUnitA(seeKroeber'splanofUnitAinfig.2.1)with
supplementaryexcavationoftwointactgravesinarea

Page17

Ed(thisisthenortheastsideofthefourthterraceofUnit19:seechap.12)andtwogravesathisLocationO.Kroeberkeptameticulousinventoryofthegrave
associationsofeachburialandrecordeddataontheburialsthemselves(seechap.14).ThepotteryfromthesegravesisallNasca3Aand3B(Proulx1968:table1).
InadditiontothetombexcavationsonUnitA,KroebersurveyedthesitequitewellanddrewanexcellentsketchmapofCahuachi(fig.2.1)thatisremarkablyclose
toStrong's(1957:fig.4fig.2.2)mapandournewones(figs.2.32.6).Kroeber'scampwasontheeasternsideofhismoundD(Unit22),closetoTractEd.Whatis
mostimportantaboutKroeber'smapisthatitindicatesthatheperceivedthesiteaslargerthanStrong'srepresentationofit.IfwesupplementKroeber'ssketchmap
withhiscommentsonthesite,wefindthathedelimitedCahuachialmostasdefinedinthisbook(seechap.5).
OntheSside[oftheNazcaRiveratHda.Cahuachi]therearenotonlycemeteries,butaseriesofartificialterracings,orpossiblyinpartnaturalriverterracesdevelopedandfaced
withadobewalls.Theseextendmoreorlessthewholelengthofthehacienda.Thoseupstreamfromthehaciendahousefor0.5km.ormore,andthosedownstreamfromitfor
nearly1km.,werenotexplored.ThoseworkedbytheExpeditionareinthelastkm.downstreamfromalarge5(or6)steppyramidalhillK[ourUnit1],andLandM[ourUnits2and
9,respectively]behinditsetwellbackfromtheriver.FromK,similarhillsandterracesstretchwestwardondownstream,"throughthealphabet,"toBandA[ourUnitsKandA].B
isapyramidbutlittlelesshighandlargerthanK....BeyondAtothewestadraworwashenterstheriverfromthesouthafterflowingbehindmostoftheMtoAseriesof
pyramidsorterraces.Downstreamfromthemouthofthiswashcomesacemeteryintheplainandrunningupthenexthill[UnitCinSilverman1985a,b],whichisunterracedand
jutsintothecultivationneartheCahuachiEstaqueraboundary.Thiscemetery,O,seemslargelyNazcaBfromAuptoKandL,theopenedsitesarealmostwhollyNazcaA.At
anyrate,NazcaAprevailsbothinsurfacesherdsandingraves,thoughafewNazcaBsherdswerefound.TherearealsoNazcaYandLategravesites,buttheyarelocalizedand
generallynotassociatedwiththeterracing.(KroeberandCollierms.:III8183)

NotonlydidKroeberexhibitakeenperceptionoftheextentandchronologyofCahuachi'sarchitecture,healsounderstoodtheunusualnatureofitsmonumentality
anditsuniquenessinNascasociety.AlthoughotherNascaceremonialsiteswithartificialconstructionshavesincebeendiscovered(Silverman1989a,1990c,d),none
ofthesecancomparetoCahuachi,andthefollowingstatementbyKroeberremainsessentiallytruemorethanfiftyyearsafterhemadeit.
ExceptingtheLateIcaandIncaruinsofstoneandsquaredadobeatParedonesandCurvi,andthelogpillartempleorstructureatLaEstaquera...CahuachiSouthistheonesite
inNazcavalleywheretherecanbesaidtobesystematicconstructions....TheterracingsatCahuachihavecrumbledandroundedwithtimeandatfirstseemnaturalbutadobeis
oftenevident,sometimeseventotheseparatebricks,andcanregularlybeencounteredwherelinesarestraightandterraceslevel.AdvantagewastakenbytheNazcabuilderstoa
greatextentofnaturallinesandcontours,asunworkedhillsfartherbackshow,andthelaborexpendedwascertainlyonlyaminutefractionofthatwhichwouldhavebeenneeded
toactuallyrearthepilesfromcultivationlevel.Still,alargeamountoflaborwentintothelevelings,facings,andwallsbetween,manyofwhichextendunderground,aschambersor
asnowunexplainedlengthsofwall,allofhandmadeadobes.(KroeberandCollierms.:III8183)

Tello:1926,1927
JulioC.TellowasintheNazcaregionin1926,atthesametimeasKroeber.Attimesthesetwogreatarchaeologistsworkedtogether,buttheywerenotatCahuachi
atthesametime(Kroeber1944:24).Duringhis1926project,TellocarriedoutexcavationsincemeterieslocatedatOcongalla,Majoro,Cantalloc,TierraBlanca,
Aja,Achaco,andSoisongo(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:145).
TelloreturnedtotheNazcaregionin1927,directinganexpeditionfromtheMuseodeArqueologaPeruana.1 HeworkedintheLasTrancas,Ingenio,SantaCruz,
andNazcavalleys.InNazcaheexcavatedatCahuachi,amongothernamedlocales(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:146),butitisnotclearifTellowasreferringtothe
archaeologicalsiteasdefinedhereinortothelimitsofthehacienda.Tello'sfieldworkwasspecificallydirectedattheexcavationoftombswhosecontentswouldform
collectionsforthemuseum.Inall,heexcavated537tombsintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagebetweenJanuaryandSeptember1927.Ofthese,80tombspertain
to"Nascaclsico"and176to"ChankaoPreNasca"(lateNasca)(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:147).

Page18

2.3.
NewmapofCahuachi:theeasternmostpartofthesite.Kroeberrecognizedthisareaasarchaeologicaland
partofCahuachi.ThenewCahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,
photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000maps
NazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.Aerialphotogrammetricinterpretationby
architectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page19

Doering:1932
TheGermanarchaeologistHeinrichUbbelohdeDoering(Doering1958Neudecker1979)workedintheNazcaregionduring1932,concentratingontheSantaCruz
valleybutalsoexcavatingatCahuachi.Doering'sfieldworkaroseoutofhispreviousstudyofNascaceramics.Doeringwantedtodeterminethekindsofgravesin
whichtheceramicswerefound,thetypesofpotterythatwerefoundtogether,andthekindsofweavingsthatwereassociatedwiththeceramics.Inall,heexcavated
aboutfiftygraves,onlysomeofwhichpertaintoNasca.
DoeringexcavatedtwoNascagravesatCahuachiinhisMorrolocus(Doering1958).Grave1isthetypelotforNasca8Grave2datestoNasca3A(Proulx1968:
table1).Thepreciselocationof"Morro"isunknown(seechap.14).
Hiatus:19331952
AfterDoering'sexcavationsin1932,therethenensuedalonghiatusofarchaeologicalfieldworkatCahuachiandonthesouthcoast,punctuatedonlybycontinuedand
continuouslooting.ThelonedatedexceptionistheexcavationconductedatChaviain1943byMrs.E.B.LothropandMrs.A.McK.Thompson"inthecourseofa
fewhours.Neitherwasaprofessionalarchaeologistbutbothtooknotesindependently,somemeasurementswererecordedandphotographysecured"(Lothropand
Mahler1957:4).Despitethewomen'slackoftraining,moreinformationhasbeenpublishedfortheselateNascaburialsatChaviathanformanyaprofessionally
excavatedNascatomb.
Strong:19521953
ThehiatusinNascaresearchwasbrokenin1952whenWilliamDuncanStrongledaColumbiaUniversityexpeditiontothesouthcoastofPeru.Strong(1957:13)
clearlydescribedtheprimarypurposeofhissouthcoastinvestigationsasthedeterminationofthetemporalrelationshipbetweentheParacasandNascaculturesand,
concomitantly,thestudyofsettlementpatternssoasto"selectthemostpromisingsitesforsondage"(Strong1957:3).Hecorrectlynotedthatpriorto1952no
stratigraphicexcavationsorsettlementpatternstudieshadbeenundertakenintheregion.
Strongsetabouttosolvethequestionsheposedthrough"detailedsurveyandstratigraphictechniquesalongthelinesalreadyinauguratedinCentralandNorthCoastal
Peru"(Strong1957:2).HereinweseethesourceofthefirstmajorproblemwithStrong'sfieldworkatCahuachi:excavationwascarriedoutbyarbitrarylevelswhose
contentswereanalyzedthroughtypefrequencyseriation(seeDunnell1970ontheproblemsofthetypefrequencymethod).ThemethoddeterminedStrong's

Page20
Page21

2.4.
NewmapofCahuachi:theeasternandcentralzones.StrongignoredthemajorarchitecturalfeatureseastofUnit10.BythetimethisnewmapofCahuachiwaselaborated,
Unit7,themoundonwhichStronghadexcavatedhisCut5,hadbeenbulldozed.ThenewCahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,
photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.
AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page22
Page23

2.5.
NewmapofCahuachi:thewesternzone.Asdelimitedinthisstudy,CahuachiextendsonlytoUnitH.AllculturalfeaturestoEstaquera,however,havebeenlabeled.Thenew
CahuachimapisbasedonServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazca
Palpa25andNazcaPalpa26,sheet184858360.AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page24
Page25

2.6.
NewmapoftheareaaroundthearchaeologicalsiteofEstaquera.TheareashownonthismapisnotpartoftheCahuachisite(seefigs.2.32.5).ThemapisbasedonServicio
AerofotogrficoNacionalseries17570,photos23702375and2534andtheMinisteriodeAgricultura'sCastastroRural1:10,000mapsNazcaPalpa25andNazcaPalpa26,
sheet184858360.AerialphotogrammetricinterpretationbyarchitectJosPinedagroundreconnaissancebyJosPinedaandHelaineSilverman.

Page26

fieldstrategy.Excavationbyarbitrarylevelsledtothepersistentmixingoftheceramiccollectionsthatweresupposedtoprovideanempiricalchronologicalsequence
(seechap.4).
CahuachiwaschosenfortestingbecauseStrongbelievedhewouldgetadeeplystratifiedsequenceatthesite.Priortoexcavation,then,someofCahuachi's
architecturewasalreadyinterpretedas"housemounds"inassociationwithtemplesandcemeteries(seeStrong1957:table1).Theimplicationwasthatsuchmounds
wereformedbythesequentialaccumulationofkitchenmidden,domesticrefuse,andabandonedstructuresthatthenbecamestratifiedinsituandovertime.Thisview
wasexplicitlyrepeatedbyRowe(1960:41)andMatosMendieta(1980:488).Figure2.2showsthelocationofallofStrong'sexcavationsatthesite.
Afterexcavation,Strong(1957:28)describedUnit7(seechaps.4,5)asan"occupationalandresidentialarea[that]consistsofaseriesofheavywalls,perhapsused
aswalks,andaseriesofwellconstructed,nicelyfinishedwattleanddaubwallsandfloors,theformerstrengthenedbybothsmallandlargealgarrobaposts."Unit6
(seechaps.4,5)wasinterpretedasanareaofa"LateParacasdomesticdwelling"thatwasfilledinovertimeandusedas"thenuclearcoreonwhichpeopleofthe
MiddleNazcaculturephaselaterbuiltatemple"(Strong1957:13).Unit5(seechaps.4,5)wasnotspecificallydescribed.
Concomitantly,someofCahuachi'sarchitecturewasdeterminedtobeceremonial,asisthecaseofUnit2,Strong's"GreatTemple"(seechaps.4,5).Strongalso
notedthepresenceofvastcemeteriesatthesite,manyofwhichheattributedtoCahuachi'sheyday.
Strong(1957:32)concluded,onthebasisofhisresearch,that"Cahuachiwasthegreatest,andprobablythemaincapitalsiteoftheNazcacivilizationinthetimeofits
ownpeculiarhighestflorescence."DuetoStrong'sdeath,afinalreportofhisCahuachiresearchwasneverpublished,althoughitwasinpreparation.Apreliminary
reportdid,however,comeoutin1957(Strong1957),precededbyashortarticle(Strong1954)andanoticeinAmericanAntiquity(seeRowe1953).
TwootherexcavationscarriedoutbyStrongintheNazcadrainagewillbementionedbrieflyhere.ThesearehisworkatthesiteofHuacadelLorointheLasTrancas
valley(Strong1957:3641),whoseassociatedceramiccollectionsspantheNasca7through9period(Paulsen1983,ms.),andthestratigraphictrenchheexcavated
atEstaquera,which"revealedsherdtypeswhichweremainlyofLateNazca(B)typebutalsoincludedthoseoftheHuacadelLorocultureofthesucceedingepochof
Fusion.Earlierorlatertypeswereabsent"(Strong1957:34).Strong(1957:34)decidedthatEstaquera"isreallyanextensionoftheCahuachisite,"aconclusion
whichisdisputedinchapter5ofthisbook.
NorthofNazca
Between1954and1955JohnH.RowedirectedtheFourthUniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpedition,alarge,areallyextensiveprojectthatcoveredthevast
southernportionofPeru(seeRowe1956).DuringthecourseofthisprojectLawrenceDawsoncontinuedrefiningtheseriationoftheNascastylethathehadbegunin
1952usingthecollectionsintheLowieMuseumatBerkeley.WhileinPeruDawsonstudiedPeruviancollectionsofNascapotteryanddidsurveyworkinIca,during
thecourseofwhichyetmoredataweregatheredfortheNascaseriation(Rowe1956:146).
During1954and1955DavidRobinson(1957)carriedoutasurveyintheNazcadrainage.RobinsonwasconcernedwiththeelucidationofthepostNascastylesin
theNazcaarea.Helocated111sites,almostallofwhichareidentifiedascemeteries.AtCahuachiRobinsonidentifiedninecemeterieswhichhenumberedIthrough
IX.Thefirstandeasternmostofthese,CahuachiI,islocatedabout1kilometereastoftheCaminodeLeguainotherwords,itissubstantiallyeastofUnitZZ,the
easternmostunitatthesite(seechaps.5,6).ThatcemeteryhasNascaEpigonalandCarrizalpottery.CahuachiIIisacemeteryofunknownculturalaffiliation.
Robinsonlocatedit100metersduewestofCahuachiI.CahuachiIIIisaNascaEpigonalcemeterythatis150meterssouthwestofCahuachiII.CahuachiIVhas
NascaEpigonalandCarrizalpotteryandis60meterswestofCahuachiII.CahuachiVisaNascaEpigonalcemeterythatis60metersduewestofCahuachiIII.
CahuachiVIIis2kilometerseastofHda.Cahuachialongthevalleyedge.IthasNasca,NascaTransitional,andNascaEpigonalpottery.CahuachiVIIIisonthe
northsideoftheNazcaRiver,onahilloppositeHda.Cahuachi.HereRobinsonfoundNascaandNascaEpigonalpottery.CahuachiIXcorrespondstotheextensive
cemeteriesonthenorthbankoftheNazcaRiveroppositeCahuachi.RobinsonfoundpotteryrunningthewholesequencefromNascatoPoroma.Wecanseethat
Robinson'suseoftheterm"Cahuachi"correspondedtothelegalagrarianlimitsofthehaciendainthe1950s.
RobinsonidentifiedthearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiwiththeCahuachiVIcemetery.Hereportedthatthe"eastendofthesiteisallcemeteryarea"(Robinson1957:
50)with"ParacasTransitional"(Nasca1),Nasca,"NascaTransitional"(Nasca8),and"NascaEpigonal"

Page27

(localMiddleHorizon)pottery.Althoughmonumental(andnotsomonumental)constructionsexistintheeasternarea,Robinsoniscorrectthatthisisthemost
massivelylootedareaoftheentiresite.
UndertheauspicesoftheFulbrightProgramofEducationalExchange,DorothyMenzel,JohnRowe,DwightWallace,andLawrenceDawsoncarriedoutextensive
andintensiveinvestigationsintheIcavalley(seeRowe1963Menzel1971Wallace1962),someofwhichprovidedimportantnewinformationontheNasca
occupationofthevalley,particularlyforEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch7(seeMenzel1971:8692).TheIcavalleywassurveyedagainalmosttwodecadeslaterby
architectCarlosWilliamsLenandarchaeologistMiguelPazosRivera(1974)forthepurposeofmakingasiteinventoryfortheInstitutoNacionaldeCultura,andthe
upperIcavalleywassurveyedforathirdtimeseveralyearslaterbySarahMassey(1986)forherdissertationproject,whichconcentratedontheoccupationsdating
tothelateEarlyHorizonandearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriod.
SouthofNazca
AspartoftheFourthUniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpedition,DorothyMenzelandFrancisRiddellcarriedoutfieldworkintheAcarvalleyduring1954
and1955(MenzelandRiddell1986seealsoRowe1956,1963).TheretheydocumentedanimportantNasca3(aswellasInca)occupationatthesiteofTambo
Viejo,thelargestandmostcomplexsiteintheAcarvalley.InadditiontomappingandexcavationsatTamboViejo,asignificantsurveyoftheAcarChala,andYauca
valleyswasconductedbyMenzel,Riddell,Rowe,andWallace(seeRowe1956:139).Asaresultofthatsurvey,Huarato,Chocavento,andAmatowereidentifiedas
Nasca3habitationsitesofareputedlyintrusiveandfortifiednature(Rowe1963:1112).
Hiatus:19561983
FollowingStrong'sexcavationsatCahuachi,Robinson'ssurveyinNazca,andtheCaliforniateam'sinvestigationsinIcaandAcar,thereensuedanearlythirtyyear
hiatusinNascafieldresearchasattentionshiftedtotheelaborationofafinerelativechronology.MyincipientsitesurveyintheRoGrandedeNazcaregionin1983
andOrefici'sexcavationsatBajadadeSanJos(unpublished)andPuebloViejo(seeIslaetal.1984)in1983werethefirstscientificallyconductedinvestigationsin
theRoGrandedeNazcadrainageafterthatlongbreak.
Silverman:1983
WhilestudyingatColumbiaUniversity,IhadtheopportunitytoworkwithStrong'scollectionsfromCahuachi.Thatresearchledmetoquestiontheprevailingcultural
reconstructionofearlyNascasocietyasakindofshortlivedempire(e.g.,Rowe1963).Instead,itappearedthatcertaincommonattributesofstatehoodweremissing
inearlyNascasociety(Silverman1977).But,clearly,onlysettlementpatternfieldworkandnotmoreceramicanalysisofexistingcollectionscouldresolvethemany
questionsaboutNascaculture.
In1983IbeganfieldworkonNascaintheNascaheartlandwithalimited,leapfrogreconnaissanceofthemiddleNazcaandAtarcovalleysandtheCoyungooasisof
thelowerGrande.2 Thatessentially"looksee"surveyrevealedfewNascahabitationsites(andfewerstillthatwerecontemporarywithCahuachi)cemeteries,
however,abounded(fig.2.7).The1983surveyledtothefor

2.7.
Histogramshowingthequantityandtypeofsitesidentifiedonthe
incompleteandpreliminary1983surveyoftheNazcadrainage.
In1983thediscrepancybetweenNascacemeteriesandNasca
habitationsiteswasinterpretedasindicatingthatCahuachihad
absorbedmuchofthevalley'spopulation.Intensivesystematic
surveyoftheIngenio,middleGrande,Palpa,Viscas,andupper
GrandevalleysconductedbyHelaineSilvermanandDavidBrowne
between1987and1989hassinceyieldeddatathatconfigureinto
amorebalancedNascasettlementpattern.Theskewingofthe
MiddleHorizonsitesisdiscussedbySilverman(1990c,d).The
LateIntermediatePeriodsettlementpatternshowsaparity
betweenhabitationsitesandcemeteries.

Page28

mulationoftheworkinghypothesesthatguidedtheprogramofinvestigationsdescribedinthisbook(seechap.8).
Orefici:1983tothePresent
In1983anItalianarchitect,GiuseppeOrefici,launchedamassive,multiyearprogramoflargescaleexcavationsatvarioussitesintheNazcaarea.Inadditiontotest
excavationsconductedattheLateIntermediatePeriodsiteofCiudadPerdidadeHuayurinSantaCruz,OreficiandhisCentroItalianoStudieRicerche
ArcheologichePrecolombianeteamhaveexcavatedatthemulticomponent(includingNasca)sitesofPuebloViejoonthesouthbankoftheNazcaRiver(seeIslaetal.
1984)andBajadadeSanJosinthemiddleIngeniovalley,aswellasatCahuachiitself(BuenoMendozaandOrefici1984Orefici1987,1988Isla1990).
ExcavationsatCahuachicontinueandareplannedforatleastanotherfiveyears.PublicationsbytheItalianprojectarefewandextremelypreliminary.However,
Oreficihasgenerouslydiscussedhisresearchwithme,anditisonthebasisoftheseconversationsandexaminationofCahuachiwithhimthatIbasethefollowing
remarks.
Orefici'sworkatCahuachihasthegoalofrevealingthesite'sarchitectureandarchitecturalgrowth.BeginningwithexcavationsonUnit10in1984,theItalianproject
hassinceexcavatedatanumberofmoundsatthesite.Thusfar,Oreficireportsthathisteamhasfoundnoevidenceofdense,permanenthabitationatthesiteor
stratifiedhabitationrefuse.Tothecontrary,allremainsandarchaeologicalcontextsindicateceremonial/ritualratherthandomesticactivities.Forexample,ontheeast
sideofthenorthfaceofUnit8,Oreficidiscoveredalargeclaystepmotiffriezeonamassivenorthcontentionwall(seecoverofOrefici1987).ThisNasca1temple
constructionphasewasintentionallyburiedtobuildalater(Nasca3?)temple.Inaddition,in1992Oreficifoundawallonwhoseplasteredfacean"orcamarina"had
beentraced.InoneofthelowerroomsonthenortheastsideofStrong'sGreatTemple(Unit2),Orefici'steamdiscoveredacacheofhundredsofbrokenpanpipeson
theflooroftheroomthesearecurrentlyunderstudybythePeruvianmusicologistCesarBolaos.Thispatternofritual/ceremonialremainsiscontinuinginOrefici's
1991fieldseason:themultipleburialofmorethansixtysacrificedcamelidswasdiscoveredtothesoutheastoftheUnit19mound.Orefici'sexcavationsonUnit10,the
moundmostintensivelyexcavatedbytheItalians,haverevealedamazeofroomsandcorridorswithrepeatedarchitecturalmodifications(accessesblocked,rooms
filledin),muchlikeourowndataforUnit19(discussedinchaps.12,13).Inaddition,Oreficihasrecoveredvariousburialsatthesite,atleastoneceremonialdrum,
andotherelaboratepottery.
Oreficiisnowinagreementwithmethatthereisoftenaceremonialaspecttomanyoftheconstructionfillswehaveexcavated.Thisconsistsofapatterneddeposition
ofpotteryandbotanicalremainsinthefills.
AlthoughOrefici(1987:7)reportedfindingevidenceofceramicproductionintheformofanoven,hetoldme(personalcommunication1989)thathehadnotfound
anyfiringareasorwastersatCahuachiandthathisevidenceofceramicproductionconsistedofpigmentsandfinehairedpaintbrushes.Myprojectrecoveredthese
samekindsofmaterials.Inaddition,bothofushavefoundabundanttextileremainsandartifactsrelatedtotextilemanufacture.
Overall,thenatureandpatternsofOrefici'sremainscorrespondtothoseencounteredbymyproject.Orefici'scolleaguesawaitpublicationofarchitecturalplansanda
comprehensivesitereportonthestratigraphyandassociatedremains.
ProjectsinProgress
AneweraoffieldworkisunderwayonthesouthcoastofPeru.SomeofthisresearchisdevotedtothestudyofancientNascasocietyortothecollectionofdataon
Nascasocietyaspartofadifferentthrust.IcallattentiontoDavidBrowne'ssurveyinthePalpa,Viscas,andupperGrandevalleys(seeBrowneandBaraybar1988
Brownen.d.),AnitaCook'ssurveyinthelowerIcavalley,KatharinaSchreiber'ssurveyoftheNazcavalleyproperandTarugaandLasTrancas,PatrickCarmichael's
surveyofthelittoralzonebetweenAcarandtheBahadelaIndependencia,theCaliforniaInstituteofPeruvianStudies(henceforth,CIPS)projectinAcar(Kowta
1987a,bRiddellandValdezCardenas1988Riddell1985,1989),andmyownsurveyoftheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys(Silverman1989a,1990c,d).Thus
far,preliminarydataareavailablefromtheCIPSproject,3 Browne'sproject,4 andmysurveyproject(seechapter23).
Notes
1.ThenationalmuseumofPeruconcernedwitharchaeologywasoriginallytheMuseodeArqueologaPeruana(TelloandMejaXesspe1967).Thatmuseumwas
formedaroundtheprivatecollectionsofVictorLarcoHerrera.OnApril9,1931,anewinstitutioncalledtheMuseoNacionalwascreated.OnJanuary29,1945,

Page29

thenationalmuseumsofPeruwerereorganized,andtheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologacameintoexistence.
2.Thesurveyareasin1983weredeterminedbytransportationconstraints.Itraveledaroundthedrainagewiththearea'sbreaddeliveryman,DonPedro,surveying
whereverhewent.SometimesIreturnedwithhimtoNazcainthelateafternoonandsometimesIremainedandwaspickedupthenextday.Arealcoveragewas
spottybutsufficienttogetanideaofwhatNascaresearchcouldandshouldbedoneforadissertationproject.Nosurfacecollectionsweremade.ThetransectsI
walkedwere:MalpasotoLasBrujasinthelowerGrande,UsacatoLasCaasandPachecotoOcongallaonthesouthsideoftheNazcaRiver,EstaqueraAltato
AyapanaonthenorthsideoftheNazcaRiver,andtheareaimmediatelyaroundAtarcointheQuebradaAtarcoduesouthofCahuachi.OnedayIrapidlydrovefrom
NazcatoPircaonthenorthsideoftheAjaRiver,examiningseveralsitesvisiblefromtheroad.
3.TheCIPSprojectisdirectedbyFrancisRiddellandhaditsinceptionthirtyyearsagowhenRiddellandDorothyMenzelparticipatedintheFourthUniversityof
CaliforniaArchaeologicalExpeditiontoPeru.ThenewCIPSprojecthasconfirmedmanyofthefindingsoftheearlierCaliforniaexpeditionandthepreviouswork
conductedatChaviaandhasaddedvariousNascasitestothevalleyinventory.SitesdatingtoNasca3arethelargestintheAcarvalley(Kowta1987a:54).Valdez
Cardenas(1989:30,34)reportsonfiveotherNascasitescalledCancino,Coquimbo,LomasIandII,andBocadelRo,allofwhichwereabandonedattheendof
EarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3.Thusfar,sitesdatingtoNasca4and5havenotbeenidentifiedinAcar,butamajorNasca7occupationisrepresentedbythe
richChaviacemetery(LothropandMahler1957)andChaviafishingvillage(ValdezCardenas1990:2728),theinlandsettlementatGentilar(ValdezCardenas
1989),andthesitescalledOroya,CancianoAltoA,andCancianoAltoB(ValdezCardenas1989:30).SomeNasca6potteryissaidtobefoundatGentilar,
CancianoAltoB,thecemeteryatChavia,andacemeteryatTamboViejo(RiddellandValdezCardenas1988:98).ThereisamajorNasca8andMiddleHorizon
occupationintheAcarvalley.
ValdezCardenas(1989:34)alsomentionsaNascasitecalledMontegrandeAltowhichconsistsofarchitecturalconstructionsandagroupofburials.Sherd
drawingsfromthissitesuggestaNasca1to2date(seeRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.36).Nasca1(see,e.g.,RiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.
39)andotherearlyNascapotteryisfoundattheBocadelRositeontheeastsideoftheAcarRiver.Nasca1and2potteryisalsofoundatTamboViejo(see,
e.g.,Riddell1985:fig.7band7g,respectivelyRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.38,toptwosherds)butnotinthequantitiesofitsmajorNasca3
occupation.
4.WithregardtotheEarlyIntermediatePeriodinthePalparegion,DavidBrowne(n.d.)reportsamajorexpansionofsettlementduringNasca1times.Hehas
discernedahierarchyofsettlementsizesandrecordedafewcivicceremonialcenters.ByNasca3,hereports,"thetrendsbeguninNasca1werefullydeveloped,in
particulartheapparentimportanceofcivic/ceremonialcentresinthesitehierarchy."Henotesamajorchangeinsettlementpatternsfortheperiodoftime
correspondingtoNasca4,andbyNasca5theearliercivicceremonialcenterswerealmostcompletelyabandonedorconvertedtocemeteries.Hehaslimited
settlementevidenceforthetimecorrespondingtophases6to8oftheNascaceramicsequenceandpositsasubstantialdropinlocalpopulationlevels.

Page30

ChapterThree
NascaChronology
RelativeChronologyoftheNascaStyle
NascapotteryisfoundinalargeareaofthesouthcoastofPeru1 duringtheperiodoftimecalledtheEarlyIntermediatePeriod,c.200B.C.toA.D.600(fig.3.1).
Shortlyafterthediscoveryofthepottery,variousresearchersrealizeditwaspossibletodistinguishtwoprincipalmodalitiesintheNascaceramicstyle(Rowe
1960:29).Uhle(1914:9)describesthedifferencesbetweenthetwomodalitiesintheseterms."Itiseasytodistinguishcertainvarietiesamongspecimensofpotteryof
thesameculture.Somewillshowagreatervarietyofcolors,othersareplainersomeshowsevereoutlinesintheirfiguredesigns,whileothersaremarkedbyafree
andflowingtreatment,whichoftendegeneratedintoamassofmeaninglessstafforarrowlikepointsandscrollsaroundtheoriginalnucleusofthedesign.Itappears
thatthosedesignswhicharedistinguishablebythemoreseveretreatmentofthefigureornamentinunisonwiththerichestharmonyofitscoloring,mustbeconsidered
asrepresentingtheearliertype."
Asisobviousinhisanalysis,Uhlethoughtthatrepresentationaliconographyprecededconventionalizeddesigns.Thisdecisionwasbasedonhisbeliefintheexistence
ofalawofartisticdevelopmentfromrealismtoconventionalism(seeRowe1960:29).Tello(1917seealsoRossellTruel1960),ontheotherhand,arguesthat
conventionalizedNascapottery("PreNazca")precededthereferentialcorpus.Yacovleff(1932b)alsooffersastylisticdevelopmentalorderingofNascaartand
concludes,likeUhlebeforehim,thatNascaartevolvedfromrepresentationalmotifstoabstractones.YetathirdpositionistakenbyJuniusBird,whomaintainsthat
thetwostrainswerecontemporary(seeRowe1960:38).Fromthebeginning,then,weseethatresearchersrecognizedtheexistenceoftwomodalitiesinNascaart
andtriedtoplacetheminchronologicalorder.
InanattempttodealinamoresystematicandlessspeculativewaywiththeinternalchronologyoftheNascastyle,GaytonandKroeber(1927)devisedaquantitative
methodoforderingwhichtheyconsideredsuitableforcollectionsofunassociatedpotterysuchasthatpurchasedbyUhleinNazca.Theyestablishedthreeattributes
shape,color,anddesignand,"onthebasisoftherelationshipexistingbetweencertainshapesandcertaindesignandcolorpreferences"(GaytonandKroeber1927:
6),theyproposedtheexistenceoffourchronologicalphasesor"substyles"intheNascastyle.ThesewereA,theearliestX,transitionalB,thelatestandY,a
miscellaneouscategoryencompassingwhattodaywewouldcallNasca8aswellassundrypiecestheywereotherwiseunabletophase.
Kroeber(1956:327)laterexplainedtheirmethodology."Wedividedthecollectioninto26classesofshapes,andselectedbyinspectionfortypainteddesignswith
nameslargelytranslatedfromSeler(1923)andthentabulatedthecooccurrenceofshapesanddesigns.Thecooccurrencesshowedadefinitetrend,inthatthey
lumpedorclottedalongadiagonal.Thedirectionofthistrendweinferredfromvariantformsofthesamedesignofwhichoneseemed`naturally'derivablefromthe
other,butthereversewasnot.Inbriefweestablished4classes[A,B,X,andY]."NotethatthedirectionofchangeintheGaytonKroeber

Page31

3.1.
RelativechronologyforthesouthcoastofPeru.
BasedonRoweandMenzel1967:chronologicaltable.

schemewasbasedsolelyontheirbeliefthatthestylehaddeveloped,asUhlesaid,frommorerealistictomoreconventionalized.
TheGaytonKroeberschemewasuseduntilRowe(1960:3840)publishedinpreliminaryformtheseriationLawrenceDawsonhadworkedoutonthesame
collectionofpotteryin1952.DawsonsubdividedtheNascastyleintoninesequentialphases,Nasca1through9(seefigs.3.23.8foranoverviewoftheseriated
phasesandthestyleseeRowe1960Pezzia1969:129140Roark1965Proulx1968,1983Blagg1975).Thesequencewassubsequentlyfurtherrefinedinto
subphases(e.g.,Silverman1977forNasca2Proulx1968forNasca3Wegnerms.forNasca6Paulsen1983andms.forNasca8Menzel1964forNasca9)but
withlittleifanystratigraphicsupport.Inlayingouttheearlypartofthesequence,Rowe(1956:146)notedthattheBerkeleyarchaeologistshadtraveledtoColumbia
UniversitytostudyStrong'scollectionssothattheywouldnotmakeinterpretationsoftheirowndata"whichconflictedwiththedatagatheredbytheColumbiagroup."
Clearly,independentconfirmationofStrong'ssequencewouldhavebeendesirable.
Rowe(1960:29)coinedtheterm"Monumental"todescribethevarietyormodalityofNascaartthatexhibitsrelativelyrealisticdesigns.Thetermspecificallyreferred
toNasca3and4pottery(Rowe1960:41)androughlycorrespondstoGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaA.Roweusedtheterm"Proliferous"toindicatethemore
conventionalizedmotifshavingvolutes,rays,andpoints.Nasca5istransitionalbetweenMonumentalandProliferous(seeRoark1965Blagg1975)butshouldnotbe
confusedwithGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaXwhichhasnoselfdefiningpropertybut,rather,mixesvesselsofvariousphases.Proliferationbeginsoncertainbizarre
innovationpotteryofNasca5(Roark1965:26Blagg1975)andischaracteristicofNascaphases6and7(Rowe1960:41)itcorrespondsroughlytoGaytonand
Kroeber'sNazcaB.Nasca7,acrucialphaseforunderstandingtheeventsoftheMiddleHorizon,remainsverypoorlydefinedbeyonditsProliferousaspect.Nasca8
wasfirstdefinedbyStrong(1957),whocalleditHuacadelLoroafterthetypesite(seealsoSilverman1988b)DawsonhascalledNasca8"Disjunctive"(Proulx
1968:1)itmoreorlesscorrespondstoGaytonandKroeber'sNazcaY.
TheindependentBerkeleyseriationdeterminedthat

Page32

3.2.
DiagnosticNasca1potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.
CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

3.3.
DiagnosticNasca2and3potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.
NotephotographoftheHaeberlipanpipewhichwasDawson'skeypieceforthedefinitionofNasca2.Nasca3potteryis
locatedtotherightoftheNasca2material.

Page33

3.4.
DiagnosticNasca4and5potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.
CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

3.5.
DiagnosticNasca5potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.Clearlyseenare
examplesoftheBizarreInnovation,ProgressiveMonumental,andConservativeMonumentalstyleswithinNasca5(seeBlagg1975).

Page34

3.6.
DiagnosticNasca6and7potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.
CourtesyLawrenceDawson.DawsonhasrecognizedsignificantMocheIVinfluenceonNasca7pottery.

3.7.
DiagnosticNasca7potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethisphase.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.

Page35

3.8.
DiagnosticNasca8and9potteryusedbyLawrenceDawsontodefinethesephases.CourtesyLawrenceDawson.Ontheextreme
rightisaMiddleHorizon2pieceofNieverapottery(thedoublespoutandbridgebottle)fromthecentralcoastinsertedby
DawsonamongthisgroupofNasca9potterytoshowthesocalledWariStingerAnimal.Ihaveargued(Silverman1988b),following
Strong(1957:3641),thatNasca8isnotaNascastyle.Knobloch(1983)andI(Silverman1988b)regardNasca9asChakipampa.

theMonumentalstrainofNascapotterywasantecedenttoProliferousbasedonthecontinuityseenbetweenearliestNascaandParacas(seeMenzel,Rowe,and
Dawson1964:251)andthesimilarityseenbetweenlatestNascaandWari.Rowe(1960:41)emphaticallystatesthatalthoughDawsonreachedthesamebasic
conclusionashadUhle,GaytonandKroeber,andYacovleff,theDawsonseriationabsolutelydidnotjustifythemethodologyusedbytheearlierresearchersthe
concordancebetweentheseveralschemeswaspurechance.
TheBerkeley(Dawson)Seriation
TheBerkeleyseriationofNascapotterywasachievedthroughanontypologicalandnonquantitativemethodofceramicanalysiscalled"seriationbycontinuityof
featuresandvariationinthemes"(seeRowe1959,1961).Itsgoalistocreatearelativeceramicsequencewithwhichtotracechange.Asachronologicalschemeit
canbecontrastedwithothertechniquesthathavebeendevisedtocreatearelativechronology.Theseotherschemeshaveallinvolveduseofthetype,whetherintype
frequencyseriation(e.g.,FordandWilley1949)ortypevarietyanalysis(Wheat,Gifford,andWasley1958Phillips1958Smith,Willey,andGifford1960Gifford
1960SabloffandSmith1969interaliaseeSmith1979forascathingcritiqueofthetypevarietymethod).Rowe(1959:318319)explicitlyrejectsthetypeasa
basisforchronologicalordering,arguing,amongotherthings,thatthetypescreatedbyarchaeologistsgenerallyhaverelativelylonglifespans,thatitisimpossibleto
unambiguouslyclassifyallsherdsaccordingtoarbitrarytypedefinitions,andthatadateobtainedbytypefrequencyseriationisbutameandateforthesample.In
otherwords,thetypeisaninappropriatebasisforpreciselytracingchange.TheappropriatenessofRowe'srejectionoftypefrequencyseriationissupportedby
Dunnell's(1970,1971)criticismsofthefallaciesofthismethod(seealsoBennyhoff1952Lathrap1962).
Inlieuofthetype,Rowe(1959:320)proposesusingsignificantfeaturesastheunitofstudy.Thefeaturecouldalsobecalledanattributeandhasnocultural
connotationwhatsoever(versusRouse1972).Afeatureisdefinedas"anycharacteristicordetailofanobjectwhichcanbeobservedandisolated,whetherofmaterial

Page36

orworkmanshipordecoration"(Rowe1959:320).Rowe(1959:320)statesthatnotallfeaturesareuseful,andsignificantfeaturesarethosewhose"patternof
occurrenceenablesustomakechronologicaldistinctions."NoteagainthatRoweisconcernedwithchronology,notculture.Accordingly,the"mostusefulfeaturesfor
datingpurposesarethosewhichoccurfrequentlyduringarelativelyshortspanoftimeandarenotfoundearlierorlater"orwhich"occuratthebeginningoftherecord
beinganalyzed,haveacontinuousexistence,andgooutbeforetheendoftherecord...[or]whichcomeinafterthebeginningoftherecordandlastuntilthe
end"(Rowe1959:320).
Seriationbycontinuityoffeaturesandvariationinthemesusespresenceabsenceratherthanfrequencytoestablishtemporaldifferences.Thus,itinvolvesfewerofthe
samplingproblemsthatplaguetypefrequencyseriation,anditcanalsobeappliedtounassociatedpiecessuchasthoseinmuseumsitisespeciallyappropriatefor
gravelots.Themorefeaturesandthemesidentified,themoreconfidencewecanhaveintheproposedseriation.Rowe(1959:329)suggeststhataminimumofa
hundredfeaturesisnecessaryforasolidseriation.
Featureswhichareconsistentlycombinedformthemes(Rowe1959:328).AnexampleofonesuchthemeonNascapotteryistheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing
(seeProulx1968:figs.1820).Researchers(e.g.,Proulx1968Roark1965)havearguedthatvariationinsomeofitsfeatures,suchastheforeheadornament,has
chronologicalsignificance.Vesselshapeisalsotreatedasatheme,andthereforethefeatures(ordesigns)onspecificshapesarekeptanalyticallyseparate(Rowe
1959:328329).Rowedoesnotdiscuss,however,howthesemorphologicalthemes(shapes)arearrivedat,and,intermsofculturalclassificationofvesselshape
(see,e.g.,Lathrap1962:236DeBoerandLathrap1979),onemaybalkatsomeoftheoverlyfineshapediscriminationsmadebyProulx(1968).TheBerkeley
seriationcannotgetatthekindsofculturalinformationLathrap(1962),forinstance,obtainsfromhismodifiedmodalanalysis,norisitconcernedwithdoingsoitsgoal
ischronology.Rowe'soneexplicitstatementofculturalconcernisfoundinhiscontentionthatstylisticchangeistypicallygradualabruptand/orrapidchangeisdueto
culturalupheaval,whosecausescanbeindependentlyinvestigated(Rowe1959:329).ThisgenerallackofculturalconcernismanifestedintheinclusionofNasca8
withinthegradualdevelopmentalsequenceoftheNascastyle(seeSilverman1988b).Ontheotherhand,andinstrongdefenseoftheBerkeleyseriation,aprecise
relativechronologyistheprimarytoolintracingculturalchangeinthearchaeologicalrecord(see,e.g.,Menzel1964).
Rowe'sseriationmethodoperatesatthelevelofthestyle,butBlagg(1975)cogentlyarguesthattheNascastyleis,infact,composedofsevensequentialand
concurrentNascastyles.Blagg(1975:6)acceptsthevalidityoftheexistenceofthetwomajorstyles,MonumentalandProliferoussherecognizestheexistenceof
three"minor"styles,"ProtoNasca"(Nasca1and2),"ProgressiveMonumental"(Nasca5),and"BizarreInnovation"(Nasca5seeRoark1965:2526),andshe
identifiesa"closingdecadentstyle"(Nasca8and9).Shealsodefinesa"ConservativeMonumental"Nasca5style,whichgivesatotalofthreeconcurrentNasca5
styles.
IlaudBlagg'srevisionsbutwouldmodifyherstylisticcategoriessomewhat.Blagg(1975:6)callsNasca1and2"ProtoNasca"andrestrictsMonumental(Early
Monumental)toNasca3and4followingRowe(1960).IagreewithBlaggthatNasca1canbeseparatedoutasanindividualstyle,whatStrong(1957)originally
calledProtoNazca,butIthinkNasca2shouldbeconsideredpartoftheMonumentalstylebecauseitexhibitsmuchoftherepresentationaliconographycharacterizing
MonumentalwhereasNasca1doesnot.TheNascastylesIsee,then,areNasca1,MonumentalorEarlyMonumental(Nasca2through4),Conservative
MonumentalorLateMonumental(Nasca5through7encompassingBlagg'sConservativeMonumentalNasca5andnonProliferousNasca6and7),Progressive
Monumental(Nasca5),BizarreInnovation(Nasca5),andProliferous(Nasca6and7).Nasca8shouldbecalledLoro(followingStrong)andisarguablynota
NascastylecertainnonNascalookingNasca7wouldbeplacedintheLorostyle(seeSilverman1988b).Nasca9isChakipampa(Knobloch1983Silverman
1988b).
RecognitionoftheexistenceofcontemporaryNascastylesuseschronologyasatoolnotasanendinitselfandopensthedoortosignificantculturalandsocial
interpretation.WecanseektoanswerBlagg's(1975)questionofwhatcausedtheBizarreInnovationandwhatitmeant.Wealsocanaddressnewquestionssuchas
whatwastheroleofceramicartinNascasociety,whatwasthesocialandeconomicorganizationofNascaceramicproduction,whywerethereseveraldifferent
coexistingNascastylesatparticularmomentsoftime,anddoalloftheproposedNascaphaseshavetemporal/settlementreality?
UnderthetermsoftheBerkeleymethoditisdifficulttotalkaboutsmallerunitsoftheNascastyleexceptas

Page37

allencompassingchronologicalunitscalledphases.Forinstance,Nasca1,theearliestphaseoftheNascastyle,actuallyiscomposedofseveraldistinctkindsof
pottery,eachonepresumablywithitsownhistorythatcanbeelucidatedthroughmorefieldworkandbyusingotherkindsofanalyticalprocedures.Strong's(1957)
distinctionofceramictypessuchasCahuachiPolishedBlackIncised,CahuachiStylusDecorated,CahuachiPolychromeIncisedandModeledThin,andCahuachi
PolychromeIncisedThickremovestheunmanageablemonolithicqualitythateachoftheNascaphasescurrentlyhas,althoughthesetypesarepooranalyticalunits
giventheabsenceofcorrelationwithvesselshape,paste,andotherattributes.Ideally,itshouldbepossibletoidentifyallthedifferentkindsandstylesofpotterythat
weremadebyNascapeopleandtodeterminetheirorigin,culturalrelationships,use,date,andfate.AmethodsuchasLathrap's(1962)modalanalysiscombinedwith
afinerelativechronologyderivedfromstratigraphiccontextsandcreatedbysimilaryseriationbasedoncontinuityoffeaturesandvariationofthemesisneeded.While
itisofthegreatestvaluetobeabletorecognizethatastratumorahabitationsitedatestoNasca1orNasca3,itisequallyimportanttobeabletotalkabout,
conceptualize,andinvestigatetheroleofpotteryandpotterystyleinsociety.
OtherproblemscanbecitedinthemethodologyandassumptionsunderlyingtheBerkeleyseriation.Theceramicsampleencompassedonlythefanciest(andhence
most"featureful")pottery.Thesequencewasdevelopedlargelyonthebasisofwholeceramicvessels(withandwithoutprovenience)frommortuarycontexts(see
Rowe1962a)littleofthesequenceisbasedondepositionalrelationshipsalthoughitisalogicalconstruct.UtilitarianNascawareshaveyettobedefinedandstudied.
VesselsdecoratedbylessskilledartistsmaynotconformtotheidealNascacanons,makingphaseattributiondifficult.Inaddition,thecreationoffinedivisions
betweenphases(andwithinphases)didnottakeintoaccounteccentricitiesofindividualartistsorregionalvariationaspotentialnonchronologicalcausesofstylistic
variation.Finally,aparticularlyelaborateoruniquevesselmayhavebothconservativeandinnovativefeatures(i.e.,rareassociations),makingitsphaseplacement
difficult.
TheNascaSequenceatCahuachi
OnlypartoftheNascasequenceisdemonstratedinmyexcavations(seechaps.913,16),butexcavationappearstoconfirmStrong'sresults(seechap.4)andthe
Berkeleyarchaeologists'interpretationofthem.Bearinmind,however,thatthisisatautologysinceitonlyprovestheunproventheveracityoftheseriationhasnot
beenindependentlyestablished.Iftheseriationworks,thenStrongandIhavecertainevidenceinsupportofit.Thisisnotthesamethingasdoinganindependent
seriation.TheprincipalreasonwhyIwasunabletodoanewseriationonthebasisofthe19841985fieldworkatCahuachiisthatmostoftheexcavationsdidnot
encounterdeep,undisturbed,primarydepositioncontextsbutratherconstructionfill,disturbedcontexts,sterilecontexts,andevenpostNascacontexts(seechaps.9
13).
NoParacassherdswererecoveredinexcavationcontextsduringmyinvestigationsatCahuachi2 StrongfoundonlyahandfulofParacas103 sherdsalwaysmixed
withNasca1(seechap.4).ThereisahintofNasca1to2superpositioninExcavation11.TheNasca2to3sequenceisclearlydemonstratedinExcavations11and
12.FromExcavation9camethedemonstrationthatNasca3antecedesNasca5(seechap.12).ThestratigraphicsequenceofTestPit8appearstoshowNasca4
overlyingadepositwithNasca2and3sherds(seechap.11).
Independently,Strong(1957)andI(fig.16.50)reachedtheconclusionthatEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3wastheapogeeofCahuachibasedonthefrequencyof
Nasca3potteryanditsassociationwitharchitecture.Nasca1and2arerepresentedtoalesserdegreebutaresignificantlypresentatthesite.PotteryoflaterNasca
phasesisveryscarce.Orefici's(personalcommunication1989)resultsfromCahuachiconfirmStrong'sandminewiththeimportantcodathathehasfoundamajor
Nasca1ceremonialconstruction,his"StepMotifTemple,"atUnit8(seecoverofOrefici1987).IstronglysuspectthatasmoundexcavationscontinueatCahuachi,
otherNasca1and,presumably,Nasca2ceremonialconstructionsunderlyingtheNasca3apogeeconstructionphasewillbeidentified.SuchNasca1ceremonial
constructionswouldexplainthesignificantlygreaterquantityofNasca1finewares(e.g.,CahuachiPolychromeIncisedThickandThin,CahuachiPolychromeIncised
andModeledThin,CahuachiStylusDecorated,CahuachiPolishedBlackIncised)atCahuachithanispresentonthesurfaceofthemanyNasca1habitationsites
identifiedonsurveyinthenorthernvalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.
ReexaminationofStrong'scollectionsisnecessarytodetermineifherecoveredNasca4potteryinhisexcavations.DawsonsawnoNasca4sherdsonthesurface

Page38

ofCahuachi(Proulx1968:98),andKroeber'sgravelotsfromCahuachidatetoNasca3,notNasca4(seechap.14).Nasca4isrepresentedinmyexcavation
collections,thoughnotinquantity.TwodiagnosticNasca4sherdswerefoundwithNasca3sherdsinthefillbetweenthesouthwalloftheRoomofthePostsandthe
contentionwallofUnit19whichwascoveredtobuildtheroom(seechap.13).Nasca4potterywascollectedonthedisturbedsurfaceofUnit19andinexcavations
there.ButNasca4isnotamajorconstructionphasesinceitappearsthatotherareasofUnit19werebeingclosedwhiletheRoomofthePostswasbeingbuilt.
Nasca4wouldbeinterpolatedbetweenNasca3and5onthebasisofstylisticarguments.Tothebestofmyknowledge,thereisnopublishedreportofaNasca3to
4to5stratigraphicsequence.PreliminaryanalysisofmysurveydatarevealssignificantlylessNasca4potterythanNasca3inthenorthernvalleysoftheRoGrande
deNazcadrainage.EitherNasca4isaveryshortphaseoroneinwhichtherewassignificantculturalupheaval(seeProulx1968:98)oronewhichvariesregionally,
oritlackstemporalreality.
Nasca5and6potteryrarelyisfoundatCahuachi.StrongexcavatedaNasca5and6cemeteryatthesite,hisBurialArea1(seeStrong1957:figs.4,13CE,14B,
D,E,GJseechap.14),butrecoverednoNasca5or6potteryinhisexcavations(Proulx1968:98).AsmallamountofdiagnosticNasca5potterywasrecovered
inourexcavationsatUnit16(seechap.9)andUnit19(seechap.12).Furthermore,arayedfacedesignonthewestwalloftheRoomofthePostscanbedatedto
Nasca5onthebasisofitsiconographicsimilaritytosimilarfacesonNasca5pottery(seechap.13comparefig.13.10tofig.3.5backrowpots).ApossibleNasca
6sherdwasfoundinstratum2intheUnitFexcavations(seechap.10).
VerylittleNasca7potteryisknownfromCahuachi.StrongrecoverednoNasca7sherdsinhisstratigraphiccuts(Proulx1968:98).Nasca7sherdswereobserved
atUnitNinthewesternzoneofCahuachi(seechap.5).OneNasca7sherdwasrecoveredinthedirtfillingRoom3onUnit19(seechap.12).Aspout(Silverman
1986:fig.313),tentativelydatedasNasca7,wasrecoveredasasurfacefindinExcavation17itisasherdfromabottlewithasingletallandnarrowspoutanda
wide,archingstraphandleattachedtothebody(seefig.3.7forexamples).TwoofthevesselspurchasedbyUhle(Berkeleycatalognumbers8542and9094,see
GaytonandKroeber1927:fig.9C,pl.10Fseechap.2)datetoNasca7,thoughitisimportanttorepeatthatwedonotknowiftheCahuachiproveniencerefersto
thearchaeologicalsiteorthelegalagrarianlimitsofthehacienda.
TheRoomofthePostsonUnit19containedalargecacheofNasca8pottery(seechap.13).Nasca8sherdswerefoundinthesurfacelevelsofTestPits15and20
(seechap.11)andinstratum5ofExcavation12atUnit19(seechap.12).Doering'sGraveIattheMorrolocusatCahuachidatestoNasca8andisthetypelotof
thatphase.Orefici(personalcommunication1989)alsohasexcavatedNasca8burialsatthesite.
IhaveseennoNasca9potteryatCahuachi,butUhle'sthirdCahuachivessel(Berkeleycatalognumber8543)isNasca9instyle(GaytonandKroeber1927:fig.
17D).Menzel(1964:25)reportsthatPezziaexcavatedaNasca9burialatCahuachifortheMuseoRegionaldeIca.Sawyer(1968:65),inhiscatalogofthe
Guggenheimexhibition,liststwo"WariArtStyle"pieceswhoseprovenienceisgivenasCahuachi.Again,recallthatthetermCahuachimayrefertothelegallandsof
thehaciendaonbothsidesoftheNazcariver.
PostNascaPotteryatCahuachi
PostNascaceramicmaterialiswellrepresentedintheRoGrandedeNazcaregion(Strong1957:table1Robinson1957Silverman1983,1989a,1990c)aswell
asatCahuachi.AtCahuachithispostNascamaterialoccursinonlytwocontexts.Themajorcontextisinlootedcemeteries.Thestylesofpotteryfoundintheseareas
areNascaEpigonal,Carrizal,andPoroma(asdefinedbyRobinson1957)withrarer,occasionalpiecesofLateIntermediatePeriodIcaandChinchastylepottery.
ThesecondcontextofpostNascapotteryatCahuachiisasasmatteringinfiveofthetwentythreetestpitsIexcavatedatthesite(seechap.11).
AbsoluteChronologyoftheNascaStyle
MorethantwodozenradiocarbonmeasurementsforvariousoftheNascaceramicphaseshavebeenpublished(table3.1).Theseabsolutedatesdonotforman
internallyconsistentsequencebutratherconformtotwodistinctpatterns,whichRowe(1967)hascalledthelongscaleandtheshortscale.Thediscrepancyis
particularlypronouncedfortheearlyNascaphases(Nasca1through4).AnindependentlowerbaselineforNascaabsolutechronologyisprovidedbyBurger's
(1981)suggesteddateof390to200B.C.fortheJanabarriuphaseoftheChavnceramicsequence.ThisisthefinalandmaximalphaseoftheChavnstyle,which
comestoanendwiththeintrusionofHuaraswhiteonredceramics(Burger1981:595).ParacaspotteryofEarlyHorizonepoch9mustdatetoafterthistimesinceit
isfreeofChavnin

Page39
Table3.1.PublishedRadiocarbonDatesforNascaCeramicPhasesIncludingStrong's"LateParacas"
LabNo.

MeasurementB.P.

AssociatedPottery

HalfLife

Collector

Comments

L268A

171080

lateP,N1,2

556840

Strong

a,b,c

L268B

184080

lateP,N1,2

556840

Strong

a,b,d

L268C

146080

lateP,N1,2

556840

Strong

a,b,e

L268D

163030

lateP,N1,2,3

556840

Strong

a,b,f

L268E

90070

N8

556840

Strong

a,b,g

L268F

97070

N8

556840

Strong

a,b,h

L268G

120080

N8

556840

Strong

a,b,i

L335E

143090

N5

notstated

Strong

a,b,j

L335F

120090

N8

notstated

Strong

a,b,k

L335G

1620100

N3B

notstated

Strong

a,b,l

W422

2080160

lateP,N1,2

notstated

Strong

a,m,n

C460

1314250

N3B

uncertain

Kroeber

a,o

C521

1681250

N3B

uncertain

Kroeber

a,p,q

C658

1679200

N3B

uncertain

Kroeber

a,r

Y126

132060

N7

notstated

Lothrop

a,s,t

P511

1345118

N9

557030

Wallace

a,u,v

P513

196862

N4

557030

Wallace

a,w

P515

201462

N3

557030

Wallace

a,v,x

UCLA971

179080

N1

557030

Dawson

a,y

UCLA972

88080

N9

557030

Dawson

a,z,aa

LJ1349

1200100

N9

557030

Dawson

a,aa,bb

O1689

2125110

N3

556830

Bermudez

a,v,cc

I14,442

1120120

N8

5568

Silverman

dd,ee,ff

I14,443

180080

N4

5568

Silverman

dd,ee,gg

I14,444

180080

N4

5568

Silverman

dd,ee,hh

I14,445

191080

N4

5568

Silverman

dd,ee,ii

a.Nopublishedsourceindicatesifthisdatewaspublishedcorrected.
b.SampletreatedwithCo2.
c.ProvenienceisCahuachi,CutI,3.503.75meterlevel,charcoal.
d.ProvenienceisCahuachi,CutI,3.754.00meterlevel,charcoal.
e.ProvenienceisCahuachi,CutISW,3.003.75meterlevel,charcoalfromfireplace.
f.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Cut7,4.004.25meterlevel,charcoal.
g.ProvenienceisEstaquera,burnedendofpost.Associationbetweenpotteryandpostisambiguous.
h.ProvenienceisHuacadelLoro,RoundTemple,charcoalfromfillfromfirstfloor.AllisonPaulsenrecognizedambiguitiesin
Strong'sfieldnotes.
i.ProvenienceisHuacadelLoro,WhaleBoneRoom,charcoal.AllisonPaulsenrecognizedambiguitiesinStrong'sfieldnotes.
j.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial4,textilefragments.
k.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial32,BurialArea4,humanhair.
l.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial39,BurialArea4,humanhairandtextilefragments.
m.ProvenienceisCahuachi,CutI,3.754.00meterlevel,charcoal.
n.SamplewaspreparedbyNaOHHClmethod.
o.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial10,UnitA,TerraceAj,sectionsoffourdarts.
p.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial12,UnitA,TerraceAj,woodfragmentsofatlatlshaft.
q.Anotherrunonthesesamematerialsyieldedadateof2477200whichistotallyoutoflinewiththeperfectlyassociated
Nasca3Bpottery.
r.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Burial13,UnitA,TerraceAj,dyedwoolfromaturban.
s.ProvenienceisChavia,adobecistgrave,textilefrommummy.
t.NotethatCo2treatmentincludedacetylene.
u.ProvenienceisLopezCemetery,HaciendaCahuachi,Tomb2,cottonclothfrommummybundle.
v.SamplewastreatedwithHCl.
w.ProvenienceisLopezCemetery,HaciendaCahuachi,Tomb3,camelidwool.
x.ProvenienceisCerroMaxUhle,TombP,cottonstockandcarbonizedcloth.
y.ProvenienceisPeadeOcucajehabitationsite,Cut1,Level2,animalorhumandung.
z.ProvenienceisPampadelasAnimasAltassite,shallowdepositofrefuse,animalorhumandung.
aa.Dateseemstoorecent.
bb.ProvenienceisPampadelasAnimasAltas,refusedeposit,animaldung.
cc.ProvenienceisCerroMaxUhlecemetery,carbonizedcottoncloth.
dd.Notcorrected.
ee.Samplewastreatedfortheremovalofcarbonatesandhumicacids.
ff.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Unit19,RoomofthePosts,cacheofhuarangoseedssealedindeliberatesterilesandfill.
gg.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Unit19,RoomofthePosts,huarangopost11.
hh.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Unit19,RoomofthePosts,huarangopost8.
ii.ProvenienceisCahuachi,Unit19,RoomofthePosts,huarangopost5.

Page40

fluence(seeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:257).4 AnupperbaselineisprovidedbytheA.D.550dateforthebeginningoftheMiddleHorizon,markedbythe
firstappearanceofWariinfluenceonIcavalleypottery(seeRowe1962b,1967).
Nasca1oughttodatetoaround1B.C./A.D.1.Suchadatewouldcompressthehundredyearphasesrepresentedinfigure3.1andwouldalsoalterProulx'sand
Rowe'sproposeddatingoftheNascaphases(seeProulx1968:99100),sincetheMiddleHorizonbeginsatC.A.D.550(RoweandMenzel1967:chronological
tableMenzel1977:chronologicaltableIsbell1983:table1).Ontheotherhand,mythreeradiocarbondatesforNasca4(onedateofA.D.40andtwoidentical
datesofA.D.150seetable3.1andchap.13)arerightontargetwithRowe's(citedinProulx1968:99100)proposeddateofA.D.65fortheendofepoch4ofthe
EarlyIntermediatePeriod(i.e.,Nasca4).
WhydotheseinconsistenciesexistbetweentheabsoluteandrelativechronologiesforNasca?Thisisnottheplacetoengageinanextendeddiscussion,butseveral
briefcommentsshouldbemade.Wallace's(1985,1986)workonParacasandToparchronologymakesuscallintoquestionthepat,sequential,uniformhundred
yearspanstraditionallyassignedtoeachepochoftheEarlyHorizonandEarlyIntermediatePeriodonthebasisofchangesinceramicstylethatareassumedto
correlatewithgenerations.Notonlyaresomeceramicphasespossiblylongerorshorterthanothers(e.g.,Proulx1968:99100),butthereisnoreasontoassumethat
ancientartistswereconvenientlyinnovatingincenturyleaps.I(Silverman1988b)havealsoquestionedtheidentificationofNasca8asaNascastyle,andKnobloch
(1983:308)considersNasca9tobeaWariratherthanacoastalproduct.Furthermore,Wallace(1985)indicatesthatregionaldifferencesinceramicstylemaybe
contemporary.WemustconsiderthepossibilitythatsomeofthefinedetailsintheNascasequenceareregionalandstylisticratherthanchronological,particularlyin
viewofthegeographicalcomplexityoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandthelikelihoodofpotsmovingoutoftheiroriginallocusofmanufactureforavarietyof
reasons.AregionallyvaryingceramicchronologymayeventuallyberevealedforthevariousvalleysandsubregionsofthesouthcoastintheEarlyIntermediatePeriod.
ANoteonIconographicStudies
IconographicstudiesofNascapotteryareasearlyastheliteraturedealingwiththeinternalchronologyoftheNascastyle.Putnam's(1914)studyofNasca
iconographyfollowedUhle's(1914)reportonthediscoveryoftheNascastyle.PutnamdescribedtheninetysixNascapotsintheDavenportMuseumcollectionsin
termsofadesigntypology.Heisolatedaseriesofthemesonthepottery.Hecalledthem"AnimalFigures,etc.,""FigurePots,""RowsofFaces,""HumanMonster
Figures"whichhesubdividedintoTypesAthroughF,and"MiscellaneousForms."TodayPutnam's"HumanMonsterFigures"TypesAandBarecalledthe
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeingintheMonumentalstrain,whilehisTypesEandFareProliferous.Putnam'sTypeCiscalledtheHorribleBird,andhisTypeDis
theSpottedCat.Putnamclearlyrecognizedaconsistentassociationoffeaturesdefiningthese"typegroups,"anditishewhoidentifiedsuchelementsofthe
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeingasthe"mouthmask"(histerm),foreheadelement,capabovetheforeheadelement,earringsorbangles,andclub,aswellasthe
characteristiccanonsofrepresentation(e.g.,thatthefaceoftheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingisalwaysfrontal).
Putnam'sstudywasfollowedbySeler's(1923)magnumopusonNascaiconography.Seler'scontributionhasbeensummarizedbyProulx(1983:94),whowritesthat
"heconcentratedonthemythologicalthemesthathesawasemphasizingfertilityandvegetation:(1)theSpottedCat,beareroftheresourcesoflife(2)theDemon
Cat(3)theDemonCatasabird(4)otherwingeddemons(5)otherdemonsandfiguresofvegetationand(6)thedemonofthejaggedstaff.Seleralsostudied
someofthenaturalisticmotifs:humansandheads,females,animals,vegetablesandobjects."
Seler'siconographicworkwasfollowedbyYacovleff's(1931,1932a,b,1933YacovleffandHerrera19341935)fivemajorstudies,ofwhichthemostsynthetic
was"LadeidadprimitivadelosNasca"(Yacovleff1932b)inwhichtheKillerWhalewasidentifiedasthemostimportantmythicalbeinginNascaiconography.
GaytonandKroeber(1927Kroeber1956)madementionoficonographyintheirchronologicalstudiesofNascaart.
ThestudyofNascaartasiconographyratherthanchronologywasthenlargelyforgottenuntilSawyer's(1961)analysisofNascaandParacasiconography,which
tracedthedevelopmentofvariousParacasmotifsintoNascaandexaminedtheirdevelopmentinNasca.Fromthenontherehasbeenanincreasedinterestinthe
iconographicanalysisofNascaart(e.g.,Sawyer1966Zuidema1972Blagg1975Eisleb1977RamosGmezandBlascoBosqued1977BlascoBosquedand
RamosGmez1980,1986,1991Proulx1983,1986,1989Townsend1985).TheseiconographicstudieswillopennewgroundinthestudyofNascaculturewhen
com

Page41

binedwithfielddataonthesocial,economic,political,andreligiousorganizationofNascasociety.
Notes
1.Specifically,NascapotteryisfoundinallofthevalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandintheIcaandAcarvalleyswhereitexiststotheexclusionof
otherEarlyIntermediatePeriodceramicstyles,withtheexceptionofToparinfluence(theChongosandCampanaphases,respectively)inIcaduringthefirsttwo
epochsoftheEarlyIntermediatePeriod(seeSilverman1991).Nasca3potteryisknownfromthePiscovalleyinintrusivefunerarycontextsatthePachingasite(see
Peters1986).Menzel(1971:121)andWallace(ms.)indicatethattheCarmenpotterystyleofPisco,Chincha,andCaetewasheavilyinfluencedbyNasca3.In
addition,Wallace(seeMenzel1971:124)definesadiscretebutrelatedDosPalmasstyleforEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3inthePiscovalley.NeitherCarmen
norDosPalmaspotteryportraysthemythicaliconographyofcontemporaryNascapotteryfromtheIcaandNazcaregions.Thisfactisveryimportantandrequires
furtherstudysoastobetterunderstandthenatureofthevarioussouthcoastsocietiesatthistimeandtheirinteraction,aswellashowarchaeologistsdefinestylesand
theethnicgroups/archaeologicalcultures/societiestowhichtheyareheldtocorrespond.Theculturaldynamicsandstylisticsituationofthevalleysnorthandsouthof
IcaandNazcahavenotbeenwelldefinedforepochs4through6oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriod(Menzel1971:124126).PerfectNasca6sherdsarefoundin
Pisco,andNasca6orNasca6influencedsherdsarepresentasfarnorthasChinchahowever,thisisnotthelocalstyleofthesevalleys,andonlyafewNasca6
piecesarefound(Menzel1971:124125).Inepoch7oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodanewstyle,calledEstrella,definestheChinchaandPiscovalleys.Itis
influencedbyandinfluencesNasca7potteryofIca(Menzel1971:126129).AregularbutsmallnumberofEstrellasherdswerefoundinNasca7middensintheIca
valley.Nasca7pottery,identicaltothatofIca,isfoundinPiscoandChincha(Menzel1971:128).Anders(1990)reportsNasca8and9potteryatMaymiinPisco.
Shecallsthispottery"NascaTardo"andplacesitinMiddleHorizonepoch1.Kroeber(1937:lam.77,fig.2)foundoneNasca7sherdandNasca8likepotteryin
hisexcavationsatCerrodelOroinCaete.Thereis,however,noNascaoccupationofthatvalley,norwouldwesaythatthereisaNascaoccupationinthePiscoor
Chinchavalleys.OneoccasionallyhearsoffindsofisolatedNascasherdsintheYaucaandChalavalleyssouthofAcar,butclearlytheseareaswerenotpartofthe
Nascainteractionsphere.Thus,theareaofNascaoccupationofsocietiesthatparticipatedinaNascaculturaltraditionisIca,theRoGrandedeNazcadrainage,
andAcar.
AtthispointIwishtoalertthereadertoLidioValdezCardenas's(personalcommunications1990,1991)contentionthatthereisstrongstylisticvariationinthe
Nascaceramicstyleamongthemanysouthcoastvalleys,especiallyAcar.AtleastforIcaandNazca,Proulx(1968)hasdocumentedminimallocaldifferencesin
Nasca3and4pottery.WeawaitpublicationofAcarvalleyNascapotteryofallphasessothatitcanbecomparedtothewellknownIcaandNazcamaterials.
ThenatureandchronologyofAcar'sNascapotterywillaffectarchaeologists'interpretationofthedegreetowhichAcarwasapartoftheNascainteraction
sphereoraparticipantintheNascaculturaltradition.
2.MyprojectrecoveredonepieceofOcucaje8likepottery,afancygraterbowlfragment(seeSilverman1991:fig.9.11),onthesurfaceoftheLowerEastern
RoomsareaofUnit19.
3.InthisbookIamgoingtorefertopotteryatCahuachithatlookslikeOcucaje10oftheIcavalleyasParacas10becausethetermOcucajeshouldbeappliedonly
toParacaspotteryoftheIcavalley(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:12).Inarecentarticle(Silverman1991)IdiscusstheEarlyHorizonoccupationoftheRo
GrandedeNazcadrainage(seealsoSilverman1989b).
4.Ontheotherhand,Wallace(1991:101102)arguesthatmodularwidthbanding(aChavnstylisticinfluence)tookonalifeofitsownintheParacaspotteryofIca
followingphases5and6oftheOcucajesequence.WallacemaintainsthatParacaspotteryisessentiallyfreeofdirectChavninfluenceafterthistimeratherthanlater
asimpliedbyMenzel,Rowe,andDawson'sstatementsaboutOcucaje9.Burger(1988)isemphaticthatOcucaje3andJanabarriuarecontemporaryceramicphases.
IdisregardedhisalignmentinachronologicalchartIrecentlypublished(seeSilverman1991:fig.9.1)becauseIwasconvincedofthevalidityofMenzel,Rowe,and
Dawson'sstatementsonthedatingofthedisappearanceofChavninfluencefromtheParacaspotteryofIcaandbecauseIhadidentifiedJanabarriurelatedtraitson
probablyOcucaje8likepotteryfromtheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys.IbelievethatWallace's(1991)suggestionsaboutanindependent(uninfluencedby
Chavn)developmentofthelaterOcucajestyle(followingphases5and6)couldbegintorectifywhatotherwiseseemlikeinsurmountablediscrepanciesbetweenthe
radiocarbondatesandceramicsequencesforthe

Page42

EarlyHorizononthesouthcoastofPeruandatChavndeHuantar.Infigure3.1inthisbookIacceptBurger'salignmentofOcucaje3andJanabarriuwhile
advisingthereaderthatproblemsWallace(1985,1991)andI(Silverman1991)recognizeinthecorrelationofOcucajeandChavnceramicphaseshavenotyet
beentotallysettled.Excavationatdeeplystratifiedsitesonthesouthcoastisneededinordertoobtaincoherentradiocarbonmeasurementsforstratigraphically
provenceramicphases.

Page43

ChapterFour
Strong'sFieldworkatCahuachi:ChronologyandCulture
Strong'sGoalsandMethodology
AlthoughvariousarchaeologistscarriedoutexcavationsatCahuachiinthefirsthalfofthiscentury,allwereconcernedwithmortuarycontextsandthefancypottery
foundinassociation.OnlyStrong(1957)tookabroadapproachtothesite,contextualizingandconceptualizingitwithinNascasocietyandsouthcoastprehistory.1
Strong'ssouthcoastresearchprojecthadtwobasicgoals.ThefirstwastoresolvethetemporalrelationshipbetweenParacasandNasca,stillstratigraphically
unprovenasrecentlyasfortyyearsago.Thesecondwastodosettlementpatternstudiesonaregionaland,inthecaseofCahuachi,intrasitebasis.Strongwas
interestedinthekindsofactivitiesthatwentonatCahuachi.
StrongexcavatedatCahuachibecausehethoughtthatwasthesitewherehehadthebestchanceoffindingadeepstratigraphy.Strongexplicitlystatesthathedugin
stratifiedrefuseheapsatCahuachiandthathefoundastratifiedsequenceleadingfromLateParacastoProtoNazcatoEarlyNazcatoMiddleNazca,orfrom
Paracas10toNasca3.Hisviewisrepeatedintheliterature(e.g.,Proulx1968:8MatosMendieta1980:488).
Strong'sexcavationswerecarriedoutbymeansofarbitrarylevelsof25and50centimeters.Thesearbitrarylevelsoftencutacrossthenaturalstratigraphyofthecuts
(seeprofilesinfigs.4.14.8)ratherthanconformingtothem.Becausetheceramicremainswereanalyzedbymeansoftypefrequencyseriation,Strongrecognizedno
inconsistencybetweenstratigraphicmixingandtheclaimofaceramicsequence.Todaythispresentsaproblemforreanalysis.
InadditiontothedifficultycreatedbyStrong'suseofarbitrarylevels,otherproblemsareencounteredinreanalyzingtheculturalmaterialfromStrong'scuts.For
instance,therearenocutprofilesforsomeoftheexcavationsand,inmostcases,thefieldnotesgiveonlyahintatexistingstratigraphy.Furthermore,Strong'sdefinition
ofParacasvariessomewhatfromtheonecurrentlyused.Thus,Strong'sceramictabulations(compiledinPhipps1989:appendix5,graphs1.11.10,2.1)mustbe
usedwithcaresinceheincludedParacasmaterialthatiscurrentlyclassifiedasNasca1.Strong'strueLateParacasmaterialdatestoEarlyHorizonepoch10,looks
likeOcucaje10,andconsistsofascarceamountofpostfirepainted"Cavernas"pottery(e.g.,Strong1957:fig.6AC)andgraters(Strong1957:fig.6Ethisis
Strong's"ParacasIncisedInterior"type).Strong's(1957:fig.6FJ)"CahuachiNegative"and"CahuachiRedandWhiteDecorated"(Strong1957:fig.8A,CE)types
areNasca1(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:255,256).Iconsidertheterm"negative"inthe1952fieldnotestorefertobothNasca1truenegativepottery(e.g.,
Strong1957:fig.6FJ)and"falsenegative"pottery(i.e.,"CahuachiRedandWhiteDecorated"potterywhoseredpaintisaprefireslipthataffects"falsenegative"
decorationseeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:256).Strong(1957:fig.12EH)alsoillustratessomeplainwarethathecalled"ProtoNazcaModeledand
Incised."Basedontheceramicmaterialcollectedduringthe19881989survey,IsuspectthatthispotteryhasitsoriginsinthelateEarlyHorizonpotteryoftheNazca
drainageandthatitisnotrestrictedtoNasca1.OncethetrueParacastypesaredistinguishedfromNasca1,itbe

Page44

4.1.
ProfileofeastfaceofStrong'sCut1SWextension.CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

comesapparentthatStrongfoundverylittleParacaspotteryatCahuachi,andallofitappearstocrossdatetophase10oftheIcavalley'sOcucajesequence.
AnalysisofStrong'sCuts
LetusnowlookateachoneofStrong'scuts.WeareinterestedtoseeifanyoftheBerkeleysequenceisconfirmedinStrong'sexcavationsandwhatthecuts'
depositionalhistoryrevealsaboutthefunctionofeachexcavatedarchitecturalunit.Theinterpretationspresentedinthischapterarebasedontheoriginalproject
fieldnotes,amanuscriptinpreparationatthetimeofStrong'sdeath(Strongms.),mystudyofsomeofthepotteryfromStrong'scollections(e.g.,Silverman1977),
slidesofpartsofStrong'sCahuachicollections,andinsituexaminationofStrong'sCuts1,3,2,4,and7atCahuachiin19841985.Strong'sword"Lot"referstothe
culturalremainsassociatedwithaparticulararbitrarylevel.
Unit6:Cut1
RoseLilienexcavatedCut1intothesouthsideofUnit6(figs.4.1,4.2).DetailsofCut1'sconstructioncouldnotbereadilyconfirmedinthefieldin19841985
becauseofthecollapseandsandinginoftheexcavatedarea,butcertainwallswerestillvisibleandtheprofiledrawingsappeartrustworthy.Wearealsoaidedbya
detailedde

4.2.
ProfileofnortheastfaceofStrong'sCut1.
CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

Page45

4.3.
ProfileofwestfaceofStrong'sCut2.CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

scriptionoftheCut1Cut1SWExtensionexcavations(Strongms.).
ThefirstuseoftheUnit6areawasmarkedbythepresenceof"largecircularpitsdugintonativesoil...asandygravel...4.004.25meterlevel"(Strongms.:7).
Strong(1957:14)referstotheseas"irregularpitswithsomerefuseandafewhumanbones."ThecircularpitscorrespondtoOccupationPhaseI.Strongstatesthat
thescantculturalremainsfromthelowestlevelofCut1camefromthesedepressions.Thisculturalmaterialincludedscarceplainwaresherdsnodecoratedpottery
wasfound.Onthesamestratigraphicleveltherewasarowofcanesinassociationwithguineapigexcrement.
AccordingtoStrong,LateParacasandProtoNazcadwellingswerebuiltoverthenativesoilintowhichthelargecirculardepressionshadbeendugthesedwellings
correspondtoOccupationPhaseII(arbitrarylevels3.253.50meters,3.503.75meters,and3.754.00meters).Thenaturalstratumconsistedofsandmixedwith
rocksandmuchash,withevidenceoffire(charcoal,burnedstone,andburnedclayaswellastheash).ThewattleanddaubwallshowninStrong's(1957:fig.5A)
photoofWallCbelongstothissecondoccupationlevel(Strongms.:1415).WallCrannorthsouthfor6metersandispossiblyassociatedwithaclayfloorthat
beganatWallOandheadednorthwardintotheunexcavatedportionofUnit6(Strongms.:5).WallOisamajordoublefacedadobewallbuiltwiththesamein
pointingconicaladobefillretainmenttechniqueasisfoundinCut3onthesamemound.WallRalsobelongstoOccupationPhaseIIandantedatesWallO.
WithinthenaturalstratumcorrespondingtoOccupationPhaseIIwereLots138,139,and140.Theassociatedpotteryis"mostlyplainware,"ofthekindtypically
presentonthesurfaceofNasca1habitationsitesintheIngenio,middleGrande,andPalpavalleys.Inaddition,thereisdiagnosticLateParacas(potsherdsbearing
postfireddecoration)andNasca1ceramicmaterial.SomeofthisNasca1materialisveryearly,judgingbythepresenceinLot140of"falsenegative"decoration
whichderivesdirectlyfromParacas10antecedents(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:256)."CahuachiPolychromeIncised"and"PolishedBlackware"Nasca1
typesarepresent,asaremodeledsherds.
OccupationPhaseIIisdomesticinnature.ItappearstodatetoNasca1.ThefewParacassherdsrecoveredarecongruentwiththisNasca1materialgiventhatthe
separationofthetwostylesParacasandNascaisarbitrary(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:251).
ThenaturalstratumcorrespondingtoOccupationPhaseIIwassealedbyathinstratumofadobe,gravel,andchala(cornstalksandhusks"chala"canreferto

Page46

4.4.
ProfileofsouthfaceofStrong'sCut2.CourtesyTerence
D'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.Noscaleinoriginal.

anyvegetalfiber)inwhichplainwareandNasca1potterywerefound.ThisstratumextendedtothetopofWallO.
OccupationPhaseIII,abovethesealingstratum,wasanaturalstratumofsandmixedwithgravel.Strong'sarbitrary2.25to2.50meterleveland2.50to3.00
meterlevelwerelocatedinthisstratum.ThenaturalstratumencompassedStrong'sLots134,135,and136.Theselotswereuncontaminatedbymixingwithother
strata.Plainwarewasabundant.IntermsofdecoratedpotteryonlyNasca1typeswerefound.TheseincludedCahuachiPolychromeIncised,"falsenegative,"
PolishedBlackware,andSlippedandPolishedCream(Strong's"Necropolis"type).
OccupationPhaseIIIofUnit6was"characterizedbylumpadobewallsandextraordinarythickretainingwallsbuiltoflargegroovedconicaladobes.Thisoccupation
forthemostpartreferredtotheMiddleNazcaperiod.RetainingwallsPandQwerebuiltduringthisperiod.Theymusthavebeenconstructedforthesamepurpose
asweretheearlierwalls"(Strongms.:18).Thisthirdoccupationphasecorrespondedtothecreationofanartificial,monumentalconstructionbymeansofsuccessive,
nondomesticarchitecturalmodification.
AlthoughStrongdoesnotspeakofafourthoccupationphase,WallsA,D,andF,shownonthecutprofile,couldrepresentone,thoughStrongsuggeststhatthey
couldalsobecontemporary.WallFrestedonathickbedofchala.WallsAandDclearlyrestedonasharplyslopingstratumofvegetalmaterial,brownsandand
rock,andexcrementthat,togetherwiththefillunderWallF,virtuallysealedOccupationPhaseIIIbelow.Lots130to133(1.252.25meters)crossedthethin,
slopingstratum.Hereweseethetragedyofmixingduetoarbitrarylevelscuttingthroughnaturalstrata.Lot133(2.002.25meters)hasonlyNasca1potsherdsasits
decoratedceramicmaterial.Lots130,131,and132,however,containNasca2aswellasNasca1ceramictypes.IsuspectthattheNasca2materialwasdeposited
afterthesharplyslopingthinstratumwaslaiddown.
Strong'smanuscriptspeaksofothersuchwalls(G,H,L,M,andN).Together,allofthesewalls(A,D,F,G,H,L,M,andN)formeda"clusterofsmall,contiguous,
roughlyrectangularrooms,builtwithirregularlumpadobes.Occasionally,small,ungroovedconicaladobeswerealsoused,especiallyintheconstructionofthefaces.
TheroomswereroughlyorientedNESWbyNWSE."Iinterprettheseroomsaschamberedfill.ThisinterpretationissimilartotheoneofferedbyStrong(ms.:19
20),whowritesthatwallsPandQare"massiveouterwallsbuiltforprotectionortobuttressthesouthwesternflanksofMound1[Unit6],whiletheformer[A,D,F,
etc.]werelessformidableinteriorconstructions."Heconcludesthatthesewalls"bearthesamerelationshiptoeachotherthatthewattleanddaubwall(WallC)bore
towardsWallsOandR."
Lots125to129fromtheupper125centimetersofCut1werewithintheOccupationIVstratumandcontainedNasca1pottery(CahuachiPolychromeIncised,
PolishedBlackware,SlippedCream,andWhiteandRedtypes),Nasca2,and,inLots125to127(075centimeters),Nasca3inverysmallquantities.
InanupperlevelofCut1(2550centimeters)twocorncacheswerediscovered.Alarge,wellpolishedbrownwareolla(about1meterinmaximumdiameter)was
locatedinthenorthwestpartofthecutsittingatthe1.30metermarkbeneaththesurfaceitwasempty.An

Page47

4.5.
ProfileofwestfaceofStrong'sCut4.CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

4.6.
ProfileofsouthfaceofStrong'sCut4.Cachepitswerefoundinthehardpackedsandatthebaseofthiscut(notindicatedin
theprofileseefig.4.10).CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

Page48

4.7.
ProfileofwestfaceofStrong'sCut7.CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

otherollawaslocatedabout50centimetersabovethebaseofthecut.Thisonewasaroundbodied,polishedblackwareplainwarevesselwitharoundpointedbase
andatallcollarrimwithflaringneck.Thevesselwasfilledwithsandandfragmentsofthetallcollarthathadbrokenoffandfallenintothebodyofthepot.
AstheColumbiaprojectarchaeologistsrealized,variousconstructionepisodeswereinvolvedinthebuildingofUnit6.Themoundgrewupandoutandisalmost
entirelyartificial,somethingrareatCahuachi.TheuppertwooccupationphasesofUnit6clearlycorrespondtoasystemofchamberedfill,observedwithfrequency
elsewhereatCahuachi(e.g.,Units8andVVseechap.5).Inthetwounderlyingconstructionphasesweseethateachbuildingepisodeevenedoutthesurfacefor
subsequentconstructionbymeansofplacinga"cap"ofadobefragments,vegetalfiber,andgravelovertherefusefillcontainedbehindanearlierwall.
Strong(1957:13)concludesthatUnit6wasaMiddleNazca(Nasca3)templebuiltoveranearlierhabitationareaitisnotahabitationmound.OnlyOccupation
PhasesIandIIaredomestic.ThedomesticoccupationdatestoNasca1andmayhavebeguninepoch10oftheEarlyHorizon.Thenondomesticconstruction
appearstohavebeguninOccupationPhaseIIIwithWallsPandQ.
Unit6:Cut3
Cut3wasexcavatedintothewestsideofUnit6byRobertSonin.Oneoverlyschematicprofileandtheoriginalfieldnotesexistforthiscut.Ihaveafewslidesofsome
ofthelotsofpotteryandwasabletoexaminethecutinthefieldbecauseitwasstillopenandinreasonablygoodconditionconsideringthatmorethanthirtyyearshad
elapsedsinceitsexcavation.
TheadoberetainingwallsofCut3areevenmoremassivethanthoseofCut1.ThewesternsideofUnit6issolidadobe.Thewallswerelaidupinverticalsections

Page49

4.8.
ProfileofsouthfaceofStrong'sCut7.CourtesyTerenceD'Altroy,ColumbiaUniversity.

usingconicaladobeswhosetipspointinward,leavingtheroundflatbasetoformtheexteriorside(fig.4.9).Thus,therewasanoutwardprogressionofthesefinal
sectionsasthemoundgrewinsize.ThesemassiveadobewallsalsoargueinsupportofStrong'sattributionofanondomesticfunctiontoUnit6aftertheinitialParacas
10Nasca1domesticoccupation.
Cut3wasexcavateddownto3.50meters.Thelowestlevelrestedonafairlyhardpackedalluvialfloodlayer(ayapana).ThislevelcorrespondstoLot184(3.25
3.50meters)whichhadonlyscarcesherds.Neitherthesherdsnoradescriptionofthemhasbeenfound.
Abovethislevelawattleanddaubwallwasdefined.Itraneastwestthroughthelengthofthecutandbeganinthe1.75to2.00meterlevel.Itsbaseisinthe3.00to
3.25meterlevel.Thewattleanddaubwallcorre

Page50

4.9.
SouthfaceofStrong'sCut3.ArchaeologistAllison
Paulsenstandsintheopencut.

spondstoahousestructure.ItmaybeassociatedwithNasca1pottery.
Stratigraphicallyabovethewattleanddaubwallwasanorthsouthadobewallthatranbetweentwomassive,90centimeterthickeastwestwallsofconicaladobe.
Thewallwaspreservedtosevencoursesandwaslocatedbetweenthe1.00to1.25meterleveland2.00to2.25meterlevel.Alargeutilitarianpotteryvessel(at
least55centimetershigh,rimdiameterof32centimeters,maximaldiameterof1meter)wasfoundinthesoutheastcorneroftheadobewallsrevealedinthecut.The
vesselwasfilledwithadobe,plainanddecoratedsherds(oneofwhichwasdrawnbySonininhisfieldnotesandisNasca1),bone,reeds,corn,andcloth.Thevessel
wasbrokentheadobesinitprobablycausedthedamage.
Inaholeunderthecornerofthetwoconicaladobewalls,inthe3.25to3.50meterlevel,theburialofaveryoldfemalewasencountered(Strong'sBurial3).She
hadadeformedskullwithonlythreeteethleft.Sonin'snotesgivethedimensionsoftheburialas"70cmwide,100cmfrombottomofconicaladobewallingrunning
acrosscut."Thepositionofthebodywasunusual,withtheheadlowestandrightfoothighestinaverycrumpledconditionthatcouldnothavechangedconsiderably
fromthetimeofintermentduetothenarrownessoftheshaft(seechap.14).ToSonin,thissuggeststhatthebodywastossedinheadfirst,andhespeculatesthatit
waspossiblyasacrificeconnectedwiththeadobestructureabove.
ThepotteryassociatedwiththiscutisNasca1(PolychromeIncisedsherds,StylusDecoratedsherds,andasingleincisedsherdwithredslipandwhiteslip),Nasca2
(CahuachiPolychromeandothertypes),andNasca3("pureNazcasherds").Notethatthe"pureNazca"potterywasfoundunderthemassiveconicaladobewallat
2.75meters.
Unit5:Cuts2,4,and7
Cuts2,4,and7wereexcavatedbyRobertStigleronUnit5.Unit5begantobeformedwhensoftdarksandblewinorwaspouredoveraslopingandirregularvery
hard,compact,naturalclaysurfaceintowhichthirtyfourcirculardepressionsofvaryingdiameteranddepthhadbeenexcavated.Theseareaccuratelyillustratedona
1952floorplanofCut4(fig.4.10).These"cachepits,"astheywerecalled,were"allemptyexceptforafewcorncobsandbeans"(Stiglerfieldnotes,September5,
1952).Theyrangeinsizefrom10centimetersdeepby8centimetersindiametertocylindricalholesthatare40centimetersby18centimetersto"largeollashaped
pits40[centimeters]deep,40acrossatmouth,and55diam.atwidestpoint."Theseollashapedpitsdidnotcontainollas,incontrasttoFeature75/76atUnit19(see
chap.12).
Then,withtheretainingwallinplace,fillwascarriedinandplacedbehind(south)theadobewallandinfrontofthenaturalhardclayhillthatbecamethecoreofthe
artificialmound.Thefillconsistedoflargeamountsofchala(fromcommonbeansorPhaseolusvulgaris),largelumpsofadobe,andhardpacked,lightcoloredsand.
Inthisfillfewsherdswerefound(asaresultofthelargequantityofchala)."NazcaA"(i.e.,Nasca3)aswellas"black,polishedwarewithstylusfigures"(i.e.,Nasca
1)and"Cavernas"(i.e.,LateParacas)sherdswererecordedinthefieldnotes.Nasca2sherdswerealsopresent.Paracas10throughNasca3potterywasfoundin
onenaturalstratum.Thisalsosupportstheidentificationofthecutcontentsasmixed.Thismixingiscongruentwiththenatureofconstructionfillratherthanstratified
refuse.ThebuildingoftheUnit5platformmoundcannotantecedeNasca3times.
SimilartoHuapayaManco's(19771978)discussionofthepurposeandnatureofvegetalfiberfillsinmonumentalconstructions,itappearsthatofferingswereleft

Page51

4.10.
Strong'splanofcachepitsatthebaseofCut4.Thenumberswithinthecirclesarethedepthsofthedepressions
incentimeters.Noscaleinoriginal.

inthisfill.Stigler'sfieldnotesofAugust7,1952,reportthepresenceofacacheofcornontheeastsideofCut2.Inthesouthwestpart,alarge,plainware,oxidized
ollacoveredbyanaturalcoloredcoiledbasketwithsimplebluedecorationwasfound.Anothervesselwasdiscoveredinalevelabout50centimetersbeneaththeone
withthebasketcoveredolla.Stiglerdescribesthisvessel(2530centimetershighwithoutrim,40centimetersindiameteratitswidestpoint)asdecoratedwithapplied
centipedes.Theollacontainedthreedimensionalknittedtextilesandembroideredcentipedes(comparethistoFeature80atUnit19:seechap.12seealsochap.18).
Itsrimwasmissing,possiblytheresultofcenturiesofpressurefromtheoverburden.Theleavingofvesselsandcorncachesiscongruentwiththeerectionofa
ceremonialconstruction.
AsseeninCut7(figs.4.7,4.8),theheightofthemoundwasachievedbymeansofasubstantialamountoffill.Varioustypesofconstructionfillswereused:bundlesof
vegetalfiber(chalaisthetermusedintheStrongprofiles),intertwinedvegetalfiber,earth,somerocks,andgarbage.
Themound'supperterracewascreatedinseveralstages.First,theirregularcoreofthenaturalhillwasevenedoutwithasoftfillofearthcontainingmanysmallrocks.
Thentheheightwasartificiallyraisedthroughtheplacementofsuccessive,alternatinglayersofvegetalfiberseparatedbyahardsandcontainingsmalltolargeadobe
fragments.Adenselayerof"boundchala"wasplacedinthesouthwestcorner.Thislayeroffillwasthencappedwithanotherhardsandyfillcontainingafewbedsof
chala.Then,athinstratumofhardpackedsandwaslaiddown.Theuppermoststratumissoftearthandsandwithalotofrefuseandflecksof

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chala.Thattheseveralmetersofaccumulationarefillratherthanprimarydepositionrefuseisdemonstratedbythemixedceramiccontentofthedepositwherein
"NazcaA,""othertypes,"andsome"Cavernassherds"arefoundtogether.
ThenaturalendoftheUnit5hillwasartificiallyelongatedonthewestsidebymeansofalowappendagecomposedofadobe,rock,anddirtfill,materialsalsousedto
raisetheheightofthehill.
Unit7:Cut5
Cut5wasexcavatedinfivearbitrarylevelsof50centimeterseach.Fromtoptobottomthepottery(Lots150155)isalmostexclusivelyNasca1and2withjustabit
ofNasca3intheupperlevels(seeStrong1957:table3).
Strong(1957:28)describesUnit7asan"occupationalandresidentialarea"with"aseriesofheavyadobewalls,perhapsusedaswalks,andaseriesofwell
constructed,nicelyfinishedwattleanddaubwallsandfloors,theformerstrengthenedbybothsmallandlargealgorrobaposts.Thelargepostsareburnedoffontop
andmaywellhaveoncesupportedahighergeneralroofunderwhichwerethepartiallyopenrooms."
Sonin'sfieldnotesindicatethatthemoundwasbuiltonasterile,yellowish,hardpacked,clayeyearth.Overthiswasabrownsandysoilwithonlysparseartifacts.
Soninnotesthatthisisfillwithnoevidenceofarchitecture.Rather,architecturebeganatthe100to150centimeterlevel,wherethewallfoundationsattheedgesof
thecutappeared.Floors(presumablyassociatedwiththewattleanddaubwalls)wereoverlainbylayersoftotorafill.Abovethewalls,inthe50to150centimeter
level,werethefoundationsoflaterbuildings,builtoveragravelfill.IfonelooksverycarefullyattwophotosinStrong'smonograph(Strong1957:fig.5B,C),onecan
seethisarchitectureandthewallsthatbeginjustbelowthesurface.
BoththefieldnotesandpublishedphotosconfirmthatanarchitecturalcomplexwasfoundatUnit7.Sonininterpretstheheavyadobewallsasfoundationwalls,
surprisingforamoundofsuchsmallsize(10by8meters)yetpossible.Thesewallsmayhavepertainedtothefinalremodelingandfillinginofthemound'swattleand
daub,multichamberedconstruction.
Thepurposeofthecontiguouswattleanddaubroomscannotbedetermined.Butarguingagainstanordinarydomesticfunctionistheunusuallyhighpercentageof
decoratedpotterythatwasrecovered,muchofwhichcanbedatedtoNasca1and2,aswellasotherspecialartifactssuchasa"fineobsidianknife,"some"fine
embroideredfringedborders,"a"combofcactusspinesandcane,"anda"fineengravedgourd."ExcavationsonUnit19recoveredsimilaritems(seechap.12).
Sonin'snotesfleshoutthesummarypresentedinStrong'smonographandappeartosupportaNasca1to3sequence.
ThecollectionsfromCut5aredistinctiveinoneparticular,namelytheunusuallyhighproportionofdecoratedspecimens.CahuachiPolychrome[Nasca2]isbyfarthemost
prevalentdecoratedtype,beingprevalentinthethreeupperlevelsanddiminishingnoticeablyinthelowerlevels.Atthesametime,NazcaApolychrome[Nasca3]presentsaclear
historyofgrowthfromnoneinthelowestlevelto9.5%atthetop....Thedecoratedblackware[allNasca1],whichincludesCahuachi"blackmodeled,""polishedblackincised"
and"stylusdecorated"types,tendstodiminishtowardtheupperlevelsalbeitsomewhaterratically.Whenthepercentagesoftheblackwaretypesreferredtoabovearecombined,
theprogressionbecomespositive...Weobservethatthepopularityoffine,decoratedblackwareasawholediminishesfromthelowesttothehighestlevel....Percentagewise,
thepolychromewarestendtoshowanunmistakeableincreasefromthelowertotheupperlevels.TheconcentrationofCahuachiPolychromeisverygreatandinseverallevels
welloverfiftypercent.Thistypecomprisesoveronethirdofthedecoratedwaresinthelowestlevelandswellstonearlysixtypercent(58.2%)inthetopmostlevel.Inversely,the
specializedblackwaresdiminishfromnearlyathirdofthetotalofdecoratedsherds(31.4%)inthelowesttoslightlyovertenpercentinthetoplevel.TheNazca"A"varietyof
polychromeisnotpresentinthebottomlevel....Onesherdofthiswareisfoundinthenexttwolevelsandthenumberrisessteadilytothirtysixinthetopleveloralmostten
percent(9.5%).

Unit2(Strong'sGreatTemple):Cut6
WhetherStrong'sGreatTemplewasCahuachi'sgreattempleisuncertainperhapstherewereothersaswellbutStrong'sattributionofaceremonialfunctiontoUnit
2iscorrectbasedonthemound'sconstructioncharacteristicsanditsassociatedremainsoflargeamountsoffineNasca3pottery,abundantpanpipefragments,llama
remains,birdplumageand"otherapparentlyfeastingandsacrificialmaterials"(Strong1957:31).RecallthatOreficifoundamajorcacheofbrokenpanpipesonthe
floorofoneoftheGreatTemple'sagglutinatedrooms.
Cut6wasexcavatedinthreearbitrarylevelsof25

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centimeterseachintoasmalllowriseonawalledpatio.Stigler'sfieldnotesmakeitclearthatonlyonenaturalstratumofapproximately65centimeterswasinvolved
("fillofcutwasallgravellysandwithoutvisiblestratificationhencenosectionsweremade").IntothenativesoilatthebaseofCut6hadbeenexcavated,inantiquity,
"12or15cachepitsdugintohardpackedgravellysoil."Theseaverage15centimetersindiameterand20centimetersindepthbutcanreach25centimetersin
diameterby50centimetersdeepandarecylindricalinshape.Abovethisnaturalfloortherewasa"soft,powderyfill"ofdarksandwithlumpsofclay.Thislayerof
sandslopedstronglydowntothenorth(towardtheriver).Tocontainit,anadobewallwasbuilt,runningeastwest.Thewallwasbuiltdirectlyoverthesand,which
servedasitsfoundation.ThisconstructiontechniquewasobservedseveraltimesintheUnit19excavations(seechap.12).
InadditiontoCut6,withcorrespondingLots235,236,and237,anotherlotofceramics,Lot199,isdescribedinthefieldnotesaspertainingtothe"NewTemple
sitetopofthehillsamelocationasBobStigler'sCut6."Ipresumethistobeasurfacecollection.Ceramicremainsfromthislotareabundant,andthislotis
probablytheGreatTempleunitinStrong's(1957)table3.LiketheceramicsrecoveredfromCut6,thiscollectionyieldedapreponderanceoffineNasca3pottery.
Strong'sGreatClothDeposit
Strong(1957:16)reportsthathisprojectdiscoveredaremarkableclothdepositatCahuachi.
[Wefounda]simple,plainweaveclothwhichoccupiedatrench18m.longand1.75m.widethetopoftheclothlay0.80m.belowthesurfaceandtheintricatelyfoldedlayerswere
0.15m.thick.Theclothitself,fromselvagetoselvage,provedtobe7m.inwidthandappearedtobeonesinglepiece.Itwascomplexlyfoldedinfromsidetosideinrough
accordionpleats,andthenfoldedendoverendatleast3times.Aconservativeestimateofitslengthis50to60m.whichwithitsextraordinarybreadthmakesitoneofthelargest
piecesofclothreportedfromPeru....Peruvianarchaeologistsreportedthatthiswasexactlythetypeofclothwhichcomposedtheplainclothwrappingsofthemajorityofthe
"Necropolis"mummybundlesatParacasandweweresurewehadencounteredanotherNecropolis.Theoccurrenceof"Cavernas"(ourLateParacas)typesherds,onandunder
thegreatclothlayer,furtheredthisbelief.However,whenwecutthroughtheclothandthoroughlytestedtheunderlying,veryhardnaturalgroundnoburialpitswerefound.

Strong(1957:14)statesthatthisGreatClothDepositwasfound"onaflattothewestandbelowtheGreatTemple."This,however,appearstobeamistake.WhenI
visitedthesitein1984withJorgeEsparza,Strong'sfieldassistant,hespontaneouslyandwithoutanypromptingtookmetoeachofthelocalesatwhichStronghad
worked.HeunhesitatinglyidentifiedtheareanorthofUnit8,nearthesalitreline,astheplaceoftheGreatClothDeposit,andhepointedoutthatabundantpiecesof
plainweaveclotharestillonthesurface.These,hesaid,arethepiecestheyhadtocuttoremovethetextile.Esparza'slocationmoreorlesscorrespondstothe
placementofa"Cut8"onStrong's(1957:fig.4)map.TherearenootherdataonthiscutintheStrongfilesatColumbiaUniversity.ElenaPhipps,atextileconservator
attheMetropolitanMuseumofArtwhohasdoneanexhaustivestudyofStrong'stextilecollectionsfromCahuachi(seePhipps1989),hasexaminedthecloth
fragmentsfromEsparza'slocusandsays(personalcommunication1985)thattheGreatClothDepositmaterialsandthosefromtheEsparzalocusappeartobethe
same.
Conclusions
StrongrecoveredasmallamountofLateParacaspotteryatCahuachicorrespondingtoepoch10oftheEarlyHorizon,butinnocasewasLateParacasceramic
materialfoundisolatedunderNascadeposits.However,Menzel,Rowe,andDawson's(1964)studyofOcucajeandNasca1potteryindisputablyprovestheParacas
antecedentsoftheNascastyle,andlateParacaspotterywasfoundstratigraphicallybeneathNascabearingdepositsbyMejaXesspe(1976)inhiswellcontrolled
excavationsinPalpa.WithinterpolationtheNasca123sequenceisborneoutinStrong'sCuts1,3,5,and7butnotinCuts2,4,or6.Cut1providesevidencethat
Nasca2overliesNasca1.InCut7Nasca3overliesNasca1.InCut3Nasca1isfoundunderNasca2and3.
ThemostimportantfactrevealedbytheforegoinganalysisofStrong'scutsisthatStrongdidnotfindhabitationmounds(asthesearecommonlyunderstood)at
CahuachicontemporarywiththeNasca3apogeeofthesite.Hedid,however,identifyapossiblyextensiveNasca1domesticoccupationatthesite.Furthermore,
Orefici(personalcommunication1989)statesthathehasevidenceofNasca1ceremonialconstructionsunderlyinglaterceremonialconstructionphasesatvariousof
theothermoundsatCahuachi(andseecoverofOrefici1987).Also,StrongappearstohavefoundinUnit7aspecialpurposeNasca1and2architecturalcomplex.

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Clearly,CahuachialreadywasanimportantsiteinNasca1and2times,whichissubstantiatedbytheassociatedfancypotterytypes.
TheothermoundsatwhichStrongworkedUnits2,5,and6unambiguouslycorrespondtoNasca3ceremonialorpublicconstructions.Unit2was,asStrong
referstoit,aGreatTemple.Unit5isaplatformmound,builtoveranearlier,diachronicallyseparateNasca1domesticoccupation.
OnceStronghadhisrelativechronologyhewasabletotackletheoccupationalhistoryofthesite.HeconcludesthattheceremonialstructuresatCahuachidatetothe
"MiddleNazcaculturephase"(Nasca3)andthat"architecturalcorrelationsbetweenLateNazcadepositsandstructureswerenotencounteredbyusat
Cahuachi"(Strong1957:32,34).Rather,LateNazca(Nasca5and6inthiscase)contextswererestrictedtograves(Strong1957:32,fig.14).Alllaterscholars
(e.g.,Proulx1968:2),myselfincluded,areinbasicagreementwithStrong.ScholarsalsoagreewithStrong's(1957:32)statementthat"Cahuachiwasthegreatest,
andprobablythemaincapitalsiteoftheNazcacivilizationinthetimeofitsownpeculiarhighestflorescence."Itremainstobedeterminedwhattheoriginsandnature
ofthatflorescencewereandwhythesitedeclinedsodramaticallyinNasca4times(seechaps.22,23).
Note
1.TheparticipantsinStrong'sprojectwerehistwograduatestudents,RoseM.LilienandRobertL.Stigler,ceramicistRobertSonin,andafinePeruvianfield
assistant,JorgeEsparza.

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ChapterFive
SurfaceSurveyofCahuachi
Survey
Aswehaveseeninthepreviouschapters,relativelylittlewasknownaboutCahuachiwhenmyprojectbegan,despitethesite'sfameintheliteratureandknown
importanceinAndeanprehistory.TheonlysubstantivedescriptionofCahuachiwaspublishedbyStronginhis1957preliminaryreporthowever,hiscommentsare
brief,andmysurveyofthesiteinsummer1983quicklyrevealedinaccuraciesandinadequaciesintheonlypublishedmapofthesite.
Strong's(1957:fig.4fig.2.2)mapofCahuachiwasnotdrawninthefieldbutratherbackinthelabaftertheColumbiaUniversityprojecthadended.Themapisa
fairphotogrammetricinterpretationofanexcellent1952aerialphotograph(fig.5.1)takenbyStrongwhenheandaU.S.airattachtoPeruflewoverCahuachion
November30,1952(seeStrong'sFieldJournalentryforthisday).ButtherearesomemajorproblemswithStrong'smap.Inexplicably,Strongpublishedtheplanwith
thenortharrowpointingtothebottomofthepage.Strong'smaphasbeenreproducedblindlyinvarioustexts(e.g.,Lumbreras1974a:fig.134),andAndeanistshave
becomeaccustomedtoaninvertedviewofthesite.Also,thereareseriouserrorsandomissionsonthemap,nottheleastofwhichisthefactthatStrongarbitrarily
delimitedCahuachitoitscentralcorehisfieldnotesdonotrevealwhyhedidso.Infact,thesiteisalmostthreetimeslargerthanStrongwouldhaveusbelieve,andhis
delimitationresultedintheomissionofsomeofthemostimportantarchitectureatCahuachi.
Duringmy19841985fieldworkitbecameclearthatthefewotherpublisheddescriptionsofthesite(Rowe1963:11Lanning1967:117Lumbreras1974a:123
124Pezzia1969:119121WilliamsLen1980:469471)wereeitherbasedonStrong'sworkoronverybriefandincompletevisitstothesiteanddidnot
recognizetheproblemsmentionedabove.Therefore,amajoraspectofmyprojectwastointensivelygroundsurveyCahuachisoastobeableto(1)correctlyand
morecompletelydescribethesite,(2)delimitit,(3)mapit,(4)adequatelysampleitthroughexcavation,and(5)interpretit.Thischapterrectifiesanexistinggapinthe
archaeologicalliteratureonCahuachithroughitsdescriptionoftheindividual,component,structuralunitsthatcomprisethesite.
Mysurveymethodologyconsistedsimplyofwalkingthesiteandtakingnotesandphotographs.Noscaleplansofthedifferentarchitecturalunitsweredrawn,only
sketchmapstohelpmeunderstandwhatIwasseeing.Nosurfacecollectionsweremade,andmynotesaboutthequantityanddensityofsurfacematerialemployed
subjectivecategoriessuchas"scant"or"much"potteryor"justabitofbone."Nevertheless,thesitedescriptionthatfollowsisreadilycomprehensibleandreplicable
andisaveryfairindicatorofthesitesurface.Irecognizethatwithalargerteam,moretime,andmoremoneyImighthaveattemptedtosystematicallysample/surface
collectthesitesurfaceaswasdoneatTeotihuacan(Millon1973)andTula(HealanandStoutamire1989),tonameonlytwoinstances.Despitetheamountoflooting
andrandombutintensivecollectingthathad

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5.1.
Strong'saerialphotographofthecoreofCahuachi.OnthephotographStronginkedtheartificialandarchitecturalfeatures
heobserved.Thisphotographbecamethebasisofhismapofthesite.Thephotographisorientedtothesouthasin
Strong's(1957:fig.4seefig.2.2)originalmapofthesite.

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goneonatCahuachithrough1983,theeffortmighthavebeenjustified.
GroundsurveyofCahuachibeganwiththeknown.Ilocatedthelargetruncatedmound(Unit1intheterminologythatwasintroducedinSilverman1986)immediately
eastofStrong'sGreatTemple(calledUnit2herein).FromatopUnit1thepanoramaofCahuachiextendsbelow(fig.5.2).Tothenorthandweststretchesasandy
browndesertonwhich,hereandthere,aresquareshapedandelongatedhillsmodifiedbyhumansCahuachi'smonumentalarchitecture.Totheeastextendsasmall
flatplainwithsomesmallerhillsoffinthedistancetheseprovedtobepartofthesiteaswell.Surveybegan,then,inwhatturnedouttobethegeographicallycentral
areaofCahuachi.ThefirsttaskwastoidentifyallofthearchitectureshownonStrong'splan.Soastofacilitatethetakingofnotesandfuturereference,each
architecturalorspatialfeatureonStrong'smapwasgivenanewnumberdesignation.ThesebecameUnits1to25.
IthenproceededtosurveytheareastotheeastandwestofStrong'scoverage,andhereletterswereusedtodesignateculturalfeatures.Inthewesternzoneof
Cahuachisingleletternomenclaturewasused,andintheeasternzonedoubleletterswereemployed.Ifamodifiedhillintheeasternandwesternzoneswascomposed
ofseveralcomponentparts,arabicnumeralswereaddedtotheletterstodesignatethese.Thus,forinstance,wecanspeakofUnitHH4intheeasternzone.Inthe
centralzonelowercaseletterswereaddedtothenumberdesignation,asinUnit8f.Thoughclumsy,thesystemisunambiguous.Aerialphotographs(theServicio
AerofotogrficoNacionalseriesfrom1944,1947,and1970andStrong's1952photos)wereofgreatassistanceduringsurveysincesomeculturalfeaturesweremore
readilyvisiblefromtheairthanfromtheground.
ThesurveyandmappingofCahuachiinvolvedtheinterplayofgroundreconnaissance,aerialphotographicinterpretation,andtwolongflightsoverCahuachiina
Cessna172at100to150meterselevation.Theseflightsprovedtobeofinvaluableassistancebothindemonstratingtheexistenceofthefeaturesandpatterns
describedhereinandbecausetheypresentedCahuachiatascalelargeenoughtorevealitstruemagnitudewhileminimizingtheperceptualdistortioncausedbylooting,
erosion,andthesite'ssimpleconstructiontechniques.Althoughthemappublishedhere(figs.2.32.6)isfarmorecompleteandaccuratethanStrong's,theneedfora
theodoliteortransitbasedmapoftheentiresiteandeachunitisenthusiasticallyacknowledged.
OverviewoftheSite
Tothecasualvisitor,CahuachihastheappearanceofabarrenareaoferodinghillsseparatedbyflatspacesthatinmanycaseslookliketheaftereffectofWorldWar
IIbombertargetpractice(fig.5.3).AnarchaeologistvisitingthesiteforthefirsttimeperceivesCahuachiastheremainsofalooters'paradise,formanyofthe
multitudinouscratersandsmallerholescanberecognizedastheproductofgraverobbing.Itisonlyuponasecondoreventhirdvisitthatsomeofthehillsassumean
"unnatural"aspectandrevealthemselvestobepartiallyartificialmounds.ThedifficultysomanyarchaeologistshavehadinvisualizingCahuachiisduetoitsintrinsic
physicalproperties.Forinstance,theerodingsedimentarystrataofthesurroundingnaturalhillsmakemodifiedmoundsdifficulttodistinguish(fig.1.6).Also,thesiteis
severelyalteredduetotheactionofnaturalerosionaryforcesovertimeandatleasteightyyearsofintenseandunremittingvandalism.Indeed,Strong(citedinRowe
1953:107)writesthat"itishardtotellwherenatureendsandmanbegins."StrongexplainsthenatureofCahuachi'sarchitecture,statingthattheNascaarchitects
"tookovergreatnaturalmounds,terracesandplazasleftbywindandwateraction,andcappedallthreewithadobetops,makingpyramids,terracesand
walls...[the]resultfromahighplace,isverystriking."Itisnottrue,however,that"atCahuachi,forsometenkilometers,hundredsofsuchstructuresoccur"(Strong,
citedinRowe1953:107).Rather,eventhoughthesiteissignificantlylargerthanStrong'sportrayalofitencompassingsome150hectaresonlyabout25hectares
or15percentofthesitesurfaceiscoveredwithmoundarchitecture.
DescriptionoftheUnits
EachmajorarchitecturalorspatialfeatureidentifiedatCahuachi,asnowdelimited,isdescribedinthissection."Unit"isthewordIhavechosenforlabelingthese,a
termintendedtobesemanticallyneutral.Iwillfocusonwhattheunitis(e.g.,amodifiedhill,adelimitedopenspace,alootedarea),howitwasconstructedorcreated,
whatitscomponentparts(ifany)are,andhowitcorrespondstoStrong'srepresentationofitonhisplan(forthoseunitswhichlieinthecentralzoneofCahuachi).
Heightmeasurementsaregivenonlywhenimportantforintrasitecomparison.Approximatesizeisgiveninthetextandcanbederivedfromthemaps.

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5.2.
AerialphotographofCahuachitakenin1952.Thisphotographisorientedwithnorthtothetopandshowstheentirearea
encompassedinStrong'smapaswellasseverallargemoundsextendingwestofStrong'scoverage.Atthebaseofthe
photographatrapezoidalgeoglyphcanbeseen(seefig.22.2).

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TheCentralZoneofCahuachi
ThecentralzoneofCahuachiisdefinedasthatareawithinandimmediatelyadjacenttothetwomajorwalls(Units4and16)shownonStrong'smap(fig.2.2)and
containedwithinthatmap'sarea.Thisareaisgeographicallycentralintermsofthefinalsitedelimitation.

5.3.
Aerialphotographofamassivelylootedareaatthenorthtip
ofUnitWWintheeasternzoneofCahuachi.

5.4.
Front(north)viewoftheUnit1platformmound.Fieldvehicleinforeground.

Unit1
Standingapproximately30metershigh,Unit1isamodifiednaturalhillthatisthetallestartificialmoundatCahuachibyvirtueofitstopographicpositionandupper
platforms.Itmeasuresapproximately95by110metersatthebase.Nowterriblyeroded,thehillcan,innorthprofile,beseentohavebeendeliberatelyterraced(fig.
5.4).Theseterraces,fiveorsixdependingonhowonecounts,arebuttressedonthenorth(valley)sidebyverticaladoberetainingwalls.Themoundwasconstructed
onapartlyartificialterracethatformstheesplanadeconnectingittoUnit8.
ThemostinterestingaspectofUnit1isthegapingtrenchinitssummit(fig.5.5).Thistrenchmeasuresapproximately21meterslongby9meterswideandhashigh
wallsonitsnorth,south,andwestsides.ItappearsontheearliestaerialphotosofthesitetakenbytheServicioAerofotogrficoNacional(series524of1944)and
wasnotedbyKroeberin1926.Myworkersbelievedthetrenchtohavebeentheworkofalargeteamoflooters.Butthereisanincongruouslackofsufficientrubble
fillatthebaseofthemoundtoaccountforatrenchofsuchmassiveproportions.
AnalternativeinterpretationwassuggestedtomebyLuisLumbreraswhenhevisitedthesite.Lumbrerasseesthetrenchasahighwalled,narrow,sunkencourtopen
totheeast,similartotheoneontopofAkapanaatTiwanaku(seePonceSangines1976:fig.61).Themassive

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5.5.
TheimmensetrenchatopUnit1.Itisopentotheeast.
CourtesyGaryUrton.

adobewallsatopthepenultimateterracewouldhaveservednotjusttosupportthehighwalledcourtbutalsoasanimpressiveentryway.Thereisasuggestionofa
ramponthiseastsideleadinguptothissummit.Opentotheeast,thisloftycourthasamagnificentviewofCerroBlanco,oneofthesacredmountainsofNazca(see
Reinhard1988).
Therockrubblefillingthetrenchtodayispartofthenaturalhillwhichhaslostitsverticalprofile.Thehilliscomposedofhardwhitebedrockandrocks.Asmall
amountofvegetalfiberfillandaverticalpieceofhuarango(Prosopischilensis)woodcanbeseenatthetopofthetrench.
Unit1isunlooted(assumingthetrenchisnottheresultoflooters),andthereisvirtuallynoarchaeologicalmaterialonitssurface.Exceptforthelargedepressionatits
summit,themounddoesnotappeartohaveanyotherinternalroomdivisions.

5.6.
AerialphotographofUnit2lookingtothenorth.Thenaturalhillwasartificiallyleveledandterraced.Thelightercoloredadobe
wallsstandoutinstrongcontrasttothedarkercolorofthehill.Unit1isseenattheupperright.

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Unit2
StrongexcavatedhisCut6onUnit2(seechap.4figs.2.2,5.6).HeconsideredthismoundtobetheGreatTemple,the"largestceremonialandarchitectural
complex"atCahuachiandthe"mostimpressive"oneatthesite(Strong1957:28,31).InthepreliminaryreporthedescribesUnit2asapyramidmadeofa"naturalhill
cappedandfacedwithtall,wedgeshapedadobes...andthewallsofthecourtsandrooms...arebuiltofsimilarmaterialsuponrivererosionridges.Thepartially
naturalpyramidisanestimated20ormoremetersinheightandthelargestcourtbelowitis45m.fromnorthtosouthand75m.fromeasttowest.Thisplazais
surroundedbywallsofsimilaradobes"(Strong1957:31).InhisdiaryStrongdescribestheGreatTempleinmoreenthusiasticterms."Anamazingstructure!The
Indiansusedthenaturalterracesandwhiteclayoutcropsandmadeavastplazawithstructures,walls,etc.onavastscale....Muchofitisnature'sworkbutmanhas
madeithisown....Itisverydifficulttotellwherethemarineclaysendandtheadobewallstakeonbutthereisnodoubtthatthewallsarethere.GoodNazcaA
polychromesherdsarescatteredoverthesurface,layersoftotoraareinseveralquebradasaspartofthewalls,andasmall(Nazca?)cemeteryisnearby.However,
thereisrelativelylittlerefuseandtheplacewouldseemceremonialratherthanoccupational."
Strong(1957:31),likeKroeberbeforehim,correctlyrecognizesUnit2aspartnaturalandpartartificialandnotesthatassuchitisnotcomparabletotheHuacadel
SolorHuacadelaLunaatMocheortovariousothermajoradobeconstructionsknownfromthenorthandcentralcoasts.Theerosionchannelsonthenorthfaceof
theUnit2moundrevealitspresentheighttobetheresultofafillofsuperimposed,thin,alternatinghorizontallayersofadobechunksandvegetalfiber.Thelayersof
fibermaycontainonlyoneorsometimestwokindsoffiberthesearechilco(Baccharis)andgrama(SetariaBeauv.).Bothgrowalongtheriverandoncultivated
land.Thesefiberandadobelayerscreatethreestepterraces(h1,h2,andh3onfig.5.7)thatraisetheheightofthenaturalhillonwhichUnit2iselaborated.
FromtheairUnit2isthemostclearlydistinguishablestructureatCahuachibecauseitscontinuouswhitishbeigeadobedefiningwallsshowupwithsuchcontrast
againstthebrowndesert(fig.5.6).Thegroundplanoftheupperterracehastheshapeofastepfret,asacredsymbolalludingtomountains,huacas,andconceptsof
fertility.Thisshapewascreatedbylevelingandmodelingthehillandthenoutliningtheresultantformwithacontinuousadobewall.Thisartificiallyflattenedterraceis
unlooted,asignificantqualityatCahuachiaswewillsee.
ThecontinuousadobewallispartofUnit4.OnUnit2thereisasecond,smallerwallbehind(south)Unit4.ThiswallisnotindicatedonStrong'smapsimilarwalls
arefoundonothermoundsatCahuachi,suchasUnit9.Theparallelwallscreateanddelimitsmall,clearedspaces.
ThereisagglutinatedarchitectureonUnit2intheformoftwoareasofrooms(2band2c)beneath(north)thedominantcentralterrace(2f)(seefig.5.7).Someroom
wallsarebetterpreservedthanothers.Strongclearedpartofawall,revealingyellowadobessetinbeigemortar.Thereisatremendousamountofadobemelt,and
thismayhaveprotectedthesecontiguousroomsfromvandalism.Italsoindicatesthatthesewallsweresubstantiallyhigherand/orwiderinthepast.Iobservedfew
materialremainsonthesurfaceoftheagglutinatedroomsthecontentsassociatedwiththeseroomsareobscuredbytheadobemelt.WhenOreficiclearedthemeltin
oneareaherecoveredalargecacheofpanpipes.
Thereisathirdareaofagglutinatedrooms(2gonfig.5.7)beneathandwestofStrong'sCut6.TheabundantsurfacematerialhereincludesdecoratedNascasherds,
plainware,obsidian,shell,textilefragments,andbone.ThedecoratedsherdsaresoerodedastoimpedephasedesignationbeyondrecognizingthemasNascaby
tracesofslippaintandsurfacefinish.Indeed,forreasonsIcannotyetexplain,surfacepotteryismoreerodedherethaninanyotherpartofthesite,andsomeofthe
pottery,whichappearstobeplainware,mayoncehavebeendecorated.
Unit3
Unit3appearsonStrong'splanasanaturalhill.Nevertheless,examinationoftheaerialphotograph(fig.5.2)andthe1984visualexaminationinthefieldsuggestthat
onlythenorthportionofthisgreat(approximately88by40meters)Cshapedmoundisnaturalthecentralareaandsouthernarmappeartobedeliberatelyshaped
(fig.5.8).Assuch,Unit3issimilartoUnit101(seebelow).ExcavationbyOrefici(personalcommunication1989)hassinceconfirmedthisinterpretation.Nocultural
remainswerenotedonthesurfaceofUnit3.
Unit4
Unit4isoneofthetwomajorenclosingwallsatCahuachitheotheroneisUnit16.Otherlongwalls,suchasUnitB,havebeenidentifiedatthesite.Unit4encloses
Units1and2andpartofUnit10.Ifwetake

Page62

5.7.
DetailofthecentralarchitecturalacropolisofCahuachi,basedonStrong'smapofthesitebutorientedtothenorth.
TheindividualarchitecturalandspatialareasrecognizedonUnits2,8,and10areindicatedwithlowercaseletters.

intoaccountthatUnit8isconnectedtoUnit1byakindofesplanadeonitssouthside,thenUnit8couldalsobeconsideredtobeenclosedbythiswall,thoughthis
maybeanunwisediscrimination.
AlthoughtheUnit4andUnit16wallsarerepresentedonStrong'smapasmajorphysicallandmarksonthesitesurfaceandareprominentfromtheair,neitheroneof
thesewallsissoreadilyvisibleontheground.Itisapparentfromthescarceamountofadobemeltthattheverylow,roundedridgethatisUnit4todaywasnot
significantlyhigherinthepast.Thetopoftheridgeissome20centimetersabovegroundlevel,andtheridgehasawidthoflessthan50centimeters.Thewallhasa
lengthofalmost800metersrunningforabout240metersonthewestside,400metersonthesouthside,and150metersontheeastside.
Unit4maybesaidtobeginatopUnit10(fig.5.9).ItrunssouthanddownoffthemoundbeforeturningasharprightangletoheadupandwestoverUnit9.Itthen
descendsintothewidegulleybetweenUnits9and2beforerisinguptoUnit2todelimititssouthside.AsStrongsawit,Unit4islostonthewestsideofUnit2due

Page63

5.8.
LookingwestattheUnit3moundfromUnit2.

5.9.
AerialphotographofUnits10,9,and1.NotetheUnit4wallextendingsouthalongUnit1andturningtothewest
torunoverUnit9.Thecontrastbetweenlootedandunlootedareasisseenatthelowerleft.

toapostNascalandslide,butitcanbeseentoformacornerangleofftheUnit2mound,headnorthashortdistance,break,andthenformitsfinalenclosingcorner
angle.Today,itisthenorthwardturnUnit4takesatopUnit2thatismorevisibleandcertainlymorenoteworthy,forassuchthiscontinuouswallisanintegralpartof
thecentralstepfretterraceonUnit2.
Unit5
Unit5isalong,twotiered,flattoppedmoundrunningeastwestbetweentheareaenclosedbyUnits16and8.Itmeasuresapproximately112by20meters.Strong
excavatedhisCuts2,4,and7onthenorthsideofthismound(seechap.4).Unit5hasaneven,gravellysurfacewithlittleevidenceoflooting.Thereisnoevidenceof
roomsontopofUnit5,althoughthestumpofahuarangopostonthesouthwestsideofStrong'sCut4wasobserved.
OntheeastsideofUnit5,atthebaseofthemound,therearetracesofseveraladobewallswhichrunnorthsouthalongtheeastsideofthemoundandhaveseveral
perpendicularwalls.Thewesternwallsarehigherthan

Page64

theeasternonesbecausetheeastsideofUnit5slopesdowntotheeast.Note,however,thatgroundlevelisnotreached.Rather,theeastsideofUnit5slopesdown
toasmallplatformthatconnectsUnit5tothewestsideofUnit8.
TheareabetweentheeastsideofUnit5andthenorthfaceofUnit8slopesdowntothenorth.Thereislittleevidenceoflooting.Thisareaisalong,lowwalled,
rectangulardelimitedspace.Potteryisveryscarcevirtuallynootherculturalmaterialswereobserved.
Unit6
Strong'sCut1wasexcavatedintothesouthsideofUnit6(fig.2.2seechap.4).Cut3wasexcavatedintothewestside(fig.2.2).Unit6isalongplatformmound
(approximately84by18meters)thatliesabout100metersnorthofUnit5,separatedfromitbyanunlootedsquareareaadjacenttothenorthsideofUnit5anda
brokenlowridgerunningeastwest.Theeasterntipofthisridgeishigherthantherestbecauseithasbeenartificiallymodified.Strong,onhisplan,connectsthis
protuberancetoUnit6tocreateanLshapedmound.Thefieldnotes,however,describeitasaseparatesmallmoundonwhichawall,stillvisibletoday,wascleared
(Stiglerfieldnotes,October22,1952).ItisnotcertainifthelittleroundmoundisnaturallyconnectedtoUnit6.TheareabetweenthelowridgeandsouthfaceofUnit
6islooted.Theoriginalfunctionorlateruseofthisnarrowareaisnotknown.Ascarceamountofcane,bone,sherds,andsomequartziteflakeswereobservedonthe
disturbedsurfaceofthismound.
Unit7
Unit7wasthesmallmound,approximately10by8meters,locatedabout10metersnorthoftheeastendofUnit6.Strong'sCut5wasexcavatedhere(seechap.4).
Strong(1957:fig.5B,C)illustratessomeofthearchitecturerevealedinCut5.ThemoundwasstillvisibleontheServicioAerofotogrficoNacionalaerialphotograph
of1970,andStrong's1952lowaltitudeflightphotosshowitquitewell.Thelowmoundwasrazedinthelate1970s(localinformantscouldnotbemorespecific)
whentheunlootedareabetweenUnits7,6,and11wasconvertedintoanagriculturalfieldandirrigated.Thefieldwasusedforonlyoneortwoseasonsaccordingto
informants.AlightscatterofNasca1,2,and3sherdswasobservedinthefield.
Unit8
Unit8wasconstructedoveranaturalhill(fig.5.10).AsnotedinthediscussionofUnit1,Unit8isanextensionofUnit1'sbasalplatform(seefigs.2.2,2.4,5.1,5.2,
5.10).Unit8restsonanaturalterraceabovethevalleyfloor.Thatterracehas,inplaces,beenartificiallyleveledorfilledin,possiblytocorrectirregularitiesinthe
terrain.Asrevealedinlooters'holes,theconstructionfillcanbeasmuchas2metersdeep.Itisthisartificialterracethatexplainsthesharpdropdowntotheopenarea
infrontofUnit5fromUnit8.
Unit8isabout30metershighandmeasuresapproximately215by175meters.Itiscomposedofamajorterracedmound(h)withaseriesoflateralsquareand
threesidedenclosurestotheeastandwestofit(fig.5.7).Eachofthefournorthterracesthatformthemainmound(h)iscontainedbyamajoradobewall.Itisnot
cleariftheadobearchitecturevisibleatthebaseofthelowestcontainmentwallpertainstoactualroomsortochamberedfill(whichwouldcorrespond,then,tothe
platformuponwhichthemoundwasraised).Thereisonlyasmallamountofbrokenpotteryontheflattopsurfaceofthemoundthereismoreonitsnorthflank.The
moundwaslootedlightlybutwithlittleevidenceofsuccess.Denselayersofvegetalfiberarevisibleinthelooters'holesatopUnit8.Itwasbythismeansthatthe
heightofthehillwasraisedandirregularitiesevenedout.
Someofthethreesidedandfoursidedenclosuresontheeast(c,d,j,andtheenclosurecreatedbycgandi)andwest(f)sidesofthemoundarelooted,whileothers
arenot.Inthelootedareasthereisabundantpotteryaswellasasmallamountofshellandhumanbone.Thebonecertainlyderivesfromlootedtombsatthebaseof
Unit8.
Unit8fisthesurfacelevelthreesidedareaopentothewestonthewestsideofUnit8.Itisformedbythenaturalcentralportionofthe8hmound,the8bplatformto
thenorth,andthe8eplatformtothesouth.Unit8cisafourwalledsunkenenclosureonthesoutheastsideofmound8h.Itmeasuresapproximately18metersona
side.Unit8disalarger,fourwalledsunkenenclosedspace,duewestofthemedianridgeofthe8hmoundonitssouthwestside.Itisdefinedonthewestby8e.Unit
8eitself,thesouthwesternmostprojectionof8e,andthesmall,looted8mmounddefineasmallthreesidedareaopentothewestthatislocatedwestof8e.
Unit8k,notshownonStrong'smap,isasmalllootedmoundlocatedimmediatelynortheastofthenortheasternmostcornerofthebaseoftheUnit8mound(8j).
Lootersexcavatedatrench,approximately20by4meters,intothewestsideofthelittlemoundrevealinganadobeandrubblefillconstructionsimilartothatobserved
inUnitNN1intheeasternzoneofCahuachi(seebelow).Thereappeartobenoroomdivisions.
Units8band8iaresmallraisedplatformsoneithersideofthemainmound(8h).Unit8iisatwotier

Page65

5.10.
AerialviewofUnit8lookingtotheeast.Themoundiscomposedofitsmajornorthfacingplatformsandaseries
ofsquareandthreesidedlootedandunlootedenclosuresofvaryingsize.ThebaseofUnit1canbeseeninthe
upperrightcorner.Thetwomoundsareconnectedbyanesplanade.

mound,andonitssurfacewereobservedfragmentsofverylargepanpipes,plainware,Nasca2and3decoratedware,andabitofhumanbone.Strong'sCut9(see
fig.2.2)appearstohavebeenlocatedonUnit8i,fortheremainsofanexcavationwereobservedatthisplace.Theexcavation,stillopen,revealschamberedfill
architecture.Thechamberisconstructedofsolidadobewalls.Therearetwowalls,onenorthandonesouth,runningparalleltoeachotherwithinwhichthefillwas
placed.Thefillissandandvegetalfiberwithsmallrocks.
Unit8bisaflattoppedmound,lowerthanthemainmound(8h).Itisalateralwingofthatmound.Itwasprobedbylooters,butthereisnoevidenceofgraves.Onthe
northeastsidethereareatleasttworowsoflootedcirculardepressions.Thesewereexcavatedintothenaturalhill,andtheirsidesweresmoothedsoastocreatefairly
evenwalls.Theremainsofalargebrokenutilitarianvesselwerefoundalongsideoneofthedepressions.
Unit8jisasmall,low,square,unlootedplatformdirectlynorthof8i.
Unit8cisaplatformonthesoutheastedgeofUnit8.Onitssummitisaneastwestlineofadobewall.Onitsnortheastsidearetracesofsmalladobewalledrooms.
ThemostinterestingaspectofUnit8isonitseasternsidewheremanythinhuarangopostsareverticallyimplantedinafillcomposedoflayersofvegetalfiber,rock,
andadobefragments(fig.5.11).Thisfillwascontainedbythickadobewalls.Theuseofhuarangopostswasanefficientconstructiontechniquefordispersingthe
outwardpressureexertedbythefill(seechap.6).Thisconstructiontechniqueisfoundallthewayuptothetopofthemound.
Unit9
Unit9(Kroeber'sM)isamajormodifiedhill,approximately126by104meters,connectedtoUnit1byanarrowridge(fig.5.7).Inprofilethreemajoreastwest
terracescontainedorcreatedbyadobedefiningwallscanbedistinguished.TheUnit4wallrunsalongandoverthetopofthismound(fig.5.9).Behind(south)the
Unit4wallisasmall,flat,unlooted,foursidedspaceonthemoundsummitthatisdefinedbythepresenceofa

Page66

5.11.
TheconstructiontechniqueoftheUnit8moundisvisibleon
itseastside.Thinhuarangopostsareverticallyimplantedina
fillcomposedoflayersofvegetalfiber,rock,andadobe
fragments.Thisfillwascontainedbythickadobewalls.

5.12.
SchematicsketchshowingprofileofUnit9andtheuseof
parallelwallsonmoundsummittodefineaclearedspace.
TheancientNascabuildersatCahuachi,aselsewhereinthe
RoGrandedeNazcadrainage,appeartohavebeen
obsessedwiththecreationofclearedspacesofanysize.These
couldbedelineatedbywallsasseenhereorbythesimple
contrastofclearedandunclearedareas.Thissamespatial
conceptwasinvolvedintheelaborationofthefamous
geoglyphs.

second,short,eastwestwallthatisparalleltoUnit4(fig.5.12)thissecondwallisnotindicatedonStrong'smap.BetweenthebaseoftheUnit9moundandtheUnit
4walltotheeast,asmall,flat,enclosedareaexists.
Unit9haslittlesurfacematerial,althoughitsnorthfaceissomewhatlootedprobablyanextensionofthelootingthattookplaceinthelowerareabetweenUnit9and
thesouthwestedgeofUnit10.
OntheeastsideoftheflattopofUnit9arepossiblyeightadobelinedcirculardepressions(fiveareclearlydefined)runninginaroughlyeastwestdirection.Average
diameteris80centimeters.Depthwasnotdeterminedbecausethedepressionswerenotcleanedout.Inonethereisanuprighthuarangopost.Thepresenceofa
huarangopostinassociationwithacirculardepressionissimilartothesituationonUnit12B(seebelow).
Unit10
TheUnit4wallthatrunseastwestoverUnits2and9turnsnorthatthesoutheastcornerofthesmallenclosureeastofUnit9andthenrunstowardthevalleyalongthe
westsideoftheUnit10mound.Unit4actsasamediallineforthemound,withcomponentareaslyingtothewestandeastoftheline(seefig.5.7).
TheUnit10mound,likemostoftheothermoundsatCahuachi,isamodifiednaturalhill.Itmeasuresapproximately140by140meters.Theancientsutilizedand
alteredthenaturaltopographytosuittheirneeds.Forinstance,naturaldepressionswereregularizedtocreateaseriesofthreesidedandfoursidedsunken,walled
enclosures.Areasofthemoundwereflattenedorraisedtoachievethedesiredform.Thenaturallyterracednorthfaceofthehill(10g)wasemphasizedthroughthe
constructionofverticaladobewalls,therebycreatingafrontallytruncatedmound.Thesevariousnaturalirregularitiesandthemodificationsandutilizationsthereofhave
givenUnit10itsdistinguishablecomponentparts.
Unit10gistheterracednorthfaceofthemound.Thereissomebutnotmuchceramicmaterialonitssurface,includingplainwareandearlyNascadecoratedsherds.
ThesecondterraceofUnit10gappearstohaveroomdivisions.
Unit10fistheflat,square,emptyareabehind(south)thissummit.Therearevirtuallynoremainson10f.Thisisthesamepatternobservedonthesummitsofmostof
theothermoundsatCahuachi.
Unit10aisthesouthernmostplatform.ItiseastofUnit4,whichrunsoverit.Ithasbeensomewhatlooted,butthereisonlyveryscarcebrokenpotteryonitsflat
surface.
Unit10aa,asmallthreesidedareaopentotheeast,islocatedbetween10a,10bb,and10cc.Unit10ccisactuallythecontinuationof10aaonthewestsideofthe
Unit4walljustas10jisfor10bb.
Unit10bisthelowerlyingflatareabetweenthesmall10bbrise,10c,and10m.ItisalsoeastofUnit4.Thisareaisseverelylootedthereisalargeamountof
disturbedsoil.Somehumanboneandplainwarearevisibleonthesurfacebutnotasmuchasthedegreeofdisturbancewouldleadustoexpect.
Unit10cisanothersmallmound.It,too,isbadlylooted,withlittleonthesurfacenow.Someplainwareandahuarangopostwereobserved.
Unit10disabadlylootedplatform.

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Unit10e,asmall,threesided,lowlyingorsunkenenclosureontheeastsideofUnit10,isenclosedbythemoundandUnit10i.Itisbadlylooted.
Unit10iisamodifiedridgewhichenclosesasurfacelevel,foursidedarea.Itisparticularlyvisiblefromtheair(fig.5.13).
Unit10pisthenorthprojectingspurthatrunsbetween10kand10l.Unit10kisalong,narrow,threesidedareaduetothenaturaltopographythatconfinesit.Unit
10lisasquareenclosedarea,nowheavilylooted.Thislootingissurelyduetotheunit'sproximitytoStrong'sBurialArea2.
AnotherreasonforheavylootingatUnit10isthepresenceoffourwellpreservedcylindricalshaftandbottlepitsordepressionson10j(fig.5.14seechap.22).The
localpeoplerefertotheseasgarrafas.ItislikelythatothersuchdepressionsexistonUnit10jtojudgefromthelooteddepressionsonthesurface.
Orefici'sprojecthas,overthepastfiveyears,revealedamajorcomplexofroomsandcorridorsonthewestsideofUnit10.Oneofhismostinterestingdiscoveriesis
thatamajoradobewallonthewestsideofthemoundcollapsedinantiquity,killingayoungwoman.Hesuggeststhecollapsewastheresultofacataclysmicflood
whichprecipitatedthedeclineofthesite.
Unit11
Unit11isabadlylootedmound,todayontheedgeofcultivation.Itmeasuresapproximately80by64meters.Thesouthsideofthemoundisasimpleunlooted
terraceifthereisarchitecturebeneaththesurface,thereisnoevidenceofitatgroundlevel.Lootershaveattackedtheterracednorthfaceoftheunitwhere

5.13.
AerialviewofUnit10i,amodifiedridgewhichencloses
asurfacelevelfoursidedarea.

5.14a.
Unit10.Agarrafaoverlainbymorethan40centimetersof
fillconsistingofloosebeigebrownsandwithvegetalfiber,
lumpsofadobe,somehair,sherds,charcoal,androck.This
layeroffillis,inturn,overlainby40to50centimetersof
adobesandadobemelt.Itsedgesarecoveredbyfourthin
woodpoststhatpresumablyformedpartofaroof,now
gone.Thedepthofthisgarrafacouldnotbeconclusively
determined,butitisatleast80centimetersdeep
beyondthelevelofitspartialroof.

5.14b.
Unit10.Agarrafathatis39centimeterswide.Thewallsof
theshaftare93centimetersdeeptheyhaveaveryfine
plasteredorpolishedinteriorsurface.Thebottlechamberisat
least187centimetersdeep.Thisgarrafaisnotroofed.Itis
overlainbyabout1meterofdirt,butnoprofilecanbeseen
becauseoftheextentoflootingandthefactthatdirtissliding
downintotheshaft.

compartmentalized,adobewalledarchitectureisobservable.Whilesomeofthisarchitecturemaycorrespondtochamberedfill,clearlytherearenoninfrastructural
roomsaswell.Humanboneandcanelieonthelootedfilledinsurfaceofsomeoftheseroomsthissuggestsuseforburial.Thereisabundantculturalmaterial
consistingofshell,bone,plainware,anddeco

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ratedearlyNascasherds.MostoftheNasca1potteryvisibleonCahuachi'ssurfacewasobservedonandaroundUnit11.Thismoundalsoappearstohaveagreater
abundanceofchippedquartziteandgroundstonelithicartifactsincludingmortarsandpestlesonitssurfacethanelsewhereatthesite.Theconcavityofone
groundstonemortaratUnit11wasstainedwitharedpigment.
Theunderlyingnaturalcoreofthemodifiedhillcanbeseenontheeasternsideofthemoundwherelootinghasrevealedaconstructionsectioncomposedofbundled
stalks(fig.5.15)likethepackagesofvegetalfiberthatcharacterizeStrong'sCut4onUnit5(seechap.4).Elsewhere,conicaladobescanbeseeninexposedsections
ofadobewall.SeveralphasesofusecanbeseenonUnit11,forsectionsofadobewereaddedtoblockaccessthroughpreviouslyopenpassageways.
ThebasesofhuarangopostsarepresentonthesummitofUnit11.Theyaresurroundedbycanesandpresumablycorrespondtotheperishableremainsofpreviously
standingsurfacearchitectureonthemound.Alsoobservedonthesummitweresemicircular,adobelineddepressions.
Thismoundshouldbeexcavatedinthefuture.
Unit11isseparatedfromtheunitwestofit,Unit12,byalonggulleythatappearstobepartnaturalandpartartificial.Strong'sBurialArea1,aNasca5and6
cemetery,wasonlyseveralmetersnorthofthenortheasttipofUnit11.Thisareawasbulldozedseveralyearsagotocreateanagriculturalfield,nolongerused.
Unit12
Unit12(fig.5.16)consistsofthreeareasorsubunits,12A,12B,and12C.Unit12Aisaraisedplatformabout48metersonaside.Itsnorthfaceisheavilylooted.A
traceofacanewallwasobservedonthenorthsideof12A.Thereisscantculturalmaterialon12A,althoughapanpipefragmentandagood"Cahuachi
Polychrome"(Nasca2)sherdwereobserved.
Unit12Bisaverysmallmound,approximately25by18meters,thatappearstobesolidadobeconstruction(fig.5.17),ararefeatureatCahuachi.Atopitsflat
summitareatleastthreeeastwestrowsofalignedcylindricaldepressions/shafts(figs.5.16,5.18)filledinwithsand.Aminimumofthirtyofthesefeaturesexist.The
diameterofeachfeatureisapproximately1meter,andthedepthisatleast1meter.Inthesouthwesternmostshaftahuarangopostisverticallyplanted.Severallarge
fragmentsofbrokenutilitarianwarewithdistinctivedifferentialfirecloudingwereobservedaroundthesedepressions.Therewasalsoalittlebitofboneandascrapof
plainweavetextile.Twoofthesedepressionswere

5.15.
Unit11.Fillcomposedofbundlesofvegetalfiber(chala).
ThisissimilartotheconstructioninStrong'sCut4onUnit5.

cleanedoutbyMiguelPazos,whorecoveredanaccumulationofhuarangopodsfromoneandallamalegbonefromtheother(seechap.22).
AtthebaseofUnit12B,ontheeastsideofthelittlemound,thereisamassivelylooted,smallarchitecturalareawithhorrendouslydamagedsectionsofadobewalls
whichappeartoformroomsanddoorways.
Unit12C(fig.5.16)isatotallylootedareasouthofandimmediatelyadjacenttoUnit12B.EvenontheearliestaerialphotosofCahuachithisareaisalready
devastated.Theaerialphotosreveallargescalelootingthatispatternedinfourorfiveeastwestrowsofaligned,deep(atleast4meters),wide(upto4meters),
circulardepressionsonaslightlyraisedterrace(apparentlycreatedbythegulleybetweentheterraceandtheUnit11area)thatpossiblywasoutlinedwithalowadobe
wall.Thelootedareaisneatlydelimited.Aproblemforinterpretationisthatthecorrespondinglargeamountofdirtthatwouldhavebeenremovedinexcavatingthese
holesisnotpresentasbackdirt.Ihaveneverobservedsherdsorotherculturalmaterialsthatwouldsuggesttheformerpresenceoftombsor,indeed,anyother
functionforthisarea.
Unit13
Unit13(originallycalledUnitIinSilverman1985a:fig.1theletterIhasnotbeenreassigned),duesouthwestofUnit2,wasportrayedasanaturalhillonStrong's
1957map,butitsnorthfacehasbeenlightlyterraced.Thehillmeasuresabout90by72meters.Noadoberetainingwallsarevisibleonthesurface,buttheterraced
northfaceappearstobetheresultofhumanmodificationerosionmaybeobscuringitsartificialconstruction.Itispossiblethatthereisacentralrampascendingthe
northfacetothesummitofthemound.A

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5.16.
AerialviewofUnit12.TheUnit12Aplatformisheavilylooted.NotethesmallUnit12Bmoundwithitsrowsofaligned
shafts.Alsonotethemassivecraterinthemiddleofrowsofalignedlooters'holesinUnit12C.Unit11isvisibleatthe
topcenterofthephotograph.

5.17.
CloseupofthesouthfaceofUnit12B.Thissmallmound
appearstobeofsolidadobeconstruction.

5.18.
PlanofalignedcylindricalshaftsatopUnit12B.

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5.19.
AerialviewofUnit15BwithUnit18inthebackground.

basalplatformandthreeterracesplusthesummitarerecognized.
Themoundsitsatthefoot(ifUnits11and12canbeconceivedofasthehead)ofthelong,"empty,"centralspace(withinwhichthelargeareaenclosedbyUnit16is
alsofound)ofCahuachi'scentralzone.Thus,Unit13hasanexcellentviewofthecentralzoneofCahuachi.FromitcanbeseentheagglutinatedroomsofUnit2,Unit
5,theUnit16area,thewestsideofUnit8,andUnit3,butonlytheverytipofUnit1.Also,fromatopthismoundthereisafineviewofthePampadeSanJos
acrossthenarrowNazcaRivervalley.CerroSanJostothenorth,CerroBlancototheeast,andCerroTungatothesoutharealsovisiblefromUnit13.Thereisa
naturalechophenomenonbetweentheheadandfootoftheemptycorridor:fromatopUnit13conversationstakingplacebeneaththe(oneandonly)huarangotree
justeastofUnit12canbeheard.
ThereisalotofbrokenplainwareatopUnit13.Attheverybaseofthemound,onthelowestplatform,thereisafairamountofculturalmaterialconsistingofshell,
plainware,asmallconcentrationoflithics(includingobsidianandquartz),andapossiblewhalebone.AtypicalearlyNascaneckedollasetinthelowerterraceofthe
moundwasdiscoveredbyArmandoValdivia.Fromitssandyfillwererecoveredagreenthread,aNasca1polishedblackwaresherd,abigpieceofcamelidwool,a
seaurchinshell,afineorangewaresherd,anunidentifiedburnedbone,apieceofcharcoal,andafragmentofguayaba(Psidiumguajava).Thesemayormaynotbe
theremainsofitsoriginalcontentsacircularholeintheuppervesselwallrevealsthatthevesselhadalreadybeendamagedbylooters.
Unit14
Unit14measuresapproximately50squaremeters.IthasbeenassignedanumberbecauseStrongdistinguishesitonhisplan.Inreality,itispartoftheUnit1819
lowwalledenclosuresascanbeseeninacomparisonofStrong'smap,mynewmap,andaerialphotographsofCahuachi(figs.2.2,2.4,5.2).
Unit15
Unit15(fig.5.19)iscomposedofthreemoundswhicharecalled15A,15B,and15C.Unit15delimitsthewestsideofthelowwalledenclosurecreatedbyUnit16.
Unit15Aisatwotieredmound,approximately56by

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62meters,thatisartificiallyterracedonitsnorthside.Theupperplatformslopesbacktothesouthintoaflat,unlooted,smallsquareareaonwhichsomehumanbones
lie.AtthesouthendofthisarearunstheUnit16wallheadingwest.Virtuallynoculturalremainsarepresentonitssurface.However,asmallrollofcopperwas
observedonthismoundinJuly1983.ThisisoneofonlythreepiecesofcopperobservedatCahuachi.
Unit15B,northeastof15A,issmallerthan15A.Itisasquareshapedterracedmoundwithaflatsummitandmeasuresapproximately40by32meters.Anupright
huarangopostisimplantedonitssouthside(fig.5.19).Somemaizesheath(chala)fillcanbeobservedinopenholesmadebylooters,revealingtheartificialnatureof
thismodifiedhill.TherearescantsurfaceceramicsonUnit15B.Both15Aand15Bhaveacompact,even,gravellysurface.
Unit15Cisasmallsideappendageof15B.Itmeasuresapproximately25by20metersandislowerthanUnit15B.Anexcavationwascarriedoutacrossthislittle
mound,thepurposeandresultsofwhicharedescribedinchapter9.
Unit16
Unit16,withUnit4,isoneofthetwogreatwallsofCahuachi.Itisquitestrikingfromtheair.Strong'smap(1957:fig.4fig.2.2)depictsthewallwithasolid,heavy
blacklineonthegroundthewallisalowroundedriseofmeltingadobes.Unit16isdiscussedindetailinchapter9.
Unit17
Unit17appearsonStrong'smapasahorizontal,short,thinblackline.ItisduewestofUnit8andisthenecessarythirddefiningwallofthethreesidedopenarea
createdbyUnits5and8.Itisabout35meterslong.
Unit18
Unit18(fig.5.19)isalongeastwestmound,approximately60by30meters,composedoftwoterraceswithashort,higherelevationonthenortheastsideofthe
upperplatform.AbundantfancyearlyNascasherdscoveritssurface.Themound,incontrasttoUnit19,issparselylooted.Onthenorthwestsideoftheflatmiddle
platformthereisanuprighthuarangopostinashallowlooters'hole.Theholerevealsasectionofamorphousadobelumpswhichprobablyservedasfilltoraiseand
eventhenaturalhill.
Unit18isroughlyparalleltoUnit19,separatedfromitbyaseriesoflowwalledsquareenclosuresthatdescendbetweenthetwomodifiedhills.Abundantcamelid
boneswereobservedonthesurfaceofthisareain1984,probablycorrespondingtoOrefici'srecentdiscovery(seechap.2).Unit18isnaturallyandartificially
connectedtoUnit19byanarrowneckinwhichsectionsofadobewallcanbeseen.Thesesectionsmayhavecreatedtheraisedplatformthatjoinsthetwounits.
SouthofUnit15,betweenitandUnit18,areseveralflatunlootedareas.
Unit19
Unit19,amoundmeasuringabout100by30meters,wasnotportrayedasartificialonStrong'smapbutratherasacompletelynaturalhill.Nevertheless,segmentsof
adobewallontheterracednorthfaceofUnit19aswellasintheareabelowwerevisibleduringsurvey.Unit19andthebroadseriesofdescendingterracesnorthofit
havesufferedsomeoftheseverest,mostextensivelootingofthewholesite.TheexcavationsconductedonUnit19aredescribedindetailinchapters12and13.
Unit20
Unit20isasmall,squaremoundabout16squaremetersinarea.ItwasnotportrayedonStrong'smapbutisshowninfigure2.4.Itisnortheastofthenortherntipof
Unit19.ThelittleUnit20moundisamodifiednaturalhilltracesofadobewallsareclearlyvisibleonitsnorthface.Thepresenceofuprighthuarangopostsonthe
southfaceofthemoundmayindicatethecornersofrooms.
Unit21
Unit21wasnotnotedbyStrong.ItislocatedatthewesternendofUnit19(seefig.2.4)andisalightlymodified,roundtoppednaturalspurwithanartificialfrontal
platformthatextendsouttothenorth.Itmeasuresapproximately25by20metersandisseparatedfromthelootedwesternsideofthetopofUnit19byafairlyflat,
almostunlootedareathatmeasuresapproximately16by30meters.ThetopofUnit21hasbeensomewhatflattened.ThisunitishigherthanUnit19becauseofthe
naturaltopography.Themoundisslightlylooted,andlootershavescattereditsculturalmaterialoverthesurfaceofthemound.ThismaterialconsistsofafewNasca3
sherds,fragmentsofonelargeutilitarianvessel,abundantbone,fairlyfinewhitecottonplainweave,andcanes.Theflatplatforminfrontofthemoundisalsolooted.
Unit22
Unit22isalargehillabout85by52meterswhosefournaturalterraceshavebeenartificiallybutlightlyemphasized(i.e.,thereisverylittleadobereinforcement).The
hillonwhichUnit22wascreatedhasabundantsurfacerock.Thesummitofthemoundisflatinthatasmall,flattened,squareareaisnorthofalowprotuberance.The
firstterracedownislootedbone,canes,andhuarangologsarestrewnabout.Broken

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plainwarefragmentsarealsopresent,butthereisnorecognizabledecoratedpottery.Thesummitandterracecantogetherbeconsideredastheupperplatform.The
southsideofthesummit(i.e.,thebacksideofthemound)isunlooted.Onthenortheastsideofthebaseofthelowestplatform,abovethenaturalfloor,isan
accumulationofrawcotton,probablyfromapostNascatomb.TheareabetweenUnit22andUnit19isintensivelylootedasistheareanorthofUnit19.
Unit23
Unit23,alsoshownonStrong'smap,isatinyrise,about24by15meters,northoftheeastcornerofUnit16.
Unit24
Unit24isthesmaller,rectangularshaped,lowwalledenclosurewithinthelargethreesidedareadelimitedbyUnit16.1 MiguelPazosconductedasmallexcavation
ofitssouth(N4244)wall(seechap.9).
Unit25
Unit25isasmall,low,squaremoundimmediatelynorthwestofUnit23andsouthofUnit11.2
TheWesternZoneofCahuachi
ThewesternzoneofCahuachiisdefinedasthosemodifiedspatialandarchitecturalfeaturesthatarewestoftheonesshownonStrong'smap.Thewesternzonebegins
withamound,UnitJ,halfofwhichwasdepictedonStrong'smapasanaturalhill.Strong(1957:34)considersthewoodencolonnadeofEstaquera(Kroeber1944:
pl.9)anextensionofCahuachiitself,althoughhisexcavationthereproducedmainly"LateNazca(B)"and"HuacadelLoro"(Nasca8)pottery.Isurveyedalltheway
toEstaqueratodetermineifCahuachicouldbeconsideredtocontinuethatfarandifEstaquerashouldbeincludedasaunitofCahuachi.3 Myconclusionisthat
EstaqueraisnotpartofCahuachitheevidenceinsupportofthisconclusionispresentedbelow.
UnitJ
TheeasternhalfofUnitJisshownonStrong'smapasanaturalhill.Kroeberdescribesthisunit(hisC)as"apromontorybetweentwoshortgullies,andseemsnot
dressed,buthascemeteriesatitsfootwellworked."Thisisonlypartiallycorrect.UnitJisarockcoveredhillabout80by75meterswithasmall,short,looted
rockyareaoraproninfront(north)ofit.Althoughthehillisalmostcompletelynatural,threenorthterracescanbedistinguished.Inaddition,thetopofUnitJhasbeen
artificiallyleveledandclearedoflargerrocks,creatingasmall,square,cleanareasouthofwhichisalowrise,artificiallyraised.Inthis,UnitJissimilartootherunitsat
CahuachisuchasUnit22andUnit9.Thereisalsoalittlesquareareaontheeastsideofthesummit.TherockysurfaceofUnitJhasfewsherds.
AtthebaseofUnitJ(fig.5.20),ontheeastside,thereisanothersmall,almostsquareareawhichseemstohavebeenaddedtothehillasaterrace.Abundantnatural
rock,scarceplainwaresherdsfromlargeutilitarianvessels,afewadobes,somecanes,andlocalizedconcentrationsofcottonfiberandplainweaveclothareonthe
surfaceofthelootedareaontheterraceatthebaseofUnitJ.
UnitK
UnitK(fig.5.20)isnotonStrong'smapitisKroeber'sUnitB.IhadoriginallylabeledUnitKasUnit13andthen13K(seeSilverman1985a:fig.1)whenIwas
decidingaboutnomenclature.ItwillbeknownonlyasUnitKfromnowon.
Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III91)describesthisunitas"thelargestandmostregularpyramidintheWhalfoftheseriesexplored."Itmeasuresapproximately
90by80metersandisatleast25metershigh.TherearescantsherdsbutnootherculturalmaterialsonthesurfaceofUnitK.ItisthetwinofUnit1inmassandform,
andthetwoaremutuallyvisible.Kroeberstatesthatthisunitisonlya"littlelesshighandlargethanK[Unit1]."UnlikeUnit1,however,UnitKhasnolongtrenchlike
depressiononitssummit.Itdoes,however,haveasubstantialamountofadobeconstructiononitsnorthfacefarmorethanonUnit1.
UnitKiscomposedoffourmajornorthterracesthatdescendfromacompletelyartificial,flattened,adobesummitraisedsome2metersaboveactualhillheightto
createanimposingtruncatedpyramid.Theseterracesandtheirfillarecontainedbymassive,verticaladobewalls.Anopensectionofconstructiononthemound
revealsaconstructiontechniquesimilartothatseenelsewhereatCahuachi:thinlayersofgramaandothervegetalfiber(suchasbeanstalk)alternatewithafillof
layersofadobethatisabout1meterthick.Adobeswithinthissingleconstructioncanbewellshapedoramorphousandofanysize.Theadobesarequitemelted,but
thereisclearlyalotofartificialadobeconstructionhere.
Atthesummitofthemoundahuarangopost(10centimetersindiameter)isstillverticallyinplaceitsfunctionisunknownalthoughtwopossibilitiescanbesuggested.
Oneisthatitmaypertaintothechamberedmethodoffillandishenceinfrastructural.Theotheristhataperishablestructuremighthaveexistedontop.Thetwo
interpretationsarenotnecessarilymutuallyexclusive.
Thereisasmall,square,sidepatioonthewestsideanddownfromthesummit,onlevelwiththeuppermost

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5.20.
AerialviewofUnitsJ,K,B,andAinthewesternzoneofCahuachi.

terrace.Thisareaisonaflattenedspur.Thereappearstobeasecondminiterraceaswell.Thesesideareasarenotlooted.
Mostrockhasbeenclearedfromtheterraces.Whatrockremainsprobablyderivesfromthefewlooters'holesthathavepenetratedtothenaturalrubblecoreofthe
hilluponwhichUnitKiselaborated.Thelowestterrace,however,isarockcovered,flatapronoflandthatislooted.Lootingisrestrictedbasicallytothewestand
northsideofalesslootedareathatmaybeasquareenclosureofsorts.Thesurfaceremainsofthisareaincludeabundantplainwarefrombroken,large,thickwalled
utilitarianvesselswithflatbases,somecanes,someadobes,andatinybitofshell.OnediagnosticLateIntermediatePeriodsherdwasobserved.Ibelievethatthe
utilitarianwareiscontemporarywiththatstyle.Thereisaslighttraceofadobewallfragments.Fromthelootedfourthterracethereisaverysharpdropdowntothe
rivervalleybottom.
Isla(1990)hasreportedontheremarkablediscoveryin1988ofaPreceramic(Archaic)Periodoccupationonthismound,locatedat2metersbeneaththesurface.
Theoccupationisradiocarbondatedto4405130to4239130B.C.Theevidencefortheoccupationconsistsoftwoobsidianknives,otherlithics,Argopecten
purpuratusshells,abundantvegetalmaterial,andfiberartifacts.Islaalsofoundthefoundationsandwoodenpostsofarudimentaryhabitation(?)structure,described
asawindshelter.Thestructurewasremodeled,perhapsagenerationlater(Isla1990:70).
Isladiscoveredasecondaryburialintrusiveintothelaterorsecondoccupation.Ofparticularinterestisthefactthattheadultmale,thirtytothirtyfiveyearsold,who
wasburiedinthestructurerestedonasealionskinandwascoveredbyavegetalfibermat.AsIsla(1990:76)notes,thisisverysimilartothe9,000to8,000year
oldSantoDomingodeParacasburialsreportedbyEngel(1966:fig.10,1981:3233).
Manylithicartifactswererecoveredfrominsidethestructure.ObsidianartifactsexhibitmaximumutilizationsuggestingthattherawmaterialwasdifficulttoobtainIsla
(1990:75)arguesthattheobsidianisevidence

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ofaneconomythatpossiblyinvolvedlongdistanceexchangewiththeHuancavelicahighlands.Isla(1990:71)interpretsthisstructureasapossiblelithicworkshopas
wellasarefugeorhabitation.Nohearthswerefound,butguineapigremainswererecoveredfromalittlepitinthecenterofthestructure.Inaddition,scarceremains
oflimabeansandgourdwererecovered(Isla1990:75).Isla(1990:7576)suggeststhatthesepeoplehadavarieddietbasedoncollectedmarineresourcesaswell
asincipientagricultureinthefloodwateredlandborderingtheriver.Industrialplantswerealsocollected.
UnitA
BycoincidenceKroeberandIgavethedesignationAtothesamemound(figs.2.1,5.20).KroeberspentmostofhistimeatCahuachiatUnitA(seechaps.2and
14).
UnitAmeasuresapproximately180by130meters,isabout25metershigh,andiscoveredwithrock.Massiveadobearchitecture,whichiscompartmentalizedinto
walledroomsofunknownpurposeandwhichalsoservesthefunctionofchambersforfill,canbeobservedonthenorthfaceofthemoundonthesecondandthird
terracesbeneaththesummitanditssurroundinglootedpatios.TheabundantculturalmaterialonthesurfaceofUnitAisdue,possiblyinlargepart,toseverelooting.
Thesesurfaceremainsincludefine,decoratedearlyNascapottery,someProliferousNascasherds,plainware,panpipefragments,shell,andaveryfineobsidianpoint.
OneofonlythreepiecesofcopperobservedatCahuachicomesfromUnitA.Itcorrespondstoalittle,hollow,conicalobjectidentifiedasanornamentthatwassewn
onclothing.
Thesummitofthemoundcanbeconsideredthefirstterrace.Adobeisconfinedtotheeastsideofthesummit,abovetherooms(seebelow).Thereisalarge,flat,
unlootedareasoutheastofthesummitofUnitA,andotherflatlootedareassurroundit.ThesearetheburialterracesKroeberlabeledg,j,l,andm(fig.2.1)onthese
Kroeberexcavatedfifteengraves,all"NazcaA"orNasca3indate(seechaps.14,15).TheseareaswerealreadylootedwhenKroeberbegantoworkbuthadnot
beenexhaustedaswitnessedbyhissuccesshere.Exceptforthenoticeablyunlootedareasouthofthesummit,therestofthetopofthemoundislootedorshows
evidenceofhavingbeenexcavatedaswellaslooted.
Onthesecondandthirdterracesofthemoundaresegmentsoflongadobewallsrunningeastwestandnorthsouth.Layersofchalafillarealsovisible.Someofthese
wallscontainedthechalafillstillothersappeartobecontainingandmodelingthenaturalhillitself.Inadditiontothedirectwalls,themiddleterracehasrooms.Here
constructionisoflargeadobeblockswhichhaveseverelymeltedandbeencoveredbysand.Thenumberofroomswasnotdetermined.Itispossiblethatthecultural
materialintheroomstodayhassliddownfromthelootedburialsabove,soIamhesitanttoassignafunctiontotherooms.
TheeasternsideofthenaturalterracebeneathUnitAisunlooted.ThewesternmostandlowestlevelofUnitAislooted.Thereisalotofboneandplainwareonthe
surfacebutlittlefancyware.Thiswesternmostareaisnotanadobefilledpartofthemoundbutis,rather,thenaturalhill.
OntheplainbeneaththewestsideofUnitAisasandfilled,rectangular,adobelinedstructure,approximately6by4metersandatleast2metersdeep.Thismustbe
thesame"squarechambergrave"Kroebersawandreferredtowiththelettersn,oonhissketchmapofUnitA.Itappearstobeadoublecrypt.Thereisahuarango
postinthesouthwestcorner.My1983informant,AndrsBarreto,volunteeredtheinformationthatthiswasatombandthatitwas"espigonal"ratherthanNascain
culturalaffiliation."Espigonal,"inthelocalpeoples'chronologyofsouthcoastprehistory,comesafterNascaand"hasalmostthesamecolorsasNascamanyconsider
ittobeequallyasfine"(Barreto,personalcommunication1983).Bearinginmindthattheselocalmen,theirfathers,andgrandfathershaveworkedwithasuccessionof
archaeologists,wecanseehowUhle'sterm,"epigonal,"wouldhaveenteredtheirvocabulary.
UnitB
Kroeber'sletterponMoundAreferstotheadobewallIcallUnitB(fig.5.20).TheadobewallrunsnorthtosouthalongtheeastsideofUnitAforabout65meters
andthenturnsacornertoheadeastashortdistance,16meters,towardUnitK.ThewallcontainsandcreatestheupperportionofUnitA.
Abitofdirtwascleanedawayfromthewall,anditwasdiscoveredthatthewallhasaheightofapproximately80centimeters.Thewallhasbeenraisedonathin(34
centimeters)floorofclay.Itsthicknessisaboutequaltoitsheight,80centimeters.ThelongnorthsouthportionoftheUnitBwallisabuttedbyshorteastwestwalls
comingdownfromthesummitofUnitAinbetweenwhichisfill.Thefilliscomposedofalayerofpacaeleavesandvegetalfiber,thenadobes,thenmorevegetalfiber.
Theadobelayer'sconstructiontechniqueconsistsofnarrowrectangularadobesmeasuring30by30by10centimetersthatalternatewith18to

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20centimetersectionsofadobelumpsandplainmortarfill.
Kroeber'sLocationO
KroeberdelimitedthesiteofCahuachiatUnitA.TheonlyareabeyondAthathementionsishisLocationO,whichhesituatedabout100meterswestofthe"square
chambergrave"atthenorthwestfootofUnitA.Heconsideredthelocationtolie"outsidetheseriesofforegoingterraces"andtohave"thelayoutandappearanceof
sitesupstreamratherthanatCahuachi"(KroeberandCollierms.:III92).Itis"near"whatwasthentheboundarylinebetweentheCahuachiandEstaquerahaciendas
andisacrossthewash.Nofurtherdescriptionisgiven,andavaguesketchmapofOinrelationshiptotheotherunitsisofnohelp.Kroeberexcavatedtwogravesat
thislocality.MyguessisthatKroeber'sLocationOfallswithintheareaencompassedbymynextunit,C.IbasethissuppositiononanothersketchmapofKroeber's
(fig.2.1),whichclearlyshowscemeterieswestofUnitAandindicatesa"wash"whichnarrowsbetweenthenorthwestbaseofUnitAandthenexthill,UnitC.Iagree
withKroeberthatwithUnitCthemonumentalityandotherdefiningcharacteristicsofCahuachibegintopeterout.
UnitC
UnitCisanaturalhillwhichappearsnottohavebeenmodifiedinthesensethatitsnorthflankterraceswerenotemphasizedorcreatedbytheadditionofadobe
walls.TheUnitChilliscoveredwithrockculturalremainsarescarce.Nevertheless,itisaculturalunit,foronthelowernorthfaceofthehillthereappeartobetwo
rowsofeastwestrunningroomsbuiltofadobe,perhapseightroomsinall(fig.5.21).Theroomsaresmall,measuringabout4by4meters.Someoftheroomshave
internaldivisions(seefig.5.22).Verticalcaneswereemployedtomakethecornersoftheseroomscaneimpressionswerefoundintheseroundedcorners.Avery
fewundiagnosticplainwaresherds,afewbones,andabitofcanewereobservedonthesurfacehere.
UnitC'slowernorthflank(wheretheroomsare)andthewide,openareainfront(north)ofithavebeenseverelylooted.Inthisareathereisalargeamountofbone
andcaneaswellasasmallamountoffine,white,plainweavecotton.ThethirdandfinalpieceofcopperobservedatCahuachia4inchlongcopperpinwasfound
inthislootedarea.
UnitD
TheoriginalUnitDispartoftheextensivecemeteryareathatstretchesfromthebaseofUnitAtoEstaquera.Isubsequentlydecidednottolettercemeteries,andthis
accountsformissinglettersD,S,andVinthetextandonthemap.

5.21.
SketchshowinglocationofroomsatthebaseofUnitC.
MassivelylootedcemeteriesextendinfrontofUnitsCandE.

5.22.
SketchofaroomatthebaseofUnitC.

UnitE
UnitEisatall,artificiallyterracedhillinfrontofwhichcontinuestheextensivelootedcemeteryreferredtoabove.AsignificantamountofearlyNascapotteryis
presentonthesurfaceofthismound.
UnitF
ThetopographyofUnitF,anaturalhill,imitatesplatforms,butthehillhasnoterracedarchitectureandisunmodified.MaterialremainsonUnitFandontheareanorth
ofitarescarce.Nevertheless,UnitFdoeshaveimportantculturalfeatures.OnthelowerfrontslopeofUnitFisaneastwestlineofcirculardepressions,eachabout
80centimetersindiametertheseareexcavatedintothehardnaturalclay.Nearthesearelarge

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fragmentsofutilitarianware.SomedecoratedNascaceramicsaswellasbonewerealsoobservedinthevicinity.
Approximately6meterswestofthewesternmostofthesedepressionsisaverticalhuarangopostprojecting20centimetersabovethesurfacewhosefunctionis
unknown.Asectionofacanewallwasobservedrunningnorthsouthafewmetersnorthwestofthehuarangopost.Excavationsconductedaroundthiscanewallare
describedinchapter10.
Theareaimmediatelyinfront(north)oftheUnitFhillisaflatclearedareawithnoticeablylessrockthanispresentonthesurfaceofthesurroundingarea.Thebed
rockofthelowerpartofthehilldelimitstheclearedareaonthesouth.Therearescarceremainshere.
Atthenorthernedgeofthisflatterrace,justoverlookingthesteepdroptothevalleybottom,isanothercirculardepression,107centimetersindiameter,excavated
intothewhitehardpackedclayofthenaturalterrace.Thereisevidenceofburninginthisdepression,butthedepression'snature,purpose,anddateareunknown.
UnitG
UnitGisthehilleastofthehill(UnitH)thatsupportsthehightensionelectricitytower.Plainware,bone,andafairamountofdecoratedNascapotteryarefoundon
thebottompartofthehillwhereanadobewallcanbeseenrunningalongthecontouroftheotherwiseunmodifiedhill.
UnitH
UnitHisalargenaturalhill,approximately200by160metersatthebaseandmorethan30metershigh,whichiswhyitwaschosentosupportthehightension
electricitytowerthatcarrieswiresacrosstheNazcaRivertotheothersideofthevalley.TheupperportionofUnitHwasmodifiedinancienttimesbytheadditionof
massiveadobewallsandlayersoffill.Theheightofthesummitwasachievedbysuperimposingthinlayersoffillcomposedofinterlockingvegetalfiber,dirt,andadobe
chunks.Thesearevisibleinexposedsections.Amassiveadobecontentionwallmadeofloafshapedandflatadobesrunseastwestalongtheveryupperpartofthe
northfaceofthehill(fig.5.23).
ThesummitofUnitHiscomposedofthemajornorthfaceupperretainingwallandanotherretainingwallthatrunsalongtheuppereastsideofthehill.Amassive
sectionofadobewallsdescendsthehillonthewestsideforashortdistance.Thesewallsarecontainmentwallsratherthancorrespondingtoasuperstructural
architecturalfeature(suchasrooms).

5.23.
TheadobereinforcedsummitofUnitH,probablelast
westernmostmoundatCahuachi.JosPabloBaraybaris
inthephotograph.

ThereisasignificantamountofdecoratedearlyNascapottery,includingtwoalmostcompleteNasca3bowls,aswellassomeplainwareontheupperplatformofUnit
H.Thedecoratedwareconcentratesontheverysummit,especiallyaroundtheelectricitytoweritselfandinbetweenthetwomassiveadobewalls.Fragmentsoflarge
plainwarewereobservedonthewesternsideofthesummit.
Figure5.24showsthewesternseriesofmoundsfromUnitKtoUnitH.
UnitN
UnitNisaverysmalllootedplatformatthebaseofthefirsthillafterUnitH,separatedfromUnitHbyalittlewash.FromatopthishillEstaqueracanbeseen,
whereasitisinvisiblefromatopUnitH.AlsofromthishillthesummitdomeofUnitKaswellasUnit1clearlycanbeseen.OntopandaroundUnitNwereobserved
humanbone,wovenrope,plainware,aNasca4sherd,Nasca7sherds,apossiblelocalearlyMiddleHorizonsherd,halfofoneplainwarevessel,therimofanother
utilitarianvessel,andabrokenstonemortar.AlotofboneandsomehumanskullswereseennorthofthelittleUnitNplatform.Oneskullhadcopperstainsonit
anotherhadahealedtrephinationscar.
UnitL
UnitListhenexthillwestofUnitN.Ithasanaturalhighdomeshapewhenseenfromthefront.Alongartificialplatformextendsacrossitsbaseandwestward
beyondthehillitself.Itisthiswestwardextension

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5.24.
AerialviewofthewesternseriesofmoundsatCahuachi,from
UnitKatthelefttoUnitHattheright.Theelectricitytower
atopUnitHcanjustbedistinguished.Notethemassively
lootedareaextendinginfrontofallofthesemounds.

thatislooted.Infrontofthisplatformthereisanunlootedopenarea.
InthedisturbedearthJosPabloBaraybarfoundfourhumanskulls.OnewasnotdeformedtwohadNascatypefrontaloccipitalcranialdeformationthefinalskull
hadanonNascaformofcranialdeformation.Baraybarisanalyzingthese.Inthesamelootedarea,adiagnosticNasca8sherdwasobserved.Alarge,looted,square
tombdugintobedrockwasrecordedinthisareaaswell.
UnitM
UnitMisthenexthillwestofUnitL.Thehillappearsunmodified,thoughaplatformmayexistatthebasewherethereisalootedsmallcemeterywithbone(mostly
longboneswithjustafewcrania),undiagnosticplainware,andoneearlyNascasherdonitssurface.
UnitO
UnitOisalarge,conical,bilobalhill.Acrossandfromthebaseofthehilldescendsaseriesofsmallterracesorplatforms.TheareainfrontofUnitOissomewhat
looted.Inthislootedareawereobservedanopentombwhosewallsareconstructedofrivercobblesandasquaretombmadeoflargeadobes.Thereisverylittle
surfacepottery,andnonewasearlyNasca.
UnitP
UnitPisalong(eastwest)hillinfrontofwhichthereisalarge,massivelylootedterrace.ExcavatedintothehardbedrockontheeasternsideofUnitParetwo
rectangularchambersandacylindricaldepression.Therectangularchamberseachmeasureabout130by70centimetersandareseparatedfromeachotherby2.20
meters.Therectangularchambershavepolishedmudwallsthatstillshowthefingerstrokesofthehandsthatmadethemthechamberscontainhumanbone.The
cylindricaldepressionislocated2meterswestofthese.Ithasasurfacediameterof20centimetersandadepthof32centimetersitnarrowsatitsbase.Nopottery
wasobserved.
Atthebaseofthehill,aboutinthemiddle,isalarge,tremendouslylootedsquareplatform.Theplatformisactuallysplitlevelwiththeback(south)higherthanthe
front.Onthisplatformaretheremainsofwallsmadeofcarefullyalignedrivercobblessetinmudmortar.ThisarchitectureissimilartoLateIntermediatePeriod
structuresIhaveobservedonsurvey.Thewallsformsmallroomsmeasuringabout3by3meters.Therearefragmentshereoflarge,orange,plainwarevessels.There
isasmallquantityofboneandaverysmallamountoforganicmaterial(atinycorncob,afewcornhusks,atinybitofshell)inasandmatrix.Decoratedpotteryis
scarce,butthereisNasca3,ProliferousNasca,andLateIntermediatePeriodmaterial.
Towardtheriver,justaboutduenorthoftheplatformdescribedabove,arefivetall,thick,columnarshapedhuarangopostsstandinginarowthatrunseastwestthey
arepresumablyancientandshouldbefurtherinvestigated.
StillheadingwesttowardEstaqueraonepassesseveralunmodifiednaturalhillswitherodingsedimentaryoutcrops.Noculturalmaterialwasobservedonthesehills.
UnitQ
UnitQisaflattenedhill,justaboveagriculturalland,thathasbeenmodifiedtoformadoubleplatformmound.Theflateasternplatformishigher(byabout1.50
meters)thanthewesternplatform.Thetopsofbothplatformsarelooted,andsomeboneandhuarangopostsliearound.Thelooters'holesaredugintothenatural
rockofthehill.Onlyafewpiecesofdiagnosticpotterywereobserved.ThissurfacepotteryconsistedofNasca3sherdsfromthesamevesselandseveralfragments
ofthesameOcucajephase10likeincisedvessel.Afewpiecesofplainwarewerealsoobserved.
UnitR
UnitRisamodifiedhillwestofUnitQ.Ithasasouthern,squareplatform(R1)andanarrowplatform(R2)thatextendsnorthfromthisontheeastside.Asquarish
areaisformedtothewestofR2.Asectionof

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architecture,visibleonthenorthfaceofR1,consistsofacurvingwallofrivercobblessetinmudmortarandplasteredoverwithmud.NoearlyNascapotterywas
observed.
UnitT
UnitTisalowflattoppedhillnorthofUnitUinfrontofwhichisalarge,open,flat,unlootedarea.TheUnitThillisalmostunlooted,andnoculturalremainswere
observed.Vegetalfiberwasemployedtocreatetheevennessandheightofthetopsurface.Severalthin,uprighthuarangopostssuggestthepossibilitythattheplatform
wasonceroofedorhadperishablearchitecture.
UnitU
UnitUreferstotheterracednorthsideofanaturalhillwhoselootedsurfaceisthecontinuationofthecemeterybetweenitandUnitR.Fiveterracescanbeidentified
beneaththehill'ssummit,thefirstoneofwhichisunlooted.IdentifiablesurfaceceramicsareallNasca3.Onthesurfaceonecanalsoseesomeplainware,bone,a
stonemortar,abitofshell,andsomecanes.
UnitW
UnitWisthefirstwalledareaimmediatelysouthofEstaquera.Itisbadlylooted.Squarestructuresaveragingbetween4and5squaremetersinareaareduginto
bedrock.Theymayhavetwolevels,inwhichcasethetoplevelisoutlinedinadobe.Ontheaerialphotographitclearlycanbeseenthatthesesquarestructuresare
alignedinevenrows.Theyareseparatedfromeachotherbyabout1meter.Aroundthemaremassiveaccumulationsofboneandcottonfiber,aswellasplainweave
cloth,wovenropewhichtiedthemummybundles,andlotsoflooseadobe,generallyofsemicylindricalshape.Thesematerialremainsareoverwhelmingevidence
thatthesestructuresarelootedtombsoftheMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriod.
UnitX
UnitXisarectangularshapedlowwalledareasouthofUnitW.UnitsWandXareseparatedfromeachotherbyanunlootedrectangularareaoverwhichtheroad
runseasttowest.TheareaofseparationbetweenthetwounitsislowerthanUnitW.SquarestructuresaredugintothesedimentarybedrockofUnitX.Adobewalls
havebeensuperficiallyaddedtogiveform.Thesestructuresarelooted.Scarceboneandsomefragmentsofwhitecottonplainweavewereobserved.Onthenorth
sideoftheunittherearecottonaccumulations.ThereisafairamountofcaneandaveryscarcescatteroflateMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriod
potsherds.WeappeartobedealingwithpostNascatombsonthebasisofthestructures'morphologyandtheassociated,

5.25.
LootedMiddleHorizontombsatUnit,justwestofEstaquera.
Constructionislargelyoflocallyavailablerockratherthanadobe.

thoughscarce,materialremains.Largeareasoftheunitareunlooted.
UnitY
UnitYisaclearedstoneoutlinedarea,approximately110by70meters.Itisageoglyph.Therearenoculturalremainsonit.Therearegeoglyphsimmediatelysouth
ofUnitsXandYandwestofUnittheyarealsocompletelydevoidofculturalmaterial.
UnitZ
UnitZisthelootedriseonthenortheasttipofUnitX.Therearescarcebonesbutnootherculturalremains.
Unit
UnitiswestofEstaquera,downfromitandabovecultivatedland.Thisisanareaofextensivelootinginwhichthereareseveralhighwalled(atleast4meters)
squaretombs,approximately3squaremetersinarea(fig.5.25).Theyaremadeofrectangularandamorphousblocksofwhitesedimentaryrocksetinmud.Some
adobeswereusedaswell.Suchtombarchitecture

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isknowntodatetotheMiddleHorizonratherthantotheNascaperiod.
Estaquera
AtthetimeKroeber(1944:fig.4,pl.9)visitedEstaquera,thesitewasalmostintactwithtwelverowsoftwentyhuarangopostseach.Kroeber(KroeberandCollier
ms.:III94)concludesthat"thestructureisnottrueNazcanorisitLateIcaorInca"butthatthesurrounding"cemeteryorcemeteriesasawholearecertainly
prevailinglyNazca"(Kroeber1944:27).
Inadditiontodecadesofdestructionthroughlootingandtheremovalofalmostallstakesforuseascharcoal,thesitehasbeenparticularlypopularwithtouristsfor
quitesometimeandhasbeenpickedfairlyclean.Onthebasisofitscurrentsurfacematerial,anyarchaeologistwouldbehardpressedtomakeaculturalassignation.
InstitutoNacionaldeCulturaarchaeologistCarlosFarfn(personalcommunication1983)collectedexcellentNasca1polishedblackwarefromaroundEstaquera.I
haveseenacoupleofpiecesofNasca1potteryaswellasaveryfewearlyNascasherds.Strong's(1957:34)excavationsyieldedlateNascaandNasca8pottery.
Strong'sassessmentofthesite'slatedateissupportedbytheradiocarbonmeasurementofA.D.1050heobtainedfromthecharredendofapostwithinthecolonnade
(sampleL268EseeStrong1957:table4).In19841985therewasafairamountoflateMiddleHorizonandespeciallyLateIntermediatePeriodpotteryonthe
surfaceofEstaquera.ThebestassessmentofthesitestillappearstobethatmadebyKroeber(1944:27),whosuggeststhat"thepostsweresetuponaprevious
Nazcacemeterybypeopleofsomesubsequentculture."Clearly,EstaquerapostdatesthemainoccupationofCahuachi.
TheEasternZoneofCahuachi
TheeasternzoneofCahuachiasdefinedherebeginsimmediatelyeastofwhereStrong'scoverageendsonhis1957planandextendsbeyondtheactualhacienda
houseatCahuachiforsome500meters.Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III81)delimitedtheeasternborderofthesiteinpreciselythesamemanner.Although
Kroeberrecognizedtheculturalbasisofthisarea,hedidnotworkthere.Strongmakesnomentionofthiszone,andwecannotsaywhetherheperceivedit.
UnitAA
UnitAAisperceivedwithdifficultybecausesomuchofitisnatural.Nevertheless,themodificationsoftheseveralhillsorhillfragmentscomprisingtheunitcanbe
isolated(seefig.2.4).
UnitAA1isahillthathasbeenflattenedandshapedintoasingleplatform.AA2,immediatelyadjacent,isanarrow,longplatform,lowerthanAA1.AA3isasquare
shapedplatformseparatedfromtheAA4aplatformbythreesmallrectangularareas(AA3a,AA3b,AA3c).AA4bisasmallersquareplatformadjacentandnorthof
AA4a.AA14biselaboratedoveranaturalhill,AA5.TheAA2andAA3sectionsarelootedtombswereduginthenatural,mustardyellowclay.Thetombsare
cylindricaladobelinedshafts.Remainsoftombroofs,humanbone,andfragmentsofdecoratedearlyNascapotterysurroundtheselooteddepressions.
AA5,althoughnatural,playedarole,alongwithnaturalhillAA6totheeast,inthespatialpatterningofCahuachi.Thesetwohillswhicharethenorthernnatural
extensionsofAAserveasthesouthwallofathreesidedspacecreatedbyUnits10i,AA5andAA6,andCC.
UnitBB
UnitBB(fig.2.4)iscomposedofthreesmallelevations,BB1,BB2,andBB3.UnitBB2islocatedatthebaseoftheeastsideofUnit10.Itmeasuresapproximately
20by36meters.Thiselevationisclearlytheresultofanaturalhillwhosebedrockoutcropisvisibleonthenorthfaceofthemound.Theoutcropisalsoseeninthe
looters'holesexcavatedintotheelevation.UnitBB2ishigheronitswestside,effectivelyformingtwoconnectedplatforms.Thetopoftherisehasbeenflattenedand
apparentlysweptcleanofrocks.Thereisahintofadobeconstruction.
Northofthelittledoublemoundisanamorphous,heavilylootedapronoflandatthenorthwestedgeofwhichisBB1.UnitBB1measuresapproximately22by10
meters.Itisthewesternmostoftheseries.
UnitBB3isabout110metersnorthofUnitDD.Itisasmallelevatedplatform,approximately28by10meters,onwhichtherearetracesofadobewalls.The
elevationappearstobelargelynatural,foralooter'sholerevealsahomogeneousrockrubbleprofilefromthesurfacetoatleast1meterbeneaththesurface.Therock
rubbleiscomposedofadenseamountofsmallandaveragesizedrocksinasandmatrix.
UnitCC
UnitCCisaveryunusuallookingmound.Itconsistsofasingletaludlikelowerplatformontopofwhichsitsadomedsummit.Itmeasuresapproximately30by30
meters.
UnitDD
UnitDDisamajorplatformmoundapproximately72by40metersinareaandabout10metershigh.Itisterracedonitsnorthside.Itstophasbeenflattenedintoan
evensummit.Atsomeprevioustime,abulldozerplowedthesummit.

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5.26.
AerialviewoftheUnitCCDDEEmoundcomplexthatenclosesathreesidedkancha.Notethecontrastbetween
lootedandunlootedareasandhowthemoundsarebuiltonthenaturallyoccurringhills.

Thenorthslope,betweenthesummitandthefirstterrace(TerraceI)belowit,hasagoodamountofdecoratedNascasherdsaswellasbone,textile,canes,huarango,
andhairallofwhichwerebroughttothesurfacethroughlooting.ThewooltextilesandsherdsarepostNascaindate.Lootingontheterracehasacircularpattern
correspondingtoaseriesofadobelinedcylindricaldepressions.InstructurethesearesimilartotheUnit12cylindricaldepressionsbutwider.Thecompleteoneis90
centimeterswide.Depthwasundetermined.Theselootedcylindricaldepressionsareconfinedtotheeasternhalfofthisterrace.
Therearealsotracesofadobewallsrunningeastwestandnorthsouthontheterrace.Inonesectiononthewestsideofthemound,whereacornerispreserved,
thereisahuarangopostsetbacksome40centimetersfromthecornerandwall.ThisisreminiscentofthehuarangopostinthesouthwestcornerofStrong'sCut4on
Unit5.Thepostappearstobeimplantedintheadobewall.Overlyingdirtdidnotpermitdeterminationofthewidthofthewall.Thearchitectureheredoesnotserve
thepurposeofcontainingfillinotherwords,itisnotchamberedfill.Rather,thisiscompartmentalizedorroomarchitecturethathasbeenrevealedbyalooter.
NoculturalremainswereobservedonthesurfaceofTerraceII.TerraceIIIisnarrowandverylootedonlyafewsherdswereobservedonitssurface.Northand
slightlylowerthanTerraceIIIisTerraceIV,anopenareawithsomelootedtombs.
UnitEE
UnitEEisaflattopped,rockcoveredhillabout25by68meterswithalongplatformnorthofit.Ithasahardgravellysurfacewithvirtuallynoremainsexceptonthe
northslopeofthehillwhereseverallargepiecesofSpondylusshellandafewdecoratedNascasherdswereobserved.IamnotcertainthattheSpondylusandNasca
sherdsareassociated(seechap.21).
TheCCDDEEThreeSidedEnclosure
Aquintessentialthreesidedarea,opentothenorth,iscreatedanddefinedbyUnitsCC,DD,andEE(fig.5.26).Thespacebe

Page81

tweenthethreeunitsislargelyunlootedlootingisverylocalizedandhasproducedafewbones,ascarceamountofplaincottontextiles,andafewLateIntermediate
Periodsherds.
UnitFFandAnotherThreeSidedEnclosure
TheFFdesignationhasbeenassignedtoalootedknollapproximately24by36meterssome160meterseastofUnitEE.Thelootedknollappearstobecompletely
natural.Nevertheless,itdoeshaveculturalfeatures,sinceaconcentratedpostNascacemeteryexistsontopofit.Thisisevidencedbytheaccumulationsofcotton
fibersotypicalofMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodcemeteries(seeDoering1958).Therearealsoafewscrapsofplainweavetextiles,acoupleofstone
mortars,tinycorncobs,humanbone,andundiagnosticbrokenplainware.
Alow,narrow,broken,earthenridgerunseastwestbehind(southandextendingwest)UnitFF.AthreesidedareaopentothenorthisformedbyUnitEE,the
earthenridge,andthelootedUnitFFknoll.Itispossiblethattheridgewasmodified(ashasbeenarguedforUnit3)tocompletenature'salmostperfectthreesided
area.TheopenareawithintheUhasonlyaveryfewshallowlooters'holeswithnoevidenceofsuccess.Thesurfaceofthisareaisafairlysoftgravellysandwithsome
occasionallargerrocksandvirtuallynoculturalmaterialonthesurfacesaveafewplainwaresherds.
UnitGG
UnitGGisverydifficulttodefinebecauseitissonatural.Again,itshouldbeemphasizedthatwindandwatererosionatCahuachihavecreatedmuchofthesite's
"architecture."Nevertheless,therearetwohillssomewhatflattenedatthetop.Eachhillhasitsownunlootedthreesidedarea.Sherdsofalargebrokenutilitarian
vesselpossiblyLateIntermediatePeriodwereobservedhere.
TwoshortgeoglyphsmayexisttheyappeartoextendnorthwardfromtheeasthillofUnitGG.Ifso,thisisuniqueatCahuachi.4
UnitHH
UnitHHisamajorarchitecturalcomplexelaboratedoveralarge,moreorlessUshapedhill.TheUnitHHhill,about136by92metersinbasalarea,wasmodifiedby
massiveadobeconstructioncorrespondingtochambersforfill.Thefillconsistsofthinlayersofvegetalfiberthatseparatelayersofadobe.Thefewundamagedadobes
lyingaroundarelikeanyoftheCahuachitypes(seechap.6).Inaddition,therearetheusuallumpsofamorphousadobe.BrokenpiecesoffineNascapotteryare
embeddedinsomeoftheadobesonesuchsherd,pulledoutofanadobe,camefromaNasca2bowl.Thenaturalbedrockclearlycanbeseenoutcroppingonthe
northfaceofthemoundalongtheroad.
Thereislittleculturalmaterialonthenaturalarmsofthehill,whichareunlooted.TheareawithintheUisextensivelylooteditsabundantceramicandtextilematerials
postdatetheearlyNascaoccupationofCahuachiandpertaintotheMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriod.
ThebackoftheUformsthebulkofthehill.Thisareaisseverelylooted.Lootinghasstrewnaboutthesurfacebone,whiteplainweavetextiles,canes,shell,maize
cobs,afewgroundstonelithics,plainware,andsomedecoratedNasca2andNasca3potsherds.
Onthenortheastedgeofthehillisasemicirculardepressiondugintothebedrock,similartowhathasbeenobservedelsewhereonthesite.Thedepressionis
approximately95by63centimeters.Onthetopofthehilltowardthenorth,moreofthesedepressionsareexcavatedintothenaturalhillside.Itisconceivablethatthe
wholetopofthehillwaspockmarkedwiththesedepressions,whichvaryinsizefrom70to189centimetersindiametertheyareseparatedfromeachotherby180to
190centimeters.
Onthetopofthesouthwestsideofthehillisaneasilyperceivedunlooted,small,squarearea.Alargerunlootedsquareareaispresentsouthofthelootedhilltop.
Behind(south)thisunlootedflatareaistherestoftheunmodifiedhill.
NonNascapotteryislocalizedatthebaseoftheeasternsideofthemoundandsurelycomesfromtheextensive,looted,postNascacemeteriesbetweenUnitsHH
andLL.Nearthebaseoftheeastsideofthehill,amassivesquareadobemeasuring33by40by12centimeterswasobserveditistypicalofpostNasca
constructions.
UnitII
UnitIIisapossiblyslightlymodifiedhillapproximately40squaremeters.ItiseastoftheCaminodeLegua.Itsnorthsidemaybeterraced,thoughitcouldbenatural.
AnunlootedthreesidedareaonUnitII'swestsideisclearlydistinguishablefromtheextensivealignedpatternlootingwestofit.
UnitJJ
UnitJJisalowsquareplatform,about20squaremeters,thathasbeenlootedonitsnorthside.Itislocatedinanareaofintensedepradation(theextensive,looted
areawithpostNascaculturalmaterialsthatbeginsatthebaseofUnitHHandextendseastwardtowardtheCaminodeLegua).
UnitKK
UnitKKisatentativeassignation.Theremaybeaslightlymodifiedhillatthebackoftheheavily

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5.27.
AerialviewandsketchplanofUnitLL.

lootedareabetweenUnitsHHandLL.Therearedistinctiveunlootedareasamidthelooting.ItisthepresenceofthreeoftheseinfrontofthehypothesizedUnitKK
moundthatleadsmetoposittheunit'sexistence.
UnitLL
UnitLL(fig.5.27)isamoundthatmeasuresapproximately125by28meters.Fourareaswererecognized:(1)thelootedmound(2)along,causewaylike,unlooted,
flatarealowerthanthemound(3)theunlootedhillhigherthanthecausewaywithjustafewlooters'holesandsomeplainwareonitssurfaceand(4)anunlooted
squarearea,actuallythelowestterraceofarea3.
UnitMM
UnitMM,alow,square,smallplatformapproximately16by28meters,islocatedinthemidstofthemassivelylootedareabetweenUnitsLLandNN.Surface
evidenceonUnitMMindicatestheuseofthepervasiveCahuachiconstructiontechniqueofadobewallsandlayeredvegetalfiberfill.Twoconstructionphasesare
seenonthenorthfaceofthemound.
UnitNN
UnitNN,anothermajorarchitecturalcomplexatCahuachi,consistsoffivecomponentpartswhichjoinwithUnitQQtothesouth(seefig.2.4).NN1isamajor
mounditisthenorthernmostcomponentoftheunit.NN2isalooted,flat,squareareasouthofNN1.NN3isaraisedpromontoryofthehillitself.NN4isalong,
rectangular,flatareawhichappearstobearaisedcausewayconnectedtoNN5,thesummitofthemound.NN5iscomposedofaflatareanorthoftheactualsummit
ofUnitNN.
ThemajorUnitNN1moundiselaboratedoveranaturalhillwhosecoreoutcropsonthenorthside.Itmeasuresapproximately56by47meters.Artificialconstruction
hasraisedtheheightofthehillandevenedoutitsirregularities.Itisestimatedthattheaverageheightoftheartificialconstructiondoesnotexceed2metersoverthe
naturalhillitself.Thus,themonumentalityofthismoundismoreapparentthanreal.Theartificialcomponentofthehill,readilyvisiblebecauseofseveralhugelooters'
trenches,ismadeofmassiveadobecontainingwallsinbetweenwhichisfillofsmallrocksorlayeredadobeandfiberfillcontainedbetweenmassiveadobewall
sections(figs.5.28,5.29).Atthetopofthemoundontheeasternsideofthemajoreastwestlooters'trencharetwothinuprighthuarangoposts,oneofwhichis
implantedinmud,muchlikethehuarangopostcornersinRoom2atopUnit19.Itisnotclearifthesepostsareintegralpartsoftheinfrastructuralconstructionor
whether,asItendtosuspect,theyareslimevidenceoftheexistenceofaformerperishablesuperstructureatopthemound.

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5.28.
Massivelooters'trenchesexcavatedintoUnitNN1.Thelootershaverevealedtheconstructiontechniqueofthemound.
Fillwasaddedoverandinbetweentheirregularitiesofthenaturalhilltoraiseandevenoutthesurface.Juan
AntonioMurroisinthephotograph.

5.29.
Profileofthefillrevealedinfigure5.28.1:naturalhilloverlainwithartificialfill.2:vegetalfiberfilllaidinlayersthatare10
centimetersthicktheselayersareseparatedfromeachotherbylayersofsandcontaininglittlechunksofadobeandcobbles
theweightofeacheastwestrunninglayerofvegetalfiberfillissupportedbyanarrow(35centimeterwide)northsouth
layerofthesamevegetalfiberfillimplantedintothefill.3:largeradobes.4:mortar/adobeplaster.5:constructionfilloflittle
chunksofadobeandrocksinloosesand.6:wallcomposedoflargeradobeswallismudplasteredonbothsides.7:
constructionfilloflittlechunksofadobeandrocksinloosesand.8:largeradobes.9:constructionfilloflittlechunks
ofadobeandrocksinloosesand.10:largeradobes.

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5.30.
AerialviewofUnitQQ.TheUshapeofthemoundisclearlyseenasisthelootedareawithinthearmsofthemound.

UnitOO
UnitOOisasmallterracedmoundapproximately12by20meters.ItishigherthanUnitMM.LikeUnitMM,itsitsinthemidstofthethoroughlysackedpostNasca
cemeterybetweenUnitsLLandNN.Onitssurfacearemanyfragmentsoflargeutilitarianplainwarevesselsandafewpanpipefragments.ThenorthfaceofOOis
lootedinapatternofcylindricaldepressions.Therearefewremainsaroundthesedepressions.
UnitPP
UnitPPisalooted,possiblyterracedhill,almostconnectedtothesouthendofUnitQQ2whereQQ2joinsQQ1.
UnitQQ
UnitQQ(fig.5.30)isamajormodifiedhillapproximately90by110meters.Fivecomponentpartscanberecognized.
QQ1isamassivelylootednaturalhillmodifiedbyadobewallsonitsnorthface.Boneandcanesarelitteredonthesurface,andthereisabundantpottery.Thereisa
smallareaofroomarchitecturebeneaththeplatformterracesonthenorthfaceofQQ1.Theseadobewalledroomsareclearlydefinedandseemtobeinassociation
withtheonlystratifiedkitchenmiddentypegarbageobservedatCahuachi.Thismoundshouldbeexcavatedinthefuture.
UnitsQQ2andQQ3arethespurswhich,withQQ1,createathreesidedareathatisopentothenorth.Theareahasbeenextensivelylooted.QQ4isanunlooted
naturalhillonwhichthereisa1969cementbenchmark.BetweenQQ4andQQ3thereisamoreorlessflatarea.QQ5isasmall,natural,easternappendagetoQQ4
which,withalittleparallelspurtothesouth,createsasmallthreesidedareaopentotheeastonthiseasternsideofUnitQQ.
UnitRR
Araised,flat,openareajoinsUnitQQtoUnitRR.UnitRRisaplatformmoundapproximately32by20meters,withtwoterracesonitsnorthface.Alongeastwest
looters'cuthasrevealedoneofthemound'sretainingwalls,therebyshowingthenatureofitsartificialconstruction.Thefillcontainedbythatwallconsists

Page85

ofcoarsesandwithabundantsmallrocks,layersofvegetalfiber,andadobe.
Thebaseofawattleanddaubwallcanbeseenonthenorthfaceoftheunit.Thiswallrunsfor4.80metersbetweentwohuarangoposts.Thereisfillbehindthe
wattleanddaubwall.Thiswallcouldbeaconstructiondevice,similaroridenticaltotheonesuggestedforUnit8,wherebythemassoffillwascontainedandits
pressuredispersedthroughtheconstructionofinternalsubsurfacewalls.Ontheotherhand,itcouldbetheremainsofaperishablesuperstructure.
Atthebaseofthemound,ontheeastside,isasolidadobewallthatwaslightlyplastered.Thiswallwascoveredupwhensmallchambersoffillwerebuilt,thereby
expandingthesizeofthemound.Thefillisofmudandadobe.Theadobesofthefillareirregularlumpsandbrokenpiecesoflargeradobes.
Culturalremainsonthemoundsurfaceincludebone(unidentifiedanimal),plainwaresherds,asmallamountofshell,andsomecane.
UnitSS
UnitSSisanunlooted,low,flatplatformseparatedfromUnitRRtothewestbyasmall,lower,threesidedlootedarea.Itmeasuresapproximately38by25meters.
UnitTT
UnitTTisasmall,low,unlootedsquareplatformapproximately20squaremetersinbasalarea.
UnitUU
UnitUU,northofUnitOO,isasmalllowplatformapproximately15by25meters.
UnitVV
UnitVV(fig.5.31)isanotherofthegreatarchitecturalfeaturesofCahuachi.Itmeasuresapproximately60by75metersandisapproximately20metershigh.Heavy
lootinghasrevealedthatmassiveadobecontainmentwallsandchamberedfillconstructioncreatedthislargethreeterracemoundoveranaturalhill.Thefillis
composedofsand,smallrocks,vegetalfiber(especiallycornsheaths),andadobe.
ThemostinterestingfeatureofUnitVVisfoundonitseastsidewherelootershaverevealedawellmadenarrowadobestaircasewiththinhuarangologstep
protectors(fig.5.32).Localpeoplecallthisunitthe"pyramidofthethirteensteps,"althoughthirteenstepsarenotvisible.Initsconstructiondetailsthisstaircaseis
identi

5.31.
AerialviewofUnitVV.

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5.32.
ThestaircaseontheeastsideofUnitVV.Comparetothe
staircasediscoveredontheeastsideofUnit15C(fig.9.9).

caltotheoneuncoveredintheUnit15Cexcavations(seechap.9).
UnitWW
TotheeastofUnitVVisUnitWW,thelastgreatarchitecturalcomplexofCahuachionitseasternside.UnitWW(fig.2.4)coversanareaofabout130by40meters
andisconstructedoveraseriesofnaturalhills.ItislocatedeastoftheCaminodeLegua,acrossfromUnitQQ.
WW1isthesouthernmosthillithasasomewhatflattenedtop.
WW2isamuchlowerplatformthatislootedonitswestside.
WW3isaplatforminfrontofWW1andWW2.Itssouthernmostsideisnotlooted,butontheeastsideofthesouthhalfoftheplatformandonthenorthhalfofthe
platformthereislootedarchitecture.Thearchitectureconsistsofsquare(approximately3by3meters)andrectangular(approximately3meterseastwestby2meters
northsouth)chambersthathavebeenexcavatedintothesedimentarybedrock.Abovethebedrockisalayerofvegetalfiberfill.Caneandhuarangopostsarefound
onthesurfaceinproximitytothesestructures.Camelidremains(mostlyofyoungindividuals)andhumanbonearescatteredonthesurface.Therearelargefragments
ofutilitarianvesselsandsomeplainweavecloth.
WW4isaflatsectionofthelonghill.Itsnorthernhalfhasbeenlooted.Lootingherereveals,again,squarechambersexcavatedintothesedimentarybedrock.One
squarestructureis3.30metersonaside.Thereareaccumulationsofcottonfiberandplainweavecloth.
WW4andWW5areflatareas,moreorlesssquareinshape.WW5islowerthanWW4.Therehasbeensomelootinghere,butitappearstohavebeenunsuccessful.
WW6isthenorthernmound.Thereissomeboneonthesurface,presumablyfromseverallargecircularlooters'holesonthemound.
WW7isaterracedmoundsoutheastofWW1.WithWW1,WW7isthehighestsectionofUnitWW.Becauseofthenaturaltopographyofthehills,UnitsWW2
throughWW6descendtowardtheriver.
WW8isasmallmoundsouthwestofWW1andnorthwestofWW7.
Thereisaconcentratedandlocalizedareaofalignedlooters'holesnorthofUnitWW.
UnitXX
UnitXXseemstobecomposedofahillthathasbeenterracedtoformtwoplatforms.Itmeasuresapproximately45by50meters.Themoundisheavilylooted,and
thereissomeboneandorangeplainwareonitssurface.ThereisaslightindicationofathreesidedenclosureopentotheeastonthesoutheastsideofUnitXX.
UnitYY
UnitYYislocatedsouthofUnitJJ.Itsnorthfacemaybeterraced,butitsstatusasamodifiedhillisstillindoubt.
UnitZZ
UnitZZisadistinctivelydarkcolored,terraced,squarehillapproximately45squaremetersinarealocatedeastofUnitII.Massivelootinghasrevealedcircular
depressionsexcavatedintothebedrockandhasbroughttothesurfacesomebone,orangeplainware,andabitofcane.Therewasnodiagnosticpotteryonthe
surface.
TheDelimitationofCahuachi
ItisreasonablystraightforwardtodelimittheeasternsideofCahuachibecausetheeasternzonecontainsseveralmajorarchitecturalunitswhosespatiallayout,
constructiontechniques,andassociatedmaterialremains(orevenintheirabsence)linkthemtothecentralzoneofthesite.UnitWWwouldbeapreciseboundaryas
thelastmajorarchitecturalcomplex.ButUnitZZcouldbeaNascamound,soIhavechosenthisastheeasternlimitofthesite.ImmediatelyeastofUnitZZare
unmodifiedhillsandopenspaces.
ItismoredifficulttodefinethewesternedgeofCahuachibecausethesiteessentiallypetersoutafterUnit

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Aintermsofmonumentalityofarchitecture.Arguably,wecantakeUnitHratherthanUnitAasthewesternlimitofCahuachibecauseofUnitH'sstrikinglymodified
summitandassociatedNasca3pottery.AlthoughUnitQisafinecontemporarymound,itsdistancefromUnitHsuggeststhatitshouldbeconsideredaseparatesite.
Basically,theareabetweenUnitCandEstaqueraisacontinuousmulticomponentcemeteryamongwhichweremanyearlyNascagraves.Thecolonnadeat
EstaqueramostcertainlyisnotpartofCahuachibut,rather,postdatesitbymanycenturies.
TothenorthCahuachiisdelimitedbytheedgeofthevalleyonthesouthsideoftheNazcaRiver.5 Thusfarthereisnoevidenceofancientoccupationinthevalley
bottom.TherearemanyearlyNascagravesonthenorthbankoftheNazcaRiveroppositeCahuachi,butCahuachi,asacoherentarchitecturalcomplex,isconfined
tothesouthbank.
TothesouthCahuachiisdelimitedbytheancientNascabuilders'cessationofconstructionactivity.Cahuachi,aswehaveseen,isbuiltlargelyoverthenaturalhillsides.
Cahuachiendswherehumansceasedtomodifynature.Thus,Cahuachicanbedelimitedtothesouthbehindthesouthernmostmounds.
Asdelimitedherein,thesitecoversapproximately150hectaresofwhichapproximately25hectaresarecoveredbysomefortymoundsofgreatlyvaryingsizeand
internalcomplexitytherestofthesitesurfaceisopenspace.Cahuachiisdefinedbytheproliferationofmounds(ratherthanbyaunitaryordualarchitecturalfocus)
andbythreesidedandfoursidedenclosures.ThespatialpatternofCahuachiisconsideredinthenextchapter.
Notes
1.Unit24wasnotoriginallycalledsuchinpreviouspublications.Beginningwithmydissertation(Silverman1986),itwasreferredtoastheN4244enclosurebased
onthegridpositionofitssouthwall.Thiswasapoordecisionsinceitisadiscretearchitecturalfeatureatthesiteandshouldhavebeengivenaunitnumber.
2.ThisunitwasomittedinSilverman(1986).
3.ThereisatypographicalerrorinSilverman(1988a:411).ThetextofthatarticlereferstothewesternperipheryofCahuachiandtothecemeteryareasthat"extend
beyondtheeasternlimitofthesiteallthewaytoEstaquera."Thetextshouldspeakofthewestern,noteastern,sitelimit.
4.IhavesubsequentlyfoundgeoglyphsinassociationwithotherNascaceremonialcentersintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleyswheresurveywasconductedin
1988and1989(seeSilverman1990b).
5.IrecognizethattheNazcaRivermeanders,thattherehasbeenanexpansionofagriculturalfieldsonthesouthsideofthevalley,andthattoday'slimitsofagriculture
andriverchannelarenotthesameastheonesoperativeintheearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriod(seechap.1).

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ChapterSix
ArchitectureandSpatialOrganizationatCahuachi
TheprecolumbianculturesoftheAndesexhibitdistinctivearchitecturalandspatialpatterns.Forinstance,InitialPeriodceremonialcentersofthecentralcoastare
characterizedbythequintessentialUshapedmound,andWariexhibitstheorthogonalroomblockpattern.Cahuachialsohasadefinablepattern.Theelementsthat
formthesitewerepresentedinthepreviouschapter.WewillnowseehowtheseelementsfittogethertocreateCahuachi.
Mounds
ConstructionTechniques
Cahuachi'smonumentalarchitectureinvolvedtherathersimplemodificationofalreadyexistingtopographicfeatures.Thismeansthatadefiningattributeofmound
architectureatCahuachiisthatitisgenerallynotfreestandingorofsolidadobe.Onlyafewnaturalhillsappeartohavebeenenlargedwithasubstantialamountof
artificialadobeconstructionmostweremodifiedtoalesserextent.
LandscapealterationsatCahuachiexhibitdistinctivequalitiesthatpermitustodefinea"Cahuachiway"ofbuilding.Therearethreemajorwayshillsweremodifiedto
makeartificialmounds.
First,asintheoutstandingcaseofUnit2,thehillwasdelineatedbycontinuousadobewallsthatservetodefineaformgivenbynatureand/ormodifiedbyhumans
throughterracingandleveling(e.g.,fig.5.6).Second,thenaturalterracesofahill,suchasUnits1,H,andK,wereemphasizedbyaddingmassiveadoberetaining
wallsonthenorthface(e.g.,figs.5.10,5.20,5.23).Unit19conformstothispatternthoughonalessmonumentalscale.Third,irregularitiesofahillwereevenedout
bymeansofsuperimposedlayersoffillwhichalsoservetoraisetheheightofthehill(e.g.,Unit2andseebelow).Theselayersoffillmaybutdonothavetobe
containedbyadobewalls(frommassivetoaverageinsizeandthickness).Whenthewallsdocontainfill,asystemofchamberedfilliscreated(e.g.,UnitVV).1
AlthoughthekindsoffillusedatCahuachivaryfrommoundtomoundandevenwithinmounds,specificpopulartypesarefoundacrossthesite.Themostcommonfill
alternatesthinlayersofvegetalfiberwiththickerorthinnerlayersofadobefragments,dirt,androcksinvaryingproportions.ExamplesarefoundonUnits2,5,8,H,
andVVamongothers.InthecaseofUnit8,verticalhuarangopostsontheeasternsideofthemoundservedtocontainthemassivefillbydispersingtheoutward
pressureofthatfill(fig.5.11).InUnits5and11,bundlesofvegetalfiberactedlikedspringstoachievebulkwithoutweight(fig.5.15).Thetechniqueofbundlesof
vegetalfiberfoundinUnits5and11isnotcommonatCahuachi,andthusfarthesearetheonlytwoinstancesobserved.IhaverarelyseenitelsewhereintheNazca
drainageMiguelPazoshasshownmeseveralmoundsintheOcucajeareaofthelowerIcavalleywiththiskindoffill.
AmostinterestinginterpretationoftheuseofvegetalfiberinmonumentalconstructionsisprovidedbyHuapayaManco(19771978),whoarguesthatlayersof
vegetalmaterial,commoninmanyhuacasofancientPeru,liketheearlierpracticeofnettedfill,mayhaveservedasanantiseismicdevice.Heproposesthatboth

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categoriesoffillunitedthemassofthemoundbetweenthelateralparamentsandtheactualfilloftheplatformssothatearthquakeswouldnotdisplacethecontained
massnor,Imightadd,wouldgravity.Layersofvegetalfiber,extendedhorizontally,wouldformpartoftheresistancefunctionthatthecontainmentwallfulfilled.
Thesethreemethodsofmodifyinganaturalhillarenotnecessarilymutuallyexclusiveinanyonemound.Forinstance,thenorthdefiningwallofUnits2cand2kisa
massiveadobecontainmentwall,whilethesouthernheightoftheUnit2moundhasbeenachievedbythesuperpositionofalternatingthinlayersofvegetalfiberand
adobechunksandrockrubble.
ExaminationoftheconstructiontechniquesofCahuachi'smoundsrevealsthatthesedidnotgrowbythestratificationofabandonedandbuiltoverhousefloorsand
domesticstructures(e.g.,liketheMesopotamiantells)butthroughdeliberatelylaidconstructionfillsandtheblockingandabandonmentofspecialpurposestructures.
Cahuachi'smoundsarenothabitationmounds.
KindsofMounds
Althoughmoundscomeindifferentsizesandshapes,thereappeartobeonlyafewkindsofmounds:allareplatformortruncatedmounds.Theymaybesinglemounds
(aspatialfeaturewithoutsmallercomponentparts),compositemounds(amoundwithcomponentspatialfeatures),ormoundcomplexes(wherearguablytwoormore
moundsareindirectassociationwitheachother).ExamplesofasinglemoundrangefromthesmallUnitsOO,SS,TT,andUUtothelargerUnits5,6,and18tothe
greatUnitVVandmassiveUnitsAandK.ExamplesofacompositemoundwouldbeUnitsLL,NN,QQ,andWW.Examplesofamoundcomplexwouldbethe
smallcomplexformedbyUnitsCC,DD,andEEandthemassivearchitecturalcomplexformedbyUnits2,1,9,and8(and10?)thatcouldbeconsideredthecentral
"acropolis"ofCahuachi(seechap.22).
Anotherwaytodistinguishkindsofmoundsisbythepresenceorabsenceofroomedorpartitionedsurfacearchitecture.Thusfar,thisfeaturehasbeenidentifiedon
Units2,8,10,11,19,QQ,DD,BB,A,andC.
Unit12Bwithitsrowsofcylindricalshaftsisauniquemoundatthesite.Unit1isalsouniquebecauseofthesunkencourtonitstopterrace.Otherwiseitisquite
similartoUnitKinsizeandshape.
Somemounds,suchasUnits19andA,servedforburialhowever,thisisnottosaythattheywereexclusivelyburialmounds.Itispossiblethatmanybadlylooted
moundshadburials,butUnitWWrevealsthatsuchusemayhavebeenpostNasca.Furthermore,notalllootingonmoundshasproducedevidenceofburialsor
tombs(anexamplewouldbethemassivelylootedarchitectureofUnitVV).
OrientationofMounds
Althoughorientationislargelypredeterminedbytheunderlyingnaturalhills,Cahuachi'smoundswheresuchadeterminationcanbemadefacenorth.Thus,if
moundsareterraced,terracesareontheirnorthside.
Kanchas
Iamcallingtheboundedopen(unconstructed)spacesbeneathandbetweenmounds"kanchas,"followingIsbellandFairchild's(1980:1113)discussionofthis
Quechuaconcept.Kanchareferstoanenclosure,awalledfield,apatioarea,oranyotherbounded,defined,ordelimitedunitofspace.Iwillusethistermbecauseit
isneutralanddoesnotimputefunctiontotheseareas.2
KanchasoccurinavarietyofformsandcontextsatCahuachi.ThequintessentialkanchaatCahuachiiscompletelycreatedbyadobewallsthatdefineafoursided,
usuallyunlooted,squarespace.ThesekanchasareespeciallyprevalentinthenorthendofthecentralzoneandareparticularlyvisibleonStrong'shighresolutionaerial
photograph(fig.5.2).TheyarelocatedatsurfacelevelbetweenUnit21tothewestandUnit10totheeast.Theyabutandoverlapeachother.Nofoursidedkanchas
occurnaturallyatthesite.Wheretheyexist,atleastonesidewasdeliberatelyconstructed.
Somekanchasareindirectassociationwithmounds,asisthecasewiththekanchabetweenUnits18and19andtheseriesofkanchasatthebaseofUnit8.Others
seemtobeselfcontainedandarelocatedaroundmoundswithoutbeingdirectlyassociatedwiththem(thoughthismaybeamisperceptiononmypart).Othersare
presentwithinlargerkanchas,asisthecaseoftheUnit24rectangularkanchawithinthelargerkanchacreatedbyUnit16(seechaps.5,9).
Otherkanchasaresmall,foursided,unlooted,flatareasatsurfacelevelthataredelineatedbywalls,butthesewallsare,inpart,naturalandtheyareoftenhigh.
ExamplesofthesecanbeseeninUnits8c,8d,10i,andGGa.
Somekanchasareintimatelyrelatedtothemounds.Thesekanchasarethreesidedandarecreatedbythephysicalformofthemoundsthemselves,bethisthrough
originaltopographyorartificialmodification.Theyareactuallyenclosedordelineatedbythenaturalarmsofthemound.Becausesomanyofthethreesidedkanchas
aretheresultoftheunderlyingshapeofthehill

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uponwhichthemoundhasbeenelaborated,thereisnooneorientationtothesekanchas.Theirflatspacesmaybeopentothenorth,eastorwestnothreesided
kanchasareopentothesouth.ExamplesoftheseincludeUnit8f,thekanchanorthofUnit81,andUnit10aa.ThekanchacreatedbytheUnit5mound,theUnit17
wall,andthewallrunningalongthewestsideofUnit8isnoteworthybecausetheUnit17walltakestheplaceofthemissingnaturalspur.
Thosethreesidedkanchascontainedwithinthemainarmsofamoundaremorefrequentlylootedthanthreesidedkanchasappendagedtoaside,evenifthelatterare
ofcomparablesize.Size,ascanbeseenonthenewmapofthesite,variesgreatly.ExamplesofthesethreesidedkanchasarethebadlylootedonecreatedbyHH1,
2,and3theselectivelylootedUnit8fandtheunlootedareawithinUnit3.
Therearealsothreesidedkanchasthatwerecreatedfortuitouslybythegivendispositionofhillsatthesite,hillsthatbecameelaboratedintomounds.Suchacase
wouldbethekanchadefinedbyUnits10,AA,CC,DD,andEEandthesmallonebetweenUnitsCC,DD,andEE.Aridge(inpartnatural?inpartartificial?)
connectsUnitEEtothelootedUnitFFknoll,therebycreatinganotherthreesidedkanchaopentothenorth.
Somekanchasareverylargeareasofflatspacethathavebeendelimitedonthreesidesthroughtheelaborationoflowadobewallstheopensideisthenorthside.An
examplewouldbethespacecontainedbytheUnit16wall.Notethatthewesternhalfofthismajorkanchaisdefinedbymounds.
Kanchascanalsobefoundonthesummits(e.g.,Units9,10,22,HH1,andHH4)andsides(UnitsKand22UnitK'ssidekanchaisunusualbecauseofitslocation
onthelowersideofthemound)ofsomeofthemounds.Thesekanchasaresmall,flat,unlooted,unwalledareasthatareexceptionallycleanofallsurfacematerialand
arethereforeeasytoperceiveincontrasttotherockyand/orlootedsurfaceofthemounds.
TheMoundKanchaPattern
Thereisalotofunconstructed(i.e.,open,empty)spaceatCahuachiratherthananabundanceofmassivevolumetricconstruction.Althoughtherearedozensof
moundsatthesite,thesearelikeislandsinaratherexpansivesea.About85percentoftheapproximately150hectaresofsurfaceareaonwhichCahuachiis
elaboratedconsistsoflootedandunlootedopenspaceandunmodifiedhills.Onlysome15percentofCahuachi'ssurfaceisoccupiedbyartificialmoundconstruction,
andyettheopenspacebetweenCahuachi'smoundsmaybeperceivedasaformofconstructedspace,beitnaturallysoorpurposivelydone.
GroundsurveycomplementedbyaerialreconnaissancerevealsadeliberateplantoorganizespaceatCahuachidespitethefactthatmostofthesite'sarchitecturewas
constrainedbythenaturaltopography.Cahuachiisformedbyapervasiveandrepetitivepatternofmodifiednaturalhills(thesemiartificialmounds)indirectassociation
withboundedopenspaces(threesidedandfoursidedkanchas)thatextendoverthesite.Thisisthemoundkanchapattern.
TheexistenceofmoundsandkanchascreatesanopenunopenspatialdichotomyatCahuachi.Openrefersto"empty"spaceatCahuachi,i.e.,groundsurfacesthatare
devoidofmoundconstructionsalthoughtheymaybedelineatedbylowwallsorlownaturalridges.UnopenreferstotheareasofspaceatCahuachithatarecovered
byartificiallymodifiedhills,Cahuachi'smounds.
Somemoundsareindirectassociationwithsurfacelevelkanchas,andwemaythinkoftheseasmoundkanchamodules.Thesemodulesmayinvolvejustonemound
orseveral.ExampleswouldbetheCCDDEEmodule,theUnitAmodule,theUnit1018module,theUnit19module,theselfcontainedmultikanchaUnit8
module,theUnit4module,theUnitGGmodule,theUnitHHNN1module,theUnit1819module,theUnit15module,apossibleUnit56module,andapossible
UnitVVWWmodule.TheUnitCCDDEEmoduleisparticularlywelldefinedandselfcontained,withthethreemoundsclearlyenclosingandformingakancha.
ThemoundkanchapatternatCahuachiisrandomtothedegreethatmostofthemoundsandkanchaswerecreatedbynature.Thus,itisnotsurprisingthatthe
moundkanchapatterndiesoutwherenaturaltopographynolongercreatedtheconditionsforitsexistence.WedonotfindmoundkanchamoduleswestofUnit22,
fortherethehillscometooclosetotheblufforaretoocloseortoofarapartfromeachother.EastofUnitWWthehillsrecedegreatlyfromthevalley,becomemuch
moregentle,andareseparatedbygreaterdistances.CahuachicanbedelimitedonthebasisofthispatternofkanchasandmoundsandonthebasisofCahuachistyle
architecturaltechniquesandassociatedearlyNascapottery.
UnboundedSpace
Inadditiontothemoundsandkanchas,wemustalsoconsiderunboundedemptyspaceatCahuachi.Some

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85percentofthesitesurfaceisdevoidofmoundconstruction.Inadditiontothekanchasandunmodifiedhillsencompassedwithinthat85percent,therearealso
unboundedopenspacessuchasthespacebetweenUnits16,3,and2.BecausetheancientNascasdecidedtoelaboratethesiteoverthenaturaltopography,even
thisnaturalspacemustbeconsideredpartofCahuachi'sspatialorganization,anintegralelementofthesite.
Rooms
RoomsonTopofMounds
Althoughroomsarenotfoundonallmounds,anumberofmoundsdocontainsuchstructures.Thereareclearlyvisiblesmallroomsmadewithlowadobewallson
UnitsQQandCC.OnthesummitofUnit11thereisapatternofhuarangopostssurroundedbycanes.WhereasIarguedthatthehuarangopostsontheeastsideof
Unit8involvedthecontainmentofthemassivefillformingthatlargemound,inthecaseofUnit11thehuarangopostsappeartopertaintoaperishedsuperstructure
whosemainsupportswouldhavebeenthehuarangosandwhosewallsweremadeofwattle,therebyexplainingthecane(seeStrong1957:fig.5Aforaphotoofthis
kindofconstructionandseediscussionofperishablearchitectureattheendofthischapter).Wattleanddaubarchitectureisstillmadeintheareatodayadescription
ofthetechnologyofthisconstructionisprovidedattheendofthischapter.IwillconfinethefollowingremarkstoUnit19,whichistheonlymoundwhoserooms
(Rooms17otherroomsexistonUnit19)havebeenstudiedindetail.Seechapter12forfulldetailsandplans.
OrientationandSize
OnUnit19,roomsareorientedtothenorth.Ireachedthisconclusionbecauseaccesstothemoundisfromthenorthandallnorthsouthwallsslopedownsharplyto
thenorth(becausethearchitectureconformedtotheslopeoftheunderlyingmound).
RoomsonUnit19varygreatlyinsize(Table6.1).Basicallytherearesmallroomsandlargerrooms.
ConstructionTechniquesandDetails
ThewallsofUnit19'sroomsrangeinthicknessfrom60to80centimetersonaverage.Theywerebuiltwithavarietyofadobetypesthatvaryinsizeandshape.
Adobescanberoundedrectangular(averagelengthof30centimetersaveragewidthof12centimeters),semiconicalwithveryroundedbases(averagelengthof27
centimetersaveragewidthof16centimeters),andirregularadobelumps.Somewallsusedonlyonetypeofadobewhileothers
Table6.1.ApproximateDimensionsofRoomsonUnit19
Room

Dimensions

Room1

610(minimum)a

Room2

22

Room3

2.22.3

Room4

33(?)

Room5

2.52

Room6

43

Room7

9.52.5

Note:Theseroomshaveallbeenlootedanddamagedmaking
precisemeasurementdifficult.Alldimensionsarefortheinternal
areainmeters.
aThisroomwasnotexcavatedinitsentirety.

mixedtwoormore.Afinallayerofmudcoatingthatcovereduptheirregularitiesoftheirconstructionwasappliedtomostwalls.Theseirregularitiesresultfromthe
variouskindsofadobesusedinconstruction,thehighproportionofmortartoadobe,andthepresenceofsmallrocksintheadobesandmortar.
Adobesmayvaryincolor.UsingRoom1onUnit19asanexample,wehaveidentifiedbeige(Munsell10YR87/12),gray(Munsell10YR6/12),andyellow
(Munsell10YR87/6)adobes.Iassumethesevariationsweredeliberateratherthanexpostfactoduetothelossofmudplastering.Ihaveobservedinplacesatthe
sitethatsomeadobewallsnotcoveredoverwithafinalmudlayerachieveasimpledecorativeeffectbyalternatingthecolorofadobesandmortar.Similarly,Orefici
(1987:7)indicatesthatonUnit10hefoundyellowandgrayadobesalternating"rhythmically"wheretherewasnoevidenceofmudplaster,andhesuggeststhatthese
adobesweremeanttobeseen.VeryfewwallsatCahuachishowevidenceofhavingbeenpainted.Wherefound,suchevidenceisusuallyintheformofawhitewash,
asisthecasewiththesouthwallofRoom6andtheWall7172cornerintheLowerEasternRooms(seechap.12).OnrareoccasionsIhaveobservedfragmentsof
adobewithtracesofwhiteandredpigmentsonthesurfaceofCahuachi.But,thusfar,thereisnoevidenceofmonumentalpaintedartatthesite.3
TheheightofwallsinthesmallroomsonUnit19isnotgreat.InRooms3,4,and5wallheightdidnotexceed1meteratthebackandcouldbequitelowinthefront
theheightofRoom5'snorthwallisonly40centimeters.InthecaseofRoom1,however,theoriginalsouthwallheightisslightlyover2meters.Butwithev

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erysuperimposedfloor,theheightofthisbackwallbecamereducedtillitwaslessthan60centimetershighfortheuppermostfloor(seefig.12.17).
ThewallsformingtheroomsofUnit19areconstructedonafoundationorfillofsand.Wherefloorsarepreserved,theycanbeseentohavebeenlaiddirectlyonthe
sandtheyabutthewalls.FloorsintheroomsatopUnit19areapisonadosratherthantruepreparedfloors.Apisonadosaretrafficcompactedearthsurfaces.This
wordisusedthroughoutthebookunlessreferenceisbeingmadetoatruepreparedfloor.
Itispossiblethattheseroomswereroofed,butgiventhecompletedestructionoffloors,noevidenceofpossiblepostholeswasrecoverednorwasroofingmaterial
found.
AccesstothelittleroomsatopUnit19isundeterminedbecauseoftheseveredestructionoftheirwalls.AccesstoRoom6wasfromthenorth.AccesstoRoom7
wasfromthenorthwhenthatroomwasjoinedtoRoom6andalsofromtheeastpriortoclosureofthatentryway.AccesstoRoom1hasnotbeendetermineditmay
haveoriginallybeenfromthenorthand/orwest.
RoomsattheBaseofMounds
Inadditiontoroomsobservedordiscoveredatopmounds,therearealsoroomsatthebaseofsomeofthemoundsatCahuachi,includingUnit19.Again,because
excavationconcentratedonUnit19,ourbestdatacomefromthatmound,withonlysurveyobservationselsewhere.
Unit19
AnoutstandingexampleofroomarchitectureatthebaseofamoundistheuniqueRoomofthePostsatthebaseofUnit19(seechap.13).Also,aroomwas
encounteredinExcavation6restingonsterilesoilanddestroyedbytheconstructionofanintrusivetomb(seechap.12).TheLowerEasternRooms,atthebaseof
Unit19onitseasternside,areanotherareaofroomarchitecture(chap.12).AlthoughthefunctionoftheLowerEasternRoomsisundetermined,clearlythe
associatedmaterialremainsdonotcorrespondtodomestichabitation.ThewallsoftheLowerEasternRoomsarequitelowthereisnodirectevidenceofperished
superstructuresnoristhereevidenceofroofing.
Unit5
AtthebaseofUnit5aretracesofseveraladobewalls.ThisarchitecturemaycorrespondtoroomsrunningalongthebaseofUnit5'seasterncontainmentwall.The
easternbasalretainingwallofUnit5couldhaveformedthebackofpossiblyopenroomsthathadcanematroofs.Ifroomswerepresent,theUnit8bridgewould
haveprotectedthemfromthestrongwindsthattypicallyblowsouthtonorth.
Unit12B
AtthebaseoftheeastsideofUnit12Barehorrendouslydamagedsectionsofwellmadeadobewallswhichappeartoformroomsanddoorways.Thisareashould
beexcavatedinthefuturetodetermineitsfunction.
Unit2
AtthebaseofUnit2areroomsinassociationwithStrong's(1957:31,fig.4)GreatTemple(Unit2).Theseappearclearlyonhismapandtheaerialphotographsas
threeareasofagglutinatedrooms(figs.2.2,5.7).Theamountofadobemeltintheagglutinatedroomareassuggeststhattheroomshadwallswhichweresubstantially
higherand/orwiderthantheyappeartoday.
Walls
MajorWalls
Inadditiontothewallsthatformroomsordefinemoundarchitecture,therearethreemajor,independentwallsatthesite:Units4,16,andB.
TheUnit4andUnit16wallsdefinethetwomajorareasofthecentralzoneofthesite.Theyarefreestanding,andwemayaskwhatdeterminedtheirsize,location,
andorientation.Theanswerstothesequestionsrelatetowhentheywereconstructed.Onthebasisofconstructionmaterial,constructiontechniques,andceramic
associations,itcanbesuggestedthattheUnit16wallwasbuiltinNasca3times.Becauseofitssimilarity(butnotidentity)oforientationandformitcanbearguedthat
Unit4iscontemporary.WilliamsLen(1980:471)suggests,however,thatUnit4isearlierbecauseitisoriented15degreeseastofnorthratherthantonorthlike
Unit16andbecause,inhisopinion,"somewallscrossoverthemoundswithoutanyrelationshiptotheirformororientation."Thusfar,theceramicevidencedoesnot
supportthiscontentionofagedifference,particularlybecauseUnit2,basedonthepotteryrecoveredinStrong'sCut6,isaNasca3edifice.Furthermore,asarguedin
chapter22,thepurposeofUnits4and16istodelineateculturalspacefromnonculturalspacethiswouldexplainwhythey"crossoverthemoundswithoutany
relationshiptotheirformororientation."
ParallelWalls
Thereisalsoaminorarchitecturalpatternatthesiteofashortsouthwallparalleltoanorthoneandseparated

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fromitbyasmall,flat,cleared,squarearea(alittlekancha)onthesummitofmounds.ThishasbeenobservedseveraltimesatCahuachi,asonUnits2and9(fig.
5.12).
AccesstotheMounds
Atleasttwomounds,UnitsVVand15C,havestaircasesontheireasternsides(seefigs.5.32,9.9).RampsaresuspectedontheeastsideofUnit1andthenorthface
ofUnit13.
Inaddition,wallsformcorridorsorpassagewaysinandbetweenmounds.ThereisanarrowandtortuousrouteuptothesummitofUnit19fromthebaseofthe
mound.AcorridorsystemalsoappearstoexistinthearchitecturalcomplexatthebaseoftheeasternsideofUnit12,butithasyettobedefined.Thesecorridors
wererepeatedlymodifiedovertime,beingwidened,narrowed,orblockedastheirfunctionchanged.
Relatedtothisissueofcorridorsisthequestionofhowpedestriantrafficcirculatedthroughthesite.ThereappeartobenoformalstreetsatCahuachi.However,a
possiblenaturaltrafficcorridorbetweenUnits12and20hasbeenposited(Silverman1985a:92).Nevertheless,circulationthroughthesiteremainsaproblemfor
interpretation,especiallyinthecentralcoreofthesiteinwhichaseriesoflowwalledkanchasisfoundbetweenmounds(seefigs.2.4,5.2).
Depressions
SeveralkindsofdepressionscanberecognizedatCahuachionitsmounds,underneaththem,andintheopenareasofthesite.
DepressionsExcavatedintoNativeSoil
Strongfound"cachepits"atCahuachiatthebaseofCut6ontheGreatTemple,atthebaseofCut4onUnit5,atthebaseofUnit6,andoutintheopen(seechap.
4).Theywereexcavatedintonativesoilandrepresentthefirstoccupationofanarea.AcomparablefeaturewasfoundinourTestPit7wherealargecircular
depressionmeasuring1.05metersby1.20meterswithadepthof94centimetershadbeenexcavatedintothenatural,hard,compactsurface(seechap.11).
Inaddition,severalcirculardepressionsexcavatedintobedrockintheopenareasofthesitewereobservedonsurvey(seechap.5).Forinstance,atthebaseofUnit
Fisaneastwestlineofcirculardepressions,eachabout80centimetersindiameter.Andatthenorthernedgeoftheterrace,justabovethevalleybottom,thereis
anothercirculardepression,107centimetersindiameter.ApatternofcirculardepressionsexcavatedintothehillhasalsobeendetectedonthenorthfaceofUnitOO.
LargeDepressionsExcavatedintoApisonados
IntheUnit16kancha(seechap.9),largecircularandirregulardepressionshadbeenexcavatedintotheapisonadounderlyingtheUnit16wall(fig.9.5).These
containedafairamountoforganicmaterialandvaryingamountsofceramicremains.IntheRoomofthePosts(seechap.13),fourlargecirculardepressionshadbeen
excavatedintotheapisonadooftheroom(figs.13.1,13.7)aswellasoneexcavatedintotheroom'scentral,lowmudplatform.
SmallDepressionsExcavatedintoApisonados
InStrata6and8oftheUnit16excavation(Excavation1),smallcirculardepressions,interpretedaspostholes,wereidentifiedintheapisonados.InStratum6these
alignedthemselvesinanorthsouthrow(fig.9.3),whereasintheslightlylowerStratum8nopatternwasperceived(fig.9.4).
IntheRoomofthePostsseveralsmallcirculardepressionswerefoundintheapisonadotheydonotappeartoconformtopostholes.Similarcirculardepressions
werefoundintheLowerEasternRoomsexcavations,butinnocasewasapatternnoted.Itisnotcertainthatthesearepostholes.
CylindricalShafts
SeveralareasofcarefullypreparedcylindricalshaftsonthetopsofmoundswereidentifiedatCahuachi.Theycanbedistinguishedonthebasisofmanufacture.
AdobeLinedCylindricalShafts
Rowsofdeep,adobelinedcylindricalshaftswereexcavatedintotheartificialUnit12Bmound(figs.5.16,5.18).Ahuarangopostisstillconservedinthecornerof
thesouthwesternmostdepressionatopUnit12B.
TwoadobelineddepressionswerefoundontopofUnit8k.Oneiscircularinoutlineandmeasures80centimetersindiameteritisrevealedtoadepthof1meter.
Theotherismorerectangularinshapebutisthesamesizeasthefirst.
SeveraladobelinedcirculardepressionswerealsofoundrunningmoreorlessinaneastwestdirectionontheeastsideoftheflattopofUnit9.Inoneofthese
depressions(asonUnit12B)ahuarangopoststandsup

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right.Theaveragemouthdiameterofthesedepressionsis80centimeters,butdepthcouldnotbedeterminedbecausetheyarefilledin.
OnthesummitofUnit11therearesemicircularadobelineddepressionsinproximitytoverticalhuarangoposts.Thereareadobelinedcylindricaldepressionson
UnitsAA2andAA3.
AseriesofcircularadobelineddepressionswasobservedontheeasternsideofTerraceIofUnitDD.ThesearesimilarinstructuretothedepressionsonUnit12B
butarewider,being90centimetersacrosstheirdepthisundetermined.
Garrafas
Anotherkindofcarefullypreparedcylindricalshaftontopofmoundsconsistsofgarrafasorbottleshapeddepressions.Severalgarrafashadbeenexcavatedintothe
hardnativeclayontopofUnit10(fig.5.14).
Other
Thereareatleasttworowsofwide,circular,looteddepressionsexcavatedintothenaturalsedimentaryrockofUnit8bthesedonotappeartobegarrafas.Onthe
northeastedgeofUnitHH4andontoptowardthenorththerearesemicircularandcirculardepressionsexcavatedintothesedimentaryrock.
SquareDepressions
OnUnitsWW3andWW4therearerowsofsquaredepressionsexcavatedintothesedimentarybedrock.SquaredepressionswerealsoobservedatUnitsO,P,X,
and.Allofthesearetombs.
Looters'Holes
Looters'holesrangefromsmallshallowprobestomassivegapingholes.Looters'holescanberecognizedbythepiledupeartharoundtheirorifices,thedistinctive
aeoliansandfillingthem,and,insomecases,brokenculturalremainssurroundingthem.Sometimestheyruninalignedrows.
Adobes
Kroeber(1954:27)writesthat"inNazcathe[adobe]bricksvarymuchmorestrikinglyinsizeandshape[thanintheProtoLimahuacas],eveninsingleassociations
withintheNazcaculture."ThishasbeenmyobservationatCahuachiaswell.
Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:Ad1920)describesseveraladobetypes.Type1consistsoflowrounded,sideflattenedcylindersthatarealmostrectangular.
Type2adobesareverywedgyandarenotedforbeingnarrowandhigh.Type3adobesarewedges,similartoType2butlesshigh.Type4adobesarelongitudinally
splitcylindersthatarelowandlong.Kroeber'smeasurementsarepresentedintable6.2.
Table6.2.Kroeber'sMeasurementsofAdobesatCahuachiin
Centimeters
AdobeType

Length

Width

Height

37

22

20

35

20

27

38

21

30

25

20

18

31

18

40

34

15

35

30

15

36

29

18

28

27

15

32

40

25

15

37

25

16

Source:KroeberandCollierms.:Ad1920.

Strong(1957)identifiesfivekindsofadobesatCahuachi.Theseare(a)small,ungrooved,conicaladobes(b)irregularlumpadobes(c)tall,wedgeshapedadobes
whichcorrespondtoKroeber'sType2adobe(d)large,conical,groovedadobesand(e)irregular,almostrectangularadobes.
Inaddition,irregularlumpadobesaboundatthesiteandmayalsocorrespondtothemortarplacedbetweenadobes.Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:Ad1920)
hascorrectlyobservedthat"inmostNazcaperiodconstruction,formedadobesconstituteonlyaboutathirdofthevolumeofwalls,therestbeingmortarinsertedin
gobsorchunks,nodoubtbyhandalso."ThisisconfirmedinobservationsImadeatCahuachiwhere,forinstance,awallonUnit15Cexhibitedonlytwotalladobes
inahorizontaldistanceof1meter,therestofthespacebeingfilledwithlumpsofadobe.
Tall,wedgeshapedadobeswereobservedintheN4244wallofUnit24,onthesoutheastextensionofUnit6,onthenorthwestsideofUnit2,intheRoomofthe
Posts,andelsewhereatthesite.Small,ungrooved,conicaladobesoccurinStrong'sCuts1and5.
Large,conical,groovedadobesarecharacteristicofCahuachi'smassiveretainingwalls,suchasthoseencounteredbyStronginCut3ofUnit6(fig.4.9).Theycould
beinsertedpointintoformawallinwhichtheirbroadflatbottomswouldcreateanevenexteriorsurfacewhosemassalsoservedtocontainthemortarandlump

Page95

adobesplacedbetweenandaroundthepoints.TheywerealsoplacedpointupasintheconstructionoftheUnit16wall.LargeconicaladobeswerealsousedinWall
120atthebaseofUnit19toformonesectionofthatwall.
Ididnotobserveirregular,almostrectangularadobesbutdidseeonthesitesurfacerareexamplesofaregular,slightlyrectangularadobeaswellasonetrulysquare
adobe.
Inadditiontotheabovetypes,twoothershapesofadobeswereobserved,oneofwhichisverycommonandtheotherrare.Thecommononeisloafshaped.The
rareoneisatall,elongatedovoidshapethathasonlybeennotedafewtimesonUnit19whereitisusedatcornersoflowwallsasinRoom4atopUnit19orinthe
southwestcornerbetweenRooms4and5.
Table6.3presentstheadobes'measurementsalongwithdataonadditionaltypesidentified.
Kroeber's,Strong's,andmyobservationsofgreatvarietyintheadobesofCahuachihavebeennotedpreviously.KroeberandIagreethatthisvarietycanexistinthe
samestructureandindeedeveninthesamewall.ButStrong(1957:21)considersadobeshapetobeachronologicalindicator.Hewrites,forinstance,thatinCuts1
and5atCahuachi,"wallsofwattleanddaub,aswellasofsmall,ungrooved,conicaladobes,andirregularlumpadobesoccurinProtoNazca[Nasca1]strata"and
that"EarlyNazca"(i.e.,Nasca2)architectureismadeof"verylarge,grooved,conicaladobes"(Strong1957:25).HesaysthattheNasca3GreatTemple(Unit2)is
characterizedby"tall,wedgeshapedadobes"(Strong1957:31).However,Strongnotesthat"whilethetallwedgeshapedadobeisapparentlystandardinthe
superficialGreatTemplestructures,wealsonotedlarge,conical,groovedadobesinconstructionsassociatedwithNazcaAPolychromeceramicsinthestratacuts.
Wallsofirregular,sometimesalmostrectangularadobesprobablyalsobelongtothisculturalphase"(Strong1957:31).Theoneunambiguousassociationofadobe
shapeandtimethatcanbemadeonthebasisofsurveyisthatrectangular,square,andsplitcylinderadobesdonotpertaintoNascaconstructionsbutratherto
thepostNascaperiod.IseenodefinitiveevidencethattheothertypesofadobeareexclusivelyassociatedwithoneoranotherepochoftheearlyEarlyIntermediate
Period.Rather,structuralfunctionofanadobeinaconstructionmayaccountforitsshapeinadditiontootherfactorssuchaspreferenceoftheadobemaker.
Finally,thereistheissueofyellowadobes.ManyarchaeologistswhovisitCahuachicommentontheoccasionalpresenceofdistinctivelycoloredyellowadobes.
Table6.3.MeasurementsofAdobesatCahuachiinCentimeters
AdobeType

Length

Width

Height

KroeberType2

n.d.a

7.5

25

n.d.

12

30

30

10

30

KroeberType4

40

24

16

20

26

15

Loafshaped

21

25

12

29

26

17

30

27

15

32

29

18

31

34

27

31

34

27.5

27

31

20

23

28

21

Ovoid

37

22

30

32

17

17

36

20

30

Conical,grooved

n.a.b

27(base)

27

Slightlyrectangular

40

33

11

37

31

22

Square

35

35

10

aNotdeterminablebecausetheadobeisprojectingintoawall.
b

Notapplicable.

Theseadobesdonotconformtoanyoneparticularshapeofbrick.Thinkingthattheseadobesmighthavesomesignificanceintermsofthesourceofbuildingmaterial
ororganizationofconstruction,theoccurrenceofyellowadobeswascarefullynotedwheneverandwhereverobserved.
Ialsoquestionedmyworkersaboutyellowadobes.Theyareallfarmerswholiveintheimmediateareaandhavebuilttheirownhouses.Theytoldmethatthesource
oftheseyellowadobesisunpredictableveinsinthecovetedtierrabarrial,orriverbottommudthatisconsideredthebestbuildingmaterial.Theydenythatyellowriver
bottommudhasanyspecialproperties.IthereforesuggestthattherandomappearanceofyellowadobesatCahuachiistheresultofbrickmakingintheriverbottom
whosemudwasthesourceofrawmaterial.Asthemudwasbeingremovedformixturewithwaterandsand,anoccasionalveinoftheyellowearthmightbehit.That
wouldproduceyellowadobes.Twopeopleworkingneareachothercouldthusbeminingdifferentlycoloredclayandproducingdifferentlycoloredadobes.

Page96

ModernConstructionasaWindowonAncientTechnology
AdobeManufacture
Myworkersfrequentlycommentedonthegoodqualityoftherawmaterialtheancientsusedinmakingadobes.Theysaidthatonlytierrabarrialhadbeenused.Tierra
barrialisadistinctclassofearthfoundintheriverbottomwhichthefarmersrecognizeasexcellentformakingadobes.Itdoesnothavesandandisquiteclayey.
Indeed,theworkersstatedthatpartofthedestructionofCahuachi'sarchitecturehasnotbeenduetothesearchfor"treasure"buttotheminingofadobeswhichare
thenbrokendownandmixedwithwatertomakethedaubformodernhousesintheregion.
Tomakeadobeonedigsashallow,broad,circularholeinthevalleybottom.Thedirtthathasbeenremovedisreplacedintheholeandmixedwithwatertomakethe
mud.Toobtainmorerawmaterialthewallsoftheholeareshovelscrapedandthatdirtisadded.Thus,thecircularholeexpandshorizontally,butitdoesnotget
deeper.Thedepthoftheholeremainsabout20centimeters.Iftierrabarrialisusedfordaub,sandmustbeaddedtoitoritwillcrack.Butforadobeoneusesthepure
earth.
Oncetherawmaterialforadobesisprepared,theyaremade.Itismostlogicaltothinkthattheadobeswerepreparedintheriverbottomasisdonetodayandthatthe
finishedproductwasthencarrieduptotheconstructionsite.Atleasteightdaysareneededfortheadobesto"mature,"i.e.,tobecomesufficientlyhardsothatthey
canbecarriedaroundandused.
Inanattempttolearnhowtheconicalgroovedadobesweremade,Iperformedareplicativeexperimentwithmyworkers.Weshapedconicaladobesbyhand
becauseNascaadobeswerenotmoldmade.Toformthegroovesonourconicaladobeswemadeakindoftepeeframeoftwigswhichwetiedatthetop.This
producedconicalgroovedadobes.However,BernardinoOjeda(personalcommunication1985)hassuggested,basedonhisexperience,thatthiswasnotthemethod
usedforgrooving.Rather,hearguesthatabentcaneframewithlashingwasplacedoverthehandshapedadobe.Partofsuchaframemayhavebeenfoundinthe
courseofourfieldwork(fig.19.11).Interestingly,ourreplicativeexperimentproducedthesamesettlingatthebaseoftheadobeasthatseenintheancientexamples.
Cahuachi'sadobesvarygreatlyinformandsize.Asnoted,theyalsovaryinrawmaterial,withyellowadobes,forinstance,reflectingunpredictableveinsofthis
material.TheverymixtureorlackofstandardizationofCahuachi'sadobesarguesformultiplesmallscaleconstructionteamswithperhapsonepersonpreparingthe
rawmaterialandanothermakingthebricks.Becauseofthelocusofthisactivity,farmingandfloodingwouldhaveerasedalltracesofadobemanufacture.
MakinganAdobeWall
Tomakeanadobewalltodayonebeginsbyexcavatingatrench.Thetrenchhastobeofthesamedimensionsastheadobessothattheadobesfitinnicelyalongwith
theirmortar.Sincetoday'sadobesarerectangular(approximately29by18by8centimeters),arectangulartrenchisdug.Thistrenchisforthefoundationofthewall.
Inourexperimentwemadeatrenchthatwas40centimeterswide,25centimetersdeep,and2meterslong.
Intothattrenchthemudispoureduptosurfacelevel.Thisfoundationmustbelefttodryforatleastthreedaysbeforebeingbuilton.Ifonedoesnotwait,aspillover
occurswhenthefirstlayerofadobesisplacedonthefoundation.InExcavation12suchaspilloverwasobserved.Thatiswhatpromptedthisreplicativeexperiment.
Alayerofmudispouredoverthefirstrowofadobes,coveringtheseadobesandfillingthespacesbetweenthem.Asoneaddsrowsofadobesandmortar,yetmore
andmorespilliscreatedatthebaseofthewallbythepressureoftheadobessinkingintothetrench(thebathtubprinciple)andbytheplasteringactioninwhichthe
mortarslidesdown.
Onemustwaittillthewallistotallydrybeforethewallisplastered.Excessmudisscrapedofftheadobesandfromthecracks.Onlythenisthewallplastered.
MakingaWattleandDaubStructure
Theworkofbuildingawattleanddaubwallbeginswiththeselectionofappropriatebuildingmaterialsfromtheriverbank.Todayacanecalledcarrizo(Phragmites
communis)isfavored.Chilco(Baccharis)canalsobeused.Thecanegrowsquitetall,atleast4metersitisverythin,onlyabout5centimetersindiameter,quite
light,andiseasilycarried.Thisdensegrowingcaneiscutwithamachete.
Onenextcutsaveragesizedlimbsofthehuarangotreetouseasintermediateverticalwallposts(piesderechos)andtheroofsupportposts(horcones).Theroof
supportpostsmustbeatleast10centimetersindiameteterandforkedsothattheroofbeamcanbesupportedbetweenthem.Limbsthataretoolongaretrimmedto
2meters.
Theespino(Acaciamacracantha)treeisusedasa

Page97

sourceofbarkstrips(yajo).Theespinotreeisappropriatelynamed,foritsspinesare5centimeterslongandareverypainfuliftheypuncturetheskin.Ifnomacheteis
available,theespinolimbsaresimplypulleddown.Onecanalsosharpentheendofalooselimbofanytreeandbangoffthelimbsoftheespinotree.
Onepeelsoffthebarkoftheespino,whichcomesoffinlongstrips.Asharpstonetoolwouldbeparticularlyefficientforpeelingoffthisbark.Thestripsareabout2
centimeterswideandareusedtotiethetrinchera.TrincheraisthewordusedinthisregionforwattleitsuniversalSpanishsignificanceistrench(seebelow).
Theyoungespinolimbs,oncepeeled,willbeusedasthe"atravesaosparatejer."Inotherwords,thedebarkedlimbswillformthehorizontalframework
(atravesaos)betweenwhichthecanewillbewoven(tejer).
Nextthecanesthatwerecollectedintheriverbottomarecutandcarriedinbundlesofabouttwentytotheconstructionsite.Alltheotherconstructionmaterialsare
takenthereaswell.Waterisbroughtfromtheriver.Theespinobarkstripsarewrappedaroundthehandandtiedintolittlepacketsthatarelefttosoakinabucketof
watertokeepthempliable.Tyingtheminpacketspreventsthemfromgettingentangled.
Thefirstpostholeisdugwithashovel.Thispostholewillserveforanupright,forked,roofsupportpost.Theholeis30centimetersindiameterand50to60
centimetersdeep.Rocksareplacedinthepostholesothatthereismoresupportfortheroofsupportpost.Thisconstructiondetailhasnotbeenobservedin
archaeologicalcontextsatCahuachi.Thentheroofsupportpostisplacedintheholeoverthelayerofrocks,andthebackdirtofthepostholeisputbackinsothatthe
roofsupportpostisfirmlyembedded.
Thissameprocedureisfollowedtoplaceasecondroofsupportpostonlinewiththefirst.Thetworoofsupportpostsareseparatedfromeachotherbyabout3
meters.Afterthetworoofsupportpostsareinplace,theroofbeamissuspendedbetweenthem,balancedwithintheirforkedends.Nowanarrowtrench,about25
centimetersdeepand35centimeterswide,isopenedbetweenthetworoofsupportposts.
Astheroofsupportpostsarebeingplacedandthetrenchdug,themudforthedaubisbeingprepared.Todothisaholeisdugthenfilledwiththebackdirt,whichis
mixedwithwatertocreatemud.Moresandisaddedifthemixtureistoowatery.Workisdonewithashovel,andlumpsarepoundedout.Thesiteformixingmudis
carefullychosenbecauseofthequalityoftheearththere.Theearthshouldhaveagoodsandcontentandcontaintierrabarrial.Thisiswhythistaskisdonenearthe
riverbottom.Themasonteststhecohesivenessofthemudbythrowingitagainstthewallsoftheholeandusingtheearthtomixintothepreparation.Novegetalfiber
ofanykindisaddedtothemixture.Thereisalsoaconsciouschoicetousecleanearthwithoutrocks,lumps,orotherinclusions.Anyimpuritiesareremovedbyhand.
Looseadobescanbemixedintothemudmixture.Thesearebangedagainsteachotherandpulverizedintothemud.Adobesareaddedwhenthemudmixturehasa
highcontentofsandandthereisaneedformoreearth.Adobesarepureearth.Themudandadobemixtureiskeptwet.Thetipofthebladeoftheshovelisusedto
hammeroutlumps.Themudisturnedwiththeshovel,pounded,andmadesmoothvarioustimes.Theprincipleislikekneadingbread.
Thetrench,inthemeantime,isready.Threeintermediateverticalwallpoststhatwillsupportthecaningareplacedinit.Theintermediateverticalwallpostsdonot
haveindividualpostholesbutareplacedintothetrench.ThisisdifferentfromwhatwasobservedarchaeologicallyatCahuachi.
Nowthethinlimbsofthehorizontalframeworkaretiedontotheroofsupportpostsandtheintermediateverticalwallpostsusingthebarkstrips.Everycrossingistied.
Anotherstripofbarkistiedtothelooseendofthebarkstripthatwasusedtoattachthethinlimbsofthehorizontalframeworktotheintermediateverticalwallposts
androofsupportposts.Thishangingbarkstripwillbeusedtotiethepacketoffourtofivecarrizostotheframework.Threethinlimbsofthehorizontalframeworkare
spacedmoreorlessevenlybetweentheroofbeamandthegroundsurface.
Oncethehorizontalframeworkisinplace,thecarrizoistiedintosmallbundlestobeplacedintotheskeletalframework(fig.6.1).Theleafytipsofthecarrizoarecut
offbeforethepacketsaretiedtotheframework.
Apacketofcarrizoistiedtothefirstroofsupportpostusingthehangingstripofbark.Itsbottomisinsidethestillopentrench.Thesecondpacketofcarrizoisplaced
nexttothefirstandtiedtothehorizontalframeworkusingthestripofbark.Notethatthepacketsofcarrizoarenottiedtoeachotherbutrathertothewall
framework.
Openspacesbetweentheintermediatewallpostsorbetweenanintermediatewallpostandaroofsupportpostarefilledwithnarrowerpacketsofcarrizo,andinthis
casetheleavesarenotpeeledoffthecarrizobutarerammedintothespacetofillit.
Afterfinishingthefirstsectionofwallbetweenthe

Page98

6.1.
ArmandoValdiviaandGerardoRojasbuildawattleanddaub
wallatCahuachi.Theyhavesunkthetworoofsupportposts
intotheirrespectivepostholesandplacedtheintermediate
verticalwallpostsinthetrench.Valdiviatiesuprightcanes
totheintermediateverticalwallpostsandthehorizontal
framework.

roofsupportpostandthefirstintermediateverticalpost,anewstripofbarkisattachedtoanintermediateverticalpostinordertotiethenextbundleofcarrizo.It
takesabouteightpacketsofcarrizotofilltheapproximately40centimetersofspacebetweenintermediateverticalposts.Iftheformerstripofbarkwerestilllong
enough,anewonewouldnotbeused.4
Thetrenchisbackfilledonceallthecarrizohasbeenplacedbetweentheverticalposts.Theearthistampeddownwiththefoot.
Nowthewallisreadytobedaubed.Thepurposeofdaubingistofillthespacesbetweenthecanessothatthewallisrelativelyairtight.Thedaubingisdonewiththe
hand.Thewallisplasteredwiththepalmandthefinger,andfingertipsareusedtopressthemudintoplacesoitdoesnotfalloff.AtCahuachi,impressionsoffingers
andfingertipswereobservedmanytimesonadobesandmudplaster.
Themudisnotthrownonbutpattedinplacebythehandfulandsmoothedwithanupwardmotion.Plasteringisdoneonesectionatatime.Notonlyarethecarrizos
coveredbymudbuttheintermediateverticalpostsareaswell.Itisatthisstagethatanyremainingholescanbefilledbywedginginuntiedcanesegmentsand
plasteringoverthemwithmudsothattheywillstayinplace.
Themudusedindaubingmusthavetherightconsistencysothatitdoesnotfallofforbetoostifftoworkwith.Thatiswhyithasbeenpreparedsocarefully.Afterthe
firstlayerofdaubdriesforadayortwothesecondcoatcanbeputon.Theexcessmudatthebaseofthewallissmoothedupwardtojointhewall,creatinga
roundedprofileratherthanarightangle.
Oncethewallhasbeendaubeditistimetomakethefloor,whichismadewiththesamemudmixtureusedindaubingthewalls.Tomakethefloorthesandonwhich
thewallhasbeenbuiltissmoothedwithastickpulledflatoverthesurface(sortoflikeusingarollingpinondoughbutwithouttherollingmotion).Nowalotofwater
issprinkledonthesand.Whilethemudforthefloorisbeingbroughtin,thesandiskeptwet.Thedaubmixtureisspreadontopofthiswetsandwiththehand.Then
thesameroundstickusedtosmooththeunderly

6.2.
Photographtakenin1963ofperishablewattleanddaub
architectureatCahuachi.DuncanMassonisinthe
photograph.CourtesyDonaldProulx.

6.3.
Photographtakenin1963ofperishablewattleanddaub
architectureatCahuachiinassociationwithfineconical
adobewalls.DuncanMassonisinthephotograph.
CourtesyDonaldProulx.

Page99

ingsandispulledoverit.Thiscreatesanapisonado.InourexcavationsatCahuachi,apisonadoswererepeatedlyfoundrestingonsandfoundations.
Thefirstlayerofmudfortheapisonadohasamaximumthicknessof3centimeters.Afterthefirstlayerofmudhasbeenspreaddownandsmoothed,asecondbatch
ofmudispouredsothattheapisonadomeetsthewall.Anylargeimpuritiesinthemudarepickedout.Theflooriswetforafinalsmoothingwhichisdonebyrollinga
logbackandforthacrossit.Ifgoodtierrabarrialhasbeenused,thefloorwillgetharderandharderwithuse(foottraffic).Ifonestopswalkingonit,itwillgetsofter.
Thenumberofworkersnecessaryinthisconstructionprocessvaries.Ideallytherewouldbethreeorfour,buttwowouldsuffice.Myworkerssaidthatintwodays
threeofthemcouldmakearoommeasuring5by5meters,includingitsroof.
PerishableArchitecture
Relatedtotheissueofwallheight(discussedabove)iswhetherCahuachi'slowadobewallssupportedperishablesuperstructuresofcane.Throughouttheproject,the
topsofallwallswerecarefullybrushedtoseeiftheremightbeevidencethatthepreservedadobecourseshadsupportedasuperstructureofaperishablematerial.No
tracesofsuchconstructionwerefound,althoughperishablesuperstructuresmayhaveonceexisted.Orperishablewallsmayhavebeenconstructedontheinsideofthe
adobewalls,andsubsequentdestructionoffloorsbylootersmayhavedestroyedthefragilebuildingmaterialsandobliteratedanyevidenceofpostholes.Orperhaps
thesewallsalmostconservetheiroriginalheight.Icannotgiveadefinitivestatementonthismatter,butIcallattentiontofigures6.2and6.3whichshowperishable
canearchitectureinassociationwithadobearchitectureatCahuachi.5 Itispossiblethattherewasalargeamountofperishable(and,formoderndayresidentsofthe
area,transportableandreusuable)superstructuralarchitectureatCahuachithathasnowdisappeared.LiketheperishabletemplesatopAztecpyramids,certain
significantarchitectureatCahuachimaybelongsincegone.
Notes
1.ThisispreciselytheconstructiontechniqueKroeber(1954:16,23,figs.5,6)encounteredatMaranga.
2.ThereisanotheruseofthetermkanchainthePeruvianarchaeologicalliteraturethatdoesimputefunction.IrefertotheIncakanchapatternwhichis"awalled
rectangularblockenclosinggroupsofoneroombuildingsdestinedfordwellingandotheruses"(GaspariniandMargolies1980:181).
3.Orefici(1987)reportsthediscoveryofagreatincisedstepmotifonamonumentalwallofUnit8.Thereisnoevidenceofpaint.In1992Oreficidiscoveredthe
tracingofan"orcamarina"onaplasteredwallatthesite.Hedoesnotmentionpaint.Seediscussionofpanpipetracingsinchapter13.
4.InAcar,thiscaningisdoneinaslightlydifferentway.Therethecanesareindividuallybraidedbetweenthehorizontalframeworkandtiedtothemratherthanbeing
tiedinpacketstoonesideofthehorizontalframework.
5.Thesephotographsweregenerouslyprovidedbymycolleague,DonaldProulx,fromatriphemadetoCahuachiin1963,twentyyearsbeforemyprojectbegan.I
didnotseethisevidencedespitecombingthesiteformonths.Proulx'sphotographsareconsistentwiththearchitecturalevidencerecoveredatCahuachibyStrong
(1957:fig.5Aseechap.4).

Page100

ChapterSeven
LootersandLooting
Cahuachiisamassivelylootedsite(figs.7.17.4).Doering(1958)suggeststhatatleastsomeofthelootingofCahuachidatestotheColonialPeriodasaresultofthe
Spaniards'searchforgold.SinceelsewhereinPerutheSpanishlootedhuacasinthehopeoffindingtreasure,itispossiblethatCahuachialsowouldhavereceived
theirattention.ThecolonialpresenceatCahuachiisconfirmedbythecolonialpotteryrecoveredinTestPit16,whichwasexcavatedinHugoVerneNavas'sfield(see
chap.11).Also,Quijandra(1961:105)notesthatthecaciqueNanascalefttothechurch,inhiswillof1589,hisfarmatCaguachipana(Cahuachi)andotherlands.
SomelootingofCahuachialsocouldhavetakenplaceinthenineteenthcenturysincebythenasmallamountofNascapotteryalreadywaspresentinthecollectionsof
severalEuropeanmuseums(Proulx1968:101).Thus,evenbeforethefirstarchaeologistvisitedCahuachi,thesitehadprobablybeenlootedtosomedegree.
ThemostintenseanddamaginglootingatCahuachi,however,hasoccurredinthiscentury.Itisironicthattheearlytwentiethcenturyarchaeologiststhemselves
provokedatleastsomeoftherecentlargescalelootingofsouthcoastsites.MaxUhle,whofirstidentifiedthesourceareaofNascapottery,realizedthisunfortunate
causalrelationshipasearlyas1914."AssoonasIhadleftthescene[Icain1901andtheNazcaregionin1905]ofmylastexplorations,"hewrote,"myworkingmen,
whohadbecomequiteexperts,undermytraining,continuedaloneandinsecrettosearchforthisvaluableandrarepottery.Thus,avastamountofthisbeautifulware
wasunearthedandfounditswaytoLima,whereallwasgreedilyacquiredbydealers.Manyadditionalcemeterieswerelocatedbythesehuaqueros[looters,grave
robbers]andentirelyrifled"(Uhle1914:8).
FollowingUhle,Kroeber,Tello,andDoeringworkedinthecemeteriesofCahuachiandintheNazcaregion(chap.2).UnlikeUhlewhorealizedfullwellthe
destructiveaftermathcausedbyhisresearchfocus,Tellodidnot,andheparadoxicallybemoanedtheintensityofsouthcoastlootinginaletterofOctober29,1926,
withoutrecognizingthathisownactivitieswereprovokingsimilarconsequences."TheimportantdiscoveryofDr.Uhleawoketheavariceoftheantiquitiesdealerswho
gavethemselvesover,fromthenon,totheincessantexploitationofthetombsoftheDepartmentofIca.FelipeMorales,oneofDr.Uhle'sworkmen,wasthefirstto
formclandestinearchaeologicalcollections,supplyingthecommercialestablishmentsofLima....Intheshortspaceof25years,thelootershaveopenedabout
30,000tombs.Theirvandalizedtrophiesarefounddispersedallovertheworldasmerecuriosities.Theyhavelost,perhapsforever,theirhistoricalandscientific
value"(TelloandMejaXesspe1967:156mytranslation).
SoastobetterunderstandthehorrendouslydisturbedconditionofthesurfaceatCahuachi,Icollectedasmuchinformationaspossibleonlootingandlooters.These
effortsbeganinsummer1983when,throughthegoodgracesofJosuLanchoRojasandaccompaniedbyAndresBarreto,IwasabletointerviewCandelario
Navarro,nowdeceased,whoinhistimewasperhapsthegreatesthuaquerointhewholeRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandbeyond(seeMartnez1976).Ialso
interviewedmy

Page101

7.1.
MapoftheeasternmostpartofCahuachiwiththemajorareasoflootingindicatedbyhachure.

1983companionandfieldguide,Barreto,whohaddonehisshareoflooting,too.In1984and1985,moredataonlootingwerecollectedthroughinterviewswithtwo
ofmyworkersandthecleaningoffivelooters'holesatCahuachi(seebelow).
Iaskedmyheadworker,ArmandoValdivia,howCahuachicouldhavebeenlootedsoextensively.Heexplainedthatwhenonetombwasfound,wordquicklyspread
anda"graverush"ensued.ThisissimilartoStrong'sinterpretationoflootingpatternsatCahuachi."Wedidnotencounteranyuntouchedgreatlogandadobe
chambertombswhich,atCahuachi,havebeen

Page102

7.2.
MapoftheeasternandcentralzonesofCahuachiwiththemajorareasoflootingindicatedbyhachure.Notethemassive
concentratedlootingbetweenUnitsHHandVV.ThesecemeteriesappeartobemostlypostNasca.Theareanorthof
Unit19isalsomassivelylooted,asKroeberobservedin1926.

lootedbythethousandsandlieopenandemptytothesky.ItisinterestingtonotethatourMiddleandLateNazcatombsseemedtoruninsomewhatlinealformation,
andastudyofthelootedgreattombsindicatessimilarlinearorgroupplacing.Thus,whenthehuaquerosfoundonegreattombtheywentrightontothenextand,ifour
limitedgraveexplorationsaretypical,theyhavenotoverlookedmanyofthese"(Strong1957:32).
Howwaslootingactuallycarriedout?AremarkbyCandelarioNavarroclarifiestheissueinpart."WewerelootingforMr.UsebioCarbajal,notforthepurposeof
studyorforamuseumbutratherforMr.Usebiowhowastheowneroftheselands...therewewere,theteam,lootingforMr.UsebioCarbajal....Thewholeteam
oflooterswasattheedgeofthetomb"(Martnez1976:108mytranslation).Valdiviastatedthatlootersworkedindividuallyorinteamsfortheirowngainandfor
secondorthirdparties.Inthedaysofthegreathaciendas,itwastypicalforalandowner(suchasUsebioCarbajal)toputalargegroupoftenantfarmerstowork
lootinganarea.Sometimesthesesamepeoplewouldclandestinelyreturnatnightfortheirownindividualprofittolootthearchaeologicalsiteonthelandownedbythe
hacendado.Oftentheywouldworkinsmallgroupsoftwotofourfortheirownsafetyandforthesakeofefficiency.
Althougharchaeologistsconsideralllooterstheir

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7.3.
MapofthewesternzoneofCahuachiwiththemajorareasoflootingindicatedbyhachure.Thisentireareaismassivelylooted,
withcemeteriesdatingtovariousperiods.

nemesis,CandelarioNavarrotookprideinhisworkanddistinguishedbetween"lootersoffinesse"andthe"brutalprofaners"oftombs.
Everywellpracticedlooter,eventhoughhedoesn'tholddegrees,absolutelyshouldhaveasetoflegitimatestainlesssteelprobesasfineassilkandnotonesofordinaryironwith
factoryflawssuchasthoseusedbythelowlevelprofaners....Whereverhegoes,toheaven,tohell,areallooteroffinesseandexperienceworkswithvariousprobes,orbetter
said,withawellchosenbatteryofequipmentsothateachpotentialfieldsituation,eventhesmallest,hasitscorrespondingtool....Whatisprincipalandvalidis...todisturbthe
minimumpossible,evenalittlerock,agrainofsand,themostinsignificantthing,thelittlestitemthatisridiculousinappearance,needsstudyanddefinitionbytherulessothatany
person,withouthavingtoseethetomb,knowsandunderstandsthesignificanceofwhatisthereinside.Thisisclearlynecessarybutforthetrainedlooter.Theprofaner,onthe
otherhand,worksbyothernorms,ifwecanputitthatway.Heisblindedbyambitionandbrutality.Allhewantsistobecomerichovernighthisgoalistofindafinepaintedpot,a
doll,awholecloth,anearring,agoldnecklace,breastplate,mask.Andallthis,heimagines,theantiquitiestraffickersaregoingtobuyfromhimforafortune.Forthisheworkslikea
pigthatsniffsoutthegroundinsearchoffood.That'showtheprofanerworksbutnotthelooteroffinesse,profession,andsciencewhoproceedswithcautionandbyadistinct

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7.4.
MapoftheEstaqueraarea(westofCahuachi)withthemajorareasoflootingindicatedbyhachure.Withinthisareasome
tombswerearrangedinlinealrowsthesetombspostdatetheNascaperiod.TherewereNascatombsinthisareaaswell.
method,eveninhowheputstheprobeintotheground.Youwouldbesurprisedandadmiringofthecalm,premeditatedmannerbywhichtheexperiencedlooterfollowsasignasif
hewerebeingguidedbyascent.Andso,yousee,thelooteroffinesseneverbeginsblindly.No,beforehebeginstodighefirstdoesaverycarefullittletestexcavation.Inthat
testpit,inchbyinchandalwaysalert,morevigilantthanhisowneyes,hefeelswithhisprobingtoolsandisawareofalldangeraspineinthehand,acavein.Buttheprofaner,
thatpig,hegetsrightintothegraveasifthecontentsweren'toncepeopleandhebreakseventhebedrock.Heworkssoviolentlythatifasnakeweretobitehimhewouldn'teven
knowit....Alooteroffinessecan'tworkthatway.Heknowsthatatomb,fromitsveryoutlinetoitsinteriorcontents,hasanorderthatwasputthereforsomepurposeit'snot
justanaccumulationofdirt....Heknowsthateventhemostminisculethingcanhaveasignificance.(Martnez1976:3031mytranslation)

InthecaseofanarchaeologicalsitesuchasCahuachi,whichhadbeeninprivatehands,itwasnotonlypoorlocalfarmerswhoweretheparttimelooters.Inthe
1940sand1950sHda.Cahuachiwasaprosperous,livelyfarmfamousforitswine,musicians(theGuzmnfamilyofCahuachiseeMartnez1991),andfrequent
weekendpartiestowhichupperclassLimaresidentscame.PartoftheentertainmentwasspendingaSundayafternoon"digginguppots"(HugoVerneNavas,
personalcommunication1984).Furthermore,thelootingofCahuachihasnotbeenrestrictedtoillicitexcavation.Thesitehasbeenstrippedofitssurfacematerialby
visitingarchaeologists,tourists,andschoolchildren,allofwhomareattractedbythefinepolychromepotsherdsandtex

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tilefragments.Inaddition,localpeoplehaveremovedvirtuallyallwoodandstonemortarsfromthesiteforuseintheirhomes.
AnArchaeologicalExaminationofLootingatCahuachi
DifferentialPatternsofLooting
AdifferentialandselectiveoccurrenceoflootingcanberecognizedatCahuachi.Asharpdemarcationoflootedandunlootedareasisreadilyvisibleintheaerial
photographsof1947,1952,and1970.Certainareasareintensivelyandextensivelytornupwhereasotherareasarevirtuallyuntouched.Thelatterconformmostlyto
theopen,emptyspaceswhichIoriginallyhypothesizedtoconcealhabitationremainsnotofinteresttothelooters(seechap.8).
Furthermore,somemoundsarelootedwhileothersarenot,andtherearemoundsthatarepartlylootedandpartlyunlooted.Intheeasternzoneofthesite,Units
NN1,VV,WW,andQQ1seemtohavebeenlootedwithparticularenthusiasmwhereasUnitsCC,DD,andEEareingoodconditionsaveverylocalizedlootingin
theirenclosedopenareas.InthewesternzoneofCahuachi,mostofthemoundsbetweenUnitsJandHarenotlooted,exceptUnitAwhichwasalreadylootedwhen
Kroeberexcavatedthere.TheplatformsouthofUnit12BandthenorthflanksofUnit12AandUnit11aredevastatedbylooting.Unit18isvirtuallyuntouched,but
Unit19isseverelylooted.
TheEffectsofLootingfortheArchaeologist
LossofcontextisthemajorproblematCahuachibecausesomucharchitectureandsomanycemeterieshavebeenvandalized.Therearealltoomanyroomswithout
floors,wallswithoutentries,andlooters'holesintrudingintosoundcontexts,therebyconfusingarchaeologicalinterpretationthroughmixingofmaterials.Also,much
surfacearchitectureisdestroyedand/orcoveredupbytheslungarounddirt.
ThesurfaceandsubsurfaceofCahuachihavebeenrepeatedlydisturbed.Onelooterexcavatesahole,slingingthedirttooneside.Anotherlootermightcomelaterand
excavatenearby,heavingthefirstdirtelsewhere.Athirdlooterdigsanew,andforathirdtimethesamedirtgetsmovedaround.Ibelievethatthesurfacematerialof
Cahuachihastraveled,insomecases,rathersubstantialdistancesfromitspointoforigin.Wecouldcallthisthe"lootereffect."Itcanmakeinterpretationofunearthed
remainsevenmoredifficult.
MyfieldworkatCahuachitookthefactoflootingintoconsiderationintermsofstrategyandmethodology(seechap.8)aswellasinterpretation(seebelow).Cahuachi
couldnotbeapproachedinthesamewayonewouldtackleafairlyintactsite.
AssessingLootingatCahuachi
GiventheimmensityoflootingatCahuachi,itwasimportanttoascertainthedegreeofsuccesslootershadenjoyedandwhattheyhadlooted,forthiswouldindicate
thefunctionofcertainspacesatCahuachi.Inanattempttoclarifythenatureoflootinganddetermineifapatternexisted,Idecidedtosurveyandexamineoneareaof
particularlyintenselooting,thefourthterraceofUnit19(seechap.12).Thisisalooted,unbounded,openarea.Ithadbeenlootedby1926,sinceKroeber(Kroeber
andCollierms.:III91)writesthat"TractEincludesnotonlyapromontory[Unit19]butanareaaroundandbeforeit,andisrichinexploitedgravesandsurface
remains."Kroeberfailedtofind"intactgravesofimportance."
WithintheUnit19gridthatwasestablishedforexcavation,thelocation,size,andshapeoflooters'holesinasectionofthisareawererecorded(fig.7.5).Looters'
holesarerecognizablebytheirusuallysmallandcircular,somewhatdepressedoutlinethatisfilledwithcleanaeoliansandandbythescatteredhumanbone,broken
remainsofpottery,andtornburialclothsthatsurroundthem.Inaddition,lootershaveleftevidenceoftheirownpresence.Werecoverednewspaperfragmentsdating
from1928to1944,handkerchiefs,emptycigarettepacks,matchboxes,corks,andemptybottlesofaguardiente(canealcohol)(seeSilverman1986:figs.198204).
Fivelooters'holeswerearbitrarilychosentobereopened.Iwantedtodeterminewhathadbeenlooted,whathadbeenfound,towhatperiodoftimethelooted
contextandlootingactivitycorresponded,andiftherewasevidenceoftombs(eitherbyarchitectureormaterialcontentwithin).Alldirtwasscreened.Theresults
follow(theUnit19gridlocationsareinparentheses).
Looters'Hole1(N27/W4)
somebitsofcharcoal(couldbemodern)
twotinyfragmentsofseaurchin,1othershellfragment
abitofbone,unidentified
guineapigandllamaexcrement
somesquashseeds,peanutshell,andmiscellaneousplantfibers
oneunphaseableNascaceramicpanpipefragment
tenundiagnosticplainwarepotsherds

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7.5.
Planshowingdistributionoflooters'holesattwolocationsonthefourthterrace
atUnit19.Ascanbeseen,virtuallynounlootedspaceexistsinthemappedareas.

Thelooters'holewascircular,approximately92centimetersindiameter.Itwasfilledwithmediumgrainloosesand.Thefirstculturalmaterialappearedat1.20meters
beneaththesurface.Culturalmaterialwasscarceanddisappearedafteronly10centimeters.Thisculturalmaterialisprobablywindblownandenteredthelooters'hole
whileitwasstillopen.Notombarchitecturewasdetected.Thislooters'holedoesnotnecessarilycorrespondtoatombunless,ofcourse,thelootersgoteverything
outintact.
Looters'Hole2(N35/W26)
oneundiagnosticplainwarebodysherd
onefragmentofllamajaw
onepurpletippedbirdfeather
tinybitsofbotanicalmatter
onewadofcottonfiber

About10centimetersofcoarsewindblownsandoverlaytwolarge,brokenadobefragments.Abighuarangopoststooduprightontheeastsideofthehole,butno
tombarchitecturewasevident.Thepostwasstuckbetweenthetwoadobesandextendeddownintoanunderlyingstratumofsemihard,semicompact,beigybrown
sandcontainingoccasionalsmallroundrocksatapproximately50centimetersbeneaththesurface.Underneaththisbeigybrownlayerwasalayerofcompact
orangeybrownsoilthatwascompletelysterile.ItispossiblethatthehuarangopostontheeastsideofLooters'Hole2representstheformerexistenceofatombroof
whoseothermaterialshadlongsincebeenremovedby

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localpeopleforsecondaryuseasfueland/orinconstruction.Evidenceofthattombmayexistjustbeyondtheparticularlooters'holewereopened,andthelogwesaw
couldhavebeenstuckwhereweseeitafterbeingtossedoutbythelooters.
Looters'Hole3(N55/W0)
thirtyonepotsherds:onehandlefromablack,sootedutilitarianvessel,twounidentifiablebodysherdswitherodedpaint,fourteendecoratedNasca3andNasca4sherds,two
Nascapanpipefragments,onemodeledNascafragment,threesherdsfromoutflaringNascavessels,threesherdsfromearlyNascadishes,fivesherdsthataretoosmalltoidentify
oneplainweavetextilefragment,oneknottedfragment
onesnailshell
ninetinygourdfragments
eightbonefragments(unidentified)
onematchbox,presumablyleftbehindbythelooter

Thereisnotombarchitecture.Theholemeasured85centimetersindiameter.Remainsbeganat41centimetersbeneaththesurfaceandcontinuedto105centimeters.
Depthoftheholewas135centimeters.Nostratigraphywasobserved.Thislooters'holemaycorrespondtoatomb.
Looters'Hole4(N2022/W02)
oneParacastypepanpipefragment
fiveNasca3andNasca4sherdscorrespondingtotwodishes,twooutflaringbowlsandonecupbowl
oneworked(?)pieceofshell
abean(?)oneguayabaseed
twistedfiberthreads
guineapigbonefragments
onecorkandonehandkerchief,presumablyleftbehindbythelooters

Theholewassteriletill212centimeterswhenculturalmaterialsbegantoappear.At240centimetersmoresherdsappeared.At250centimeterstherewasalittle
concentrationofboneandorganicmaterial(asenumeratedabove).At251centimeterstheholeended.Therewasnoevidenceofatomb.
Looters'Hole5(N28/W46)
onefine,Nasca3modeledpolychromesherd

Theholewascompetelysterileexceptfortheoneculturalremainlistedabove.Theholewasquiteshallow,endingonly41centimetersbeneaththesurface.Therewas
notombarchitecture,sothisholeprobablydoesnotcorrespondtoatomb.
MortuaryAreas
Cemeteriesareareasofmanycontiguousgravesortombs.TruecemeteriesatCahuachiasopposedtolootedareaswithoutappropriatecorrespondingmaterial
remainsarecharacterizedbymaterialevidenceofhumanburial:humanbones,sherdsofthepotteryvesselsbrokenbythelootersorleftbytheancientsaspartof
theirmortuaryrituals,textilesinvariousforms(finefragments,plainweaveouterclothwrappings,cottonaccumulations),tombroofingmaterial,etc.,inascatterthat
maybelighttoheavyindensity.CemeteriesatCahuachimaybesmall(e.g.,Strong'slateNascaBurialArea1)orextensiveasisthecaseofthepostNascacemetery
(ies)betweenUnitsHHandWWintheeasternzoneofthesite.
Atombcanberecognizedbyitspreservedtombarchitectureand/orthenatureofculturalremainsscatteredaroundalooters'hole.Certainsquareandrectangular
adobewalledchambersatCahuachiaretombs.Theirpottery,textiles,andcottonaccumulationsindicatethattheydatetotheMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediate
Period.Suchchamberedtombsoccuronsomeofthemounds(e.g.,UnitWW)aswellasinopenareas(e.g.,theEstaqueraarea).Somelategravesalsowere
excavateddirectlyintotheground.
Thereexcavationoffivelooters'holesrevealedthatmostofthesedidnotcorrespondtoprofanedtombs.Theabsenceofhuman,skeletalremainsscatteredaround
theselooters'holesissignificant,foritindicatesthatthelootershadnotbeensuccessfulinfindingtombs.Petersen's(1980:12)calculationof5,000ormoretombsat
Cahuachiand25,000potsfromthesemustbetakenwithsomecaution,sincenoteverylooters'holeisatomb.
Therewere,however,manygravesatCahuachi.CahuachiisheavilylootedbecausethelootershavelearnedfromexperiencethatNascapeoplemightplacetheir
deadingravesinroomsatopmoundsandthatopenareasbeneaththemoundscouldbeusedforcemeteriesaswell.Afterdecadesoflooting,manyandperhapsmost
ofthesite'stombshavebeendiscoveredandexhausted.MuchoftherecentlootingofCahuachithatwhichiscausingthegreatestdamagebecausethelootershave
todigdeephasprobablybeenunsuccessful.Thelootershavepersistedsoenthusiasti

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callywhennograveswereforthcomingbecausegravesarestilloccasionallyfound.Indeed,wediscoveredintactgravesatopUnit19(seechap.14),andOreficihas
foundseveraltombsinhisexcavations.
CemeteriesatCahuachi:TheirDatesandLocations
AlthoughindividualearlyNascagravesorsmall,localizedgroupsofgraves(suchasoursonUnit19andKroeber'sgravesonUnitA)arefoundatCahuachi,survey
revealsthatmostcemeteriesatCahuachipostdatetheNasca3apogeeofthesite.
ThroughamisreadingofStrong's(1957)statements,ithasbecomepracticetoinferanabundanceofearlyNascatombsonthegroundsofthesiteofCahuachiitself.
Uponcloserscrutiny,however,wediscoverthattheColumbiaUniversityCahuachigravelotsdatedbyProulx(1968:table1)toNasca3BcomefromBurialArea4
onthenorthsideoftheriver,onemiledownstreamfromtheriverfordat(ex)Hda.Cahuachi.StrongconsidersthevastcemeteriesonthenorthsideoftheNazca
RiveroppositethesitetobepartofCahuachiproperIdonot.
Strong'sBurialArea1,locatedjustnortheastofUnit11,containedNasca56pottery,notearlyNascaorapogeecontemporarypottery.Strong'sBurialArea2,
locatedbetweenUnits1and10,containedfourgraves(20,21,22,and23),oneofwhich(20)isprobablyearlyNascaindate(seechap.14).
Kroeber'sTractEdgravesarenotearlyNascabutprobablyNasca8orlatertojudgefromKroeber'suseoftheterm"NazcaorNazcaYTiahuanaco"(Kroeberand
Collierms.:III91).Astherewasnopotteryfoundinassociationwiththesegraves,Kroeber'stemporalattributionwasprobablymadeonthebasisoftombshapeand
construction,adobeform,andthefactthathefoundacopperdiskwithGraveEd1.Inthecourseofhisexpedition,hefoundcopperonlyin"clearLate
associations"(KroeberandCollierms.:III91).
MiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodcemeteriesareeasilyrecognizedbytheirpotteryandespeciallybythecottonaccumulationsstrewnaboutthelooters'
holes.PostNascacemeteriesarefoundacrossCahuachi,particularlyintheeasternzone.ThepatternofrowsofalignedtombsperceivedbyStrongcanbedatedto
NascaEpigonalandlatertimesonthebasisofthepotteryassociatedwithsomeoftheselootedtombs,theirconstruction,cottonaccumulations(seeDoering1958),
andotherartifactsfoundwiththem.TheyaresimilarinalltheseaspectstoUnitsWandXbehindEstaqueraandtothetombsfoundonUnitWW(seechap.5).This
similaritysuggeststhatatleastsomeofthoseareasexhibitingapatternofrowsofalignedtombsarenotNascaatall,contrarytoStrong'sidentificationofthemas
"MiddleandLateNazca."
Thedatingofthesecemeteriesisimportant,foritshowsthatnotonlywerethelootersseekingNascagraves,theywereseeking(andstilldo)anygraveswithsellable
potteryandotherartifacts.Someofthelooters'bestfindssurelycamefromthevariouspostNascacemeteriesatCahuachi.
Whatwasthenature/functionoflatercemeteryareasatCahuachiinearlyNascatimes?IntheabsenceofearlyNascahabitationormortuaryremainshavingbeen
broughttothesurfacethroughthelootingofpostapogeegraves,wemaysuggestthatintheearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriodthesewereopenareas,someofwhichmay
havehadlowdefiningwallsthattodayareprobablyobscuredbyaccumulationsofdisturbedearth.
TherearemanycemeteriesatCahuachi,butitcanbetentativelyconcludedthatmostpostdatetheearlyNascaoccupationofthesite.Thusfar,mostapogee
contemporarygravesappeartohavebeenlocatedonthemoundsratherthanintheopenareasbeneaththem.
ProblematicLootedContextsatCahuachi
VariousconcentratedareasoflootingatCahuachishownohumanremains,nobrokenpots,notextilefragments,andnootherculturalmaterials.Theseproblematic
lootedareasarenotfoundonmoundsbutinopenareas.Dotheycorrespondtocemeteries?Evidenceofalootedcemeteryoughttobevisibleonthedisturbed
surface,forthegreatlooter,CandelarioNavarro,rightlycomplainedoftheprofaners"whoonlyknowhowtoplowthroughthetombasiftheywereexcavatinga
garbagepitandthen,likebrutes,leavethemessofbrokenpotsandbonesandfetusesandmatslyingstrewnaboutbecauseforthemallthisisn'twortha
nickel"(Martnez1976:30mytranslation).Ihavenoanswertotheprecedingquestionandlamentthatextensivesurfacecleaningtoremovemountainsofdisturbed
dirtisprobablynecessarytoresolvetheproblem.
IremainintenselycuriousaboutUnit12C,thesmallareaofexceptionallylargeanddeepholesarrangedinrowsonaplatform,immediatelysouthofthelittleUnit12B
mound(fig.5.16).Withitsselfcontainedareaofalignedholes,Unit12CisreminiscentofthewalledcemeteryareasofUnitsWandXbehindEstaquera,datedtothe
MiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodonthebasisofassociatedsurfaceremains(seechap.5).Easilyvisibleonallseriesofaerialphotographs(1944,1947,
1952,1970),Unit12C'srowsofcircularholesmaybewhatStrong(1957)interpretedasMiddle

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andLateNazcatombsrunninginlinealformation.Therearenomaterialremainsonthesurfacetoindicatewhatwasintheholes(notonesherdortextilefragmentwas
seen)nor,surprisingly,isthereanyconstructionfeaturesuggestiveoftombarchitecture(notoneadobeorcanewasfound).Theseholesrepresentmajorearthmoving
activityandarenottheworkofindividuallooters.Theymustcorrespondtorichtombs,forwhyelsewouldtheyhavebeendugonsuchamassivescale?Iftombs,
thenthesealignedrowsofgapingholesmustbetheworkof"lootersoffinesse"whometiculouslyremovedalltombcontents.Thismatterremainstoberesolved.

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ChapterEight
ExcavationStrategyandMethodology
TheResearchHypotheses
Asaresultofthe1983surveyseveralworkinghypotheseswereformulatedtoexplaintheskewedsettlementpatternfortheEarlyIntermediatePeriodthatwas
elucidatedfromthebrief1983reconnaissance(seefig.2.7).ThatsurveyrevealedaplethoraofNascacemeteriesbutapaucityofNascahabitationsites,particularly
fortheearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriod.Threehypothesesweredevelopedtoexplaintheskewingtheyarenotmutuallyexclusive.
Hypothesis1.Nascagraveswerelocatedincloseproximitytohabitationsites,andextremesurfacedisturbancebylootershadobliteratedevidenceofthelatter,
causinghabitationsitestolooklikecemeteries.
Hypothesis2.Inthelowerreachesoftheriversystem,Nascahabitationsiteswerelocatedinthevalleybottomonagriculturallandandhadbeendestroyedby
centuriesofintensiveagriculturecemeterieswerelocatedonthevalleymarginsandwereconsequentlypreservedintheupperreachesofthevalleys,habitationsites
werelocatedonhillsidesandwerethuspreserved.
Hypothesis3.Cahuachiwas,asRowe(1963)andothersclaimed,agreatcity.Itachievedagreatpopulationsizeanddensityattheexpenseofanearbypopulated
hinterland,particularlyalongtheNazcaRiver(theTeotihuacanmodel:seeSanders,Parsons,andSantley1979:397399SandersandWebster1988:537539).
Ratherthancontinuingsitesurveyformydissertationresearch,IinvestigatedCahuachibecauseIdecidedthattheEarlyIntermediatePeriodsettlementpatternofthe
RoGrandedeNazcadrainagecouldnotbeinterpretedwithoutfirstadequatelyunderstandingwhatkindofsiteCahuachiwasandhowithadfunctioned.BecauseI
acceptedRowe's(1963)interpretationofthesiteasagreaturbancenter,IthoughtthatCahuachicouldprovideneededdataonthedomesticlifeofearlyNasca
societywhile,atthesametime,providinganexcellentbasisforcomparisonwithruralearlyNascahabitationsitesoncethesewerediscoveredandexcavated.Ifurban,
CahuachiwouldconfirmthewidelyacceptedstatelevelorganizationofearlyNascasociety(see,e.g.,Schaedel1978).FromCahuachi,Ihopedtobeableto
extrapolateamodelofhowearlyNascasocietywasorganized.Withitsobviouspublicarchitecture,Ialsowasinterestedinwhetheraresidentialpopulationhad
nucleatedaroundaceremonialfocusatCahuachi,leadingtotheinsitudevelopmentofanurbansettlementoutofaceremonialcenter(e.g.,Wheatley1971).Finally,I
consideredresearchatCahuachitobecrucialinassessingthenatureandevolutionofsouthcoasturbanismasreconstructedbyRowe(1963).
Sampling
TheexcavationstrategyIwenttothefieldwithwasbasedonthehypothesisthatCahuachiwasanurbansettlement.The1983surveyofthesitehadcalledintodoubt
Strong'sidentificationofcertainofCahuachi'smoundsashabitationalbutnotnecessarilytheprevailingconsensusthatCahuachiwasagreatcity.
Themoundswereruledoutfortestingbecausetheirsurfacefeaturesandvisiblestratigraphy(includingStrong'scutprofilesfromhisexcavations)indicated

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themtobenondomestic.IfCahuachi'ssupposedlygreatpopulationwasnotlivingonthemounds,thenthepeoplewouldhavehadtoliveintheopen(unconstructed)
areasbetweenthem.
Twokindsofopenareaswererecognized:lootedandunlooted.Asseeninfigures7.1to7.4,vastareasinbetweenthemoundsarelooted.Mostoftheselooted
areasarecemeteriesthatcontainthevandalizedremainsofMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodtombs.Iobservednocaseinwhichlootinghadbroughtup
tothesurfaceculturalmaterialsofadomesticnaturefromanunderlyingNascacontext.Rather,Iexpectedtofinddense,agglutinated,domestichousinginthe
extensiveunlootedareasofthesite.Ihypothesizedthattheseareaswereunlootedpreciselybecausetheycorrespondedtoordinaryhabitationzonesoflittleinterestto
graverobbers.Furthermore,basedonPetersen's(1980)theoryofclimaticdessication,Ithoughtthatthesepresumedextensivezonesofdomesticoccupationmightlie
buriedbeneathalargeamountofsand,alsoaccountingforthelackoflootingandscarcesurfacematerialincertainopenareas.
AtasiteaslargeandcomplexasCahuachi,systematicsamplingwasclearlytheonlyoption.Apurposeful(Redman1975Morris1975Cowgill1975),
nonprobabilitysamplingstrategywaschosenbecausetherewere"morepotentialobservationsthanourresourcespermitustomake[and]wehavereasontothinkthat
wedonotneedtomakeallpossibleobservationsinordertoobtainconvincingtests"(Cowgill1975:260261).Thesitewasstratified(e.g.,Read1975Judge,Ebert,
andHitchcock1975Morris1975)intothreestrata:themounds,thelootedareasbetweenmounds,andtheunlootedareasbetweenmounds.Excavationswere
directedprincipallyattheunlootedopenareasofthesite.
TestingtheUrbanHypothesis
ExcavationsbeganintheUnit16kanchawhere,basedonananalogywiththespatialorganizationofTamboViejointheAcarvalley(Rowe1963Menzeland
Riddell1986FrancisRiddell,personalcommunication1984),Iexpectedtofinddenselyagglutinatedhousingwithinthiswalledarea.TamboViejoisamajorNasca3
habitationsitewithanimportantIncaoccupation(Rowe1956:137MenzelandRiddell1986).TheNascatownmeasures1.5kilometersnorthsouthby0.5
kilometerseastwestandisdividedintotwopartsbyarectangularplazathatseparatesthelargernorthernhabitationenclosure(definedbyacontinuousridgethat
measuresapproximately200by400meters)fromasmallersouthernarea(fig.8.1).WithinthenorthernhabitationzoneofTamboViejotherearethousandsof
contiguousroomsandmanymoundsthesouthernhabitationzoneofTamboViejohasalesserareaofsmallcontiguousroomsdisposedoveramoreuneven,hilly
terrain(seeMenzelandRiddell1986:fig.3Hines1989:fig.109).IperceivedTamboViejo'sspatialorganizationassimilartoCahuachi'scentralzoneinthatboth
siteshavetwodefinedareas(oneofwhichisclearlywalled)separatedfromeachotherbyalongunlootedspaceinwhichanarrowmoundisorientedperpendicularto
theareabetweenthetwodelineatedsectors(comparefig.2.2tofig.8.1).
TheUnit4walledareaatCahuachicouldneithercontainnorhidealargecontemporarydomesticoccupationduetothephysicallackofspacecreatedbythe
presenceofmajorsemiartificialmounds(Units1,9,2,and,inasense,Units8and10).TheotherwalledareatheUnit16kanchaontheotherhand,offeredgreat
possibilitiesforaburiedhabitationzonebecauseofitslargesizeandunlootedcondition.ExcavationswerecarriedoutimmediatelynorthoftheUnit16wall
(Excavation1)andaroundtheN4244walloftheUnit24kancha(Excavation3)withinthelargerUnit16kancha.AtrenchwascutthroughthelittleUnit15Cmound
(Excavation4)soastodeterminethepossibilityofadomesticoccupationindirectassociationwithamound(inthiscaseamoundcomplex:Unit15A,B,C)yetstill
withintheUnit16kancha.TheUnit16areaexcavationsaredescribedinchapter9.
AsmallexcavationwasalsoconductedintheUnitFarea(Excavation5)wherealongsegmentofcanewallhadbeenobservedonthesitesurfacein1983(seechaps.
5,10).HereIhopedtofindadomesticarea.
Whentheseexcavationsterminatedandtheevidenceforurbanismwasinterpretedasnegative,fieldworkstrategywasmodifiedtotestthenewhypothesisthatIwas
beginningtodevelop,thatopenunconstructedareashadalackofhabitationratherthanaburieddomesticoccupation.Idecidedtotestthenewhypothesisbymeans
oftestpitsampling.AtotaloftwentythreetestpitswereexcavatedovertherestofCahuachi'sunlootedopenareas(seechap.11fig.11.1).Testpitswereplacedin
modernagriculturalfields,attheedgeofmoderncultivation,awayfromthevalley,nearmounds,andawayfrommounds.InplacingthesetestpitsIwasguidedby
severalfactors.
First,myworkersandtheotherfarmersIinterviewedalltoldmethatplowingneverbroughtancientmaterialsuptothesurface.Thissituationstandsinsharpcontrast
to,forexample,CentralHighlandMexico,whereit

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8.1.
AerialphotographofthearchaeologicalsiteofTamboViejointheAcarvalley.Clearlyseenaretwoareasof
denselyagglutinatedstructuresdelineatedbywalls.Anarrowplazaseparatesthesetwohabitationzones.The
remainsdatetotheearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriodandareassociatedmostespeciallywithNasca3pottery.The
sitewasoccupiedcenturieslaterbytheIncas,whoestablishedanimportanttambohere.TheareaofInca
architecturecanbeseeninthelowerleftcornerofthephotograph.CourtesyFrancisA.Riddell.

seemsthateveryagriculturalfieldharborsanarchaeologicalsite.
Second,theNazcaRiverannuallyfloods,andinJanuary1984,severalmonthsbeforefieldworkbeganatCahuachi,abouthalfofHugoVerneNavas'sfieldsat
Cahuachiwerewashedaway.ThefloodwatersreachedbeyondtheactualhaciendahousethishappenedagaininJanuary1985.Idecidedthatundersuchconditions
therewouldnothavebeenextensivehumansettlementinthevalleybottomandthateveniftherehadbeen,evidenceofsuchwouldlieburiedbeneathmanymetersof
alluvium,whichIwasnotcapableofremovingundertheeconomicandtimeconstraintsoftheproject.
Third,theNazcavalleyisverynarrowatCahuachi,andthevalleybottomwouldprobablyhavebeenusedforagricultureandthegatheringofnaturalresourcesrather
thanwastedonhumansettlementsthatcouldmoreefficientlybeplacedoffthearableland.
Fourth,Itookintoaccountthelimitsofthesiteitself(seechap.5).Cahuachiwasdelimitedtothenorthbytheborderofagriculturalfields,tothewestbyUnitH,to
theeastbyUnitZZ,andtothesouthbythepampabehindUnits1and2.
Finally,lootedareasandmoundswereavoided.
Testpitswerenumberedconsecutivelybeginningwith1ratherthanextendingthegridacrossthewholesite,whichwouldhavebeenincrediblytimeconsuming.The
testpitscanberelocatedwiththedescriptionsprovided.Furthermore,thesubsurfaceconditionsencounteredinanyonetestpitdonotvarysignificantlyfromthe
surroundingarea.ThemeagerresultsofthesetestpitssupportthisdecisioninnomenclatureaswellasthedecisiontoabandontheMunsellsoilcolorchartsafter
recordingTestPits1through4.
Whennoneoftheseexcavationsturnedupevidenceindicativeofalarge,dense,residentialpopulation,itbecamenecessarytototallyrethinkthesite.Itwasatthis
pointintheprojectthatwelearnedoftheCatholicpilgrimageshrineoftheVirginofYaucainIca.Ourinitialvisittothatshrineandsubsequentethnographicstudy

Page113

ofit(seechap.22)provideduswithanewworkinghypothesis,thatCahuachibasicallyhadbeenanemptyceremonialcenter,butonethatephemerallyandfrequently
cametolifethroughpilgrimage.WedeterminedtotestthishypothesisthroughexaminationofoneofCahuachi'smounds,Unit19(seechaps.12,13).
Asexplainedinchapter12,Unit19waschosenforitsmanageablesize,presenceofsurfacearchitecture,andquantityofsurfaceculturalmaterials.Ourgoalwasto
independentlydetermineifthismoundhadaceremonialratherthanhabitationfunctionintheearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriod.Unit19morethanmetourexpectations
withitsintactreligiousprecinct(theRoomofthePostsseechap.13),significantquantityofritualparaphernaliaincludingstoragefacilitiesfortheseitems,abundant
ceramicfineware,apogeecontemporaryandpostapogeeofferings,andburialsallrevealedinthecourseofstratigraphicexcavations.
FieldProcedures
TheSite'sDatumandMetricGrid
AmasterdatumpointwasestablishedatopUnit8usingalongnailfixedinabedofcement.ThatpointbecameZeroNorth/ZeroWest.Usingthismasterdatum,an
eastwestaxiswasestablishedfortheUnit16kanchawithaBruntoncompassandmetrictapes.Thisaxisisthezeroorbaseline.Northsouthlineswerethen
extended(ranged)fromthebaseline.Asexplainedinchapter12,thegridwasnotextendedtocontroltheUnit19excavations(chaps.12,13)where,rather,the
numberedadobewallswereused.NeitherwasthegridextendedtocontrolExcavation5atUnitF(seechap.10)orthetestpits(seechap.11).
Theindividualexcavationunitsdescribedhereinwerecontrolledfromlocaldatumsorcontrolpoints,eachanailsunkintoanimmovablefeature(awall),exceptinthe
caseofExcavation5atUnitFwherenosuchfeaturewasavailable.Ourlinelevelswerealwaysstrungfromthebaseofthesenails(i.e.,levelwiththetopsofthe
walls).TheverticalheightbetweentheUnit8masterdatumandthecontrolpointontheUnit16wallforExcavations1to4is12.20meters.Theverticalheight
betweentheUnit19summitdatumandtheN0/W0controlpointonWall58is3.66meters.TheverticalheightbetweenUnit19'sN0/W0andthecontrolpointsfor
Excavations6and7(onWall4),10to13(onWall39),14(onWall12E),15(onWall15),16(onWall15),17(onWall120),18(onWall121),and19(onWall
65)is2.59,1.08,2.37,2.20,2.17,2.17,2.30,and1.01meters,respectively.Excavations8and9inRoom1werecontrolledfromanailinthesoutheastcornerof
Room1at0.50meteraboveN0/W0.
Excavation
ExcavationsattheUnit16kancha(Excavations14),Unit19(Excavations619),andUnitF(Excavation5)wereconductedbynaturalstratigraphydowntosterile
soilunlessotherwisenoted.Sterilesoilwasconsideredtohavebeenreachedwhennativesoilyieldednoculturalremainsfor50centimeters.
Thetestpitswereexcavatedbymeansofartificiallevelsof10centimeterssoastobeabletocoverthemostgroundintheleasttime.Myworkerswereexperienced
diggers,and,asfarmers,theyhadanadmirableabilitytorecognizedifferentkindsofsoil.Ibelievethattheresultsweobtainedjustifiedmytakingthiscourseofaction.
Themenworkedindividually,onemantoatestpit.Theyweregivenatrowel,shovel,scoop,whiskbroom,metertape,bucket,screen,andcollectionbags.There
wasonecollectionbagperlevel.Eachbagwaslabeled:e.g.,Level1(010centimeters),Level2(1020centimeters).Istakedeachtestpit,whichvariedfrom1.50
by1.50metersto2by2metersaccordingtolocalsoilconditions.Inotedthesurfaceconditionoftheunitandthenproceededtohavethemendigtheirrespective
unitsbythearbitrarylevels.Theywereinstructedtoceaseworkandcometomeimmediatelyifanykindoffeature(e.g.,awall,afloor,aposthole,ahearth,aburial)
appeared.Inthatcase,achangetonaturalstratigraphywouldbemadeandanadjacentunitopened,ifnecessary,torecoverpotentiallylostassociations.TestPit8,
forinstance,wasrapidlyswitchedtonaturalstratigraphybecauseofthequickeyeofaworker.Iperiodicallycheckedonthemen.Ifby1meterdownthepitremained
sterile,itwasabandoned.Ifnot,itwastakendowntillsterilesoildefinitelyoccurred.
Throughouttheproject,allexcavateddirtwaspassedthroughafinescreenwithameshcomposedofsquaresmeasuring5by5millimeters.Allexcavationswere
completelybackfilled.
ArtifactRecovery
Allremainswereseparatedinthescreenaccordingtocategories(e.g.,pottery,textiles,bone,organics,lithics,shell,other,special)andplacedinbagsbearingthe
excavationprovenience(e.g.,date,excavationlocus,levelorstratum).Nonportablefeatureswereleftinthefieldafterbeingphotographed,plotted,andrecorded.
Burialswereexcavated,photographed,described,andthenliftedforsubsequentanalysisinthelab.

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Table8.1.LocationoftheNineteenExcavationsatCahuachi
Excavation

Location

Excavation1

northoftheUnit16wall

Excavation2

southoftheUnit16wall

Excavation3

southwallofUnit24withintheUnit16kancha

Excavation4

Unit15CwithintheUnit16kancha

Excavation5

UnitF

Excavation6

Unit19,atthebase,atrenchexcavatedbetweenN2022/W46

Excavation7

Unit19,atthebase,atrenchexcavatedbetweenN1826/W46

Excavation8

Unit19,Room1,betweenWalls55/56and58

Excavation9

Unit19,Room1,betweenWalls58and68

Excavation10

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls33and34

Excavation11

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls71and72

Excavation12

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls39,73,78

Excavation13

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls73,75,78

Excavation14

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,northofWall12E

Excavation15

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls15and16

Excavation16

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls15and119

Excavation17

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls120and122

Excavation18

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,betweenWalls16and121

Excavation19

Unit19,behindtheRoomofthePosts,betweenWalls45and65

Fieldnotes
Standardfieldjournalschronicledeachstratumofeachexcavation.Separatenotebookswerekeptforrecordingandnumberingthearchitecturalfeatures,other
features,photographs,burials,andradiocarbonandothersamples.Sometimessomethingassignedafeaturenumberturnedouttobenothingatallthenumber,
however,wasnotreused.AllnotesweretakeninSpanish.TheSpanishword"hallazgo"hasbeentranslatedhereas"feature"althoughtheword"find"isclosertothe
Spanishsense.
Profilesweredrawnforeachexcavation,and,whereappropriate,plansweremadeusingaBruntoncompassandmetertapes.Unit19wasmappedwithatheodolite
beforeandduringexcavation.
Terminology
Inthefield,wallswerereferredtoasarchitecturalfeatures(AF)andwerenumberedwitharabicnumerals.Inthisbooktheyarecalledwallsandretaintheiroriginal
numerationexceptintherareinstancesnoted.
Idistinguishinthetextbetweenexcavationsandtestpits.Testpitsarecalledsuchandarenumberedconsecutivelyfrom1to23.
Inthefield,excavationswereidentifiedbytheircardinalgridlocation,suchasN24/W304306,orbythearchitecturalfeatures(AF)thatdefinedthem,suchas
ExcavationAF7172ortheUnit16areaexcavation.InthisbookIhaverenumberedtheexcavationsusingarabicnumeralssothattheyarelessconfusing.When
referringtothesenumberedexcavations,ofwhichtherewereatotalofnineteen,theword"excavation"iscapitalized.ThusIspeakofExcavation1orExcavation16.
Wheregriddesignationsaregivenforanexcavation,thesealwaysrefertoanexcavationsquaremeasuring2metersonasideunlessotherwisenoted.Thus,Ican
speakofsquareN1214/W306308withinExcavation1.Table8.1indicatesthelocationofthenineteenexcavations.
LaboratoryMethods
Allartifactswerecleaned,rebagged,andrelabeledinthelab.Undiagnosticmaterialswereseparatedoutfromdiagnosticones,rebaggedwiththeirproveniencedata,
andthenstoredseparately.Diagnosticsherdsandlithicsweremarkedinindelibleinkwiththeirproveniencedata.Alldiagnosticsherdsandlithicsweredrawnon
individual5by8inchindexcards,theunlinedsidebeingusedforthedrawingandthelinedsidefortakingnotes.Virtuallyalldecoratedpotteryandspecialartifacts
werephotographedincolorslidesandinblackandwhiteprintfilm.TextileswereindividuallybaggedinZipLoc

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bagslabeledwithproveniencedataIhavefoundthattextilesbaggedthiswayinthedesertenvironmentofNazcapreservebeautifully(atleastsofar).
Assessment
CahuachiisasitemuchmorecomplexinnatureandmuchmoredifficulttoworkatthanIanticipatedatthebeginningoftheproject.Inretrospect,IregretthatIdid
notuseaHarrismatrix(seeHarris1989forarecentdescription),forthiswouldhavegreatlysimplifiedthepresentationofthestratigraphicinformationthatfollows.
TheoverallexcavationprogramwassuccessfulintestingtheresearchhypothesesbecauseIwasappropriatelyflexibleinchangingthefieldstrategyandresearch
designwhenthedatabegantogoagainsttheoriginalhypotheses.IampleasedwiththeethnographicstudiesoftheYaucasanctuary(chap.22),looters(chap.7),and
moderndaybuildingtechniques(chap.6)conductedduringfieldworkthesehaveyieldedmuchinsightintothesite.Nevertheless,Cahuachihasonlyjustbeguntobe
revealed.

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ChapterNine
ExcavationsinanOpenArea
Thischapterdealswithexcavationsthatwereconductedinthreelocationsinthelargeopen(unconstructed)areaenclosedbyUnit16:northandsouthoftheUnit16
wall(Excavations1and2respectively),northandsouthoftheN4244wallofUnit24(Excavation3),andthroughUnit15C(Excavation4)(seefig.9.1).
ExcavationswereconductedinthesedifferentareastodetermineiftherewasafunctionalorsocialdifferencewithinthehypothesizedurbansettlementatCahuachi.I
envisionedascenarioinwhichpeoplelivingclosertotheUnit16wallmightbesocioeconomicallydifferentfromtheresidentsIexpectedtofindatthebaseoftheUnit
15moundcomplexlocatedonthewestsideoftheUnit16kanchaandthattheymightexhibitdifferentpatternsofbehavioraswell.InthisscenarioIwasinfluencedby
TheresaTopic's(1982)investigationoftheplazabetweenMoche'sHuacadelSolandHuacadelaLuna.
OneofmymajorinterestsatCahuachiwastheUnit16wallwhichwasshownonStrong's(1957:fig.4)mapofthesiteasamajorfeature.AlthoughUnit16appeared
onthesurfacemerelyasalowridge,Iharboredthesuspicionthatitmighthavesufferedtremendousadobemeltandthatitcouldprovetobeamajorverticalfeature.I
wasthinkingaboutUnit16intermsofthegreatridgesthatdefinetheNasca3habitationenclosureatTamboViejo(seechaps.2,8).Againonthebasisof
comparisonwithTamboViejo,butalsobecauseCahuachihadbeendescribedintheliteratureasagreaturbancenter,Ianticipatedfindingamajorhabitationzone
withinthearmsofUnit16.
Excavation1
Stratum1ofExcavation1(fig.9.2)extendedfromthesurfaceuntilthehardersoilofstratum2wasencountered.Itisasemicompact,lightgrayishbrown(Munsell
10YR7/23)aeoliansoilwithabundantlittlepebbles.Thescarceculturalmaterialonthesurfaceconsistedoftwentyoneplainwaresherdsandafewsmallfragments
ofunidentifiedbone.
Stratum2isasemihard,semicompact,clayeysoilthatisyellowcolored(Munsell10YR76/6).Inplacesthesoilhasbrownstainsorlensesthatarecomposedof
sand,asmallamountoforganicmaterial(vegetalfiber,gourd,woodymaterial),bitsofunidentifiedbone,andhumanbone.Thehumanboneprobablyderivesfroma
postNascacemeterythatcrossestheeastarmofUnit16.Thisstratumhadeightythreepotterysherds,significantlymorethantheprecedingone.Twosherdsare
diagnosticallyNasca3.ThreeotherscanbeidentifiedasStrong's(1957:fig.12BD)"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"type,whichcorrespondstotheearly
Nascaperiod.OneNasca5sherdwasalsofoundinthisstratum.Therestoftherecoveredpotterywasnotdiagnostic.
Stratum3isalightgray(Munsell10YR76/1)soilthatvariesfromgravellyandhardtoaloosersoil.ItcontainedpiecesofadobefromtheUnit16wall.Theonly
diagnosticsherdsinStratum3conformedtoStrong's"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"typeandaNasca1"CahuachiPolychromeIncisedThick"sherd.
Sometwentyundiagnosticplainwaresherdswerealsorecoveredfromthisstratum.Closertothewalltherewas

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9.1.
PlanoftheUnit16area(derivedfromfig.2.4)showinglocationofexcavationunitsandpointsamples.

afairamountofbotanicalremainsaswellassomellamaexcrement,shell(identifiedasMesodesmadonacium,Perumytiluspurpuratus,andChoromytiluschorus),
plainweavecottontextilefragments,bonefragmentsincludingapossiblecamelidbone,andsomefeathers.
Stratum4isdiscontinuousandconsistsofahard,compact,clayeysand,grayishbrown(Munsell10YR64/3)incolor.Ithadscantorganicremainsinthinlensesand
onepossiblecamelidtooth.Therewereaboutfortysherdsofwhichonlyfourarediagnostic.OneoftheseisfromaplainwareollatheothersareStrong's"Cahuachi
BroadLineRed,White,Black"typeandNasca1.
Stratum5isadarkyellow(Munsell10YR7/6)softsandwithsomegravel.Ithadafairconcentrationofguayabaandsquashseedremainsaswellassomeshell
(Mesodesmadonacium,Choromytiluschorus),anunidentifiedbonefragment,andtwentyeightsherds,allundiagnosticsaveoneNasca3sherd.
InStratum6thebaseoftheUnit16wallwashit.Thus,thewallisonly40centimetershigh.Itis,however,quite

Page118

9.2.
ProfileofExcavations1and2conductednorthandsouthoftheUnit16wall.

wide,about1meter.Thewallisbuiltoflargeconicaladobeswhicharelaidinamortarofsimilarcomposition.ThisistypicalatCahuachi,whereitisoftendifficultto
distinguishamorphousadobesfromthemortarinwhichtheyareplaced.Theadobesstandontheirwidebaseswiththepointsup.Theyareseparatedfromeachother
byalittlespace,thatspacebeingfilledwiththemortarreferredtoabove.OnthenorthfaceoftheUnit16wall,thefingerimpressionsofthehandsthatlaidthewall
canbeseen.
Stratum6isanapisonado,aclayeyearthsurfacethathasbeencompactedandmadesemihardbyfoottraffic.Theapisonadoisverypalebrown(Munsell10YR8
7/3).Itisasomewhatirregularsurfaceofvaryingthickness.ThemostimportantfacttobringoutabouttheStratum6apisonadoisthatitdidnothavematerialremains
inassociation.Whereastherewereorganicmaterialandpotteryinthestrataabovetheapisonado,theapisonadoitselfwasclean.Ishallreturntothispointattheend
ofthischapter.
Threesmallcirculardepressions(averagediameterof1112centimeters)andalargeone(about20centimetersindiameter)hadbeendugintotheStratum6
apisonado(numbered8,9,10,and11onfig.9.3).Thesefourcirculardepressions,whichareinastraightline,areinterpretedaspostholes.Thelargestposthole,
interpretedasaroofsupportbeam(seechap.6),isveryclosetotheUnit16wall.Itsdepthis58centimeters.Initwererecoveredloosesoilwithsomeorganic
remains,afewsmallrocks,a"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"sherd,aNasca3sherd,aplainwarerimfromanolla,andthreeotherundiagnosticplainware
sherds.Thethreesmallalignedpostholesnorthofthelargeoneareseparatedfromeachotherby23to25centimeters.Theirdepthsrangefrom7to10centimeters.
Noculturalmaterialswererecoveredfromthem.
Stratum7,averythinstratum,isasemicompactsoilcomposedofgravelandsand.Itisgrayishbrown(Munsell10YR6/12).Afairamountoforganicmaterialis
distributedthroughoutthisstratum.Alsofoundwereanunidentifiedshellfragment,somellamaexcrement,andanobsidianpoint.
Stratum8isthefinalculturalstratumbeforehittingsterilesoilinStratum9.Stratum8isanotherthinapisonado,brownincolor(Munsell10YR65/3).Thereisaburn
stainontheStratum8apisonadosome20by30centimetersindiameter.Inaddition,fivemoresmallpostholeswerediscoveredinthiscompactsurface.Unlikethe
Stratum6postholes,thesearenotaligned(fig.9.3).Theyrangeindiameterfrom11to14centimetersandindepthfrom10.5to25.5centimeters(fig.9.4).These
postholescontainedlooseearthmixed

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9.3.
CompositeplanoffeaturesrevealedinExcavation1.Noteespeciallythealignedandunalignedpostholesjustnorthofthewall.

withgravelandsand.Fromthemwererecoveredaredthreadandsomeorganicremainsconsistingofhuarangoseed,llamaexcrement,peanutshell,pacaeleaf,maize
sheath,guayabaseed,andsquashseed.Noceramicswerepresent.TheStratum8apisonadoanditspostholesslightlyantedatetheconstructionoftheUnit16wall.
StillinStratum8but4metersnorthoftheunalignedpostholesisagroupofregularandirregulardepressionsthatalsoslightlyantedatetheconstructionoftheUnit16
wall(fig.9.5).ThedepressionsareexcavatedintothehardcompactsoilthatistheStratum8apisonado.Theyarecircularorirregularlycircularinshapeandvaryin
depthfromabout15to30centimetersandindiameterfromabout1meterforthecircularFeature3toabout2.50metersforFeature4/6.1
Theapisonadointowhichthesedepressionswereexcavatedshowedsomesignsofburning(therewasdarkash),andalldepressionscontainedavarietyoforganic
materialsincludingwoodyfiber,coprolites,somehumanhair,abitofbone,guineapighair,gourdfragments,andothermatterstilltobeidentifiedaswellasabitof
Mesodesmadonaciumshellandafairamountofcharcoal.Potterywaspresentinthesedepressionsbutingreatlydifferingamounts.Feature2containedsix
undiagnosticsherdsFeature5containedsevenundiagnosticsherdstherewerenosherdsinFeature3Feature4/6containedninetytwosherds,allundiagnosticsave
one"CahuachiPolychromeIncised"Nasca1fragment.Someoftheundiagnosticsherdmaterialwasofquitelargesize.
Thepostholesandashydepressionsdescribedaboveareinterpretedasevidenceoftransienthousingandcookingactivities,respectively,inchapter22.
Excavation2
One2by2meterexcavationunitwasexcavatedonthesouthsideoftheUnit16wallbyMiguelPazos.Thefol

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9.4.
Planandcrosssectionofunalignedpostholesin
Stratum8apisonadoofExcavation1.

lowingisPazos'sinterpretationofthestratigraphy(seehisprofiledrawingonfig.9.2).
Stratum1correspondstoStratum1northoftheUnit16wall.
Stratum2iscomposedofafinesandwhichinplacesismixedwithabitofpebbles.Thestratumisquitethick,averagingapproximately30centimeters.Alongsidethe
walltherewasasmallaccumulationofcotton.PiecesofoneincompleteNasca5vesselwerealsofound(seefig.16.23).
Stratum3isacompact,clayeysandinwhichisfoundadobewallfallfromtheUnit16wall.
Stratum4correspondstotheStratum6apisonadoonthenorthsideoftheUnit16wall.Itisacompactearthwithorganicremainsandaveragesizedrocks.
Stratum5,beneaththewall,isalightcoloredsandwithrocksbutwithoutculturalremains.Someareasaremorecompactthanothers.Thisstratumwouldbethefill
onwhichtheUnit16wallwasraised.
Stratum6isasemicompact,rockysandwithabundantorganicmaterialinlenses.Llamabones,textilefragments,andtwentytwopiecesofplainwarewererecovered.
Inthesouthwestcornerofthepit,apossibleposthole(numbered7onfig.9.3)wasdefinedithadadepthof24centimetersandwasfilledwithfinesandcontaining
organicmaterial.Twoothersmalldepressions(6aandb),identifiedaspossiblepostholes,werefoundinthenortheastcornerofthepit,18centimeterssouthofthe
Unit16wall.Theyare11centimetersand14centimetersdeep,respectively,andarefilledwithfinesandinwhichorganicremainswerefound.
ThebasesofthesepostholesrestonStratum7,asterilestratumcomposedofsandandgravel.Stratum7correspondstotheStratum9sterilesoilnorthofthewall.
Stratum7coversanamorphouspitofloose,lightcoloredsoilwithfairlyabundantorganicremainsthatwasintrusiveinStratum8,sterilesoil.
Excavation3
OnStrong'sexcellent1952aerialphotographofthecentralzoneofthesite(fig.5.2),asquarekancha(Unit24)canbeseenwithinthelargerUnit16kancha.I
considereditveryimportanttoascertaintherelationshipofUnit24totheUnit16wall.Ofconcernwaswhetherthewallswerecontemporaryandiftheywere
constructedsimilarly.MiguelPazosexcavateda4by2meterunit(N4246/W260262)withinwhichhedefinedthesouthernmostwalloftheUnit24enclosure.
Thesouth(N4244)wallofUnit24turnedouttobelowerandthinnerthantheUnit16wall.Itis40centimetershighandhasawidthof80centimeters.AswithUnit
16,thereisverylittlewallfallormeltthewallisveryclosetoitsoriginaldimensions.TheN4244wall,however,exhibitsaconstructiontechniquethatdiffersfrom
thatofUnit16.TheUnit24southwallismadeof"wedge"shapedadobeswhicharewellformedandseparatedfromeachotherbyabout25centimetersoflumpsof
mortarwhosenatureandconsistencyarenotmuchdifferentfromtheadobeitself(fig.9.6).OnthefaceoftheN4244wall,aswiththeUnit16wallitself,thefinger
impressionsofthehandsthatlaidthewallarevisible.
CulturalmaterialwasexceedinglyscarceoneithersideoftheN4244wall,butassociatedceramicremainssuggestthatUnit24wasconstructedinNasca3times
(MiguelPazos,personalcommunication1984).

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9.5.
PlanandcrosssectionoffeaturesrevealedinStratum8apisonadoofExcavation1.

Excavation4
A40meterlong,2meterwidetrenchwasextendedfromN98toN138betweenW310andW312.Unit15Cislocatedwithinthistrench(figs.9.1,9.7,9.8).The
surfaceofthisareawasvirtuallyunbrokensaveforthepresenceofsomeapparentlyunsuccessfullooters'holesthatvariedbetween54to104centimetersindepthand
about40to100centimetersinwidth.TherewasverylittlesurfacepotteryalongthetrenchexceptwhereitwentovertheUnit15Cmound.
Stratum1isalightgray(Munsell10YR76/1),loose,gravellysand.Itcontainedscantwindblownorganicmaterials,abitofbone,andfewsherds.
Stratum2wasdistinguishablebecauseofachangeincolortopalebrown(Munsell10YR6/3)andachangeinsoiltosemihard,compact,coarsesandwithverysmall
tosmallpebblesandafewrocks.Thestratumbecomesquitethick,reaching75centimetersbythewallitisfullofthemeltandlooseadobesfromtheUnit15Cwalls.

9.6.
MiguelPazos'ssketchoftheconstructionofthesouthwall
ofUnit24andhisdrawingoftypicaladobefoundinthiswall.

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9.7.
PlanoftrenchlaidoutnorthofUnit15Cshowinglocation
ofBurial1andlooters'holespresentatsurfacelevel.

TherewerevirtuallynoculturalmaterialsinStratum2.
InStratum2,onthemounditself,architecturebegantoappearintheformofadobewallsandabeautifullypreservedstaircaseinN114116/W310312(figs.9.9,
9.10).Thestaircasewascoveredbylooseadobesandloosesoil.OnlythefirstthreestepsofthisstaircasewereclearedwhenIdecidedtobackfillthestaircase,as
thisexcavationwouldhavenecessitatedconservationifcontinued.Furthermore,investigationofmoundarchitecturewasnotthefocusoftheprojectatthatpoint.
Despitetheseselfimposedlimitations,thisarchitecturalfeatureyieldedvaluableinformation.
Thestaircaseis76centimeterswide.Thereisaverticaldistanceof25centimetersbetweeneachstep.Thestaircaseisbuiltofadobe,buttheindividualadobescannot
beseenbecausethebacksofthestepsarelightlyplasteredandthesurfaceofthestepisanapisonado.Narrowhuarangopostswereemployedtoprotecttheedges
ofthesteps.Thesepostsshowedevidenceofhavingbeenburned.Thewallsoneithersideofthestaircasehavebeensmoothedwithacoatingofthesamematerialof
whichtheadobesandmortararemade.
AccesstoUnit15CwasfromtheopenareaeastofUnit15Cviathisstaircasewhichascendedtothelowsummitofthemound.Themoundwasformedofadobeand
rubblefillcontainedbetweenparallel,eastwestrunningadobewalls.Theorganicmaterialsrecoveredcomefromthatfill.Alldiagnosticsherdscouldbeattributedto
Nasca2and3.
Unit15C'swallsrestonthethinStratum3apisonadounderwhichStratum4,asterilegravelinacoarsesandmatrix,wasfound.Themounditselfhadbeen
constructedoveranunderlyingnaturalhill.
IntheflatareanorthoftheUnit15Cmound,wheretheexcavationwascontinued,itwasdecidedtoarbitrarilysamplethe16meterlongtrenchbetweenN122
138/W310312ratherthantakingthewholetrenchdowntosterilesoil.N130134/W310312wasexcavated.2
Strata1,2,and3arethesameasdescribedabove.Stratum4isaverydarkbrown(Munsell7.5YR7/02),verycoarsesandwithsmallrocksandlotsofpebbles.
Thestratumisthin,averagingabout5centimetersinthickness.Afairamountofculturalremainsincludingshell,abitofcharcoal,maize,textilefragments,plainware,
andonesherdofStrong's"CahuachiBroadLine"typewasrecoveredfromthisstratum.
Stratum5isaclayey,semisoft,semicompact,whitishbeigesoil(Munsell10YR8/2),possiblyformedbywater.Therewereveryfewmaterialremainsinthislayersave
onefeature:itwasintoStratum5thatanintrusiveburial

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9.8.
ProfileofsouthernhalfofExcavation4showingmoundarchitecture.

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9.9.
CloseupofthestaircaserevealedoneastsideofUnit15C.

hadbeenplaced.ThisisBurial1(originallycalledFeature15)inN132134/W310312theburialisdiscussedinchapter14.Allnotestaken,Burial1wasremoved
andexcavationcontinuedinN132134/W310312.
Stratum6isagrayishbeige(Munsell10YR7/2)gravellysandthataverages11centimetersinthickness.Someareasaremorecompactthanothers.Thereisasmall
amountoforganicmaterialandsomesherds.Feature16,whichwasencounteredonlyafewcentimetersdirectlybeneathBurial1,consistsoffourelements(fig.9.11).
Element1isarockwithaflattenedbaseandtracesofredpaint.Element2isamuchlargerrockwithtracesofredpaint.Element3isalargeblockofburnedclay.
Element4isasmallerblockofburnedclay.Feature16restsonStratum7.
Stratum7ischaracterizedbyfairlycompactareasofgravelandotherareasofloosesoilwithconcentrationsofvegetalfiberandotherorganicmaterials.Thestratumis
quitethickandislightgray(Munsell10YR7/2).Inthisstratum,50centimetersbeneathBurial1andjustabove

9.10.
TopviewandprofileviewofUnit15C'sstaircase(seefig.9.9).

sterilesoil(Stratum8),averyspecialartifact,Feature17,wasfound.Feature17isacrossshaped,caneframeobject,42centimeterslong,coveredwithapieceof
fancyembroideredParacastextile(discussedinchap.18seefigs.18.1,18.2).
TherecanbenodoubtthattheFeature16formationisdeliberate,althoughitsrelationshiptoBurial1isnotcertain.TheexceptionalFeature17mayormaynotbe
associatedwiththatburialandFeature16.
PointSamples
Inadditiontotheexcavationsdescribedabove,twopointsweresampledintheUnit16kanchaatN80/W270andN60/W310.ThesearePointSample5andPoint
Sample6,respectively(shownonfig.9.1).Thepointsampleswereexecutedbyplacingalittlestakeinthegroundandscribingacirclearoundthestakeusinga4
meterlongcord.ThetwopointswerechosenarbitrarilybutpurposelysoastobewithintheUnit16kan

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9.11.
PlanoffeaturesandcomponentelementsrevealedinStrata
6and7inexcavationsquareN132134/W310312of
Excavation4onthenorthsideofUnit15C.

chayetawayfromtheareawhereexcavationshadbeenconducted.Assuch,thepointsamplesarerepresentativeoftheareaasawhole.Theyconformtothesurface
levelinourexcavations,addingtotheirvalidityandsuggesting,therefore,thatthesubsurfacesituationofthesepointsampleswouldresemblethatuncoveredby
excavation(seeRedmanandWatson1970).
PointSample5recoveredsixsherds,ninetinybitsofcharcoal,andtwolittlebones(unidentified).TwosherdsareerodedrimsfromdecoratedNasca2and3vessels,
oneisanerodeddecoratedbodysherd,andtheothersareerodedplainwarebodysherds.
PointSample6recoveredsixsherds,oneshellhinge,andthreefragmentsofbone(unidentified).ThesixsherdsincludedoneerodedNasca1modeledincisedsherd,
oneerodedNasca2bodysherd,oneerodeddecoratedsherd,oneerodedsherdthatwaspossiblydecorated,andtwoplainwaresherdsfromthesamethinvessel.
Conclusions
Themostnotablefactthatemergedfromtheexcavationsdescribedinthischapteristhattherewasnoareaofpermanenthousesinthelargeopen(unconstructed)area
oftheUnit16kancha.Excavationsrevealedacorrespondenceofscantsurfaceremains,scantsubsurfaceremains,andshallowdepthbetweenthemodernsurfaceand
thebaseofarchitecture.AtCahuachi,thepaucityofsurfacematerialonanopenplainwasindeedmirroredinthesubsurface(seeRedmanandWatson1970).There
hadbeenlittlelootingbecausethelootersencounterednothingoronlylightscattersofculturalmaterialandquicklyhitsterilesoil.Itcanalsobeconcluded,bythelow
heightofUnit16(only40centimeters),thatthiswalldidnotplayadefensiveroleatthesite.
Neithertheseexcavationsnoranyothersatthesite(seechaps.1013)revealedevidenceinsupportofPetersen's(1980)contentionthatdessicationwasthecauseof
theabandonmentofCahuachi.Significantstrataofsand(thatwouldhaveindicatedadesertificationofthearea)subsequenttotheconstructionoftheUnit16wall
werenotencountered.Indeed,thestratigraphyoftheexcavationsinthegreatopenareadelimitedbyUnit16indicatesthatthesurfaceleveltodayisveryclosetothe
ancientone.ThisisalsoproveninStrong'scutsonUnits5and6wheresterilesoilwasreachedjustbelowtoday'ssurfacelevel.
Notes
1.Thisfeaturehasadoublenumberbecauseweoriginallythoughtthereweretwodepressionsbutthenrealizeditwasone.Thetwofeaturenumbershadalreadybeen
assigned,andwedecidedtokeepthem.
2.Theprofileforthisexcavationislost.

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ChapterTen
ExcavationatUnitF
Excavation5wasconductedatthebaseofUnitFwhereacane(Phragmitescomunis)wallhadbeenidentifiedonthesurfacein1983.Thepurposeofthe
excavationwastodetermineifthecanewallwasancientandifitcorrespondedtoanareaofdomesticoccupation.
A2by2meterpitwaslaidouttostraddletheUnitFcanewall(seefig.10.1).Thewallruns38degreeseastofnorth.Theexcavationgridwasnotorientedtonorth
asthiswouldhavemadetheunitdiagonaltothedirectionofthewall.Rather,thegridlineswereorientedtothewall.Alocaldatumwasestablishedtocontrolthe
excavation.
Stratum1(surface)isaloosecoarsesandwithlotsofsmalltolargerocks.Soilcolorispalebrown(Munsell10YR6/3).Thesurfacewasabitdisturbedbylooters.
Culturalmaterialsonthatsurfaceconsistedofacoupleofbonefragments,abrokengroundstoneartifact,andfiveundiagnosticplainwarebodysherds.Thecanewall
wasalreadyprotrudingupthroughthesurface,henceitwasvisibleinStratum1.Themaximumthicknessofthecanewallatthesurfaceis12centimeters.Thecanes
wereburnedontop.
Stratum2isafine,loose,brownbeige(Munsell10YR7/3)sandwithmanyrocks.Thisstratumshowedevidenceofburningintheformofash.Itisthisburningthat
burnedthecanes.Ratherthanbeingimplantedintoanadobefoundationorafloor,thecanesarerestinginthisloosesand.Thewallendsat10centimetersbeneaththe
surface.Thewallisthusasuperficialstructure.
OntheeastsideoftheexcavationunitinStratum2therewasafairamountofwindblownorganicmaterialsaswellastheremainsofaguineapigskullandabundant
guineapigdung.Alsorecoveredweretwentyfiveundiagnosticplainwarebodysherds,twoearlyNascaplainwarerims,andoneearlyNascadecoratedbodysherd.
Thesematerialswerebroughtupbylooters,forinStratum2alooters'holeappeared.Onthewestsideoftheexcavationwererecoverednineundiagnosticsherdsand
aNascasherdwithabadlyerodeddesignthatappearstodepicttrophyheadsandmaydatetoNasca4,5,or6(fig.10.2).
Stratum3isanapisonadothathadbeenbrokenbylooters.Theapisonadoisaverypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/4)semicompactsurfacethatantedatesthe
constructionoftheUnitFcanewall.Itwaslaiddownintwolayers.
Thelootersmayhavefoundatomb(Feature105).Thepossibletombwasrepresentedintheexcavationbyaconcentrationofpacaeleaveswithinthecircularholethe
lootershaddug.ThesoilwithintheholeistheStratum4gravel,aloose,grayishbrown(Munsell10YR3/2),gravellysandthatismorecompactinsomeplacesthanin
others.Besidesthepacaeleaves,theholecontainedsomesquashseeds,corn,anunidentifiedtuber,huarangoseed,peanut,aguineapigbone,woodymaterial,
mattedcottonfiber,andtwentyeightundiagnosticsherds.Twointactplaingourdbowls(Feature104A,B),placedmouthdown,werefound94centimeterssouthof
thedepressionexcavatedbythelooters(fig.10.3).
Stratum5isaveryhard,compact,clayey,white(Munsell10YR8/2)surfacethatissterile.Thisstratum

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10.1.
ProfileofUnitFexcavationwithdetailofcanewallobservedonsurfacepriortoexcavation.

10.2.
DiagnosticbutbadlyerodedNascasherdfromUnitFexcavation.

10.3.
PlanofpossibletomblocatedinExcavationF.

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10.4.
Examplesofmoderndaycanematconstructionwithout
foundationsintheNazcavalley.

mustbepartoftheoutcroppingcalichelikebedrockthatisseenonthenorthedgeoftheUnitFarea.Itisthisnativesurfacethatprovidestheobligatoryterminustothe
strataabove.
Conclusions
TheUnitFcanewallismodern.IntheNazcaregionmoderndaycanemathousesandwattleanddaubhousesareoftenconstructedwithoutfoundations(fig.10.4).
OnthegroundsofCahuachitherearemodernperishablestructuresofthisnature.InvariouspartsofthewesternzoneofCahuachithehillsvirtuallyreachthebluff
overlookingtheNazcaRiver,therebyleavingnoroomforhabitationinfrontofthemnoristhereevidenceofhabitationonthem.TheUnitFexcavationindicatesthat
theremaybeonlyveryshallowdepositsabovenativebedrock.OncetheUnitFmoderncanewallisremovedfromconsideration,theStratum3apisonadowouldbe
thenextoccupationofthearea.Disturbancedoesnotpermitmetosaydefinitivelyiftheapisonadowasbrokeninantiquitytoplaceaburialwithmodestofferingsorif
thetombwassubsequentlycoveredbytheStratum3apisonadowhichmodernlootersbroke.TheapisonadoandburialcoulddatetotheearlyNascaperiodsince
theyareoverlainbyNascasherdbearingStratum2,butthisisnotconclusivelyprovenbytheexcavation.

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ChapterEleven
TestPits
ThroughtestpitsIhopedtodeterminetheoriginalfunction(s)oftheopen(unconstructed)areasofCahuachi.Theprimaryfactorguidingthedecisionofwhereto
locatethetestpitswasthedegreeoflootingpresentonthesurface.Testpitswereplacedwheresurfacedisturbanceeitherdidnotexistorseemedtobeminimalit
wasexceedinglydifficulttofindsuchareas.Thelocationsofalltestpitsareshowninfigure11.1.
TestPit1
TestPit1(fig.11.2)wasexcavatedatN130/W10onthefifthterraceofUnit19.Ityieldedasubstantialamountofpottery(262sherdsincludingaworkedsherd,a
possibleNasca1polishedblackwaresherd,severaldecoratedNasca2and3sherds,aMiddleHorizonsherd,andapanpipefragmentaswellasabundant
undiagnosticceramicmaterial),bonefragments(ahumandecidualincisor,ahumanrib,arodentjawfragment,andnonhumanunidentifiablematerial),andbitsof
textile,shell,andorganics.Thismaterialextendedfromthesurfacedowntoalmost80centimeters,afterwhichthepitwentsterile.Mostmaterialremainswere
confinedtotheupper50centimetersofthetestpitbeneaththatlevelonlythreediagnosticsherdswerefound(thepossibleNasca1sherdandNasca2and3open
bowlfragments).
Thesimplestratigraphyofthistestpitanditsassociatedremainsdonotcorrespondtohousestructuresorstratifiedkitchenmidden.Thisisadisturbeddeposit,forin
arbitrarylevel3(2030centimetersbeneaththesurface)apieceofaphonographrecordwasfound,andinarbitrarylevel5(4050centimetersbeneaththesurface)a
MiddleHorizoncumbrousbowlrimwasrecovered.
TestPit2
TestPit2(fig.11.3)waslocatedatN85/E10,atthesouthendofthelootedareawithcottonaccumulationsthatKroeberandIidentifyasapostNascacemetery.
ThepurposeofthistestpitwastodetermineifanearlyNascacontextunderlaythatcemeteryand,ifnot,togatherbetterevidenceaboutthepostNascauseofthis
area.Theimmediateareaappearedtobeunlootedbutthetestpithitanextensive,filledinlooters'hole.Wewereabletoisolatethedisturbanceandexcavation
continued.
Strata1through6aredisturbed.Stratum7isacoarsesandwithangularsmallrocks,someorganicremains(maize,peanut,huarango,pacae,squash,gourd,andfiber
rope),sherds,andadobefragments.Stratum7maynotcorrespondtoprimarydepositionrefusebutrathertofillbecausevariousphasesofNascapotteryappearto
bepresent.WerecoveredapossibleNasca6sherd,Nasca2and3potsherds,andanerodedpossiblepostNascasherd.At125centimeterssterilegravelwas
reached.
TestPit3
TestPit3(fig.11.4)waslocatedatN135/W45onthefifthterraceofUnit19.ItproducedmuchfewerremainsthanTestPits1and2.Itssurfacehadseventynine
undiagnosticplainwaresherdscorrespondingtotwolargeNascautilitarianvessels,andtherewereseveralsherdsofaverylargeLateIntermediatePeriodutilitarian

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11.1.
LocationsofthetwentythreetestpitsexcavatedatCahuachi.

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11.2.
ProfileofeastfaceofTestPit1.Stratum1:aeolian
sand(Munsell10YR7/23).Stratum2:coarsegrained
sandwithsmallchunksofadobe(Munsell10YR76/2).
Stratum3:gravellysandwithwindblownorganicsand
smallrocks(Munsell10YR6/1).

11.3.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit2.Stratum1:gravelly
graysand(Munsell10YR6/1).Stratum2:lightbrown
sand,afewbigrocks,someorganicmaterials(Munsell
10YR6/2).Stratum3:yellowbrownfinesand(Munsell
10YR6/46).Stratum4:semicompactadobemeltor
apisonadowithchunksofadobe(Munsell10YR7/1).
Stratum5:coarsepebblysand(Munsell10YR5/1).
Stratum6:lightbrown,semicompact,clayeysand
(Munsell10YR7/4).Stratum7:coarsesandwith
angularsmallrocks(Munsell10YR5/12).
Stratum8:gravel(Munsell10YR5/1).

11.4.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit3.Stratum1:gravellysand
withrocks(Munsell10YR6/1).Stratum2:finebeigesand
(Munsell10YR7/2).Stratum3:verycoarsegravellysandwith
somehardsectionsofcaliche.(Munsell10YR65/2).
Stratum4:gravel(Munsell10YR5/1).

vessel.Thestratabeneaththesurfaceproducedonlytwentysevenotherundiagnosticsherds.
TestPit4
TestPit4(fig.11.5)wasexcavatedatN80/W10atthenorthendofthefourthterraceofUnit19inwhatappearedtobeanunlootedarea.Fourculturalstrataabove
sterilesoil(reachedat117centimeters)produced800sherds.At33.5centimetersbeneaththesurfaceacompactclayeysoil(Stratum3)wasencountered,5
centimetersthick.Twointerpretationsofthissoilarepossible.Oneisthatitisartificialandcorrespondstoanapisonado.Thealternativeinterpretationisthatitis
ayapana,waterloggedsandthathasdriedquicklytoformacompactclayeylayer.Apisonadosandayapanacanlooklikeeachotherandbedifficulttodistinguish.
IfStratum3wereanapisonadoitwouldcorrespondtothesituationencounteredelsewhereinexcavationswhereanapisonadowascharacteristicallylaidoverfill
(Stratum4inthistestpit).Ifitwereayapana,itwouldbeofnaturalorigin.
Ayapanaisrapidlyformedwhereriverorrainwaterpoolsonparcheddesertsand,andasdiscussedinchapter1,therecanbesudden,heavyrainsintheNazca
regioninassociationwiththevaryinglyintensefloodingoftheNazcaRiver.Itissometimesdifficulttodistinguishanayapanafromafloor,butinthelattercasethe
presenceofpostholesandassociatedartifactswouldassistinproperlyinterpretingacompactclayeyfloor.
TheissueinTestPit4iswhetherthecompactsurfaceoverlyingStratum4representsadeliberatelylaiddown

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11.5.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit4.Stratum1:gravellysand
(Munsell10YR7/2).Stratum2:aeoliansand(Munsell
10YR6/3).Stratum3:ayapana(Munsell10YR8/23).
Stratum4:grayloosesandwithsomeorganicmaterials
(Munsell10YR5/41).Stratum5:gravellysand
(Munsell10YR5/2).

floororwhetheritistheresultofoccasionalrainsinthecenturiesfollowingthedeclineofCahuachi.Iamnotcertain.Eitherway,Stratum3sealsthethickStratum4in
whichabundantNasca2and3sherdswerefound.
Stratum5issterile.
TestPit5
TestPit5waslocated47meterssouthoftheUnit16wallinanunboundedopenareathathasnoevidenceoflootingandnosurfaceremains.Onlytensherdswere
foundintheotherwisesterilesoil,andoverthecenturiesthesesherdseasilycouldhavebeentransportedfromUnits2and13furthersouth.At50centimetersbeneath
thesurfacelevel,insterilesoil,theisolatedburialofayoungchildwasfound(fig.11.6).ThisisBurial11(seechap.14).Thereisnoothercontexttothisburial.There
arenoassociatedartifactsotherthanafeworganicmaterialswhichconceivablycouldhaveblowninwhenthechildwasinterred.Theburial,consequently,cannotbe
datedotherthantosayitisprecolumbianonthebasisofthechild'scranialdeformation.

11.6.
ProfileofsouthfaceofTestPit5.Stratum1:aeolian
sand.Stratum2:coarsegravellysand.

11.7.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit6.Stratum1:gravellysand.
Stratum2:verycoarsesandwithrocks.Stratum3:ayapana.
Stratum4:verycoarsesandwithrocks.Stratum5:ayapana.
Stratum6:verycoarsesandwithrocks.

TestPit6
TestPit6(fig.11.7)wasalsolocatedintheopen,unbounded,unlootedareasouthofUnit16.Itwasdelib

Page133

eratelyplacedinthegulleybetweentheslightlymoreelevatedareatothewest(onlinewiththepartofUnit15thatisnaturalhill)andtheareaeast(towardUnit8)so
astodeterminewherethetruenaturalsurfaceofCahuachiisandhowmuchsandaccumulationtherehasbeensincethesite'sabandonment,thisagainintermsof
Petersen's(1980)theoryofclimaticdessication.
Therewerenovisiblesurfaceremains.OnlyeighteenundiagnosticsherdsandonedecoratedearlyNascasherdwererecoveredinthefirst32centimetersof
excavation.Thesecertainlywasheddownintothegulley.Otherwisethepitwassterile.
Atsometimeinthegeologicpasttherehadbeenanepisodeofwater,forat30to35centimetersbeneaththesurfacetherewasanayapanalayer.Therewasno
evidenceofasiltingorsandinginoftheareainwhichTestPit6islocated.
TestPit7
TestPit7wasplaced88meterseastofTestPit6.Itis5meterswestofaverylocalized,lootedcemeteryand45meterssouthofanotherone.Afairamountof
decoratedandplainwaresherdsarefoundonthesurfaceoftheareainwhichTestPit7wasplaced.ThismaterialsurelydescendedfromUnits8and2.The
decoratedsherdsincludepiecesoffinemonochromeNasca2bowls,apanpipefragment,andacouplesherdsofStrong's"LateParacasCahuachiRedandWhite
Decorated"typewhichisactuallyNasca1(seechap.4).
Thetestpithadonespecialfeature.At15centimetersbeneaththesurface,a94centimeterdeepcirculardepression(Feature98)hadbeenexcavatedintothehard
compactsurfaceofStratum3(fig.11.8).Thedepressionwaslocatedinthenorthsideofthepit.Theexcavationwasnotexpandedtoexcavatethewholefeature
sincemorethanhalfofthedepressionwasinthetestpitthedimensionswouldhavebeen1.05by1.20meters.Feature98issimilartoFeatures2,3,4/6,and5inthe
Unit16kancha(seechap.9).Itcontainedloosebrownsandwithabundantvegetalfiberandsmallrocksaswellasafewlargerorganicmaterialsandafewsherds.I
believethatallormostofthecontentsofthedepressionarewindblownanddonotreflecttheoriginalpurposeofthedepression.
TestPit8
TestPit8waslocatedsoastotestathreesidedareadelimitedbythesouthsideofUnit5,thewestsideofUnit8,andthenorthsideofthewesternmostextensionof
Unit8,duenorthofUnit2.ThethreesidedareaseemstobealowbutraisedterracebetweenUnits5,8,and2excavationwasaimedatdeterminingifthatterrace
wasdeliberatelycreatedornatral.Atitssouthendthisareacontainedasmall,looted,postNascacemetery.Theculturalmaterialonthesurfaceseemedtocome
fromthelootedcemetery.IbelievethatinNascatimesthiswouldhavebeenanemptyarea.

11.8.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit7.Stratum1:gravelly
sand.Stratum2:clayeybeigesand.Stratum3:compact,
clayeywhitesand.Stratum4:loosebrownearthwith
abundantvegetalfiber.Stratum5:semihard,compact
beigesand.Stratum6:semihard,semicompact,coarse
graysandwithsomerocks.

Figure11.9showsthatabout1.10metersofstratifiedremainsoverliesterilesoilinTestPit8.Wequicklyswitchedfromexcavatingthistestpitinarbitrary10
centimeterlevelstoexcavatingitbyculturalstratigraphy.
Stratum4yieldedafragmentofplainweavetextiletowhichlittlefragmentsofadobewereadhering.Thisartifactissignificantbecauseitmightindicatehowthefillwas
beingcarriedtothemounds.
OrganicremainsnotablyincreaseinStratum6.TwodecoratedsherdsdatetoNasca2andNasca4(thislattersherdisquitesimilartoavesselillustratedbyEisleb

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11.9.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit8.Stratum1:loosesand.
Stratum2:mediumgrainedsandwhichismorecompact.
Stratum3:ayapana.Stratum4:lightgray,coarse,gravelly
sandwithscantorganicremains.Stratum5:coarsesandof
adarkercolor,scantculturalremains.Stratum6:light
graybrownloosesandwithaclayeytexturecontainssmall
adobefragmentsandsomerocks.Stratum7:fineto
mediumgrainedsandwithabundantorganicremains.
Stratum8:coarse,pinkgray,loosesandwithscantcultural
remainsgoingintosterile.Stratum9:gravel.

1977:fig.107),andthestratumcannotbeearlierthanNasca4.
Stratum7containsnotjusteclecticremainsinaconstructionfillbutdense,richgarbage.Thisgarbageconsistsofabundantcottonfibermasses,coloredthreadsand
sometextilefragments,1245.1gramsofhumanexcrement,and282.8gramsofbotanicalremains(seechap.20)includinghuarango(81.6grams),maize(89.3grams),
gourd(6.6grams),peanut(4.9grams),squash(2.2grams),jquima(5.1grams),limabeans(15.3grams),commonbeans(5.2grams),achira(0.4grams),avocado
(5.7grams),pacae(9.5grams),lcuma(1.3grams),guayaba(1.1grams),aj(0.4grams),vegetalfiber(43.8grams),andmarinealgae(3.2grams).Interestingly,
thereisvirtuallynocharcoal,bone,fragmentsofadobe,orpottery.ThescarcepotterythatistheredatestoNasca2andearlyNasca3.Thisgarbageisquite
concentratedanddoesnotthinouttowardthebottomofthestratum.Rather,itsbaseabutsStratum8,whichisacoarsegrained,pinkishgrayloosesandwithalittle
culturalmaterialfromtheoverlyingstratum.Stratum8overliesasterilegravellayer(Stratum9).
TestPits9and10
Twotestpits,9and10(figs.11.10and11.11,respectively),wereexcavatedwithinthearmsofUnit3totestthatarea.Onaerialphotographsaseeminglyorthogonal
patternisvisible,whichIinterpretedasthefoundationsofagglutinatedrooms.Thesurfaceofthisareawasunlooted,andtherewasnoculturalmaterialonthesurface.
Ithoughttheremainsbelowwouldbeperfectlyintact.
Thetestpitsproducedidenticalresults:absolutelynothingwasrecoveredfromthem.ThesepitsrevealedthenativesoilandoriginalgeologyofthispartofCahuachi.
ThereisnohabitationzoneoranyotherculturaluseofthisareaexceptforthedeliberatemodificationofthehillonwhichUnit3isconstructed(seechap.5).The
orthogonalpatternIperceivedisduetowatererosionthatcreatedgulleys.

11.10.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit9.Stratum1:loose
gravel.Stratum2:loose,soft,coarsesand.Stratum3:loose,
brown,verycoarsesandwithabundantsmallrocks.
Stratum4:fairlyhard,compact,clayeysand(lens).
Stratum5:loose,brown,verycoarsesandwithabundant
smallrocks.Stratum6:caliche.

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11.11.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit10.Stratum1:loosegravel.
Stratum2:fairlycompact,hard,white,clayeysand.Stratum3:
verysoft,loose,finesand.Stratum4:verycoarsebrownsand
withabundantrocks.Stratum5:fairlycompactcoarsesand.
Stratum6:verycoarsebrownsandwithabundantrocks.
Stratum7:caliche.

TestPit11
TestPit11(fig.11.12)waslocated64metersnorthand32meterseastofthenortheasttipofUnit11,justoffcultivatedlandandnortheastofStrong'sBurialArea1.
Thepitwasalmoststerilefromthesurfacedown.Onlyinthetop30centimetersweretherepotsherdstheseprobablydescendedfromUnit11orfromBurialArea1.
Allwereinaveryerodedcondition,perhapsbecauseofwaterfiltrationsoclosetoagriculturalland.Nosherdswerediagnostic,andmostappearedtobeplainware.
TestPits12and17
Unit7wasbulldozedintooblivionafterStrong'sworkatthesite.AlthoughRobertSonin,inhisfieldnotes,complainsthattimedidnotpermitcompleteexcavation,the
moundwasonly10by8meterstobeginwith,andafterthemaintrenchwasputinandlateralextensionswereexcavated,preciouslittlemusthaveremained.I
decidedtolookforanadjacentoccupation,thinkingthatifUnit7hadaspecialpurposehabitation,then"ordinary"domestichabitationmighthavesurroundedit.
Althoughmyworkersandlocalinformantsclaimedthatplowingneverturnedupsherdsorwallfragments,twotestpitswereplacedintheabandonedfield,nearwhere
Unit7hadbeen.
TestPit12(fig.11.13)waslocated66metersnorthofthenortheastedgeofUnit6,abitnorthofwhereUnit7wouldhavestood.Culturalremainswerescarceand
consistedofafewsherdsthatcanbedatedtothelateMiddleHorizonthroughearlyLateIntermediatePeriod.
InTestPit17(fig.11.14)culturalremainswereconfinedtotheupper30centimeters.FiveNasca1sherds,apanpipefragment,andalmostonehundredundiagnostic
sherdswererecovered.Apit,intrusiveintosterilesoil,containedabundantchunksofadobeandafewplainwaresherds.
TestPit13
TestPit13(fig.11.15)wasexcavatedtodeterminethepossibilityofstructuresatthebaseofUnit8.Itislocated44meterswestofUnit8kandfromthatpoint58
metersnorth,justoffagriculturalland.Scarceculturalmaterialwasfoundinthefirst40centimetersofexcavation.ThismaterialincludedtwelveNasca1polychrome
incisedandblackpatternburnishedsherdsaswellasafewearlyNascapiecesthatweretooincompletetophase.Therewerealsoundiagnosticplainwaresherds.
ChunksofadobewerefoundinStratum3.
TestPit14
TestPit14(fig.11.16)waslocatedinamoderncorralinthedescenttoagriculturalland,104metersnorthofthenortheastcornerofa50meterlongtrenchOrefici's
teamhaddugalongthewestsideofUnit10.Thetestpitis26meterseastofthetruelocationofStrong'sGreatClothDeposit(seechap.4).Theupperlevelswere
devoidofculturalmaterial,probablybecausetheyareamodernaccumulationofcorralrefuse.Atalmost40centimetersbeneaththesurfaceafewpiecesoflarge
undiagnosticplainwarepotterywerefound.Otherwise,thepitwassterile.
TestPit15
TestPit15wasplaced88metersnorthofthenorthwesttipofUnitEEonaterracewhichslopesstronglydowntothenorthtowardtheriver.Theriverisquiteclose
tothesiteatthispoint.Amodern,unusedirrigationcanalcutstheextremenortheasterntipoftheareainwhichTestPit15waslocated,revealingapproximately1
meterofsand,rock,andmoderndecayingrootsthatoverliebedrock.Thesurfaceoftheareaiscoveredbyabundantsmalltomediumsizedangularrocksand
cobblesinamatrixofloose,beige,mediumgrainedsand.Theserocksarenothousefoundationsbutratheraretheresult

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11.12.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit11.Stratum1:graybrown
coarsesandwithabundanthuarangoremains.Stratum2:loose,
brown,coarsesand.Stratum3:semicompact,gray,coarsesand.
Stratum4:fine,compact,whiteclaywithsomebigroots.
Stratum5:fine,compact,beigeclay.

11.13.
ProfileofthewestandnorthfacesofTestPit12.Stratum1:beigebrown,loose,finesand
withabundanthuarangoremains.Stratum2:compact,fine,brownsandwithsomerocks.
Stratum3:loosesandwithabundantcobbles.Stratum4:compactwhiteclay.LensA:
semicompact,fine,brownsand.LensB:fairlyloose,coarsesand.

11.14.
Profileofthesouth,west,andnorthfacesofTestPit17.Stratum1:loose,lightbeigesandwithwindblown
organicremainsandsomesherds.Stratum2:large,intrusivepit.Stratum3:compactgraybrownsand
withabundantchunksofadobeandscarcesherds.

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11.15.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit13.Stratum1:loosecoarsesand.
Stratum2:loose,mediumgrained,graysandwithorganicremains.
Stratum3:semicompact,gray,coarsesandwithsomeadobe
fragments.Stratum4:semicompact,semihard,beigeclay.

11.16.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit14.Stratum1:veryfine,loose,
brownsandwithabundanthuarangoremainsandcowturds.
Stratum2:fine,compact,brownbeigesandwithsomeroots.
Stratum3:darkbrown,semicompact,finesandwithabundant
roots.Stratum4:loose,gray,mediumgrainedsand.Stratum5:
finegrainedgraybrownsand.Stratum6:verycoarse,loose,
yellowsand.Stratum7:gray,coarse,semicompactsand.

ofanancientinundationoralluvialaction(JeffreyHsu,personalcommunication1984).TheareaislootedandiscoveredwithalightscatterofearlyNascasherds,
someLateIntermediatePeriodsherds,andplainware.Thereisalsoabitofboneandseveralporousrocksthatappeartobeshapedintolittlemortars.Surface
remainsarehomogeneousthroughoutthearea.IwasattractedtothisareabecauseStrong'sGreatClothDepositwaslocatedhere,almostduenorthofthenortheast
cornerofUnit10,justdownfromandslightlynorthwestofUnitBB1.
CulturalmaterialinTestPit15wasrestrictedtopottery,withtheexceptionofanisolatedburial(Burial12:seechap.14)whichwasdiscoveredinthesterilesandof
Stratum3(fig.11.17).Soastoexcavatetheburial,the1.50by1.50metertestpitwasexpandedandbecameTestPit15Extension(fig.11.18).Then,giventhe
orientationoftheburial,asmallamplificationof50by50centimeterswasdoneinthewestwall.TheexcavationwascarriedoutbyJosPabloBaraybar.
InthesurfacelevelaNasca8rimsherdwasfound.ThisisalmosttheonlyNasca8sherdthusfarrecoveredatCahuachioutsidetheRoomofthePostsonUnit19
(seechap.13).Theotherfewdecoratedsherdsintheupper50centimetersoftheexcavationareNasca2and3therestoftheunitwassterileexceptfortheburial.
Onlyfortythreesherdswererecovered.

11.17.
ProfileofeastfaceofTestPit15.Stratum1:windblownsand.
Stratum2:compact,dark,clayeysand.Stratum3:coarsesand
andgravelwithrocksmeasuring5to20centimetersinsize.

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11.18.
PlanofTestPit15.DrawnbyJosPabloBaraybar.

11.19.
ProfileofwestfaceofTestPit16.Stratum1:loose,fine,
beigesand.Stratum2:finebeigesandthatismorecompact.
Stratum3:fine,graybrown,clayeysand.Stratum4:
loose,fine,beigebrownsand.

11.20.
TheFeature107wholevesselfoundinTestPit16.

TestPit16
TestPit16(fig.11.19)wasexcavatedonthewestsideoftheabandonedagriculturalfieldbehindHugoVerneNavas'shouseatCahuachi(fig.1.4).VerneNavas's
maternalfamilyhadbeenthelasthacendadosoftheoldHda.Cahuachi,andhesaid(personalcommunication1984)thathisgrandmotheralwaysusedtosaythere
wasgoldinthatfieldandthatitshouldn'tbecultivated.Thefieldhadbeenabandonedforalongtime.Iwaskeentotestthefield(notforthegold)becauseitwasina
goodlocationforadomesticoccupation:nearthevalleybottomand100metersduenorthofUnitVV.
Stratum1wasthesurfaceoftheabandonedfield.Onthesurfaceoftheunit,asonthefielditself,therewereabundantpiecesofColonialPeriodpottery.Thispottery
consistsofverythickwheelmadesherdsfiredtoabrightorangeandfrequentlyhavingtracesoftar.Abundantshell,charcoal,andsheepdungwerealsoobservedon
thesurface.
Stratum2wascomposedofmorecompactsandbutstillfineandbeige.Lotsofplainwaresherdswerefound,includingtherecognizableColonialware
Stratum3wasafinegrayishbrownclay,stillwithColonialpottery.
InStratum4,twodiagnosticLateIntermediatePeriodsherdsappeared.
Thepitwentsterileasabeigeybrown,fine,loosesanduntilat98centimetersbeneaththesurfaceanalmostcomplete,small,sooted,undiagnosticutilitarianvessel
(Feature107fig.11.20)wasfoundmouthdowninthesouthwestcornerofthepit.Thevesselmouth

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11.21.
ProfileoftheeastandsouthfacesofTestPit18.Stratum1:loose,gravelly,beigesand.Stratum2:semicompact,brownbeige,
coarsesand.Intrusivepit(3):containssherds,organicmatter,afewthreads,andverysmallpiecesofcharcoal.Stratum4:
ashy,gray,finesand.Stratum5:waterlayered,semicompact,verycoarse,graybrownsand.

restsat108centimetersbeneaththesurface.Excavationcontinued,butnocontextforthisvesselwasfound.Thewatertablewashitat70centimetersbeneathFeature
107.
TestPit18
TestPit18(fig.11.21)is10meterssouthofthemainroadintoCahuachiand52meterseastofthenortheastsideofUnit10.Thistestpitisintheareadefinedby
Units10,AA,andCCDDEE.Theentiresurfaceofthisthreesidedkanchahasthescarcestofculturalremains,andthissituationisfaithfullyreflectedinthe
subsurfacestrataofthetestpitwhereonlyfivesherds,somewindblownorganicmatter,afewthreads,andtentinypiecesofcharcoalwerefoundinanintrusivepitin
whatwasotherwiseacompletelysterileunit.
TestPit19
TestPit19(fig.11.22)wasplaced48metersnorthoftheroad,almostduenorthofTestPit20.Thepitwaslocated

11.22.
ProfileofnorthfaceofTestPit19.Stratum1:veryloose,
mediumgrainedsandwithabundantorganicdebrisfrom
agriculture.Stratum2:semicompact,soft,mediumgrainedsand.

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soastotestanemptysandyfieldjustabovetheriverbottom,wherehuarangosusedtogrowtilltheywerecutdownaboutadecadeagosothatcottoncouldbe
planted.Currently,thefieldisnotincultivation.

11.23.
ProfileofthesouthfaceofTestPit20.Stratum1:
semicompactgravellysand.Stratum2:loosecoarse
sandwithsomerocks.Stratum3:semicompactcoarse
sand.Stratum4:ayapana.Stratum5:loosecoarsesand.
Stratum6:ayapana.Stratum7:graybrownclay.
Stratum8:verycoarsesandandgravel.Stratum9:
bedrock.

11.24.
ProfileofeastandsouthfacesofTestPit21.Stratum1:semicompactcoarsesand.
Stratum2:intrusivepitoffinesand,rocks,andsherds.Stratum3:verycompactwhite
clay.Stratum4:veryloosepowderyclay.Stratum5:finebeigebrownsand.

Level1yieldedonlynineundiagnosticerodedand/orplainwarefragmentsandfivebitsofcharcoal.Level2producednineundiagnosticbodysherdsandan
unidentifiablebonefragment.ApostNascarimandelevenundiagnosticsherdswererecoveredfromLevel3.Level4hadthreeundiagnosticplainwaresherds,an
earlyNascasherdthatistoofadedtophase,andthreefragmentsofunidentifiedbone.Thefewsherdsrecoveredinthistestpitprobablydescendedtothisfield.There
arenootherculturalremains.Thereisnoevidenceofstructuresorgarbage.Thepitwentsterileat40centimeters.
TestPit20
TestPit20(fig.11.23)wasexcavated48meterssouthoftheroad,94meterssoutheastofUnitEE,and42meterswestofthesouthwestedgeofthelootedknoll
calledUnitFF.ItiswithinthethreesidedkanchaformedbyUnitEE,theridge,andthelootedknoll.Onlytheuppertwostratahadculturalremains.Thesewere
extremelyscarce,consistingoffifteenundiagnosticplainwaresherdsandtwoNasca8rims.ThesearetwooftheveryfewNasca8sherdsfoundatthesitebeyondthe
RoomofthePosts.
TestPit21
TestPit21(fig.11.24)waslocatedjustnorthofUnitVV'slowestterrace,100meterseastofthesoutheastcorner

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11.25.
ProfileofwestfaceofTestPit22.Stratum1:loose
sandwithmodernhuarangoremains.Stratum2:loose
sandwithabundantmoderncharcoal.Stratum3:
compactfinesandwithlensesofhardclay.Stratum4:
loosemediumgrainedsandwithashlenses,onellama
bone.Stratum5:gravellysandwithrocks.

11.26.
ProfileofsouthandwestfacesofTestPit23.Stratum1:loosesandwithmodernhuarangoremains.Stratum
2:compacthardclaywithrootintrusions.Stratum3:loosemediumgrainedsand.Stratum4:calichebedrock.

ofCenenGuzmn'shouse,and33meterssouthoftheroad.HereIwaslookingatthepossibilityofhabitationintheunlootedareanorthofUnitVVincontrasttothe
massiveandmassivelylootedareaaroundthatmound.Fromthetop20centimeterscamenineteenundiagnosticplainwaresherds,abrokenhandle,andafragmentof
unidentifiedbone.AnintrusivepitthatappearedasStratum2containedfinesand,rocks,andsomeundiagnosticsherds.
TestPits22and23
TestPits22(fig.11.25)and23(fig.11.26)werelocatedduenorthofTestPit15.Theywereexcavatedonthehuarangocoveredterraceslopingdowntotheriver
withthethoughtthatthiswouldhavebeenanappropriateplaceforpeopletohavelived,nottoooutintheopenandclosetoagriculturallandandwater.Therewas
notasingleartifactonthesurfacetosupportthehypothesisthatthisareahadbeenahabitationlocus,butIthoughtitpossiblethatthedetritusfromthehuarangotrees
mightbecoveringsomething.

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InTestPit22,theonlyculturalremainswereallamaboneinassociationwithalittleashlensinStratum4.
OnlyahandfuloferodedsherdswasfoundinTestPit23.Sterilesoilherewasbedrock,whichexcavationrevealedtodropsharplytothenorth.
TheReservoirExcavation
In1984IhadthegoodfortunetobeabletowatchasRamnEliasinstalledalargereservoirjustnorthofCenenGuzmn'shouse,rightabovetheagriculturalfields
(fig.1.7).Animmenseholewasdug,andinallthedeepearthmovingactivitynoculturalmaterialwaseverbroughttothesurfaceorrevealedinthehole'sprofile.
Conclusions
Themostimportantconclusiontobereachedfromthetestpitsisthatalmostallweresterileoryieldedscarceculturalmaterial.TheprincipalexceptionsareTestPit8,
withitssinglerichstratumofgarbageTestPit2,whoseremainscorrespondtofillandTestPit4,whichhadanenormousamountofpottery,possiblycorresponding
topreviousmortuaryand/orceremonialactivities.
IsolatedburialswerefoundinTestPits5and15IsuspectthatTestPit1alsocorrespondstoaburialcontext.ThefactthatthreeisolatedburialsBurial1intheUnit
16kancha(seechap.9),Burial2inTestPit5,Burial12inTestPit15(aswellaspossiblyintheUnitFexcavation:seechap.10)werediscoveredintheopen
areasatCahuachisuggeststhatotherisolatedburialsexistatthesite(seechap.14).
Thetestpitsdidnotrevealhabitationstructuresandactivityfloors.Onlyonestratumofkitchenmiddenwasfound.AlloftheearlyNascapotterycouldhavebeen
producedbyactivitiesthattookplaceonnearbymoundsor,indeed,intheopenareasthemselves.Noneoftheseactivitiesneedhavebeenofapermanentdomestic
nature.NotalloftheopenareastestedwereusedinearlyNascatimesor,ifused,materialevidenceofearlyNascaactivitieswasnotnecessarilypresent.

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ChapterTwelve
ExcavationofMoundArchitecture
Unit19PriortoExcavation
ExcavationswereconductedontheUnit19moundandatitsbase(figs.12.112.3).TheinvestigationofthearchitectureatopUnit19wasgreatlyhinderedbythefact
thatlootingherewassosevereinplacesastohavevirtuallydestroyedallarchaeologicalcontextand,withit,stratigraphy.Atthebaseofthemoundlootingwasless
severeandexcavationscouldbeconducted.Inaddition,fourtestpits(TestPits14seechap.11)wereexcavatedatthenorthendofTerraceIVandonTerraceV.
Unit19waschosenforexcavationforseveralreasons.AlthoughStrong(1957:fig.4)depictsUnit19asanaturalunmodifiedhill,my1983surveyidentifiedthe
presenceofadobewalls,presumablyformingrooms,onitssurface.Inaddition,alargeamountoffineearlyNascapotterywasobservedonthemoundandonthe
surfaceofthelootedareanorthofit.ThenaturalterracesnorthofUnit19wereamongsomeoftheearliestandmostintensivelylootedpartsofthesite(Kroeberand
Collierms.:III91),andIwantedtoknowwhy.Finally,themoundwasofmanageablesizeformyproject.
TenareasweredefinedatUnit19(fig.12.1):(1)thesummitofUnit19(2)thefirstterrace(I)beneathitonwhichtheuppermostwallsofthemoundwereobserved
(3)thesmallsecondterrace(II)onwhichRoom2waslocated(4)thethirdterrace(III)onwhichPassageway1andRooms1,3,4,5,6,and7werelaterdefined
(5)anunlabeledgentleslopedowntothefourthterrace(6)thefourthterrace(IV)whichconcealedtheRoomofthePostsandwhereatraceofwall(Wall4)running
northsouthwasobservedaswellasseveralotherlongerwallfragmentsrunningeastwest(7)theareawhichsubsequentlybecametheLowerEasternRooms,
locatedeastandbelowTerraceIII(8)thebadlylootedareathatKroebercallsEd(seefig.2.1)(9)thefifthterrace(V)betweenN80andN122whichiswherethe
gridended(10)theunlootedsixth(VI)andseventh(VII)terracesbeyondTerraceVwhichreachdowntothebluffoverlookingthevalleybottom.
TheSummit
ThesummitofUnit19isfairlyflatandnarrowstotheeast.Thefarwesternportionofthesummitisheavilylooted.Itisbeigebrownandiscoveredbymorerocks
thantheeasternside.Lootinghasbroughttothesurfaceplainware,decoratedearlyNascasherds,plainanddecoratedtextiles,camelid(llama)bone,andhuman
bone.Theworkerssuggestedthatthebrokenplainwarecamefromurnburialsevidenceofalootedburial(Burial6)ofthistypewassubsequentlyfoundinRoom2
(seebelowandchap.14).Thereareabundantpiecesofunworkedpetrifiedwoodinthisarea.Alsoobservedwereunworkedshellandafewfragmentsofwhatmight
havebeenstonemortars.
Thegrayishbrowneasternsideofthesummitismuchlesslooted,andthereismuchlessbone.Moreartificialconstructionisvisibleonthesurfaceoftheeasternside
ofthemoundthanonthewesternside.
TerraceI
TerraceIdisplaysseveraltracesofadobewallsrunningnorthsouthandeastwest.Theadobewallsvaryin

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12.1.
PlanofUnit19priortoexcavationbutwithlocationoftheRoomofthePostsindicatedindashedlines.Thefixeddatumfor
theUnit19excavationsisshownbytheblacktriangle.ThelocaldatumwhichestablishedourNO/WOpointisindicated
bythearrow.MappedbyBernardinoOjeda.

thicknessfrom70to90centimeters.Heightandlengthcouldnotbedeterminedbecauseofearthoverburden.Inadditiontotheplainanddecoratedsherdsobserved
onthesurfaceofthisterrace,therewereseveralsomewhatflattenedrockswithred(hematite?)stainsonthem.RecallthatFeature16(beneathBurial1intheUnit
15Cexcavations:seechap.9)hadarocksimilarlystainedred.
TerraceII
TerraceIIisquitesmall.Itisdefinedonthebasisoftransversewallfragments,whichappeartoformrooms.TheseroomsarelocatedabovemajorWall68,which
formsthesouthwallofRoom1andwhich,whenitturnsnorth,createsPassageway1(definedbyWalls58and62).InthebestpreservedroomsofTerraceII,room
dimensionsrangedfrom2to3meterswide.Atleasttwokindsofadobeswereusedinroomconstructionhere,conicalandsquare/rectangular.Thereisaclearpattern
ofhuarangopostsinthecornersoftheserooms.Inonecase,thetypicalCahuachipatternofawider,centralhuarangopostsurroundedbynarrowtubesofcanewas
observed.Thesecornerpostsweresecuredinafoundationofadobe.
TerraceIIpetersoutabout10meterseastoftheeasternwallofPassageway1toblendwithTerraceIII.

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12.2.
CrosssectionsofUnit19(referbacktofig.12.1).DrawnbyBernardinoOjeda.

TerraceIII
TerraceIIIisdelimitedbymajorWalls68,45,and200.1 Thisareaisbadlylooted,butwewereabletocleartheaccumulatedsandandlootedremainsfillingRooms
2,3,4,5,6,and7usingshovelsand,whereworthwhile,trowelscontrolledexcavationscouldnotbeconductedintheserooms.Cleaningoutwindblownandlooter
transportedsandfromtheseroomswasavaluableexercise,forinthiswaythearchitecturalplanofpartofthemoundwasrevealed(fig.12.3).Onthebasisofthis
evidence,pluswhatthelootersbrokeandleftbehind,certaininterpretationsofthedateofconstructionandnatureandfunctionofUnit19canbemade.Room1is
discussedlaterinthischapter,foritwaspossibletoexcavatethere.
Room2
Room2,investigatedbyMiguelPazos,wasrecognizedbysurfacetracesofwallsandhuarangocornerpoststhatwerevisiblepriortoexcavation(fig.12.1).Upon
removaloftheoverlyinglootedanddisturbedearth,thehuarangocornerpostswereclearlyrevealed.Eachoneissetinarectangularmassofadobe.Thesouthwallof
theroomisacontentionwallforthemound.
OnthelootedsurfaceofRoom2weobservedabundantNasca2and3decoratedsherdslithicsfragmentsofbone,shell,andtextilevariousorganicmaterialsanda
coupleofpossiblypigmentstainedrocks.Thecauseoflootingwassubsequentlydiscovered,forinthecenteroftheroomwerethelootedremainsofthecaneandlog
roof(barbacoa)ofaonceintacttomb,Burial3.Thelootershadcomeinfromtheside,andthetombwasempty.However,clearingthistombledtothediscoveryof
aseriesofintactburialsdescribedinchapter14.
Room3
TheentireinteriorofRoom3islooted(fig.12.4).Allsandwassifted,however,andtherecoveredartifactsaredescribedinchapters16through19.Potsherdsdating
toNasca2through4andoneNasca7sherdfromadeepflaringbowlwerealsorecovered.
AlowadobebenchencirclestheoutsideperimeterofRoom3.Wheretheshapeoftheadobescanbedetermined,weseebricksofanalmostconicalshapeanda
moreflattenedform.Theadobesareplacedwiththeir

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12.3.
PlanofarchitecturerevealedatUnit19.Onlymajorarchitecturalfeaturesarelabeled(fordetailedviewseefig.12.7).

widerendfacinginandarelaiduphorizontallyratherthanverticallyorsideways.Sincethewideendpointsin,thereisawidergapbetweentheadobesontheexterior
faceofthewallthanintheheartofthewall,17centimetersasopposedto7centimetersinonevisiblesectionofthewall.Butthebasallayerofthewalls,visibleinthe
interiorsideoftheeastwall,hasadobesofsubconicalshapethatwerelaidupvertically.Theseadobesareseparatedbyabout10centimetersofspacethatisfilledin
withadobemortar.Ontopofthiswallwasplacedanotherlayerofadobemortar.Themortarcontainsmanysmallrocksorpebbles.Thepatternoferosionofthis

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12.4.
LookingsouthatthebadlydamagedRoom3atopUnit19.
Notehowlootershavedugunderthesouthwallofthisroom.
Theroomisfilledwithaeoliansand.

layerofadobemortarsuggeststhatthemortarwasslappedoninlumps,thefissurelinespossiblyindicatingthatthislayerwasnotwellsmoothed.Oritmayhavebeen
asmoothedsurfacethathasmerelyerodedinthismannerovertime.Giventhepresenceofafinerplasteringonmanyofthewallsinthissector,itispossiblethatthis
roomwaslikewisefinished.
LootershavetotallyremovedeverylasttraceofRoom3'sfloor,andtheybrokethesouthwalltodigunderit.Thisdepredationrevealsthatthesouthwallwasof
massiveconstruction,80centimetersthick,althoughnothigh,approximately1meter.ThesouthwallandtheareaadjacenttoWall68arecoveredwithadenselayer
ofadobeandfiberfill.
TheaccesstoRoom3couldnotbedeterminedasitswallsarebadlybrokenonthewesternandnorthernsides,butaccessdoesnotappeartobethroughtheeastor
southwalls.
Room4
Room4hadgoodNasca3and4sherdsandaceramicbeadonitslootedsurfacepriortocleaning.Room4isthemostdestroyedofthethreesmallrooms(Rooms3,
4,and5).Allsandwasscreened,andthepreservedarchitectureandartifactswererecorded(seechaps.1619).
AswithRooms3and5,wedonotknowthenatureofaccessintoRoom4.InthecaseofRoom4thisisbecausethesouthandwestwallsarebrokenandthenorth
wallismissing.ThesouthwallofRoom4andthenorthwallofRoom5arebrokeninthesameplace.
Room4isseparatedfromRoom3byanarrowspaceofonly14centimeters.IfIamcorrectinidentifyingabrutalizedwallfragmentasrepresentingwhatisleftofthe
northwallofRoom4,thenRoom4wasseparatedfromRoom5byaspacealmostasnarrow.Onthewestsidealargeovoidadobewasplacedtoblockthe
neverthelesstoonarrowtobetransitedpassage.TheovoidadobeisashapenotmentionedbyStrongovoidadobesseemespeciallypopularatcornersinUnit19's
architecture.
ThesouthwallofRoom4hadamaximumheightof80centimeterstheeastwall(andwestwall?)was70centimetershigh.Thesewallswerethickbutnothigh.In
fact,reconstructiblefloorlevelindicatesalowwallheightofonlysome50centimeterswhenthefloorwasinuse(iftherewereearlierandlaterfloors,notraceofthese
remains).
ThebestpreservedwallofRoom4isitseastwall.Herewecanseethatthewallwasbuiltuponloose,finegrained,beigebrownsandwithlotsofsmallrocksand
adobefragments(fig.12.5).Notraceofafloorunderthewallwasfound.Thewalliscomposedofonehorizontalrowoflargeadobesontopofwhichhavebeen
placedsmaller,rounderadobes.Theadobesareallmoreorlessconical,eachoneseparatedatthebasefromthenextby6to14centimeters.Themortarplaced
betweentheadobesisthesameasthatwhichcoverstheadobes.IncontrasttothemortarofRoom3,thisroom'smortarhasfewpebbleinclusions.
Room5
Room5isthenorthernmostofthethreesmallrooms.Itisalsothebestpreservedwithitsnorth,east,andsouthwallsintactandalmostundamaged.Room5

12.5.
EastwallofRoom4.Notehowthiswellbuiltwallrests
directlyonloosesandcontainingsmallrocksandadobefragments.
Thereisnootherfoundation.Theadobeswereoriginallycovered
withathickmortarofthesamematerialofwhichtheyaremade.

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12.6.
TheeastwallofRoom5slopesdownsharplytothenorth.

istheonlyroomwithatraceofitsoriginalfloor,inthiscaseastinyfragmentsinthenortheastandsoutheastcornersandonthewestsideofthesouthwallinafragment
measuring30by15centimeters.Thesepreservedwallandfloorfragmentsindicatethat,asinRoom4,theRoom5wallsdonotrestonafloor.Rather,thefloorabuts
thebaseofthewallthewallsrestonalayer(ofundetermineddepth)ofloosesoil,adobefragments,andsmallrocks.
Maximalwallheight(interiordimension)isfoundinthesoutheastcorner,whereitis72centimeters.Theeastwallslopessharplydowntothenorthanddeclinesin
heighttoonly40centimetersatitsnorthend(fig.12.6).AswithRoom4,theeastandwestwallsarethickerthantheotherwallstheymeasure67centimetersin
width.
AdobesofdistinctsizeshavebeenusedinRoom5,allmadeofthesamematerial.Therearenoyellowadobes.Thelargestvisibleadobeisinthesouthwestcornerof
theroomitmeasures30by33centimeters(itsthicknesswasunmeasurable).
Theplasteringcoveringtheadobewallsisthesamematerialasthemortarbetweentheadobes.Theplasteringitselfdoesnotexceed4centimeters,butwhereitis
insertedbetweenadobesitcanbe11to12centimetersthick.
Itwasdifficulttodefinetheinner(south)sideofthenorthwallofRoom5andthemiddlepartoftheoutersideofthisnorthwall.Thisisbecauseadobesdonotappear
tohavebeenusedexceptasthetopcourse.Rather,aplasterofadobemortarwasplacedonthefaceofafairlycompactbuthighlydisintegratablewallofearth,
rocks,andadobefragmentsthisconstructiontechniqueiscommoninNazcatodayandiscalledtarajeo.Whentheplasterfelloffovertime,therewasvirtuallyno
evidenceofawall.Theonlyindicationisaslightlymorecompactsoilincomparisontowhatisagainstit.OverthiskindofwallonthenorthsideofRoom5asingle
courseofovoidadobeswasplaced,onlytheeasternendofwhichispreserved.
ThereisanarrowspacebetweenthenorthwallofRoom5andWall46.
InadditiontohighqualityNasca2,3,and4pottery,afinespindlewhorlandatinyshellbeadwererecoveredfromthesandfillingRoom5.
Room6
Rooms6and7wereoncethesamelongroom.TheywereseparatedintotworoomsbytheadditionofWall101/102runningnorthfrommajorWall200(fig.12.7).
Wall101/102isonly17centimetershigh.
TheloosedirtandsandfillingRoom6wereremoved.FromthelootedcenterofRoom6,Nasca1and2potterywasrecovered.Clearingrevealedthatonlythe
centeroftheroomhadbeenlootedthewestandeastsidesoftheroomwereintact.Thelootedcenterprovidedauseableverticalprofileoftheroom'sstratigraphy.
Thereisanupperapisonadothatisquitethin,only1centimeter.Alayeroffillunderliesthisupperapisonado.Thisfilliscomposedofamatrixofgrayishbrowncoarse
sandwithsmallpebblesandsomeorganicremainssuchasmaizecobs,maizesheaths,andvegetalfiberropemadeofPennisetun(carricillo).Canewasobserved
stuckbetweenabundant,largefragmentsofgroovedorburnedadobes.Thefillalsocontainedalargepieceofmicaandlargelumpsofwhatmaybepigment.There
weretextileandpanpipefragmentsinthefillaswellasNasca2and3sherds.
Iamnotsurehowtointerpretthefill.Itmayhavebeendeliberatelyplacedintheroomoverthelowerfloor(seebelow).ThedamagetothewesternwallofRoom6
(theeastsideofWall62)couldhaveoccurredwhenthefillwasputin,therebyaccountingfortheadobes.Itispossiblethatthecanesweretiedwiththefiberropeand
couldbeafallenroof.Perhapstheadobefragmentsareaverythickdaubandthesourceofthisfillisadestroyedstructure.
AnalternativeexplanationinterpretsthismaterialasconstructionfillonthegroundsthatWall62(Passageway1)whichformsthewestwallofRoom6waslaidover
anearlierstructure.Thejunctionbetweentheupperwestwall(Passageway1)andtheunderlyingearlierwallwasintendedtobecoveredoverwithplaster.Thefillhad
beenplacedupagainsttheearlierwall,and,over

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12.7.
EnlargeddetailedplanofUnit19'sarchitecture(derivedfromfig.12.3).

Page150

theyears,theplastereroded.ThematerialunderthePassageway1wallisthesameasthatinthefill.Isuggestthattherewasanearlierwall,Wall134,under
Passageway1whichwascontainedbyaclassicplastering.Ihavenofurtherexplanationforthismatter.
Underthisfillthereisatruefloor.Thislowerfloorisquitethickandwaslaidintwolayers.Eachlayeris6.5centimetersthick,givingatotalof13centimetersforthis
earlierfloorsurfaceinRoom6.Apparently,thebuilderslaiddownonewetlayerofcleanmudortierrabarrial,waitedforittodry,andthenlaidthesecondlayeron
topofit.Thiscreatedadensehardfloorthatcouldberemovedonlywithahandheldpickax.Thisisoneofthebestfloorsencounteredduringexcavationsat
Cahuachi.Thelowerfloorwaseitheraccidentallyordeliberatelybrokeninantiquitywhencoveredoverwiththefill.
OriginallytherewasadoorwayinthesouthwallofRoom6whichwaslaterblocked.Only65centimeterswide,thedoorwaygaveaccesstothetopofUnit19.Entry
toRoom6itselfwasthroughatortuousaccessroutefromPassageway2below.Theentrancesthroughthatzigzagatnotimeexceeded56centimetersinwidth.
Thesouthwallinwhichtheoriginaldoorwaywaslocatedhada2centimeterthicklayerofplaster.Thisplasterwasappliedtoemphasizeortocreateroundedcorners
forthedoorway.Partsoftheplasterarewhitewashed.ThisisoneoftheveryfewinstancesofcoloredwallsobservedatCahuachi.2
AgroupofAulacomyaatershells(Feature100)wasfoundinashallowdepression(9centimetersdeep)inthelowerflooralongthesouthwallofRoom6(seechap.
21).TheshellswereplacedjustinfrontofthefillblockingthedoorwayinthesouthwallofRoom6.Thisfillwascomposedofchunksofadobeinloosesandit
containedalightamountoforganicmaterial(pacaepods,cane,sticksofuadegato),somehair,andNasca2and3sherds.Thisisthesamefillasthatfoundbetween
thelowerfloorandtheupperapisonado.
Thereweretwocylindricaldepressionsornichesinthenorthwall(Wall113)ofRoom6,Feature101(theeasternone)andFeature102(thewesternone).Both
nicheswerefilledwithsmall,fairlyuniformlysized,somewhatroundrocks,5to7centimetersindiameter.Bothnichesappearedtohavebeendeliberatelysealedby
amorphousmudsurfaces.Thenichesaresimilartotheone(Feature42)discoveredintheLowerEasternRoomsinWall78(seebelow).However,thesearelarger
andnotaswellfinished.ThebaseofFeature102couldnotbedetermined,butitappearstobethesamekindoffeatureasFeature101,whichis39centimetershigh.
OntheeastsideofFeature102,attheouteredgeoftheniche,asmallcirculardepressionwascreatedthisisFeature103.Thedepressionis20by18centimeters
acrossand14.5centimetersdeepitappearstohavebeencreatedsubsequentlytotheformationofFeature102.Asmallwallfragment,Wall135,abutsWall113.
Theremaybeanearlierwall,Wall136,underlyingthis.Feature103wouldappeartobeassociatedwithWall135.
ThefillunderlyingthelowerfloorofRoom6isaloose,lightbrownsandwithlotsoforganicmaterialbutonlyscantotherculturalremains(afewlooseadobe
fragments,afewundiagnosticsherds,someNasca2and3sherds,andfragmentsofnettedtextiles).
AlthoughthewestwallofRoom6slopesdowntothenorth,thecorrespondingdescentinfloorlevelfromthepreservedfloorfragmentsintheroomisnotpresent.The
lowerfloor,forinstance,isonly6centimetersloweronthenorthsideoftheroomthanonthesouth.Thisdiffers,then,fromthesituationinRoom1wheretheinclineof
theeastwallwasmirroredbyaslopedfloorlevel.
Room7
Room7ismassivelylooted,andtherearePennisetuncanesinthecenteroftheroom,probablyfromtombroofs.Nasca1,2,and3decoratedwarewasrecovered
fromtheloosesandfillingtheroom.
Wall200,amajorwall,formsthesouthwallofRoom7.Itisuneveninheight,varyingby47centimetersalongitseastwestlength.ThenorthwallofRoom7isWall
100.It,too,isunevenandvariedinheightby27centimetersalongitseastwestlength.TheeastwallofRoom7is186centimeterswideand47centimetershigh.It
wasanaccesstotheLowerEasternRoomsthatwasblockedinantiquitywithanadoberubblefillplugmeasuring74centimeterswide.
TerracesIVVII
ThewestsideofTerraceIVisseverelylooted,soinvestigationconcentratedonthelesslootedeasternside.ThisiswhereExcavations6and7wereconducted(see
below)andwheretheRoomofthePostswasexcavated(seechap.13).
LootingcontinuedinlessenedformonTerraceV.TerracesVIandVII,however,arevirtuallyunlooted,andalmostnoartifactswereobservedontheloosesandy
surfacehere.TerraceVIIiscoveredwithmodernremainsofcharcoalmakinganddecayinghuarangopodsandleaves.Thereisanoticeabledropinsurfacelevel
betweenTerracesIVandVandTerracesVandVIandfromtheretoTerraceVII.

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12.8.
MiguelPazos'sprofileofExcavation6.Southface.

12.9.
MiguelPazos'sprofileofexcavationsquareN2022/W24inExcavation6.

TheUnit19Grid
WeplacedacementmarkeratopthesummitofUnit19(shownonfig.12.1),butwedecidedthatdatumwastoofarfromwhereweplannedtoexcavateandso
establishedasecondarydatumlowerdownthemoundbyimplantinganailintheimmovablewestwallofPassageway1.ThislocaldatumbecameourN0/W0pointit
controlledthegridandexcavationsdescribedbelow.
ExcavationsattheBaseofUnit19onTerraceIV
Excavation6
AtrenchrunningfromN2022/W4toN2022/E6wasexcavatedbyMiguelPazos(figs.12.3,12.8,12.9).Heinterpretsthestratigraphyandassociatedremainsas
constructionfillandnaturallydepositedsand.ThisinterpretationisconfirmedbythemultiplephasesofearlyNascapotteryfoundwithintheexcavatedstrata.
Atthewestendofthistrench,inStratum5,thetopofanorthsouthrunningwall,Wall3,wasdiscovered.Wall3is20centimetershigh.Itswestsidehadbeen
brokeninantiquitybyconstructionofacirculardepression,Feature22.ExcavationwasexpandedtothewestintoN2022/W46tofollowthesefeatures(figs.
12.10,12.11).
Wall3turnswest,formingacorner,tobecomeWall27/28(fig.12.10).3 Wall3andWall27/28restonStratum7,whichisahard,compact,beigewhiteclayey
sandcorrespondingtoanapisonado(fig.12.9).ThisisalsothefloorofWall13/17(definedinExcavation7:seebelowfig12.12)theapisonadoisdevoidof
artifactualmaterials.

Page152

Walls3and27/28aremadeofconicaladobeswhoseflatroundbasesformtheoutside.Theadobesareinsertedintoamortarofthesamematerial.Theexterior
surfaceofthewallwasmudplastered.TheroomofwhichWalls3and27/28areapartwasbrokeninantiquitybyFeature22(figs.12.812.10).Feature22was
excavatedintoStratum8,thenatural,sterile,sedimentaryrock.DestructionoftheWall327/28roombyFeature22appearstohaveoccurredpriortotheerectionof
Wall5.
Inshapeandcontents(savetheabsenceofabody)Feature22wouldappeartoconformtoatomb.Theassociatedremainsarealumpofadobe,cane,partofashell,
awholegourdbowlwhichrapidlydisintegratedbutpossiblycontainedpacaeleaves,andawholeguineapigskeletonandexcrementwhichwerelocatedonthefloor
ofalittlenichedugintothesedimentarydeposit

12.10.
PlanofExcavation7showingwallsrevealed.

12.11.
ProfileofunitN2022/W46inExcavation7.

12.12.
SequenceandrelationshipofwallconstructioninExcavation7.
AllwallstakenoutofusebythethickStratum3chala
(vegetalfiber)fill.

Page153

formingtheeastwallofFeature22.ThesedimentarydepositintowhichthetombhadbeenexcavatedunderliespartsoftheareaonwhichtheUnit19complexrests.
PacaeleavesareatypicalcomponentofNascatombs(Tello1917),andtheadobelumpisaplugofthetombortapn,similartoonefoundwithBurial12inTestPit
15(seechap.11).Theguineapigwouldhavebeenanoffering.TheadobesurelycamefromWall3orWall27/28,whichwasdamagedbytombconstruction.There
isnoevidencethatthetombwaslootedinantiquityormoderntimes.Ithinkthattheguineapigwasthefirstoffering,afterwhichitwasdecidednottousethetomb.
ThesizeoftheWall327/28roomisundeterminedbecausetheroomwasbrokeninantiquitytomakethetomb.Nevertheless,itmayhavebeenrathersmall.This
roomwouldhavehadnorelationshipwiththeUnit19architecturalcomplexbecausestratigraphicallyitantecedesit.
InthenortheastcorneroftheN2022/W24excavationsquareanintrusivepocketofgarbagewasfoundwhichcontainedabundantorganicmaterial,shell
(Mesodesmadonacium,Aulacomyaater,Choromytiluschorus,Tegulaatra,andProtothacathaca),finedecoratedearlyNascapottery,andadobefragments.
OntheeastandapparentlyexteriorsideofWall3therewasalargeconcentrationofdecoratedNasca3sherds.
Excavation7
InordertobetterunderstandthefeaturesrevealedonthewestsideofExcavation6,excavationwasextendedtothenorth(toN24)andsouth(toN18)thisis
Excavation7(figs.12.10,12.1212.14).
Stratum1isaloose,finetomediumgrained,whitishbeige(Munsell10YR8/23)sand.Wall4protrudestothesurface.
Stratum2isasemicompact,coarse,gray(Munsell10YR7/1),windblownsandwithsmallrocksthatcouldbecalledgravel.ThetopofWall5appearsinthisstratum.
Therearescantorganicremains.
Stratum3isacoarsetomediumgrainedsandwhichcontainsabundantmaizesheaths(chala)creatingadenselayermixedwithvirtuallynootherremainsexcept
piecesofvegetalfiberrope,fragmentsofadobe(someofwhicharecanemarked),andafewdiagnosticsherds(Paracas10,Nasca1,2,3,4,5).Stratum3isclearly
avegetalfiberfillthatwasdeliberatelydepositedbetweenWalls4and5(fig.12.15).ThemaizesheathfillcoverstheStratum4apisonadoandfillsthelongnarrow
room,therebytakingitoutofuse.Analternativeexplanationwouldbethatthesemaizesheathspertainedtoafallenthatchedroof.Butthisinterpretationislesslikely
becausesmallfiberropesarefoundinthevegetalfiberfill(unlesstheselacedthevegetalfibertogetherfortheroof)andbecausethisdensityofvegetalfiberforaroof
seemsdisproportionatetothenarrowareathatwouldhavebeencovered.ThisstratumcannotbeearlierthanNasca5becauseNasca5potterywasfoundinit.

12.13.
PlanofExcavation7showingStratum4
apisonadolaidatopWall13/17.

Stratum4istheapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/3)uponwhichWall4rests.Atthesametime,Wall7wasadded(figs.12.10,12.12).Itwasatthistime
thatthehypotheticallongnarrowroomformedbyWalls4,5,and6wouldhavebeencreated(fig.12.13).ThenorthwallmayberepresentedbythetinyWall7
fragment.Thepurposeofthisroomisunknownsinceitsapisonadowascleanwherenotbroken.ThenarrowroompostdatesWall13/17whichunderliestheStratum
4

Page154

12.14.
LookingnorthatExcavation7.NoteWall13/17.Inthe
foregroundisthenorthedgeoftheFeature22emptytomb.

apisonadounderlyingWall4.Wall4wasbuiltsubsequentlytoWalls5and6(fig.12.15).
Stratum5isafillthatwasdeliberatelyplacedoverStratum6,thecleanapisonadouponwhichWall5rests.Thus,theoriginalfloorwasfilledinanditsheightraisedto
providethefoundationforthesubsequentconstructionofWall4.TheStratum5fillalsocoveredthebrokenWalls3and27/28.Thefilliscomposedofsand,
charcoal,vegetalfiber,fiberrope,andabundantadobefragments.TwoNasca3sherdsandaNasca1bowlfragmentwererecoveredfromthisfill.
Stratum6istheunlabeledapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/34)infigure12.12(Stratum7inExcavation6).Awallfragment,Wall13/17,contemporary
withWalls3and27/28wasfoundrestingonit.Wall13/17isoverlainbytheStratum4apisonadowhichunderliesWall4(figs.12.12,12.14).
Stratum7underliestheStratum6apisonadoandissimilartothefillinStrata3and5.Nophasediagnosticpotterywasrecoveredfromit.
Stratum8issterilesoil.

12.15.
Crosssectionshowingthickfillslaidaboveapisonados
betweenWalls4and5inExcavation7.Lookingsouth.

ConclusionsaboutTerraceIV
Itispossiblethatotherrooms,suchasthoserepresentedbyWalls327/28andWall13/17,underliethedeepdirtcoveringthefourthterraceofUnit19.Massive
clearingofthisoverburden,muchofitlooted,wouldberequiredtodeterminetheexistence,function,andnatureofsuchpossiblearchitecture.Inasmuchasthesewalls
restimmediatelyonsterilesoil,thisarchitecturemustrepresenttheearliestuseofthispartofthesite.ThedateofconstructionisunknownthoughnotlaterthanNasca
3.Thisisnotanovertlydomesticlocus,unliketheunambiguousNasca1habitationzonethatStrongdiscoveredunderlyingUnits5and6(seechap.4)
ExcavationinRoom1
ThesandfillingRoom1ontheUnit19moundcontainedabundantfineNasca3potteryonitssurfaceaswellassomeNasca2,4,and5sherdsandafewpiecesof
lovelyNasca1polychromeincisedpottery.Inaddition,therewerepanpipefragments,paintedcaneshafts,andagourdfragmentwhoseinteriorwasstainedredby
themineral(hematite?)itoncecontained.
Anareameasuringapproximately60squaremeterswascleared,asmeasuredfromWall58(theeastwallofRoom1)totheeastwallsofRooms3,4,and5andfrom
Wall68(thesouthwallofRoom1)tothenorthendofRoom1.Wall58formsthewestwallofPassageway1.ThewestwallofRoom1wasnotdefinedbecauseitis

Page155

overlainbyamassivefill.Wall68,thesouthwallofRoom1,isthemajorsouthretainingwallofTerraceIII(fig.12.1).Wall58inclinessharplydowntothenorthas
dotheeastandwestwallsofRooms3,4,and5andtheRoomofthePosts(seechap.13).ThisinclineisparalleledbytheuppermostapisonadoofRoom1which,
fromsouthtonorth,drops51centimetersoverthe9.5meterlongdistance.
Walls58and68aremajorwallsthatareparticularlyfinebyCahuachistandards.Theyarewellfinishedandwellmade.Theiradobeconstructionisquiteregular.The
wallswerelaidinrowsofmostlyrectangularadobeswithroundedcorners,butotherformswerealsoobserved.Theadobescontainsmallrockinclusionsandare
separatedfromoneanotherbyamortarofthesamematerial.Overtheadobesweretwolayersofmudplasteringandafinalthinwash.Thefirstplastering,composed
ofthesamematerialastheadobesthemselves(includingsmallrockinclusions),smoothedthesurfaceofthewall.Thesecondcoatingofthesameadobematerial
(approximately910centimetersthick)providedayetmoreevensurfaceforafinal,almostwhite(Munsell10YR8/1)washthatis1to2millimetersthick.
Asuperficialwall,Wall55/56,raneastwestfor4.25metersacrossthemiddleofRoom1.ThewallisclearlyaverylateadditionthatdividesRoom1intoanorthern
andsouthernarea.Themaximumwidthofthiswallis55centimeters.Becauseofitspoorstateofpreservation,itisnotcertainifthewholewallwouldhavehadthis
width.Itsmaximumheightof25centimetersisprobablyclosetoitsoriginalstature.Thewallrestsonanapisonado.
Excavation8
A2by1meterprobewasexcavatedbetweenWalls55/56and58soastobetterunderstandtheconstructionhistoryoftheUnit19mound.
Stratum1isafairlyloose,finegrained,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/3)sandmixedwithchunksoffallen,brokenadobe.Therewasasignificantamountof
organicmaterialandafewsherdsinthisuniformlayer.Afterweremovedthiswindblownsand,adestroyedwall,Wall59/60,appeared(fig.12.16).Thiswallabutted
Wall58andranwestfromit.Theexcavationunitstraddlesthiswall.
Wall58wasbuiltrightontopofWall59/60.Wall59/60seemstogounderWalls58and62(theeastwallofPassageway1)Wall62wasformedbyafewbig
adobes,subconicaladobes,andsomeirregularadobechunks.

12.16.
ProfileofeastfaceofExcavation8.

ThepreservedwidthofWall59/60is40centimetersitsheightisabout35centimetersitspreservedlengthis75centimeters.Wall59/60didnotrestonafloor.
Rather,itliesonthefinegrainedsandofStratum1withoutfurtherpreparation.
Stratum2isafine,loose,sterilesand.
Stratum3isamorecompactfinesandcontainingsomevegetalfiber.
Stratum4isanapisonado(lightgrayishbrown:Munsell10YR7/1)onwhichthereareorganicstainsandaclusterofburnedrocksthatcorrespondtoahearth(Feature
30).Asmallcirculardepression16centimetersindiameterand14.5centimetersdeepwasdefinedonthesouthsideofWall59/60intheStratum4apisonado.The
depressionisprobablyaposthole.
Stratum5isayellow(Munsell10YR8/6),slightlycompact,clayeysoilatthetopofwhichwerescarcevegetalfiber,somellamadung,androcks,butnoother
remains.Itrapidlyturnedsterile.
Excavation9
AnotherprobewasexcavatedinRoom1.Thiswasa2by2meterunitthatwasexcavatedinthesoutheastcorneroftheroombetweenWalls58and68.The
excavationrevealedaseriesofsuperimposedapisonadosseparatedbyfills(fig.12.17).
Stratum1isthesurfacesand.
Stratum2isanapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR7/3)andrepresentsthelatestoccupationofRoom1.Thisapisonadohadbeenbrokeninantiquityto
createthecistintowhichFeature21,atrophyhead,hadbeenplaced(figs.12.17,12.18seechap.15formoredetailsonthetrophyheaditself).Atthetimeofthis
up

Page156

12.17.
ProfileofeastandsouthfacesofExcavation9showingsuccession
offills(Strata3,5,7,9)andapisonados(Strata2,4,6,8,10).

12.18.
Feature21trophyheadinsituincistexcavatedintouppermost
apisonado(Stratum2ofExcavation9)inRoom1atopUnit19.
Notetheburlapbaginwhichtheheadhadbeenplacedandthe
longcarryingcordemergingfromthehead.

permostapisonado,theheightofthemajorbackwalloftheroom,Wall68,wasonly120centimeters.
Stratum3isafillofadobewallfallmixedwithwindblownorganicmaterialandloosesandinthisstratumwasfoundasherdbearingadiagnosticNasca5
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeing.TheFeature21trophyheadcannotantedateNasca5.ThissherdalsosupportstheindependentargumentthattheRoomofthe
PostswasbuiltnoearlierthaninNasca4times(seediscussionofExcavation19inchap.13)sincethebackwalloftheRoomofthePosts,Wall45,iscoveredby
Room1'sStratum2apisonado.Stratum3separatestheStrata2and4apisonados.
Stratum5isafine,loose,sterile,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/3)sandwhichseparatestheStrata4and6apisonados.
TheStratum6apisonado(white:Munsell10YR8/2)isthefloorofthebaseofWall58ofPassageway1.ThewallwasbuiltontheStratum7fill.
Stratum7isafilloffinebrown(Munsell10YR5/3)sandwithabitofvegetalfiber,charcoal,andtinyfragmentsofadobewhichwasplacedbetweentheStrata6and
8apisonados.
TheStratum8apisonadoisthefloorforthebaseofWall68(thebackwallofRoom1).Asmallhearth(Feature31)isassociatedwiththisfloor.
Stratum9isafillofloose,brown(Munsell7.5YR5/2)finegrained,softsandwhichseparatestheapisonadosofStrata8and10.Thissandhasashinclusionsanda
smallamountofvegetalfiber.Italsocontainsinclusionsofsemihard,semicompact,orangeyclayfragments,perhapscorrespondingtothefallfromawall.Nasca3
sherdswererecoveredfromthisfill,includingaprobableNasca3CSpottedCatfragment.ItwasonthisstratumthatWall68wasconstructed.

Page157

Stratum10wasthefirstapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/4)laid,anditantedatestheconstructionofRoom1.Beneaththisapisonadosterilesoil(Stratum
11)washit.
OnthebasisoftheabovestratigraphyitcanbesuggestedthatRoom1wascreatedwhenWall58wasabuttedtothemajorWall68.TheoriginaleastwallofRoom1
wasprobablyWall62,theeastwallofPassageway1.ThisreconstructionissubstantiatedbythefactthatWall62isdeeperthanWall58.
ThewestwardextentofWall68wasnotdetermineditgoesunderthedeliberatefiberandadoberubblefillcoveringthebackwallofRoom3andthendisappears
undermetersofaccumulateddirt.
ExcavationsintheLowerEasternRooms
LowerEasternRooms(henceforthLER)isthedesignationgiventoanareaofarchitectureatthebaseofthefareasternsideofUnit19(fig.12.3),tracesofwhich
werevisiblepriortoexcavation(fig.12.1).
Thesurface(Stratum1)oftheentireLERwasdisturbed.Itconsistedofloose,lightcoloredsandinwhichtherewerefairlyabundantquantitiesofmaizesheaths,some
smallmaizecobs,lotsoffeathers,sometextilefragments,afairamountofcharcoal,afewsmallpiecesofunidentifiedbone,andNasca2through4sherds.Thin
patchesofwhiteashanddarkstainswerefoundinthisstratum,butevidenceoffirewasnotdeeporextensive.Hereandthere,thetopsofadobewallsprotrudedto
thesurface.
Excavationbeganbyfollowingoutthetopsofwallssoastogetanideaofwhatarchitectureexistedinthisarea.Thetopsofmostwallswerevisibleby20centimeters
beneaththeactualsurface.Asarchitecturewasrevealed,thegridwasabandonedexcavationunitscorrespondtothearchitecturalfeaturesrevealed.Enoughofthe
northeasternareaofUnit19wasexcavatedtoenableustointerprettheareaasawholeandtoconnecttheLERtotheRoomofthePostsaswewereabletoconnect
theTerraceIVarea(Excavations6and7)totheRoomofthePosts(seefig.12.19).
Excavation10
Excavation10wasconductedinthecornerformedbyWalls33and34,betweenWalls33and35.Aremarkablediscovery,Feature23,wasmadeinclearingthe
surfacedirtcoveringWall34andtheStratum2apisonado.Feature23waslocatedrightupagainstWall34,12centimetersbeneathitstop(seefig.12.20).Itlooked
likeatamal,foritwasatiedbundleofmaizesheathssecuredverywellwithfiberropeitmeasured15by8centimeters(fig.12.21).Whenopenedinthelabthe
packetturnedouttobeamagnificentblackobsidianknifeprotectedbyabedofcamelidfurwithinthetiedouterwrapping(seechap.19fig.19.25).

12.19.
LookingsouthattheRoomofthePostsfrom
Excavation7.Wall4ofExcavation7,ontherightsideof
thephoto,connectstoWall10,thewestwalloftheRoom
ofthePosts.Wall6,thesouthwallinExcavation7,isthe
northsideofthenorthwalloftheRoomofthePosts.

Stratum2isanapisonadooffairlyhard,fairlycompact,brown(Munsell10YR5/3)sand.Walls33,34,and35extend25centimetersabovetheStratum2apisonado,
butthisapisonadoisnottheoriginalflooroftheLERsincethesewallsclearlyextendbeneathit.
Thisexcavationdidnotcontinue.
Excavation11
Atrophyhead,Feature24,wasencounteredinStratum1inthecornerformedbyWalls71and72(fig.12.22).Coveredbyonlyafewcentimetersofthesurface
materialandbeginningalmostlevelwiththetop

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12.20.
PlanshowinglocationoftheFeature23bundledobsidianknife
foundinExcavation10intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.

12.21.
CloseupofFeature23(seefig.12.20),whichistied
intoalittlepacketresemblingatamal.

ofWall71,thisfeatureappearedasafewlargesherdsofthesamefireblackenedutilitarianvesselcoveringaroundobjectwrappedincloth.Thesherdsseemedtobe
implantedintothehardcompactsurface,whichisadobemeltfromthewalls.Underneaththesherdswasasimpleopenweavecottontextilefragmentandamore
tightly

12.22.
PlanshowinglocationoftheFeature24trophy
headlocatedinthesurfacelevelofExcavation
11intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.

wovenburlapliketextilefragmentaswellassomepacaeleavescoveringthehairofthetrophyhead.Thesewereallremoved,andtheelaboratelybraidedhairofthe
trophyheadwasrevealed.Thetrophyheadwasextricatedandlateropenedandcleanedinthelab(seechap.15fig.15.2),butthefragiletextileslooselywrapped
aroundtheheadcrumbledintopieces.
Surroundingthetrophyheadwereafewpacaeleavesandbitsofwindblownvegetalmatter.ThesandimmediatelyadjacenttoFeature24wasmorecompact.
Underneaththeinsituvesselfragmentswassoftloosesandinwhichwerefoundmaizesheathsandcobs,manyfeathers(unidentified),abitofhuarangoseed,an
unidentifiablebonefragment,andaverysmallamountofcharcoal.Restingonthesoftloosesand4centimetersnorthofthenorthernedgeofthefeaturewasaNasca3
bodysherddecoratedwithapepinofruit.Thatsherddoesnotdatethetrophyhead.
AsFeature24wasexcavated,thepresenceofawhitewashontheadjacentwalls(Walls71and72)wasnoted.ThediscoveryofFeature24andthespecialtreatment
ofWalls71and72promptedtheexcavationoftheareaaroundFeature24(fig.12.23).
Stratum2istheapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/3)underlyingFeature24.Itwasacleanthinsurfacelaidonathickfill(Stratum3).OnlyoneNasca3
sherdwasrecoveredinthisstratum.

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12.23.
ProfileofExcavation11intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.

AlargeadobewasdiscoveredrestingontheStratum2apisonadobetweenWalls39and73.Excavationrevealedthepreviousexistenceofadoorwayhere.The
deliberateplacementofanadobeplugservedtocreateasingle,narrow,closedroom(formedbyWalls39,73,and78),whereaspreviouslytherehadbeenaccess
betweenthisroomandthelargesquareareawestofit.
TheStratum3fillisaloose,sandy,lightbrown(Munsell10YR6/3)soilwithlotsofvegetalfiberbutnotmuchculturalmaterial.ThreediagnosticNasca3sherdswere
recoveredfromthisfill.AlsointhisstratumwasFeature51/56,aconcentrationorcacheofseventyseven(minimumnumberofindividualsorMNI)Perumytilus
purpuratusshellsinalittleplaingourdbowlwhichalsocontainedfeathers(notyetidentified)andajseeds(seechap.21).Thefeaturecoveredanareaapproximately
18by18centimetersandwaslocatedsome10centimetersabovetheStratum4floor,againstWall72atthesouthwestcorneroftheexcavationunit.
Stratum3coveredStratum4,anearlier,truefloorandoneoftheveryfewtruefloorsfoundatCahuachi.Isaytruefloorasopposedtoanapisonadobecauseitis
athick,veryhard,compact,carefullyanddeliberatelyprepared,regularsurfacecomposedoffinewhitesand(Munsell10YR8/1).Itwaslaidasaseriesofthinlayers
andwasbrokenwhentheStratum3fillwasthrownin.TheStratum4floorisassociatedwithWalls71and72.
ImmediatelybeneathFeature51/56asmall,shallow(8centimetersdeep),rounddepressionwasexcavatedintotheStratum4floor.ThisisFeature57(figs.12.23,
12.24).
JusteastofFeature57andatthesamelevel,asmallconcentrationofpeanutshellsandhuarangoseedswasfoundinanotherdeliberatelymade,circular,shallow

12.24.
CompositeplanoffeaturesrevealedinExcavation11inthe
LowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.

depression(7centimetersdeep)intheStratum4floorthisisFeature58(fig.12.24).Thehuarangoseedsseemtohavebeenburnedwhereasthepeanutremainsdo
not.
Feature60isalarge(diameteris5557centimeters),

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round,deep(42centimeters)holeexcavatedintotheStratum4floor(figs.12.23,12.24).Theholecontainedloose,lightbrown,mediumgrainedsandwithsome
Nasca3sherds,fragmentsoftextilesincludingthreedimensionaltextileborders,llamaexcrement,andsomeorganicmaterial(maize,cotton,squash,gourd,common
bean,peanut,pacae,lcuma,huarango,andvegetalfiber).Feature60hasadefiniteandeasilyrecognizedflatbasethatissignaledbytheappearanceofahard
compactsoil.
Thesefeatureswerepedestaled.TherestoftheStratum4floorwasthenexcavated.TheStratum4floorwasdevoidofanyculturalremainsexceptforsevensherds
(includingadiagnosticNasca3sherd)andashellfragment.OneofthesherdsisunusuallyshapedRichardBurger(personalcommunication1985)hasidentifieditas
afragmentofacornpopper(tostadora)(seechap.16fig.16.45).
AstheStratum4floorwasexcavated,anothersmalldepression,Feature61,wasidentified(figs.12.23,12.24).Thissupportstheargumentthatthefloorwaslayered,
foralthoughtheFeature61depressionisassociatedwiththeStratum4floor,itisonalowerlevelthanFeatures57,58,and60.Thus,Stratum4isaseriesofrapidly
laid,cleanfloors.
Feature61wasquitedeepandwasfilledwithfinebrownsandcontainingsomeorganicremains(maize,commonbean,gourd,peanut,huarango,andcamelid
excrement),aNasca2sherd,severalothernondiagnosticsherds,andanobsidianpoint.WepedestaledFeature61andcontinuedtoexcavatetheStratum4floor.A
distinctthirdlayerofthefloorwasidentified.Whereasthetoptwolayershadbeenveryhardpacked,thisthirdlayerwascomposedofasemihard,semicompactclay
withgravel,andtherewerefineremainsofvegetalfibermixedinit.
TheStratum5fill,onwhichStratum4hadbeenraised,isanashy,finegrainedsand(Munsell7.5YR4/0)withfeworganicremains(somemaize,peanut,andvegetal
fiber),someshell,somelithics,Nasca2and3sherds,camelidcoprolites,andlotsofadobefragmentsandcharcoal.
Stratum6isanapisonado(lightgrayishbrown:Munsell10YR7/2).Inthissurfaceanothershallow(7.5centimetersdeep),small,rounddepression,Feature63,was
found(figs.12.23,12.24).Noceramicsareassociated,andthesurfacewasquiteclean.
Stratum7isathick,rich,ashygray(Munsell7.5YR4/0)layercomposedofloosesandandabundantbotanicalremains.WithStratum7ofTestPit8(chap.11),this
stratumcontainsthemostorganicremainsfoundatthesite.Theseincludesome168gramsofCanavaliabeans,125gramsofManihot(yuca),62.5gramsof
huarango,andlesserquantitiesofgourd,peanut,lcuma,pacae,squash,maize,limabeans,commonbeans,andvegetalfiber.TheStratum7fill,uponwhichthe
Stratum6apisonadowaslaid,coveredtheunderlyingStratum8apisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR7/3).ThisapisonadoisthefloorofFeature60.Ahearth
feature(Feature71)wasdefinedunderneathFeature60.ThepotsherdsinStratum7datetoNasca1through4.
ThelayingoftheStratum7fillbroketheStratum8apisonado.InapreservedportionoftheStratum8apisonado,anothersmalldepression,Feature72,was
discovered(figs.12.23,12.24).ItwasfilledwithmaterialfromtheoverlyingStratum7fill.
Stratum9,underneaththeStratum8apisonado,isalayerofloose,soft,finesand(gray:Munsell7.5YR5/0)withabundanttinyfragmentsofcharcoalandhuarango
detritus.TheevidenceofburninginthislayeristheresultoftheFeature71hearthinthenorthwestcornerofthepit,underFeature60.Thehearthwascomposedof
charcoal,fireblackenedstones,andalotofpacaeleaves.Thepacaeleaveswereunburned.ThehearthwassealedbyStratum6.
Alsointhisstratum,onthefareastsideoftheunitbetweeenWalls85and88,wasalocalizedconcentrationperhapsacacheofmaize,wool,bone,andorganic
remains.InStratum9therewereafewNasca1and2decoratedsherds,afairamountoffireblackenedutilitarianware,lotsofedibleplantremains,andsome
molluscanremains(Mesodesmadonacium,Perumytiluspurpuratus,Aulacomyaater,andChoromytiluschorusseechap.21).
Stratum10isanirregularapisonadothatisbetterincorporatedwithStratum11.Stratum11isanorangeybrown(Munsell5YR6/6),loose,finegrainedsandwithlots
oflittlepiecesofcharcoal,organicmaterial(maize,jquima,commonbean,squash,cotton,peanut,aj,guayaba,andhuarangodetritus),andafewNasca1and2
sherds.
Stratum12isaloosetocompact,gray(Munsell10YR4/1),clayeysandwithahighcontentofhuarangodetritusandabundantburnedbone.Therearefewcultural
remainsinthisstratumotherthanasmallamountoforganicmaterial(Manihot,Canavaliabean,maize,peanut,lcuma,gourd,pacae,commonbean,guayaba,and
vegetalfiber)andNasca1sherds.
Stratum13beginswiththeappearanceofasterile,loose,soft,orange(Munsell7.5YR7/8),gravellysand.

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12.25.
ProfileofExcavation12intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.Eastandsouthfaces.

Excavation12
Excavation12wasconductedbetweenWalls39,73,and78.Thewidthoftheexcavationunitwasdeterminedbythedistancebetweenthesewalls(fig.12.25).
Stratum1isthesurfacesandcoveringthewholeLERarea.
Stratum2istheapisonadorecognizedelsewhereintheLER.InStratum2anarrowcirculardepression,possiblyaposthole,wasfound.
Stratum3isthefilldescribedforExcavation11.
Stratum4isthetruepreparedfloorunderlyingWalls78and39.Thatfloorslopedsharplytothewest.ItisimportanttounderstandthattheStratum4floorsealed
everythingunderneathitbeginningwithStratum5.AlthoughStrata1,2,and3showedsignsofdisturbance,thestratabeneaththecarefullypreparedStratum4floor
werenotdisturbed.IthereforecannotexplainthepresenceofaNasca8sherdinStratum5amongtheotherwiseconsistentNasca2and3pottery(seeSilverman
1987,1988b,1990d).
TheStratum4floorwaslaidoverafill,Stratum5.TheStratum5fillcontainedafairamountoforganicremains,someshell,lithics,sherds,fragmentsofadobes,
charcoal,andcoprolites.ItwasinStratum5thatwebegantoseethetopofakindofamorphousadobewall(fig.12.25).Thisamorphousconstructioncontinued
downthroughStrata6,7,and8and,uponexcavation,turnedouttobethefoundationofWall39,i.e.,thespilloverfromthelayingofthewallfoundation(fig.12.26
seechap.6).AlsoinStratum5apossiblewattleanddaubwallfragment(Wall92)appearedonthesoutheastsideoftheexcavationunit(figs.12.25,12.26).This
wallispreservedtoaheightof18centimetersandisabout16centimeterswide.AlsopreservedisafragmentofWall92'sfloorwhichisadheringtothewall's
presumablyinterior(east)side.TheroomtowhichWall92wouldhavecorrespondedwassurelydestroyedwhentheStratum5fillwasputdowninpreparationfor
layingthemajorStratum4floor.
Stratum5,inturn,coveredtheStratum6apisonado.
Stratum7isanotherfillitcoveredtheStratum8apisonadobelow.Nasca2and3potterywasrecovered.
Stratum9isamuchharderapisonadothanStratum8,butitisnotapreparedfloor.TheStratum9surfacerestsonaverythinlensofaeoliansandwithwindblown
organicmaterials.Nasca1and2potterywasrecovered.
Stratum10isafillofverypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/4)sandinwhichtherewerelotsofsmallfragmentsofadobeandabundantculturalremains,includingburned
boneandNasca1and2sherds.
Stratum11isanirregularapisonadothatdoesnot

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12.26.
Planshowinglocationofpossiblewattleanddaubwall
fragment(Wall92)inExcavation12intheLowerEastern
RoomsatUnit19.NotespilloverfromWall39.

coverthewholeexcavationarea.Excavatedintothenortheast,harderportionoftheapisonadowasanothercirculardepression,Feature65(fig.12.27).Itis27
centimetersdeep,anditsinteriorsurfacewassmoothedandeasytodefine.Itcontainedonlycoarsesandandafewrocks.
Stratum12isanotherfill.Nasca1and2sherdswererecoveredfromit.
Stratum13appearedasahard,compact,yellow(Munsell10YR8/6)surfacethatcouldbeconsideredanapisonado.Ithadfewculturalremainsandrapidlywent
sterile.ThisstratumcorrespondstoStratum13inExcavation11.
Excavation13
Excavation13wasconductedbetweenWalls73,75,and78.
Strata1and2arethesameasthosedescribedfortheLER.

12.27.
PlanofStratum11inExcavation12showinglocation
ofFeature65,acirculardepression.

Stratum3(fig.12.28)isafillofsemicompact,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/3),coarsesandwithabundantorganicremainsconsistingofPennisetunvegetalfiber,
maize,squash,gourd,peanut,guayaba,andhuarango.Therewerealsoadobefragments,smallrocks,tinybitsofcharcoal,unidentifiedfeathersandbone,andsome
Nasca3sherds.
WhenStratum3wasremoved,adeliberateholeorUshapeddepressionwasrevealedinWall78(fig.12.29).ThiswasdesignatedasFeature42.Theinteriorof
Feature42issmoothedandplasteredwiththesamematerialasthatformingtheadobesofthewallinwhichitisfound.Thedepressionappearstocorrespondtoa
nichelootedsometimepreviously.JustinfrontofFeature42werefoundbonesfromahumanskullandtibia.Inthenichelikedepressionitself,alargeadobecarefully
restedonfragmentsofplainweavetextile.
Stratum4isthethickpreparedfloorpreviouslyidentified.

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12.28.
ProfileofExcavation13intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19.

Wall78restsontheStratum5fill,asemicompact,grayishbrown(Munsell10YR5/2),gravellysandthatcontainsabitofguineapigbone,huarangoseed,vegetal
fiber,scantshell,andNasca3sherds.TheconstructionofawallonfillratherthanonapreparedfoundationiscommonatCahuachi.
Feature50(fig.12.28)wasdiscoveredjustbeneaththebaseofWall78,almostonlinewiththewall.Itconsistsofaflatprojectingrockwhichcoversaverydense
localizedconcentrationofmazcoloradoorconfitemorocho("Indiancorn"seechap.20).Thisfeatureisinterpretedasanofferingcache.Thisfillalsohadafair
amountoforganicremains,someshell,lithics,sherds,fragmentsofadobes,charcoal,andcoprolites.
ThebaseofWall73restsontheStratum6fill,avirtuallysterilelayerofsemicompact,semihard,brown(Munsell10YR5/4),drysandwithfragmentsofadobe.Only
anoccasionalshellfragmentorbitoforganicmaterialappeared.
Stratum7isanapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR7/4).Wall75restsonthissurface.
BeneathStratum7isStratum8,agray(Munsell7.5YR6/0)gravellayer.
Excavation14
UponexcavationitwasdiscoveredthatWall12didnotextendtotheLER.Rather,Wall12turnedacornertobecomeWall15,theeastsideofWall14thatdefines
theeastsideoftheRoomofthePosts(fig.12.3).Wall12EisabuttedtoWall12Wall12EconnectstotheLER.

12.29.
Profile(a)andtopview(b)ofUshapeddepressioninWall78inthe
LowerEasternRooms,revealedinStratum3ofExcavation13.

Anexcavationunit,Excavation14,waslaidoutnorthofWall12E(fig.12.30).Isoonrealizedthatexcavationofthewesternthirdofthepitwouldbeawastebecause
adeeplooters'holefilledinwithaeoliansandappeared.Theothertwothirdsofthepitwasintact.
Stratum1isagravellysand13centimetersthick.
Stratum2isanaeoliansandabout14centimetersthick.
Stratum3isaveryfinewhite(Munsell10YR8/1)sandbeginning27centimetersbeneaththesurface.Inthis

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12.30.
PlanofExcavation14showinglocationofFeature75subsurfacestoragesystem.

stratumWall116/117,asuperficialwallrunningnorthsouthandabuttingWall12,appeared.Nasca2and3sherdswererecovered.
Stratum4isadryloosesandwithabundantlittlefragmentsofadobewhichpresumablycomefromthedecayofWalls12and116/117.Nasca3sherdswere
recovered.
BetweenStrata4and6therearetracesofalesscompactapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/4),especiallyupagainstWall12E.ThisisStratum5.As
excavationproceeded,itbecameclearthatWall12EwasbuiltonthatapisonadoandthatWall12Ewasonly30to35centimetershigh.Thenowfragmentary
apisonadooverlaytheStratum6truefloor.Thisinterpretationwasborneoutwhenweexcavatedonthesouth(i.e.,Wall16)sideofWall12E(seeExcavation15).
Stratum6isaveryhard,dense,compactsurface.Itwasbrokeninplacesand,wherebroken,wassurroundedbycoarsesand.
Theloosesandkeptmakingtheeastsidewallcollapse,sotheexcavationunitwasexpanded70centimetersmoretotheeast.AgreaterextentoftheStratum6true
floorwasrevealed,and,withit,Feature75cameintoview(fig.12.31).Thedimensionsoftheexcavationunit

12.31.
CloseupofFeature75inExcavation14.

wereexpandedsoastofollowoutthefeature.Intothedistinctivelywhite(Munsell10YR8/1)clayfloorofStratum6hadbeenexcavatedtworegular,round
depressions(thelargerofwhichisElement1andthesmallerofwhichisElement2)andamoreirregulardepression,Element3,whichwasdamagedbyconstruction
ofWall12E/16.
Element1isadonutshapedareaofthick(2427cen

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timeters),hard,compactfloortherebyformingacylindricalshaftoverlyingalargeutilitarianstoragevesselthathadbeensealedintothefloor.Thevesselhadbeen
placedinareinforcedsealedcontext.Thebeige(Munsell10YR7/3)clayeysurfacesurroundingElement2,however,isonly4centimetersthick.TheElement1vessel
wasfullofloosecoarsesandwithabundantchunksofadobesbutnoculturalremains.Ididnotbreakthefloortoremovethevesselbutmadethefollowing
observations.Thislargevesselprobablyhadalarge,direct,flaringrimthatwasdeliberatelybrokenoffsothatthevesselcouldbesealedintothefloor.Thefloor
openingwas43centimetersindiameter.Thevessel,fromwhatIcouldfeelonceitwasclean,hadabroadshoulderandaroundratherthanaconicalbase.The
interiorofthevesselisdarkincolorandsmoothtothetouch.Thelittlethatcouldbeseenoftheexteriorrevealedittobesmoothanddarkincoloraswell.Thepaste
ishardandwellfired.Thethicknessofthevesselwallatthepointofneckfractureis7millimeters.Vesselheightis42.5centimeters.Itsmaximumdiameteris45
centimeters,andthisoccurs14.5centimetersbeneaththeneckbreakage.
Element2isdifferentfromElement1inthatithasnosealedinstoragevesselbutisasmallfinisheddepressionwithacompactmudbase.Thisdepressionmeasures
32by34centimeters.Itsmaximumdepthis10centimeters.Itwasfilledwithloose,mediumgrainedsand.Initsmethodofmanufactureandappearance,this
depressionissimilartoDepression1intheRoomofthePosts(seechap.13).
Element3hasamaximumdiameterof61centimeters.Ithasanirregularcrosssection.Ahardpackedbasewasreachedat84centimetersbeneaththetopofWall
12E.Therewasevidenceofburningonthesouthwestledgeofthedepression,at16centimetersbeneaththefloorintowhichElements1and2hadbeenexcavated.
Excavation15
Excavation15wasopenedtoshedmorelightonWall12E/16andWall15'sfloorandassociations.Excavation15waslocatedbetweenWalls15and16.
Lessthan10centimetersbeneaththetopofWall12E/16inotherwords,justbelowthesuperficialsandcoveringitthereisaveryhardcompactsoilwhich
revealeditselftobeatruepreparedfloor.Theworkerssaidthatthefloorwascomposedofriverbottommudandthatthismudtypicallydriesintoaveryhardsurface
afterbeingwetandthenlefttodryforafewdays.Fourlayersoffloorwereclearlyvisible.Intheverynorthwestcornerofthepit,only7centimeterseastofWall15
and12centimeterssouthofWall12E/16,thefloorhadbeenbroken,andat50centimetersbeneaththetopofWall15therewasanotherlargeutilitarianceramic
vessel,Feature76,sealedinplace(figs.12.30,12.32).Thelowestofthefoursuperimposedfloorsenclosesthevessel.

12.32.
CloseupofFeature76inExcavation15.Feature76ispartof
thesamesubsurfacestoragesystemasFeature75(seefig.
12.31).Thechalkboardisturnedsidewaysthrougherror.

Feature76'smouthdiameteris36centimeters.Thevesselis39centimeterstall.AswiththeFeature75Element1vessel,theFeature76potismissingitsrim.The
Feature76potcontainednoculturalremains.Theloosegraybrownsandwithchunksofadobethatfilledthevesselwassterile.Thelevels,context,andnatureof
Feature76revealittobepartofFeature75itisanelementofasinglefeaturethatcanbecalledFeature75/76.Thus,Feature75/76underliesandisearlierthanWall
12E/16.Thatwallwasbuiltontopofthefeature,andthereforewhenthisconstructiontookplace,thesubsurfacestoragesystemhadceasedtofunction.
ThedatafromExcavation6implythatthephysicalextentofFeature75/76iseitherlimitedtothenorthorthatwejustmissedhittingitwhenweexcavatedthelong
trench.NoevidenceofacontinuationofthisfeaturewasfoundwithinPassageway2oralongtheeastsideofWall120.
Excavation16
At1.40meterssouthofthecornerformedbyWalls15and12E/16thereisasuperficialwall,Wall124,whichiscomposedoffouradobesplacedinalinerunning
westtoeastfromWall15toWall119(fig.12.33).Wall124blockedaccesstoPassageway2,definedbyWalls15and119.Excavation16wasexcavatedbetween
thesewallsinordertolocatetheirfloors,todeterminetherelation

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12.33.
PlanofExcavation16revealingFeature90andsuperficial
Wall124.ThefunctionofFeature90isunknown.

shipbetweenthewalls,andtoexaminethebackofthenicheintheeastwalloftheRoomofthePosts.ExcavationbeganatWall124andextendedsouthtoformapit
whosewidthwasdeterminedbythedistancebetweenthetwowallsandwhoselengthwas5meters.
Thesurface(Stratum1)isunevenandiscomposedoffairlyloosesand.Thestratumaveragessome20centimetersinthickness.Nasca3and4sherdsaswellas
panpipefragmentswererecovered.
Stratum2isaveryhardcompactmudwhichcouldonlybetakenoutwithapickax.ThisisclearlythesamesurfaceastheoneinwhichFeature75/76isembedded.
Thislayeris13centimetersthick.Nasca3potterywasrecovered.
At225centimeterssouthofWall16and10centimetersbeneaththetopofWall119analmostcircular,adobelinedstructure(Feature90)projectingwestfromWall
119wasdiscovered(fig.12.33).Theadobesliningthisstructureextendonly28centimetersdownintoit,andtheydonotextendallthewayaroundtothesouth.The
59centimeterdeepfeaturemaintainsitsroundformbecauseofthecohesivesandunderlyingtheadobestheloosesandfillingthedepressioniseasilydistinguished.
ThefunctionofFeature90isunknown.
Stratum3isaloose,mediumgrained,palebrown(Munsell10YR6/3)sandwithsmalladobechunks,somerocks,vegetalfiber,shell,andNasca3sherds.Itisabout
15centimetersthick.
Stratum4isanapisonado(verypalebrown:Munsell10YR8/4)consistingofasmooth,regular,semihard,semicompactearthonly2to3centimetersthick.Thebase
ofFeature90isthisstratum.
Stratum5isafine,loose,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/4)sandwithabundantorganicmaterial,somelooserocks,andsomefragmentsofadobe.Itisabout40
centimetersthick.Stratum5containedNasca2,3,and4sherds.
Stratum6isacompletelysterilegravellysand.Thisstratumisabout15centimetersthick.ThebaseofWall119wasfound5centimetersaboveitsend.
Stratum7isathin(lessthan1centimeter)layerofcoarsegrained,semicompact,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/3)sandwithnoculturalremains.
Stratum8isasterilegravellysandwithrocks.Itis15centimetersthick.
Stratum9isasterile,semihard,semicompact,coarsegrained,verypalebrown(Munsell10YR8/3)sand.ItisonthislayerthatWall15rests.Afterlocatingthebase
ofWall15,excavationceased.
ThisexcavationrevealedthatPassageway2wasnarrowandhighwalled.ThelackofanapisonadolowerdownthantheoneinStratum4istroublingintermsofthe
useofthisapparentpassagewayforhumantrafficbetweenthebaseoftheUnit19moundandtheroomsonit.
Excavation17
AfterwediscoveredPassageway2,wedefinedWall120,theeastsideofWall119.OfparticularinterestisthefactthatWall119andWall120arenottwosidesof
thesamewall.Rather,theyaretwowallslaidsidebyside.Theirlongitudinalseamisreadilyvisible(fig.12.3).Alsoofinterestisthecompositeconstructiontechnique
ofWall120.Thenorthern6metersofWall120areconstructedofconicaladobeswhosetipspointin,whereastheremainderofthewalliscomposedofconical
adobesstandingupright(fig.12.34).
AtrenchwasexcavatedalongWall120.Thedisturbedsurfacelayerconsistedofloosesand,adobechunks,andafewrocks.Initwerescantorganicmaterial,Nasca
1,2,and3sherds,andpanpipefragments.Immediatelyun

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12.34.
Wall120inExcavation17showingthecompositeconstruction
used.Thenorthernportionofthewall,onwhichthearrowrests,
isbuiltoflargeconicaladobeswhosetipspointin.Thesouthern
portionofthewallisconstructedofthesamekindofadobesbut
laidupright.Atthefarrightthesoutheasterncorner
oftheRoomofthePostscanbeseen.

derneaththissurfacestratumfourlargeearlyNascaplainwareceramicvessels,Features80,82,83,and88,werediscovered,alignedinarowalongWall120(fig.
12.35seechap.16).
ThetopoftheFeature80vesselwasencasedinahardclay.ThesamecompactclayhadbeenplacedoverWalls119and120.Feature80wasplaceduprightina
deliberatefillofsand,compactchunksofadobes,anddensevegetalmaterialsandwascementedintoplacebythemudandadobelayerencasingitsmouth.
Thepresumablyonceflaringrimofthisvesselhadbeendeliberatelybrokenoff,andthebrokenedgeseemedtohavebeenfileddowntomakeasmoothmouth(fig.
16.27).Thetopofthevesselwasfilledwiththeloosesand,vegetalfiber,andabundantchunksofadobefoundonthearea'ssurface.Indeed,itwasawonderthatthe
severallargepiecesofadobewithinFeature80hadfoundtheirwayintothevesselwithoutbreakingthe21centimeterdiametermouth.
Thelargepiecesofadobewereremovedbyhand.Thesandandlittlebitsofadobewerescoopedoutandpassedthroughafinemeshscreen.AfewNasca3sherds,
scoresofspecialtextileartifacts(seechap.18),andtwochontawoodartifactswhicharealsorelatedtotextileactivity(chap.19figs.19.14,19.15),wererecovered.
TheveryabundanceoftextileremainsinFeature80leavesnodoubtbutthattheyhadbeendeliberatelyplacedinthevessel.RecallthatStrong'sprojectrecovereda
utilitarianvesselfilledwithembroideredtextilepieces(chap.4).

12.35.
PlanofExcavation17showinglocationofthefour
largeutilitarianvessels(Features80,82,83,and88)
andtheFeature81petrifiedwoodcache.

Feature81,acacheoftwentysixpiecesofpetrifiedwood(fig.19.18)weighing412grams,wasdiscoveredimmediatelyeastofFeature80(fig.12.35).Thecache
layonthesamemudandadobelayerthatencasesFeature80atexactlythesamelevelasthemouthofFeature80.Iinterpretthecacheofpertrifiedwoodasan
offeringofsortsthatisrelatedtoFeature80.
At3.25metersnorthofthemouthofFeature80anotherlargeceramicvesselwasdiscovered,Feature82(fig.16.28).Thisvessel,however,hadbeenbrokenby
looters.Ithadnooriginalcontentsandwasfilledwiththematerialofthesurfacelevel.
At1.95metersnorthofFeature82andonly19centimeterseastofWall120athirdlargeceramicvessel

Page168

wasencountered,thisoneintact.ThisisFeature83(fig.16.26).Itisafireblackenedcookingvesselwithaconicalbase,sharplyflaringrim,andtwohandles.Itwas
locatedscantcentimetersbeneaththetopoftheadjacentWall120andwasfilledwithsteriledirt.
JusteastofFeature83,acacheofguineapigremains(Feature89)wasfoundinacontextofmediumgrainedbeigesandwithabundantpebbles,adobefragments,
andconcentrationsofgarbageconsistingofcottonfiber,carrizorope,loosevegetalfiber,pacaeleaves,peanuts,andmaizecobs.Aminimumoftwentythree
individualsarerepresented.Theremainsconsistofdisarticulatedanddisarticulatingbodieswhoseheadshadbeenjerkedoffandwhosestomachskinappearstohave
beenslitopenbyalongincisionthatextendstothethoraxtheinnerorganshadbeenextracted.Thisfeatureisstronglyreminiscentofmoderndaydiviningandcuring
practicesintheAndes,whichsuggeststhattheguineapigswereusedinamagical/religiousrite.JosPabloBaraybar,whostudiedtheseremains,reportsthatall
appeartobeyoungindividuals.FragmentaryguineapigremainswerefoundelsewhereatCahuachiandguineapigexcrementwasrecoveredinexcavationsinvarious
loci.ButthoseremainswerealwaysveryscarceOrefici'sexcavationsatCahuachihavelikewiserecoveredlittleinthewayofguineapigremains(seeValdez
Cardenas1988:32).
Baraybaralsoidentifiedtheremainsofonebirdinthiscacheofguineapigs.Itsheadhadalsobeenjerkedoffsoastodisarticulateit.Thebirdwasalsoslitopenalong
itsunderbelly,anditsbonesandorganshadbeenremoved.
At1.20metersnorthofFeature82and1metereastofWall120,Feature88,anotherlargebrokenplainwarevesselwithtwohandles,wasfound.Itisdevoidof
culturalcontentssaveonebrokenpieceofworkedshell.Idonotknowwhetherthatartifactfilteredintothevesselthroughtheoverlyingfillorwhetheritrepresentsthe
originalcontentsofthevessel.
Excavation18
Excavation18waslaidoutasatrenchbetweenWalls16and121.Beforethefirstsubsurfacestratumhadevenbeenfound,aNasca3Dor4flaringbowl(Feature
93fig.16.13)wasdiscoveredalongWall121,mouthup(versusvirtuallyalloftheNasca8potsintheRoomofthePostswhichwereplacedmouthdown:seechap.
13).ItwasatthispointintheprojectthatIdecidedtoceaseexcavating.ItwasPeruviansummerandexcruciatinglyhot.Ihadmorethanenoughdatatosettlethe
issueofwhatkindofsiteCahuachihadbeen.Excavation18wasbackfilled.TheprehistoricplacementofaNasca3Dor4vesselinthissurfacelevel,abovethefloor
ofWalls16and121,servesasaterminuspostquem.
PointSamplesatUnit19
FourpointsweresampledonthesurfaceofUnit19'slowernaturalterraces.PointSample1waslocatedatN33/W14PointSample2waslocatedatN50/E10
PointSample3waslocatedatN58/W25PointSample4waslocatedatN66/E1.Therecoveredremainsaredetailedintable12.1.
Unit19'sConstructionHistory
TheearliestarchitectureofUnit19appearstobethatfoundontopofthemound,representedbyRoom1.Room1iscertainlylargerthanshowninfigure12.3sinceit
extendsunderthefilloverlyingRoom3.
Rooms3,4,and5appeartobeconstructedontheuppermostapisonadoofRoom1andare,properlyspeaking,locatedwithinthatroom,whosewesternsidehas
notyetbeendefined.FromthefillunderlyingthisuppermostapisonadoaNasca5sherdwasrecovered(inExcavation9).ThiswouldsuggestthatRooms3,4,and5
datetoNasca5.However,largesectionsoftheapisonadoarebroken,andtheexactstratigraphicrelationshipofthethreesmallroomstotheuppermostapisonadoof
Room1isnotcertain.
Rooms3,4,and5aredisposedinanalmoststraightline,oneinfrontoftheotherfromsouthtonorth(fig.12.36).Rooms3and4arecontemporary.Room5hasto
belatersinceitcouldnothavebeenbuiltpriortotheconstructionofWall65itconceivablywasbuiltafterWall45wasinplacesinceitrestsonthefill(inwhich
Nasca3and4sherdswerefound)betweenWalls45and65(Excavation19:seechap.13).
Passageway1maybecontemporarywithRoom1.MiguelPazosrecoveredanearlyNasca(Nasca3D?)headjarinthefillfillingPassageway1(seefig.16.19).
PerhapsPassageway1wasoriginallyintendedtodescendthemound.Pazos'sexcavationsinPassageway1couldnotascertainthis,however.Thenorthernendof
Passageway1wascutbytheconstructionofWall65runningacrossit.TheconstructionofmajorWall200musthavefollowedthebuildingofPassageway1because
Wall200abutstheeasternwallofPassageway1.
Rooms6and7cameintoexistencefollowingconstructionofWalls200and72/100.Rooms6and7wereoriginallyasingleroomuntildividedbythesuperficial

Page169
Table12.1.RemainsRecoveredinPointSamples1through4atUnit19
TypeofRemains
Pottery

PS1

PS2

PS3

undiagnosticplainware

63

diagnosticearlyNascaplainware

Nasca1potsherds

earlyNascapotsherds(Nasca24)

35

Bone

Xa

camelid
human

weightofrecoveredboneingrams

28

178.1

303.1

114.7

224.8

unidentifiedcalcinedorburnedbone

Lithics

59

PS4

groundstone

chippedstone

24

13

Shell
Organics

maize

huarangoseedsorpods

wood

vegetalfiber

squashseed

fruit

humancoprolites

Plainweavetextilefragments

Petrifiedwood

Pyroengravedgourd

Charcoal(mustbemodern)

camelidcoprolites

aUnquantifiedpresenceisindicatedbyX.

Wall101/102.ThisactionwasprobablyinvolvedwiththecreationofPassageway2.
AccesstoRoom6mayoriginallyhavebeenfromtheeast,possiblythroughtheopeninginWall39,aswellasfromthenorthviaPassageway2.ThecreationofRoom
7,however,blockedtheformereasternaccess.Instead,trafficwasredirectedthroughtheopeningbetweenWalls85and88,westalongWall72,throughtheopening
betweenWalls120and105(untilthatwasblocked),throughatortuouszigzag,andintoRoom6.Room6'ssoutherndoor(untilthatwasblocked)gaveaccesstothe
Unit19uppermound.
Whenthepreviouslydescribedaccesschannelswereblocked,Passageway2mayhavebecometheonlyrouteuptoUnit19.Atthatpoint,easterntrafficwouldhave
comearoundthebaseofthemound,walkedinfrontofWall121/122whichhadbeenabuttedtoWall120,andenteredPassageway2.WhenPassageway2wasno
longerfunctioningandRoom6,consequently,wasnolongerathruway,thefunctionofthatroommusthavechanged.
Passageway2wasbuiltaftertheconstructionoftheRoomofthePostsinNasca4times.WeknowthisbecausePassageway2'swestwallistheeastsideofWall15
oftheRoomofthePosts.UnlikethesituationencounteredbyMiguelPazosinhisexcavationofPassageway1,Passageway2didnotexhibitsuccessivefloors.
Rather,whenitwasinuse,peoplewouldhavewalkedbetweenveryhighwallsthatincreasedinheighttowardthesouth.AtthesouthendofPassageway2the
corridorwouldhavehadwallsmorethan2metershigh.
ThePassageway2accessroutemustantedateelabo

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12.36.
CrosssectionofthetopofUnit19showingtheorientationandrelationshipofRooms3,4,and5.

rationofthesubfloorstoragefacilityofFeature75/76becauseFeature75/76isinthepathofPassageway2.SuperficialWall124inPassageway2,betweenWalls
15and119,maycorrespondtotheclosureofthepassageway.
AfterPassageway2wasbuilt,theunblocked,unconstructedareabetweenitandtheLERwasenclosedthroughthebuildingandjoiningofWall121/122totheLER
andWall120.Untilthistime,thatlargeopenareawasphysicallyunseparatedfromTerraceIV.Wall12E/16,northandparalleltoWall121/122,isthelatestwallof
theUnit19sequenceasthusfarrevealedbecauseitoverliesFeature75/76andabutsWall11/12oftheRoomofthePosts.
AccesstotheRoomofthePostswasthroughadoorwayonitswestside.Thatdoorwayappearstohavebeennarrowedatleasttwicepriortoclosure.Closurecould
haveoccurredwhentheroomwasinterred(seechap.13).
Excavation6wasofsomehelpinascertainingtherelationshipoftheRoomofthePosts'floortotheareaoutsideittothenorth.WefoundthattheflooroftheRoomof
thePosts(whichvariesinheightwithintheroombyabout10centimeters)isslightlyhigherthantheuppermostapisonadointheroomnorthofitthatisdefinedby
Walls4,5,and6.Wall6,thesouthwallofthatlongnarrowroom,isalsothenorthfaceofWall11,thenorthwalloftheRoomofthePosts.Walls4and5abutWall
6.BecauseoflootingupagainstWall6andthecharacteristicirregularitiesoffloorsatCahuachi,itisdifficulttobecompletelycertainifWall6precededthe
constructionofWall5orviceversa.Wall4wasclearlyconstructedsignificantlylaterthanWall5byvirtueofthethicklayerofmaizesheathfill(Stratum5)which
separatesitsapisonado(Stratum4)fromtheprecedingapisonado(Stratum6).
ThesequenceatthebaseofUnit19isthefollowing.FirstthereexistedtheWall327/28room.Thatroomwastakenoutofusewhenanintrusivebutemptytomb
(Feature22)wasexcavatedintoit.Boththeroomand

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tombwerecoveredoverwithfillthatformedthefoundationuponwhichWalls5and6wereerected.TheexistenceofWall6oughttopresupposetheexistenceofthe
RoomofthePostssinceWall6istheothersideofWall11(thenorthwalloftheRoomofthePosts).ThefloorlevelofWall6islower(i.e.,thewallisabout1.20
metershigh)thanthefloorcorrespondingtoWall11withintheRoomofthePosts(wherethatwallisabout90centimetershigh).ItisnotclearwhatWalls5and6
wouldhavebeenpartofpriortotheexistenceofWalls4and7.Itispossiblethattheanswerliesburiedtothewestoftheexcavatedarea.Itwillprobablynotbe
foundtothenorth,forthereasubsequentfilldestroyedtheexistingarchitecture.
Alternatively,itcanbesuggestedonthebasisoftheheightofthefloorintheRoomofthePoststhatanearlierstructureexistednorthofwhereitwouldlaterbe
elaborated,astructureformedbyWalls5,6,andunlocatedwallstothenorthandwest.Subsequently,thatinterveningareawaspreparedfortheconstructionofthe
RoomofthePostsbylayingaclean,coarsesandfoundation.TheRoomofthePostswasfittedintothespacebetweenthethenexistingWalls65and6/11through
creationofWalls45,10,and14.Thisexplanation,however,seemscontrivedandunlikelysincewithsomuchemptyspaceatCahuachiitshouldnothavebeen
necessarytosqueezeinamajorroom.Whatremainslikely,nevertheless,isthattheflooroftheRoomofthePostswaslaidonadeliberatelyplacedlayerofclean
coarsesand.
TheLERhavenotbeencompletelydefined.Nevertheless,enoughexcavationwascarriedouttorevealanareaoflowwalledrooms.Themostsalientfeatureabout
theexcavatedroomdefinedbyWalls39,73,75,and78isitscarefullypreparedfloorinStratum4.True,prepared,hardclayfloorsarerareatCahuachithusfar.The
roomcameintoexistenceonlywhenthatfloorwaslaiddownsincetheflooristhefoundationofthetwomajornorthsouthwalls,Walls73and78,thatdefinethe
room.
Theroomislongandnarrow,7.70by1.76meters.TheStratum4floorinclinessharplytothewest.Theeastwalloftheroom,Wall78,therefore,isabout45
centimetershigh,whereasthewestwalloftheroomisabout70centimetershigh.Thefloorwasvirtuallydevoidofartifactsandhadnootherfeatures.
Inantiquitytherewasonemajorentrancetothisroomfromthewest,throughWalls39/88and73/85.Walls83and87,atthesouthendoftheroom,areearlierthan
thelongWall78(themajoreastwalloftheLER)becausetheirflooris28centimeterslowerthanWall78'sfloor.Thiswasrevealedbyalittleprobeexcavated
immediatelynorthofWalls83and87betweenWalls78and39/82.OnceWall78wasbuilt,theLERperseweredeveloped.Underlyingthetrueflooroverwhich
Wall78wasbuiltisafillinwhichadiagnosticNasca3Bpanpipefragmentwasfound.ThisstronglysuggeststhattheLERwereconstructedinNasca3Borlater
times.
Thewallsofthisroomunderwentvariousmodificationsovertime,especiallyaftertheStratum2apisonadowaslaid.Atthenorthendoftheroomthe69centimeter
openingbetweenlateralWalls83and87wasblockedwithaplugoffairlycompactcoarsegrainedsandcontainingsmallangularpebbles,somevegetalfiber,and
smallfragmentsofadobe.Theplugiscappedbyasinglecourseofadobes,effectivelycreatingalongnarrowroomoutofalongcorridor.Thewallsthemselvesreston
alayeroffine,loose,brownsandwithalotofvegetalfiber,somepeanuts,afairamountofhuarangoseed,somesherds,andlotsoffragmentsofadobe.Beneaththis,
semicompactsterilesandwashit.Ididnotdeterminewhatlaybehind(south)Walls83and87.
AplugalsoexistsinWall73/76(seefig.12.7)onthenorthwestsideoftheroom.Sinceitrestsontheapisonado,itwasplacedthereaftertheStratum2apisonado
waslaiddown.ThisplugblockedaccesstotheLERfromthewest.
FollowingdepositionoftheStratum2apisonado,threeplugswereplacedbetweenWalls39and86.Theplugsaresuperficialandwerelaidoverapossibly
continuousWall39.
TheconstructionofWall72/100isrelatedtothebuildingoftheLERbecausetherewasanaccessintotheLERthroughWall71/88/39andWall73/85/74fromthe
openareanorthofWall72.
ItispossiblethattheopeningbetweenWall119/120andWall105hadnotyetbeenblockedandthatthesquareenclosedspacecreatedbytheLER,Wall121/122,
Wall119/120,andWall72wasstillbeingused.
Sincemanyofthesewallsweresufficientlylowastobesteppedover,weareactuallydealingwithspacepartitionsunless,ofcourse,thewallsoncesupported
perishablearchitecture.
ConclusionsaboutUnit19
ExcavationdemonstratesthatUnit19isnotahabitationmound.Themounddidnotgrowbythestratificationofabandonedhousesandrefuse.Rather,weseea
complicatedconstructionhistoryinvolvingthebuildingandrebuildingandopeningandclosingofspecialpurposeroomsandthepassagewaysconnectingthemona
moundofmanifestlyceremonialnature.Offeringswere

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leftduringtheconstructionofvariousofUnit19'srooms.Offeringswerenotrestrictedtotheperiodofthemound'sconstruction.AsareasofUnit19fellintodisuse,
offeringscontinuedtobeleft.Theseincludethetwotrophyheads,theFeature93pot,andthewrappedobsidianknifeaswellasthepotteryandotheritemsleftinthe
deliberatefilloftherituallyentombedRoomofthePosts(seechap.13).
ThefunctionofRoom1isuncertain,butaquantityoffineearlyNascapotterywasrecoveredfromitslootedsurface.Itseastandsouthwallswereofparticularlyfine
construction.Thenatureoftheactivitiesthatoccurredoverthehistoryoftheroom'susearenotknown,butthereisarepetitivepatternofapisonadostakenoutofuse
byfills.
Room2appearstohavebeenaburialchamber.
Rooms3,4,and5couldhavecontainedburialsor,tojudgefromthequantityandhighqualityofdecoratedpotteryrecoveredinthelooters'backdirt,largestoresof
fancypottery.Someceramicvesselsmayhavebeenpaintedontopofthemound,forintheseroomsoccasionalpiecesofpigment,pigmentstainedrocks,andlittle
brushlikeobjectswhichcouldhavebeenusedaspaintbrusheswererecovered(seechap.19).
TheLERcomprisedanotherspecialpurpose,nonmortuaryarea.Thesequentialsuperpositionofapisonadosandtruefloorsinterspacedwithfillsshowsarepetitive
useofthearea.Thepresenceofcertaincirculardepressionsexcavatedintovariousofthefloorssuggeststhattheareawasbeingusedsimilarlythroughouttime.Notall
ofthesedepressionsarepostholes,andtheydonotappeartocorrespondtoordinarydomestichabitationstructures.
OnthesurfaceoftheLER,fragmentsofpyroengravedgourds,objectsofpersonaladornment,andsomethreedimensionaltextilefragmentswererecovered.Also
foundonthesurfacewasaSpondylusfragment.BasedonmysurveyexperienceintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys,Iwouldsaythattheseremainsarenot
typicalofanordinaryNascahabitationcontext.Thesubsurfacestrataproducedremainscongruentwiththesurfaceevidence.
TheLERfloorsarenottypicalofresidentialactivityareasfortheyareclean.Furthermore,someofthesefloorsarefineandpreparedthisisuncommonatCahuachi.
Therearevirtuallynoartifactsonorimbeddedinthesefloors.Oneassociatedartifact,however,maybeverysignificant.Itisthecornpopper.Murra(1975a)has
shownthatcornwasaritualfoodintheIncastate.Hastorf(1985,1990),workingwithlateprehispanicbotanicalmaterialsfromtheUpperMantaroregion,has
confirmedthisritualuseofcornandnotesitspresenceinelitehouseholds(ascontrastedwithpotatoes,thestapleofthemasses).Furthermore,shehasnotfound
evidenceofcornbeingpreparedinlargeutilitarianvesselsasweretubersandChenopodium,andshesuggeststhatcornwaspreparedbyadifferentprocess,either
toastingorroasting.IftheIncaandlateprehispanichighlandmodelcanbeprojectedbacktotheEarlyIntermediatePeriodonthesouthcoast,thenitcouldbe
suggestedthatthepresenceofacornpopperintheLERsuggeststhatcornwasbeingpreparedthereandthatthisisevidenceofaritualfoodandthereforeritual
activity.TheproximityandintegrityoftheLERtotheUnit19ceremonialcomplexmakesuchareconstructionplausibleevenwithoutahighlandmodel.
TheculturalmaterialcontainingstrataabovetheStratum6apisonadocorrespondtofillratherthantoinsituaccumulationofgarbage.Thisfillwasbroughtintotake
oneflooroutofserviceandtoserveasthefoundationforalaterone.Thiscouldindicatearepeatedorcyclicalreturningtothesocialgroup'stempleatthesite(see
chap.22).
Themaizecache(Feature50)beneathWall78alsosuggeststhattheareawasspecialenoughtomeritsuchapreconstructionoffering(seealsoHuapayaManco's
19771978discussionofofferingsinconstructionfills).Wemayfurthermorerecallthelittleofferingsofshells,feathers,maize,andhuarangorepresentedbyFeatures
51/56,57,and58thatwereplacedinshallowdepressionswhichdonotseemtohavebeenpostholesbutratherthedeliberatelycreatedrecipientsfortheseofferings.
ThisisreminiscentofthetwolittlecirculardepressionslocatedjustoutsidethenicheintheeastwalloftheRoomofthePosts(seechap.13)andmayevenbethe
explanationofthelargecirculardepressionsfoundthereaswell.
Thespecialpostapogeeofferingssuchastheritualobsidianknife(Feature23)andthetrophyhead(Feature24)alsoindicateaperceivednonordinarycharacterto
theLER.
WhateverdomesticactivitiesmighthavebeenhappeningintheareaoftheLERpriortotheconstructionofthemajorwallsthatactuallybroughttheLERinto
existence,theseceasedwhentheLERwerebuilt.TheLERperseareclearlynonhabitational.
ThemostpersuasiveevidenceinsupportofareligiousfunctionforUnit19comesfromtheRoomofthePosts,whichisdiscussedinthenextchapter.
ThelootedareanorthofUnit19isnoteasytointerpret.Thusfar,thereisnoevidenceofaresidentialzone,butthereweredeeplyburiedearlyconstructionswhose

Page173

naturehasnotbeendefined.Ialsobelievethatsomeoftheareawasemptyunconstructedspacethatbecamelootedinthecourseofageneralgraverushofthekind
describedinchapter7.ItwouldbeveryworthwhiletoundertakeamajorstrippingoperationonTerraceIV.
AlthoughfutureexcavationsmayalterthearchitecturalsequencepresentedhereforUnit19,theoverallinterpretationofUnit19willprobablynotchange.Itdoesnot
muchmatterifoneaccessisdiscoveredtobeearlierorlaterthanposited.Rather,theimportantconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromexcavationandwallclearingisthat
Unit19hadanondomesticspecialpurposefunction(s).
Patternedordinarydomesticartifactsandassociationssuchasdomestichabitationstructures,sleepingbenches,hearths,familysizedcookingpots,basketry,stone
tools,artifactladenactivityfloors,andkitchenmiddensaremissingonandaroundUnit19.SomeutilitarianpotterydiscoveredinnonmortuarycontextsatUnit19
correspondstoverylargestoragevesselsusedforritualparaphernalia(suchasthetextileremainsintheFeature80vessel)and/ortosuprafamilialfeasting.Some
utilitarianware(suchasFeature75/76)functionedaspermanent,smallscalestoragefacilities,presumablyforfoodorwater.Otherbrokenplainwarecanbeidentified
aspiecesoflargefuneraryurns,suchasthebrokenBurial6vessel(seechap.14),ratherthanascookingvessels.
Fine,highlyiconographicearlyNascapaintedpotteryisabundantonUnit19,anditisunlikelythatallthisfinewarewasaccidentallybrokeninthecourseofdaily
activitiesatthesite.ThereissimplytoomuchfinewareonUnit19andatCahuachiasawholetosupportthenotionofanormaldomesticfunction.Rather,wehave
seenthatsomefinewareisburialpottery,anditcanalsobesuggestedthatpotterywasrituallyconsumedatthesite(seechap.22).Otherartifactsfromthesurfaceof
Unit19andenvirons(chaps.1619)likewisedonotconformtoordinarydomesticactivitiesandinhabitants.Theseincludecachesofpetrifiedwood,elaboratetextile
fragments,pyroengravedgourds,andotherspecialartifacts.
Notes
1.Wall200wascalledMajorWall6inSilverman1986.
2.Looseadobefragmentswithtracesofyellow,red,orwhitepaintwerealsoveryrarelyobservedonthesitesurface.ButIhaveseennoevidenceofmuralpainting
atCahuachibeyondthewhitewashingnotedabove.
3.Wall27wascalledWall3AinSilverman1986.

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ChapterThirteen
ExcavationoftheRoomofthePosts
TheRoomofthePosts(figs.12.1,12.3,13.1,13.2)wasdiscoveredinthecourseoftheexcavationsatthebaseofUnit19.TheroomisdefinedbyWalls10,45,14,
and11.
TheWall10Wall45cornerhadbeendeliberatelypackedwithfillinasterilesandmatrixeastwardforalmost7meters(figs.13.3,13.4).Thepackingcontinued
northwardfromWall45foronlyabout75centimeters.Afterremovingathickoverburdenofloosesandfromthiscorner,fromwhichabundantearlyNascasherdsof
variousphaseswererecovered,alayeroffallenadobewasencountered.Thiswasunderlainbyathicklayerofsterilesand,underwhichwasvegetalfiber(carrizo
leavesandothervegetalmaterial).Underneaththisvegetalfiber,alayerofsandwithlittleadobefragmentswasuncovered.Thatlayerextendeddowntotheapisonado
inthecornerofWalls10and45.TherestofwhatturnedouttobetheRoomofthePostscontainedonlycleansandinotherwords,therestoftheroomdidnot
exhibitthedeliberatefillorpackingdescribedabove.
Afterremovingallthesandfillingtheroom,theRoomofthePostswasrevealed.Therehadbeenatotaloftwelveverticalpostsimplantedintheapisonadothatformed
theflooroftheroom.Threeposts(13)werealignedinanorthsouthrowparalleltoWall10.Post3isspecialbecauseitwasplanedsmooth,whereasalloftheother
postsarenaturallytwistinglimbsofthehuarangotree.Nineposts(412)werealignedinthreerowsofthreepostseachinthecenteroftheroom,oneoftheposts
havingfallenwherethepatterndeemeditwouldbe.Thepostsarepreservedtovaryingheights(seetable13.1).
TheRoomofthePostsmeasuresfrom10.23to10.30meterswideby12.32meterslong.Thesouthwall,Wall45,isthehighestwallintheroomitisapproximately
2.20metersabovetheapisonado.Theeastwall,Wall14,andthewestwall,Wall10,slopesharplydowntothenorthandjointhenorthwall,Wall11,whichisa
maximumof115centimetersabovefloorlevel(seefig.13.5).Thus,thereismorethanameterdifferenceinheightbetweenthesouthwallandthenorthwallofthe
RoomofthePosts.
Thereisaverylow,thick,preparedmudplatform(1025centimetershighabovetheapisonado)inthecenteroftheroom.Thisplatformhasbeenbrokenbyanow
damagedrounddepression.Thecoarsesandinthatdepressionwasremovedtoadepthof50centimetersbeneaththeflooroftheroom,butnothingwasfound.This
coarsesandisdifferentfromthefinersandfillingtheRoomofthePosts,andIbelievethatthecoarsesandisthesterilesoilunderlyingtheRoomofthePosts.Bearin
mind,however,thatinnearbyExcavation6sterilesoilwasasedimentarybedrock,thoughagravellysanddidconstitutesterilesoilintheLERexcavations(chap.12).
TheflooroftheRoomofthePostsisanapisonadoratherthanacarefullypreparedfloor.Theapisonadowascleananddevoidofartifactsexceptfortheonesherd
embeddedinitthatcorrespondstoStrong's(1957:fig.12D)earlyNasca"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"type(fig.13.6).Strong(1957:25)identifiesthis
typeofpotterywiththe"MiddleandLateNazcaphases,"whichmeansthatthesherdcoulddatetoNasca3through7.Proulx(1970:pl.12E)illustratesasimilar
designonavesselinaNasca3AgravelotfromIca.
Fourlargecirculardepressions,showninfigure13.1

Page175

13.1.
PlanoftheRoomofthePostswiththeposts,fourlarge
depressions,andwallsnumbered.Post7isindicatedwitha
bracketbecauseitwaslyingdown.Allotherpostswereupright.

13.2.
LookingwestattheRoomofthePosts.Notetheflat
planedshapeofPost3.

13.3.
PlanoftheRoomofthePostsindicating
locationofcrosssectionshownbelow.
Crosssectionshowsthefillwithwhichthe
southwestcorneroftheRoomofthePosts
waspacked.Stratum1:finewindblownsand
andlootermoveddirt.Stratum2:loose
adobesfromwallandadobemelt.Stratum3:
sterilesand.Stratum4:vegetalfiber.Stratum
5:verydenseandcompactvegetalfiber.
Stratum6:bitsofadobeinfinesand.Stratum
7:apisonado(flooroftheRoomofthePosts).

Page176

13.4.
Thefillalongthesouthwall(Wall45)oftheRoomofthePosts.
Table13.1.HeightsaboveFloorLevelofthePostsin
theRoomofthePostsinCentimeters
Post

Height

Post1

86

Post2

125

Post3

97

Post4

51

Post5

66

Post6

58

Post7

lyingdown

Post8

35

Post9

43

Post10

43.5

Post11

18

Post12

asDepressions1,2,3,and4,wereexcavatedintotheapisonadooftheroom.Depression1(fig.13.7)isshallowwithsloping,lightlysmoothedmudsides.It
measures78by85centimeters,anditsmaximumdepthis23centimeters.Thedepressionwasfilledwithcoarseloosesandcontainingabundanthuarangopodsand
seedswhich,intheprocessofdisintegration,hadcoloredthesandadarkbrowninplaces.Theorganicremainsfillingthedepressionarepartofalargerconcentration
ofhuarangoseedsandpods(atotalof3,047gramsthisisFeature66)asampleofthismaterialwassubmittedforradiocarbondating(SampleI14,442seebelow
table13.2).
Depression2isacircularhole80centimetersindiameter.Itcontainedonlysterilesand.Althoughitsoutlinewasclearlydefinedintheapisonado,nosidewallsorbase
couldbefound,evenafterremovingmorethan30centimetersofsterilesand.
Depression3measures96by94centimeters.AswithDepression2,nosidewallsorbasecouldbefound.Two

Page177

13.5.
ThefourwallsoftheRoomofthePosts.

undiagnosticplainwaresherdswererecoveredinthesterilecoarsesandfillingit.
Depression4is87by88centimetersacross.AswithDepressions2and3,nointernalstructurecouldbefound,andthecoarsesandfillingitwassterile.
EntranceintotheRoomofthePostsappearstohavebeenfromthewestthroughawidedoorwayinWall10thatwasblockedinantiquitypriortothedeliberate
entombmentoftheRoomofthePostsincleansand.
Alargeniche,almostanalcove,existsintheeastwall

Page178

13.6.
Theonesherdindirectassociationwiththeapisonadoof
theRoomofthePosts.Itwasembeddedintheapisonado
andcorrespondstoStrong's(1957:fig.12D)ceramictype
called"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black."

(figs.13.5,13.8,13.9).Thenicheis64centimetershighand114centimeterswide.ItmusthavebeenstructurallyquiteunstablesinceitsroofisWall15andtheniche
issodeep(maximumdepthof72centimeters)astomakethebackwallverythinatthispoint.Nevertheless,itsurvivedthecenturies.
Immediatelyinfrontofthenichetwosmallcirculardepressionshadbeenplacedintheapisonado(fig.13.8).Onemeasures13by15centimetersandis7to8
centimetersdeeptheotherisonly9centimetersindiameterbutis14centimetersdeep.Thelatterismuchbetterdefinedthantheformer.Thefingerimpressionsonthe
sidewallsofthedepressioncanbeseenandfelt,indicatingthattheholewassmoothedwhilethemudmortarwasstillinamoiststate.Twelvepiecesofpartially
workedSpondylusshellwererecoveredfromthesand

13.7.
Photo,plan,andcrosssectionofDepression1intheRoom
ofthePosts.

fillingthenicheandfromthesmallerofthetwolittledepressions.
ThewallsoftheRoomofthePostswerewellplasteredbutarenowinvaryingstatesofdisrepair.Inthepast,partoftheeastwall,Wall14,wasdamagedbywater
the

Page179
Table13.2.RadiocarbonMeasurementsfromtheRoomofthePosts
SampleNo.

dC14

AgeinYearsB.P.

Date

Associated
CeramicPhase

I14,442

13013

112080

A.D.830

Nasca8

I14,443

2018

180080

A.D.150

Nasca4

I14,444

2018

180080

A.D.150

Nasca4

I14,445

2128

191080

A.D.40

Nasca4

13.8.
Closeupofthenicheintheeastwall(Wall14)oftheRoom
ofthePosts.Notethetwosmalldepressionsintheapisonado
oftheniche.TwelvepiecesofSpondyluswererecoveredfrom
thesandfillingthenicheandfromthesmallerofthetwo
depressionsinfrontoftheniche.

northeastcorneroftheRoomisparticularlydamagedwherewaterpooled,leavingfinelinesorwaterlenses.Nevertheless,whentheroomwasfunctioningthesewalls
wereofexcellentqualitybyCahuachistandards.
TheprocessoffinishingWall10isparticularlyclear.First,theadobewallitselfwasbuilt.Thenitreceivedamudcoatingwiththesamematerialasthatwithwhichthe
adobeshadbeenmade.Thiscoatingis1.2to1.4centimetersthickandcontainsvisibleinclusionsofsmallangularandroundedpebbles,someofwhichcanbeas
muchas1centimeteracross.Theadobesandmudcoatingarelightgray(Munsell10YR7/12).Overthemudcoatinganotherfineslipofmud,clay,oradobewas
placed.Itislightgraytopinkishgray(Munsell7.5YR7/02).Next,athin(1millimeter)gray(Munsell7.5YR65/0)coatofadobematerialwasapplied.Itisonthis
thirdlayerthatpigmentswereappliedinaverythinlayer.The

13.9.
ProfileandtopviewofthenicheinWall14showingthe
verythinbackwall.

pigmentcolorsidentifiedarered(Munsell7.5R43/46),lightred(Munsell7.5R6/68),rustorange(red:Munsell2.5YR5/8),andpink(Munsell5YR8/4).Thispaint
wasthencoveredbyamudcoatingsimilartothatofthefirstlayer.Thewallshowsgreatcareinitsrepeatedcoatings.
DesignswereincisedintothesurfacelayerofplasterofthewestandsouthwallsoftheRoomofthePosts.On

Page180

13.10.
Thepanpipesandotherdesignsincisedintothewestwall(Wall10)oftheRoomofthePosts.

13.11.
Thebadlydamagedrayedfaceincisedintothesouthwall(Wall45)oftheRoomofthePosts.

Wall10thereareatleasteightpanpipes,arayedface,andanovalshapedmotiflaidhorizontallyfromwhichseverallinesarependant(fig.13.10).Onthebasisof
iconographicsimilaritybetweentherayedfaceonWall10andNasca5rayedfaces(seeRoark1965:fig.49),Ibelievethatthedrawingsonthewallweredonein
EarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5(Nasca5).OnWall45itismoredifficulttoseethetracingsgiventhepoorpreservationofthewallsurfaces.Nevertheless,a
differentkindofrayedface(fig.13.11)andtwopossiblepanpipescan

Page181

bedistinguished.TheWall45rayedface,inmyperception,issimilartotherayedfaceoftheprincipaldeityonthesocalledGatewayoftheSunatTiwanakuandto
therelatedWaristaffdeity.
Aseriesofofferingswasleftintheunstratifiedsandfillingtheroom.Thesewere:sixteenwholepots(twelveofwhicharedecoratedintheNasca8styletheotherfour
areplainware)leftindividuallyandingroups(figs.13.1213.35)scoresofsherdsintheNasca8stylewhichhadbeenleftindividuallyoringroupsthatdonot
reconstituteintowholevessels(fig.13.36)fourbundlesoftiedcane(fig.13.37)identifiedasbackstraploomelements1 acacheofbluepaintedajpeppers
(Capsicum)whichoverlaytwogourdrattles(fig.13.38seechap.19)variousgourdswhichhadvirtuallydisintegratedinthesandordidsoastheywereexcavated
astonemortarandpestlealocalizedconcentrationofpoorlypreservedmaizeandaconcentrationofcottonfiber,cottonseed,andmaize.
IcontendthattheRoomofthePostswasrituallyinterredincleansandbyNasca8peopleandthatthecontentsoftheroomareofferings.2 ThesandfillingtheRoom
ofthePostsisnotaeolianinoriginbecauseitwasnotcrossbeddedasistypicalofwinddeposition.Rather,thesandprobablycamefromthenearbyriverbed.The
southwestcorneroftheroomwasdeliberatelypackedwithasandandvegetalfiberfilltoprotectthepanpipeandrayedfacetracingsonthesewalls.Thevariouspots,
sherds,andotheritemswereleftatdifferentlevelsintheroom(fig.13.39,table13.3),suggestingthattheyweredeposited/offeredduringtheprocessofinterment.
Theroomhadbeenabandonedforcenturies,explainingthepoorconditionofsomeofthepostsandthedamagetosomesectionsofwall.Thealternativeexplanation
would

13.12.
Feature20:asinglespoutedbottlewithtwohandlesanda
protuberance.Thebodyisdecoratedwithverticalwatery
redstripes.Thescaleinthisandallotherlabphotographsisin
centimeters.Thisvesselwasfoundupsidedowninthesterile
sandfillingtheRoomofthePosts.Thebottleisreminiscentof
oneillustratedbyW.H.Isbell(1977:pl.11F,fig.17D)from
LatePatibamba(MiddleHorizonepoch2B)contexts
attheWarisiteofJargampata.

13.13.
Feature64:alargeplainwarevesselthathadbeenplaced
rightsideupontheapisonadooftheRoomofthePosts.As
aresult,thepressureofthesterilesandfillbrokethevessel.

13.14.
Feature62:asmallerplainwarevesselthathadbeenleft
upsidedowninthesterilesandfillingtheRoomofthePosts.Note
thebulbousprofileofitsflaringrim.

Page182

13.15.
Feature32:agroupingoffourceramicvesselsplacedupside
downinthesterilesandfillingtheRoomofthePosts.The
fourthvesselisbetweenthetwobowlsontheright,hidden
fromview.

13.16.
Feature32Element1:theplainwarevessellocatedontheleft
sideoffigure13.15.Ithasamicaceouspasteandabrightorange
surfacecolor.Thelipisdistinctivelyflattenedandbevelled.
Thereisasmallprotuberanceoneitherside.

13.17.
Feature32Element2:adeepcumbrousbowlwhich,whenlifted,
revealsahiddensmallerbowlrestingontopofthebottomvessel.

13.18.
Feature32Element2:theinteriordesignfieldofthecumbrousbowl
isquadripartioned.Crudenestedtrianglesarependantfromthelip.
Thevesselwasrepairedinantiquity.

13.19.
Feature32Element3:aninteriordecoratedbowlwithfour
identicalpaneledstepfretsandfillerdesigns.Thepanelsare
verysimilartothosefoundontheFeature36vessel
illustratedinfigure13.25.Thebowlisshownimmediatelyafter
itwasliftedfromtheFeature32Element4vesselonwhich
itrested.

Page183

13.20.
Feature32Element4:thebottomvesselofthegroup.
Itisacumbrousbowlwhoseinteriorisdecoratedwith
fouridenticalbirdsflyingintowardthecenterof
thevessel.

13.21.
Feature28insituintheRoomofthePosts.Alargedecorated
sherdcoversabrokenbottlefilledwithcottonfiber.

13.22.
ThelargeFeature28sherdinfigure13.21correspondstohalf
ofabulbousvasepaintedwithschematichairtressesand
straightlines.

13.23.
ThisisthebrokenFeature28bottle.Ithasa
singlespoutandstraphandleandisdecorated
withlinkedtrianglesatthebaseofthespout.

13.24.
Feature36wasfoundupsidedowninthesterile
sandfillingtheRoomofthePosts.

Page184

13.25.
Whenturnedover,Feature36wasrevealedtobealargebulbous
vasedecoratedwithabandedstepfretdesign.Ithadbeen
repairedinantiquity.Agourdspoonandanalmostminiature
sidespoutpothadbeenplacedinsidethevessel.Thegourdspoon
wasalreadydisintegratingwhenthisphotographwastaken.

13.26.
ThesmallsidespoutpotwithintheFeature36bulbousvaseis
paintedwithadesignsimilartothatfoundbetweenthepanelled
stepfretsonFeature32Element3(seefig.13.19).Thisvessel
shapeisknownfromWaricontextsasatJargampatawhereit
correspondstominiatureandfullsizeLatePatibambaphase
material(seeW.H.Isbell1977:pl.11C,fig.13),correlatedby
W.H.IsbelltoMiddleHorizonepoch2B.

13.27.
Feature40:twovasesplacedsidebysideandupsidedown
inthesterilesandfillingtheRoomofthePosts.

13.28.
Feature40Element1:abulbousvasedecoratedwithXmotifs.
ThesemotifsarefoundonHuarpapotteryfromAyacucho(see
Knobloch1983:pl.39)andareubiquitousonMiddleHorizon
2interiordecoratedbowls(e.g.,W.H.Isbell1977:fig.21).

13.29.
Feature40Element2:ashoulderedvasedecoratedwithbanded
recurvedrayanddominomotifs.Therecurvedrayorscrollmotifs
derivefromNasca7.Thedominomotifisquitecommononthe
sherdmaterialfromtheRoomofthePostsitdoesnot
appeartohaveNascaantecedents.

Page185

13.30.
Feature41:asmalljar(brokenbyaworker'sshovel)rests
upsidedownalongsidealargeinvertedcumbrousbowl.

13.31.
Feature41Element1:alarge,slightly
ovoidorellipticalcumbrousbowl
decoratedwithXmotifsandcircularfiller
elements.Thedecorationisreminiscentof
thatfoundonMiddleHorizon2BLate
Patibambaphaseinteriordecoratedbowls
fromJargampata(seeW.H.Isbell1977:pl.
13A1,A2,B).

13.32.
Feature41Element2:asmalljarwithstrap
handle.Itisdecoratedwitharecurvedmouthdesign.

13.33.
Feature41Element3:abasketvessel.Thevesselpreserved
beautifullybecauseitwasburiedupsidedownandcovered
bythelargeFeature41Element1bowl.

13.34.
Feature41Element3.Left:thebodyofthisbasketvesselisdecoratedwithabandofschematicsteporzigzagdesigns
andpendantblacklines(derivedfromthelateNascarepresentationofhair).Right:thearchinghandleofthisvessel
isdecoratedwithtrophyheadsquitesimilartothoserecoveredbyStrong(1957:fig.171)atHuacadelLoro.

Page186

13.35.
Feature43:aroundbottomedbowldecoratedwithabandof
alternatingstepfrets.Thisistheonedecoratedvesselthathad
beenburiedrightsideup.Itwasbrokenwhendiscovered
becausetheweightoftheoverburdenofsandhadpushedthe
vesselapart.

13.36.
AnexampleofagroupingofsherdsfromtheRoomofthePosts.
Fourvesselsarerepresented(onebowl,threevases).Theseare
theonlysherdsfoundinthisgrouping.Thesherdsdonot
reconstituteintowholevessels.Thecarewithwhichthe
sherdswereplacedtogethercanbeseen.

13.37.
Feature38:fourbundlesoftiedcanesconforming
toportablebackstraplooms.

13.38.
Feature52:acacheofbluepaintedajpeppersunderwhich
twogourdrattlesrestonabedofvegetalfiberplaced
directlyontheapisonadooftheRoomofthePosts.

Page187

13.39.
PlotoftheofferingsleftbyNasca8peopleintheRoomofthe
Posts.Eachofferingisindicatedbyadot.Upper:planviewof
theRoomofthePosts.Middle:planshowstheofferingsin
verticalrelationshiptoeachotherlookingnorththrough
Wall45.Bottom:histogramindicateseachlevel(in
centimeters)beneathdatumatwhichofferingswerefound.
Theseillustrationswerecompiledonthebasisofthe
informationpresentedintable13.3.

bethatNasca8peoplefoundtheroomalreadycoveredinaeoliansandandsimplydugintothatnaturalfilltodeposittheofferings.Thelatterexplanationisnotas
parsimoniousasthefirst.
Excavation19
SoastobetterunderstandtheconstructionhistoryoftheRoomofthePosts,IextendedaholethatlootershaddugbetweenWalls45and65(seefig.12.7).This
excavationrevealedthatWall45containeda120centimeterwidefillthatcoveredWall65.Therefore,Wall45postdatesWall65.Thefillbetweenthetwowallswas
composedofsmallerandlargerchunksofadobe,a36to45centimeterhighlayerofsand,smallrocks,maizesheaths,andfragmentsofvegetalfiberrope(fig.
13.40).InthisfillthereweretwodiagnosticNasca4sherdsaswellassomeNasca3sherds(fig.13.41).ThismeansthattheRoomofthePostswasnotbuiltbefore
Nasca4times.ThefillwascappedbytheStratum2apisonadoofRoom1atopUnit19whichcannothavebeenlaidbeforeNasca5times(seediscussionof
Excavation9inchap.12).
OnthesurfaceofWall65werecordedtheenigmaticoccurrenceofatleastfiftyshallow,roundindentations,eachabout1centimeterindiameter(fig.13.42).Noreal
patterncanbediscernedthoughthereisatendencyforthecircularimpressionstoaligninhorizontalrowsofthree.Ihavesearchedtheliteratureforasimilarfeature
thatwouldexplainwhatwesawatCahuachi.ThebestIcancomeupwitharethemarkingsonabonefluteillustratedbySalgueroJara(1989:fig.70)fromthe
predominantlyNasca8siteofLaOroyainAcarandTelloandMejaXesspe's(1979:figs.50[2],60)illustrationofsimpleboneflutesfromtheCavernaslocusofthe
Paracassitesomeofthesearepaintedandhaveincisedcircles.PerhapstheimpressionsonWall65areaschematicorsymbolicrepresentationofamusical
instrument.
RadiocarbonMeasurements
FourradiocarbonsamplesweretakenfromtheRoomofthePosts.DatingwasdonebyTeledyneIsotopes,Inc.TheLibbyhalflifeof5,568yearswasusedby
Teledynetocalculatetheages.Datesareuncorrected.Thedatingisreportedintable13.2.
I14,442comesfromtheofferingcacheofhuarangopods(Feature66)intheunstratifiedsandintheRoomofthePosts,fillingandjustaboveDepression1inthe
room'sapisonado.IarguethatthiscachewasleftduringthecourseofrituallyinterringtheroomincleansandandthatthedatecorrespondstotheNasca8pottery
offeringalsofoundintheroom.WhencomparedtopublishedradiocarbondatesforNasca8(table3.1),weseethatthisdateisrightontarget.
TheotherthreesamplesshoulddatetoNasca4onthebasisoftheargumentmadeabove.I14,443comesfromPost11I14,444comesfromPost8I14,445
comesfromPost5.Theconsistencyofthethreedatessuggestsstronglythattheyarevalid.Thearchitecturalevidence,

Page188
Table13.3.LocationinCentimetersoftheMajorOfferingsintheRoomofthePosts
Distance/Directionfrom

Feature/ElementNo.

Item

Level

Wall10

Wall11

Wall14

Wall45

unnumbered

sherdgroup

110

675E

135N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

120

310E

123N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

126

859E

315N

38

tiedcanes

131

744E

129N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

131

650E

239N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

131

118S

279W

unnumbered

sherdgroup

131

355W

438N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

132

297E

160S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

135

732E

263N

29

twogourdbowls

137

110E

331N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

141

625E

278N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

145

461E

401N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

145

630E

412N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

146

742E

290N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

146

534W

360N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

147

553E

372N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

147

688E

412N

28

pot

148

9E

267N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

148

580E

377N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

148

733E

280N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

149

670E

545N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

149

690E

598S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

149

670E

345N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

150

335W

466N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

150

497E

403N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

153

732E

280N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

153

432E

454N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

154

556E

250S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

156

556E

410N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

157

584E

310S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

157

610E

410N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

158

538W

373N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

158

245S

330W

unnumbered

sherdgroup

161

276W

464N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

162

352S

285S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

165

474W

430N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

165

656E

490S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

167

239S

453W

40/1,2

twopots

169

743E

280N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

478E

682N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

436E

673N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

464E

283N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

608W

386N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

556E

250S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

170

777E

453N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

171

542E

398S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

171

642E

332S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

171

572E

465N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

172

293S

517W

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

Page189
Table13.3.Continued
Feature/ElementNo.

Item

Level

Wall10

Wall11

Wall14

Wall45

unnumbered

sherdgroup

173

555E

441N

32/1,2,3,4

fourpots

175

364E

295N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

177

149E

270S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

178

688E

400N

43

pot

179

48W

427N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

179

452E

637N

36

twopots

180

431E

313N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

180

456E

328N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

180

600E

411S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

182

653E

299S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

182

472E

362N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

183

787E

402N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

184

562E

387S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

185

487E

656N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

185

320S

375W

58

corncache

187

365E

220S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

187

565E

352S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

189

593E

481S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

190

612E

428S

20

pot

191

460E

3S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

191

290W

245N

62

pot

192

309S

395W

unnumbered

sherdgroup

193

395E

398N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

193

97E

748N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

197

640E

430S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

197

574E

526S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

199

587E

530S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

200

600E

409S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

200

336E

481N

41/1,2,3

threepots

201

459E

398N

52

aji,gourdrattles

201

10W

5N

64

pot

201

577E

336S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

201

409S

284W

unnumbered

sherdgroup

203

630E

409S

70

cottonandmaize

207

30W

520N

44

stonemortar

210

60W

110N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

211

674E

483S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

212

357E

515N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

213

513E

540N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

213

629E

522S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

215

505E

562N

unnumbered

sherdgroup

215

620E

486S

66

huarangofruit

216

fillingDepression1andextendingabove/westofit

unnumbered

sherdgroup

220

483E

510N

53

gourdbowl

228

114E

140S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

228

524E

538N

55

gourdbowl

230

334E

138S

unnumbered

sherdgroup

230

356E

505N

Page190

ceramicmaterialinthefillbetweenWalls45and65,andthe"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"sherdintheapisonadooftheroomallargueforaNasca4
datefortheconstructionoftheRoomofthePosts.ThethreeradiocarbondatesforNasca4are400to500yearstooearlyfortheshortscale(seeRowe1967).
TheyareveryclosetoRowe's(citedinProulx1968:99100)longscaleestimatethattheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch4occurredaroundA.D.65(seealso
Rowe1967:table2).ThesethreeconsistentNasca4datesfromtheRoomofthePostsdonotfitwiththeonepublishedNasca5datewhichisashortscaledateof
A.D.52690(Strong:1957:table4,SampleL335EseeRowe1967:table1).Iamcurrentlystudyingthissubject.
AncestorsandPosts:ASpeculativeInterpretationoftheRoomofthePosts
TheRoomofthePostsisthusfaruniqueatCahuachi,andnosimilarstructureisreportedintheliteratureonNasca,althoughwoodencolonnadesareknownat
Estaquera(Kroeber1944)andNasca8sitesintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(seeStrong1957:table1Robinson1957:96).ThepostsintheRoomofthe
Postsarenot,however,properlyspeaking,acolonnade.
TheRoomofthePostsmustbeinterpretedasasacredprecinct.Itswesternaccesswasverycarefullysealed,andabigboulderwasplacedinthisblock.Thewallsof
theroombenefitedfromconstantcare,asevidencedbythemanylayersofmudcoatingandtracesofpaintonthem.Yettheroomwasnotusedbymanypeople,to
judgefromtheapisonadowhichissoftratherthanhardenedbytraffic.Therewasacentrallowplatformintheroom,surroundedbynineposts.Thereisnoevidence
thatthesesupportedaroof.Threeotherpostsofademonstrablynonstructuralnaturearealsofoundintheroomoneofthese(Post3)isparticularlynoteworthy
becauseithadbeenplanedflat.
Theeastwestrowofcirculardepressions(1,2,and3)andDepression4arespecialpurposeevenifonlyone(Depression1)wascompletethatonecontainedan
offeringofhuarangopods.Ibelievethathuarangopodswereparticularlyappropriateforofferingbecauseanalcoholicbeveragecanbemadefromthefruitofthe
huarangotree,becausethehuarangotreesurvivessolongandwellinthedesert,becauseitissuchafinebuildingmaterial,andbecauseitwasintimatelyinvolvedinan
ancestorcultandwassymbolicofNascasocialandreligiousorganization(seebelow).
ThewalltracingsreflectthereligiouscharacteroftheactivitiesheldintheRoomofthePosts,forapanpipeisaNascamusicalinstrumenticonographicallyassociated
withritual(forexamplesseeBolaos1988:cover,fig.3fig.22.1).Therayedfacestracedonthewestandsouthwallsoftheroomalsopertaintomythicalbeings.3
Theroomhadalargeniche,andthesacredAndeanshell,Spondylus(seeDavidson1982Murra1975bPaulsen1974Marcos19771978interalia),wasinvolved
inthefillinginoftheniche.
IthinkthatthecirculardepressioninthelowplatformoftheRoomofthePostsalsoindicatesareligiousorceremonialfunction.Thelowplatformanditscircular
depressionarepossiblyanalogoustotheushnu.Zuidema(19771978:161)definestheushnuas"aritualcomplexofaltar,platformorpyramidtogetherwiththebasic
holeortubeleadingundergroundinfrontofit."Heinterpretstheushnuasaconnectiontotheunderworldand,implicitly,theancestors(Zuidema19771978:165).It
ispossiblethatliquid(forinstance,chichadehuarango)waspouredintothelargerounddepressioninthecenterofthelowcentralplatformaswellasintotheother
depressionsintheroom.Perhapsthebasesoftheserounddepressionsaremissingbecausetheydeterioratedthroughfrequentwatering.TodayintheAndesitis
commontopourchichaonthegroundinritualdrinkingsessionsasanofferingtopachamama.
Underthislineofreasoning,theabundanthuarangoremainsrecoveredinexcavationsatCahuachioverall(seechap.20)and,especially,thehuarangopodcacheinthe
RoomofthePostsbecomeunderstandable,asdoestherottingconditionofthehuarangoseeds,asiftheywerepreviouslywet.Isuggestthatpeoplebeganmaking
chichadehuarangofromthesehuarangopodsorthattheydousedthepodswithchicha.4
Thewholeroomreceivedritualattentionwhenitwasdeliberatelyandrapidlyinterredincleansand,andofferingswereleftbyalater(Nasca8)people.Allofthese
factsindicatetheformersacrednatureofthislocale.
IbelievewecanreconstructthenatureofreligiousactivitiesintheRoomofthePosts,ifnottheritualperse.Inamostprovocativearticle,Zuidema(1972:36)argues
thattheNascacosmicconceptandsocialreligioussystemisrepresentedby"aGodorman,standingfrontallyanddressedinashirtwithacollar,whoholdsinhis
handstwootherfigures,orafigureinoneandaweaponintheother"(seefig.13.43).Zuidema(1972:39)relatesthisto"anancestralUnderworldtriad."He
interpretstheiconographicrepresentationinpoliticalterms,sayingitis"acosmologicalrepresentationofroyalpower,"akingandhisprincipalandsecondarysons
(Zuidema

Page191

13.40.
Excavation19:thefillbetweenWall45(thesouthwallof
theRoomofthePosts)andWall65onUnit19.

13.41.
DiagnosticNasca3and4sherdsrecoveredfromExcavation19.

13.42.
Enigmaticcircularimpressionsonthemortared
faceofWall65.

1972:41,44).HesuggeststhatNascapotsdecoratedwiththisthemedepict"politicaldominancebasedonconquest.Theconquerorchiefshouldhaveinhis
possessiontheslainbodyormummyoftheconqueredchiefinordertooccupythelandconsequently,thelatterthenwasclaimedashisownancestorandasfirst
occupantoftheland"(Zuidema1972:4546).InZuidema'smodel,thetrophyheadrepresents"themummyofthefirstoccupantofaterritoryinthehandsofhis
conqueror"(Zuidema1972:48).
Zuidemadealsexclusivelywiththemainanthropomorphicfigureandtwosubordinatehumanones.Butthisleavesoutacrucialelement.Ibelievethatthekeyiconand
realmeaningoftheimageiscontainedintheanthropomorphicbeing'slefthand.WhatZuidemahaseitherinterpretedasaweaponorignored(itisnotclear)isclearlya
carvedhuarangopost.
Isuggestthattheanthropomorphic,carvedhuarango

Page192

postheldbythemainfigurerepresentstheconceptofancestororaspecificgenealogicalpositionofancestor:thefourthgeneration.Thisinterpretationaccords
beautifullywithZuidema's(1977)workonthecyclical,fourgenerationalkinshipsystemoftheAndes,called"perpetualkinship"elsewhereintheethnographic
literature(seeCunnison1956).ItisalsosupportedbySherbondy's(1986)studyofcultivatedtreesintheAndes.
Mallki,thecultivatedtree,incontrastwiththewildtree,lendsitselfforsymbolismofancestors,women,andmen,ofafamily,andaboveallthefruittreeasasymbolofthefamily
whichproduceditsfruit:children.Andanoldtreerepresentedmanyyearsoflife.Thesethreeaspectswouldhavecontributedtothesymbolizationofthemallkiastheancestorof
anayllu....Inprinciple,theaylluwasafamilyoragroupofpeoplewhoconsideredthemselvestoberelatedthroughdescentfroma

13.43.
TheimageZuidema(1972:36)interpretsastheNascacosmicconcept
andasrepresentingtheNascasocialreligioussystem.
ReproducedfromZuidema(1972:fig.5).

13.44.
Carvedhuarangopostwithhumanfaceandflute.Courtesy
KrannertArtMuseum,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign.

Page193
commonancestor.Moreover,theaylluwasthecorporateownerofthewaterandlandthatitused...thesepeople...formedaspiritualcommunitywhichofferedtothewaterand
earthsothattheywouldproducemuchfruit.
Thedead,whoweretransformedintoancestors,wereburiedintheirlandsandcontinuedmediatingbetweenthelivingandtheforcesoftheearthfortheprosperityoftheayllu.
Theoriginalancestors,thefoundersoftheayllu,werethemostimportant.Theywerethemostpowerfulmediators,thosewhogavelegitimacytotheaylluandrightstothelands
andwater.
...Someayllusrepresentedtheseoriginalancestorsintheformofmallkiortrees.Alargeoldtreewouldbeasymbolofalonglifeandafruittree,ofafructiferouslife.Themallki
ancestorshadtheseattributes.Their"fruit,"thelivingdescendants,caredforthemummifiedbodiesofthedeadandthistermmallkialsoreferstothemummies.
...Themallkiwasatreewhich,inmanycases,representedtheancestorsoftheayllu.ThiswasthecasewithamollewhichwasadoredinSanFranciscodeOtuco(CentralPeru)in
1656...
...TheancestralmothersandfathersoftheIncasweretrees:mallki.(Sherbondy1986:910)

IdentificationofthemotifasacarvedhuarangopostandofthehuarangoasaniconsymbolicofancestorsmayshedlightontheRoomofthePosts.Itenuouslysuggest
thatatleastsomeoftheactivitiesintheRoomofthePostswereconcernedwithancestorworshipandthattheposts,particularlythecarvedflatpost(Post3),
representedtheseancestors.ThehuarangopostsintheRoomofthePostscouldbecalledancestorposts.EarlyNascasocietymayhavebeenusingthehuarangoasa
metaphor,similartothebiblicaltreeoflife.Indeed,Doering(1966:142)reportsfindingflathuarangopostsinhisNasca3AandNasca8tombsatCahuachi(seechap.
14).TheinterpretationofhuarangopostsasancestorpostsissupportedcircumstantiallybytheevidencefromRoom2thatshowsUnit19tohavebeenanappropriate
placeforburial.
Addingfurthersupporttothisinterpretationisthecarvedhuarangopostshowninfigure13.44.Thisunproveniencedpost,inthecollectionoftheKrannertArt
MuseumattheUniversityofIllinois,isprobablyfromthesouthcoast.InsizeitiscomparabletosomeofthehuarangopostsofEstaquera.Ofparticularinterestisthe
quena(Andeanflute)tiedtothepost,asifsuspendedfromthefigure'smouth.Ibelievethispostshowsanassociationofancestors,ancestorposts,andmusic.
IfthehuarangopostsintheRoomofthePostsareancestorposts,thenthiscouldalsoexplainwhytheradiocarbonmeasurementsonthethreedatedpostsareearlier
thanexpectedifweuseStrong's(1957:table4)Nasca5dateofA.D.52690asourbaselineandworktheabsolutechronologybackthroughRowe'sshortscale.
Itispossibletoenvisionasituationinwhichthepostswerenoterectedatthesametimebutatcriticallife/societalevents.Itisalsopossiblethatpostsfromearlier
structureswerevaluedandreused.
TheidentificationofhuarangopostsasancestorpostsmayalsoexplainEstaqueraandotherwoodencolonnadesreportedonthesouthcoastofPeru(Strong1957
Robinson1957:96Morrison1978:76).Ihypothesizethattheuseofhuarangopostsasancestorpostsbecameincreasinglymoreelaboratedovertime.Theybegan
aselementsofgravefurniture(e.g.,inDoering'sNasca3Aand8gravesatCahuachi)andendedupwiththedevelopmentoftheRoomofthePosts,Estaquera,and
TresPalosI(seeStrong1957:table1),whichIinterpretastemplestotheancestorsaswellascontinuingasgravemarkers.
Directandcircumstantialarchaeological,ethnohistoric,andethnographicevidenceidentifytheRoomofthePostsasatempleandUnit19asanarchitecturalcomplex
ofafundamentallyreligiouscharacter.
Notes
1.Phipps(1989:208)isinerrorwhenshesaysthisartifactwasnotreportedinmydissertation(Silverman1986).Thisartifactisthe"bundleofsticks,approximately
30"long"thatsherecalledseeinginmylaboratoryinLima.Noothersuchbundleswerefound,althoughindividualtextileworkingartifactswererecoveredinvarious
contexts.TheseareallaccountedforintheartifactchaptersinSilverman(1986)andherein.
2.Theoriginaltermforthispracticeistempleentombment(IzumiandTerada1972:304).Itreferstotheintentionalandcarefulburialofallorpartofareligious
structurewithaminimumofdestruction.Shimada(1986:166175)discussestempleentombmentattheInitialPeriodEarlyHorizonHuacaLuciaandtheEarly
IntermediatePeriodMoundII,HuacaSoledadatBatanGrandeintheLaLechevalleyonthenorthcoast.
3.Othercasesofgraffitiinaritual/religiouscontextareknownfromtheAndeanliterature.Forinstance,Shimada(1986:177179)reportsincisedradialpat

Page194

ternsonplatformfacesatMoundII,HuacaSoledadatBatanGrandethatheinterpretsasrepresentationsofthecequesystem.BurgerandSalazarBurger(1991:
281,fig.4)discussandillustrateacircularfaceetchedonthewallfacenexttothenorthernsteppedaltaratInitialPeriodCardalintheLurnvalley.
4.Thefollowingisadescriptionofhowchichadehuarangoismadetoday.TheinformationwasprovidedtomebyArmandoValdiviaandJulioTueros.Chicha
(alcoholic)andalgorrobinodehuarango(nonalcoholic)aremadefromthefruitofthehuarangotree,butonlyinsummer(DecemberthroughlateFebruary),whenthe
fruithasitsseason.Huarangofruitisverysweet.Oneeatsitbychewingthepod,suckingoutthejuice,andthenspittingoutthepods.Thefruithasseedsandisyellow
whenmature.
Tomakethebeverageonegathersthefruitandrinsesitwithwater.Itisthenplacedinametalcylinderdrumthathasbeensplitinhalf.Thedrumisfilledwiththree
orfoursacksofthefruitasackholds12to16kilosofthefruitandwaterisaddedtothetop.Thedrumisplacedoverafire.
Whenthefruithasbeenboileditispoundedinthedrum.Asaresultofthisactionthefruitreleasesasyrup.Thesyrupywaterinthedrumisthenstrained.The
drumisrinsedoutandfilledwiththesyrupywaterwhichagainisheated.Nowtheworkbegins.Onemustconstantlystirthisliquidsothatitthickensbutdoesnot
burn.Thewholeprocesstakesaboutfourhours.
Eighttotenbottlesofalgorrobinoareobtainedfromonedrum.Thealgorrobinocanbemadealcoholicbyachangeinthepreparationprocess.Tomakechicha
thealgorrobinoiscookedjustonceandisplacedinavesseltoferment.Today,asinthepast,chichaismadeinlargeceramicvessels.Inasmuchasthereisno
ceramicproductionintheNazcaareatoday,thelargestorageollassoldduringthespringholidaybytravelingCuzcomerchantsaremuchappreciated.
Thealgorrobinoislefttocoolbeforebeingplacedintheceramicvessel.Thentheliquidispouredintothelargecontainer.Next,averyhotrockisplacedinthe
ollaandsalivaisadded.Theliquidbeginstofermentintheselargeurns,andthechichaissaidto"mature"intwodays.
Analternativemethodofpreparingchichadehuarangowasdescribedtome.Itisthesameprocessthatwasusedtomakemaizechichainthisregion.Thecolored
grainsofthemaizeplantwouldbeused.Thesewouldbespreadoutonareedmatandcoveredwithwetreeds.Whenthekernelsbegantogerminatetheywere
dried.Thesekernelswerethemalt.Theywerethencooked,andthismadethechicha.

Page195

ChapterFourteen
BurialsatCahuachi
Inchapters5and7IemphasizedthefactthatCahuachiisamassivelylootedsite.WhenStrongarrivedatCahuachiin1952,thesiteappearedtohimtohavebeen
almostexhaustedbylooters,althoughhedidfindintactNasca5and6burials(Strong1957:32,figs.13,14BJ).Morethanthirtyyearslater,toourgreatsurprise,
excavationsonthesmallUnit19moundrevealedtheexistenceofaseriesofintactNascaburials.Sixnewburialswerefoundaswellastwolootedonesandafalse
lead.TheUnit19burialswereexcavatedbyMiguelPazos.TheyconstituteasignificantportionofthescientificallyrecordedgravesfromCahuachiandcontributeto
theunderstandingofthesiteandNascasociety.Theyarereferredtoas"Silverman'sBurials"inthisbooktodistinguishthemfromtheburialsexcavatedbyother
archaeologists.Inaddition,threeisolatedandunassociatedburials(Burials1,2,and12)werediscoveredduringtheproject(seechaps.9,10,11).Noneoftheseis
necessarilycontemporarywiththemainoccupationofthesitetheyarealsodiscussedbelow.
Silverman'sBurialsintheOpenAreas
Burial1
Location:NorthoftheUnit15CmoundinStratum5ofgridsquareN132134/W310312inExcavation4.
Grave:Itisuncertainiftherewasacist.
Age/Sex/Condition:Thisisamaleindividualmorethanfiftyfiveyearsold.Thebonesareincomplete.Somebones,suchasthepelvis,areveryeroded.Otherbones
arefractured.Thecraniumisculturallydeformed,especiallyinthezoneofthelamda,andtherealsoisevidenceoffrontaloccipitalpressureastheresultofusing
boardsinearlychildhood.Thesuperciliaryarchesareverydenseandprominent,andthenoseishighandprojecting.Thetemporalzoneandleftmaxillaarefractured
bytheeffectofpostmortempressure.Thedessicatedremainsofthebrainarepreserved.Theindividual'sdentalhealthwasquitepoor,withpossiblysixteenteethor
rootsoftheteethinplace.Theotherteethhadbeenlostwellbeforedeath,andthemandiblewasquitehealed.Intheareaofthesecondrightincisorthereisagreat
abscesswithdestructionofthesurroundingbone.Thejawisbrokeninthreepartsinthezonesimmediatelyadjacenttotheascendingbranches.Thisbreakagewas
possiblyproducedbycuttinginstrumentssoonafterthedeathoccurred.BothauditoryconduitspresentHuchke'ssyndrome,bywhichtheinnerwallsaregenetically
absent.Thelongbonesimplyaheightof1.50to1.55meters.Thevertebraeindicateaprocessofarthritiswithosteophitosisandthinningofthebody.Thisarthritic
processisrelatedtotheageoftheindividual.Thereisnofurtherevidenceofpathology.Theleftlegpresentspostmortemfracturesofthetibiaandfibulawithacutting
instrument(somethingsimilarintimeandcharacteristicstowhatoccurredwiththemandible).Burial1hadbeenburiedinasimpleloincloth,nowverycarbonized.
Position:Theburialwasextended,lightlyflexed,withthepelvislyingonitsleftside(fig.14.1).Thelegswereslightlyhigherthantheheadandweretiedtogetherwith
fiberrope.
Orientation:Theheadisfacingsouth.

Page196

14.1.
CloseupofBurial1.Theheadfacessouth.Thebody
isonitsleftside.

Furniture:Therewerenoofferingsaroundtheindividual,butitispossiblethatFeature16,agroupingofrocksbelowtheburial,isassociated(seechap.9).Feature
17,acrossshapedobjectwitharelicpieceofParacasembroidery(chaps.9,18figs.18.1,18.2),mayalsobeassociated.
Remarks:ThisburialwasstudiedbyphysicalanthropologistSoniaGuilln.
Dating:NoolderthanthelateEarlyHorizon.NoyoungerthanNasca3.
Burial2
Location:IsolatedinTestPit5(seechap.11).
Grave:Thereistheslightestsuggestionofacistintowhichtheburialhadbeenplaced.Theevidenceforacististhefactthatafinergrainedsandsurroundsthebody.
Inthissandwerefoundaveryfeworganicremains:squashseeds,afewpacaeleaves,andgourdfragments.Thiscistwouldhavehadamaximumnorthsouth
diameterof28centimetersandamaximumeastwestdiameterof21centimeters.Theimpressionthatthereisacist,ontheotherhand,maybecausedbythe
differentialsoilcreatedbythedecayingflesh.Theskin,indecomposing,hadmadethesurroundinggravelmatrixmoist,anditwasthismoisturewhichcompactedthe
earthmatrixaroundtheskull.Thecist,ifitexists,appearsonlevelwiththeupperextremitiesoftheskull.Thebackoftheskullwouldmarkthenorthernextentofthe
cist.Theskullappearedat50centimeters.Thegravel,almostrockrubble,wassterilefromsurfaceleveltothebottomoftheexcavation.
Age/Sex/Condition:Theskeletonofthistwotothreeyearoldchildwasverybrittle.Thecraniumpresentsfrontaloccipitaldeformationofthetabulaerectatype.
Thereisnoindicationofcauseofdeath.
Position:Itisinaflexed,seatedposition.Thelittlebodyappearstoberecliningbackthearmsarefoldedacrossthechest(seefig.11.6).
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Atinyfragmentofwhatappearstoberedpigmentwasfoundintheearthjustabovetherightshoulder.
Remarks:ThisburialwasstudiedbyphysicalanthropologistAlfonsoMadrid.
Dating:Unknown.
Burial12
Location:InTestPit15at55centimetersbelowalargelensofcleanclaylyingat32centimetersbeneaththesurfacesand(seechap.11figs.11.17,11.18).
Grave:Theclaylensisinasurroundingcontextoflargerivercobblesmixedwiththenaturalsandmatrix.Thisclaywasrestrictedtothesoutheasternsideofthetest
pit.Itwasakindofplugcoveringtheburial.Theburialrestsonandinsterilerockrubble.
Age/Sex/Condition:Theburialisnotcomplete.Theindividualisanadult,probablymale.
Position:Theburialwasclearlyextendingeastintothewallofthepit,butthepositionofthetwolegboneswasnotcorrectnomatterwhethertheburialwasflexedor
extended.Theleftcoxawasarticulatedtothesacrum.Tothiswerearticulatedthefivelumbarvertebraeandthelastdorsal.Fromthelastlumbarthevertebraelose
theiranatomicalarticulation.Thelastlumbarvertebrapresentsosteophitosistotheseconddegree.Thetwelveleftribswerepresentbutnotarticulatedtothesternum
orthespine.Rather,theyarelaidoutinanatomicalsuccession.Inthecenterof

Page197

theseisfoundthesternumwiththemanubriumseparatedfromthebody.Laterallyfromthem,tothenorth,isfoundthelefthumeruswiththesemilunarcavityoftheleft
ulnaarticulated.Ontheleftcoxaarefoundtwophalanxesfromthefeet.Thereisnotraceofthecranium,oftherestofthespine,oroftherightsideofthebodysave
thelowerlegbonesencountered.Thisindividualappearstohavebeensectionedintoparts.
Orientation:Seeabove.
Furniture:AbovetheclaypluginthesmallwesternextensiontwoNasca4sherdsandsomecamelidboneswerefound,butitcannotbesaidthatthesearein
associationwiththeburial.
Remarks:Theoverallimpressionisthatthisisnotasecondaryburialbecauseitisnotdisturbed.ThisburialwasexcavatedandanalyzedbyJosPabloBaraybar.
Dating:Unknown.
Silverman'sBurialsonMounds:Unit19
ThefollowingcommentsarebasedonmyobservationsoftheUnit19burialsduringtheprocessofexcavationbyMiguelPazos.Pazos'sstudyoftheburialsandtheir
contentsispending.Itispossiblethatburialfurniture(i.e.,gravegoods)maybepresentinsidetheunwrappedbundles.Anegativeresponsetothisitemrefersto
exteriorassociations.
Burial3
Location:Room2.
Grave:Thetombisacircularcistwithadobesliningtheupperwalls.Thetombhadbeenexcavatedintothenaturalsedimentarydepositoftheunderlyinghill,similar
toFeature22inN2022/W24atthebaseofUnit19.
Age/Sex/Condition:Unknownbecausethetombwaslooted,leavingonlypartsofahumanskeleton.
Position:Unknown(seeabove).
Orientation:Unknown(seeabove).
Furniture:Althoughthecompletegravecontentsweremissing(duetolooting),remainsofguineapig,fragmentsofredpigment,andshellwererecoveredaswellasa
magnificentNasca3semihemispherical,pyroengravedgourdbowl(chap.19fig.19.21)thelootershaddamagedandleftbehind.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca3.
Burial4
Location:SouthofBurial3.
Grave:Therewasanintactlayerofmud(thesealorplug)throughwhichprojectedthegravemarkerortombindicator(mira),averticalpieceofcanethatmarksthe
locationofthegrave(fig.14.2).Betweenthesealandthecaneandlogtombroof(barbacoafig.14.3)therewereabundantorganicremainsaswellassherds(see
belowforcommentsonarticulatingsherdsinKroeber'sexcavations),bones,andplaintextilefragments.Thegravemarkerisinthecrookofthemummy'sleftshoulder
(fig.14.4).Burial4didnotappeartohaveacist.
Age/Sex/Condition:Themummywaswrappedinaplainwhiteclothoverlyingablackclothwhichcoveredthehead.Theburialhasnotyetbeenunwrappedsoage
andsexareunknown.
Position:Flexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:ANasca3doublespoutandbridgebottlewithakillerwhaledesign(seechap.16fig.16.2)wasfoundbetweenBurial4andalarge,looted,funerary
urn(Burial6,visibleinfig.14.4)inthewestwalloftheexcavationarea.
Remarks:No.
Dating:IfthebottleisdirectlyassociatedwithBurial4asPazosbelieves,thenBurial4datestoNasca3.
Burial5
Location:Burial5isimmediatelyeastofBurial4.Burial5wasrevealedonlywhenBurial4'sroofwasremoved.Burial5almostrestedonthenaturalsedimentary
deposit.
Grave:Ithasatombroof,butacistcouldnotbedefinedforthisburialrather,theburialseemedtohavebeenplacedinfill.
Age/Sex/Condition:Themummybundleiswrappedinacreamcoloredcloth(fig.14.5).
Position:Flexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Tothesoutheast,twobadlyerodedNasca3openbowlswithfruitmotifspaintedaroundtheoutsideonadarkredbackgroundwerefound(seefig.16.11
foroneofthese).
Remarks:PazosbelievesthatthefillseparatingBurial4fromBurial5doesnotformrespectivecistsandthatthetwoburialsareassociatedwitheachotherandthe
twoNasca3ceramicvesselsreferredtoabove.Thedoublespoutandbridgekillerwhalebottlewouldbepartofthesameassociation.Thelinkageoftombsbytheir
potteryisasituationsimilartothecasedescribedbyKroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III8788)forhisgraves10,11,and12onUnitAinwhichherecog

Page198

14.2.
Burial4asitisjustbeginningtoberevealed.Atthelower
righttheverticalcanegravemarkercanbeseenprotruding
throughthethickmudsealandlogroofofthetomb.

14.3.
Burial4.Betweenthethickmudsealandcaneandlogroofof
thetombthereareabundantorganicremainsandothercultural
materialsincludingsherds,bones,andplaintextilefragments.
PacaeleavesareparticularlycommoninthispositioninNasca
tombs.Thegravemarkerismoreclearlyseeninthe
centerofthisphotograph.

nizedthatsherdsfromthesamevessellinkedthetombs.
Dating:TheburialshoulddatetoNasca3.
Burial6
Burial6isalootedburialimmediatelywestofBurial4.Itconsistedofalargefuneraryurncoveredbyaroof(visibleinfig.14.4).Itmustdatetoapproximatelythe
sametimeasBurials4and5.

14.4.
Burial4.Thetomb'sroofhasbeenremoved,andthemummy
isrevealed.Thegravemarkerhadbeenplacedinthecrookof
thebody'sleftshoulder.Theburialfacessouth.Inthe
background,thepreviouslylootedBurial6urncanbeseen.

Burial7
Location:Burial7isimmediatelyunderBurial10and1.5metersnorthofthesouthcontentionwallofBurial10,infrontofasuperficialwallthatabutsthesouth
contentionwallofBurial10andheadsnorth.Vertically,betweenBurial10andthebeginningofBurial7'stombroof,MiguelPazosexcavatedasmallareathathe
considerstobeaworkshopforsomekindofunidentifiedcraftactivity(fig.14.6).
Grave:Thereisatombroof(fig.14.7)withitsowngravemarker(figs.14.814.10).Thisburialhadbeenplacedinacylindricalcist(fig.14.11).
Age/Sex/Condition:Theburialistightlywrappedinadark

Page199

14.5.
Burial5iswrappedinacreamcoloredcloth.
Thebodyfacessouth.

greenclothcoveredinpartwithaplainwhitecloth(fig.14.11).Ageandsexareunknownbecausethebundlehasnotbeenunwrapped.
Position:Flexed.
Orientation:Unknown.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Thebundleisnotableforthemulticoloredthreedimensionalfiguresattachedtotheborderoftheheadcloth(seechap.18fig.18.4).
Dating:Onthebasisoftheiconographyoftheembroideredheadband,thismummybundleshoulddatetobetweenNasca1and3.
Burial8
Location:NorthofBurial7.
Grave:Ithasafinetombroofwithgravemarker(fig.14.12).Burial8hadbeenplacedinacylindricalcist.
Age/Sex/Condition:Themummyisatightlywrappedbundle.Ageandsexareunknownbecausethebundlehasnotbeenunwrapped.Onthebasisofgravefurniture
(seebelow)itcantentativelybesuggestedthatthisistheburialofachild.1
Position:Flexed.
Orientation:Unknown.
Furniture:Inthecistwerevariousgraveofferings(fig.14.13).Theseconsistedofaplainwarevesselwithanarchinghandle(fig.16.44),aNasca3doublespout
andbridgevesseldecoratedwithforestbirds(fig.16.1)twoalmostidenticalNasca3openbowlspaintedwithplantmotifs(seefig.16.12),andagourdwhich
coveredaminiaturemodeledfish(fig.16.20),alittledoll,afragmentarypieceofpaintedcloth,andothersmallobjects(fig.18.3chaps.1618).
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca3.
Burial9
Location:AbouthalfameternortheastoftheBurial8gravemarkerand,intermsoflevel,abovetheBurial8tombroofwhosegravemarkerprojectedtothesurface
andwasvisiblewhenBurial9wasleft(fig.14.14).
Grave:Burial9wasoutintheopen,devoidofanykindofcist.Itisanurnburialthebodywasplacedinalargeplainwarevessel.
Age/Sex/Condition:Unknownbecausethebundlehasnotbeenopened.Thecadaverhadbeentightlywrappedinawovenclothdecoratedwithstylizedtrophyhead
designs(fig.14.15).
Position:Duetothepressureofthefillaboveit,theburialurnhadbroken,thebundlehadlostitsshape,andbonesprotrudedfromthetextilewrapping.
Orientation:Unknownbecauseofthecollapseofthebundle.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:ThetextileissimilarinstyletoaNascaWarishapedtapestrybagillustratedbyLapiner(1976:fig.518).
Dating:Uncertain.
Burial10
Location:SouthofBurial4.AnadobecontentionwallisjustsouthofBurial10.
Grave:No.
Age/Sex/Condition:Itisallamaburial(fig.14.16).Thellamahadbeenspeciallyprepared,formostboneshadbeenremovedonlytheskullandlegboneshadbeen
left.Thus,itwaslikeadessicatedstuffedanimal.
Position:Itwasextended,inclinedonitsrightside,legsstraightoutinfront.
Orientation:Thellamawasfacingnorth.
Remarks:IntheAndes,theuseofllamasinritualisverywellknownfromancienttimestothepresent(seeShimadaandShimada1985foranoverviewofthe
literatureonllamasinthearchaeologicalrecordofPeru).Inthisparticularcase,wemayspeculatethattheinternalorgansofthisllamahadbeenusedinadivination
ritual.Theissueiswhetherllamaswerebredonthecoastandplayedanimportantroleinthedailydiet(seeShimadaandShimada1985).Basedonthestudyofthe
faunalremainsrecoveredbytheItal

Page200

14.6.
AboveBurial7.MiguelPazosbelievesthatthisarrangement
correspondstoaworkshopforsomekindofasyet
unidentifiedcraftactivity.

14.7.
Burial7'stomb.Thisisthethicksealabovetheroof.Blackdots
onthisandsubsequentphotographsareduetothesilicagelof
mycamerahavingmeltedintheextremeheat.

14.8.
Burial7.Inthecenterofthephotographthecanegravemarker
canbeseenjustprojectingthroughtheroofofthetomb.Note
theorganicremainsscatteredontheroof.

14.9.
ThelogandcaneroofofBurial7isrevealed.Thegrave
markercanbeseeninthecenterofthephotograph.

14.10.
Burial7'sroofwascomposedofhuarangologsrestingatop
canes.Herethehuarangologshavebeenremovedtorevealthe
caneroofdirectlyabovetheburial.

14.11.
Burial7isatightlywrappedbundleinanarrowcist.

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14.12.
Burial8.Thetombroofwiththeverticalgrave
markerprotrudingthrough.

14.13.
InBurial8'scistwerevariousgravegoodsincludinga
plainwarebasketvessel,twoopenbowls,anda
doublespoutandbridgebottle.Otheritems,not
visibleinthisphotograph,werefound.

14.14.
Burial9wasdiscoveredoutintheopen,about50centimeters
northeastoftheBurial8gravemarkervisibleonthelowerright
sideofthephotograph.Burial9hadbeenplacedinanurn,
brokenduetotheweightofthedirtaboveit.

14.15.
Burial9waswrappedinafineclothdecoratedwith
stylizedtrophyheads.

14.16.
Burial10,allamaburial.Thellamaliesonitsside
andfacesnorth.

Page202

14.17.
Burial11.Thisfeaturewasnumbered,buttheapparent
gravemarkerseeninthecenterofthephotographturnedout
tobeafalselead.Notombwasdiscoveredbelow.

ianprojectatCahuachi,ValdezCardenas(1988)arguesthatcamelids(LamaglamaandLamapacos)werebeingherdedbyNascapeopleandconsumedfortheir
meat,althoughherecognizesthattheircontextatCahuachiissecondary(i.e.,constructionfill).LikeStrong(1957:31),Iwouldexplainthesignificantpresenceof
camelidremainsatCahuachiasevidenceoftheiruseinritual(includingritualfeasting).
Dating:EastofBurial4'stombroofthereisasuperficialadobewallrunningnorthsouth(fig.14.2).Thesurfaceonwhichthellamarestedwaslocatedontopofthis
wall.Burial10mustpostdateBurial4andthereforebelaterthanthatNasca3burial.
Burial11
Burial11turnedoutnottobeaburialdespitethepresenceofanuprightcanewhichwebelievedwasgoingtobethegravemarkerofatomb.Thecane,however,
standsuprightonasterilefloorwithnothingarounditorbelowit(fig.14.17).
CommentsontheUnit19Burials
TheseearlyNascagravescomefromRoom2atopUnit19,asmallmound.Itisnotcertainthatthesetombsareintrusiveintoroomarchitecture.Rather,itcan
tenuouslybesuggestedthatthisroomandperhapsotherswereanintegralpartofNascamortuarypracticeUnit19mighthaveburialterracesandburialrooms.But
notallmoundsatCahuachiservedthisburialpurpose,asindicatedbytheabsenceoflootingatmanyofthemounds.
Burials4and5areassociatedwitheachotherandwiththeNasca3doublespoutandbridgekillerwhalebottleandthetwoNasca3badlyerodedopenbowls
decoratedwithfruitmotifs.
Burial6isanurnburial,lootedbeforeourworkbeganandaboutwhichlittlecanbesaidexceptthatitmustbeanearlyNascagrave.
CompletelyseparatefromtheseburialsareBurials7,8,9,and10.Burial7onlyhastheembroideredfringetodateit.ThatfringeisearlyNasca(butnomorerecent
thanNasca3)indate.Burials7and8areroughlyonthesamestratigraphiclevel,andBurial8'sgravefurnituredatestotheNasca3period.
Burial9clearlysitsaboveBurials7and8.ThegravemarkerofBurial8protrudesuptothesurfaceonwhichBurial9wasplacedandwasvisiblewhenBurial9was
created.ThestyleofBurial9'swovenclothisdistinctfromthetextilestylemanifestedintheBurial7turbanfringe,anditmaybesignificantlylater.Burial10,thellama,
wasplacedinthisarealastofallandcannotbedatedwithcertainty,althoughbothBurials9and10appeartohavebeencoveredbythesamefillandsitonthesame
surfaceandthuswouldseemtoberoughlycontemporary.IfthetextilewrappingofBurial9isNascaWariandifBurials9and10arecontemporary,thenthe
associationofasacrificedllamawithaNascaWariorMiddleHorizon1burialismostsuggestive,especiallywhentakeninconjunctionwiththeNasca8ritual
entombmentoftheRoomofthePostsatthebaseofthesamemound.
Thereisevidence,then,ofthreeintermentepisodes.ThefirstinvolvedtheburialoftheindividualsinBurials4and5inNasca3times.Thesecondepisodesawthe
burialoftheindividualsinBurials7and8,alsoinNasca3times.ThethirdepisodeinvolvedBurials9and10.Thisepisodemaybeseparatedfromthefirsttwoby
severalcenturiessinceitmayhaveoccurredveryearlyintheMiddleHorizon.
Strong'sBurialsonMounds
Burial8
Location:Burial8wasdiscoveredinCut3onUnit6.Itwasfoundinaholeunderthecorneroftwomassiveconicaladobewallsinthecut.
Grave:Ashaftmeasuring70centimetersacrossand1meterdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Thisisaveryoldfemalewithadeformedskullandonlythreeteethleft.
Position:Thepositionofthebodywascrumpled.Theheadwaslowestandtherightfoothighest.Thebody

Page203

wascoveredwithseverallayersofcloth,oneofwhichwasoriginallyredandmanifestedseveraltypesofweave.
Orientation:Seeabove.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Soninsuggeststhatthiswasasacrificeassociatedwiththeadobestructurebuiltatopthegrave.IseesomesimilaritybetweenthisburialandourBurial1at
Unit15Cwhoseheadwaslowerthanthefeetandwhoselegshadbeencutandbound.
Dating:Nasca3(?).Nasca1,2,and3potterywasfoundinthiscutNasca3potterywasfoundunderthemassiveconicaladobewalls.
Strong'sBurialsinOpenAreas
StrongexcavatedintwocemeteriesintheopenareasofCahuachi.ThesearelabeledBurialArea1(seeStrong1957:fig.13CE,14BJforpotteryfromthislocus)
andBurialArea2onhisplan(Strong1957:fig.4seefig.2.2).AllofStrong'sotherburialareasatCahuachiactuallyarecemeteriesonthenorthsideoftheNazca
RiverandshouldnotbeincludedinadiscussionofburialsfromthearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachi.2 Rather,theywerelocatedonthelandsofHda.Cahuachi.Strong
recognizedthatnoneoftheburialsexcavatedbyhisprojectwererichtombs.
Allinformationinthissectionistakenfromtheoriginalsignedprojectfieldnotesontheburialsandburialareas.RobertStiglerexcavatedBurials1to3,5to7,9,11to
18,and20to23.RoseLilienandStiglerexcavatedBurial4.LilienexcavatedBurial10.StrongexcavatedBurial19.Inadditiontothesenumberedburials,Lilien
discoveredanisolatedlargeplainwareollainBurialArea2,4meterseastofBurial20.ItcontainedearlyandlateNascasherdsfromthefillaboveit.
BurialArea1
BurialArea1waslocatedabout150metersnorthnorthwestofUnit6.Thatareahassincebeenplowedover.BurialArea1wasacemetery.Thedistributionof
burialsinStrong'sBurialArea1isshowninfigure14.18.
Burial1
Location:Thetombroofwas90centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Thetombroofconsistedoffiveveryirregular,twistedhuarangologs,eitherroughlyhackedorburnedattheends.Thelogsaveraged10to15centimetersin
thicknessand1.30to1.40metersinlength.Theyrannorthsouth.Thetotaldimensionsofthetombroofwere85centimeterswideby1.40meterslong.Atthenorth
endofthetombroof,looselystuckbetweenthelogs,wasanuprightlengthofthincanethegravemarkerwhichprotrudedtothesurface.Thefillabovethistomb
roofwasthesandthatcoversthesurfaceofmostofthesiteofCahuachi.Immediatelybelowthetombroofandduginhardpackedgravellysandwasashaft1.20
metersdeepandslightlyovalinplan,measuring1.10metersnorthsouthby1metereastwest.Thefloorofthisshaftwasroughlyleveled.Thefillinsidetheshaftwas
thesamegravellysandbutlessfirmlypacked.Twowedgeshapedadobeswerefoundinthefill,apparentlydeliberatelyplaced.
Age/Sex/Condition:Amiddleagedmale(?).Theskullshowsheavyoccipitalandslightfrontalflattening.Therewasevidenceofsomesortofclothwrappingaround
thehead,butitwasnotrecoverable.
Position:Originallyinaflexed,seatedpositionbutnowslumpedorfallenandcrushedbythepressureoftheearth.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Ifthereweresimilarwrappingsoverotherpartsofthebody,theyhaddecayedbeyondrecognition.
Dating:Unknown,butalldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial2
Location:1.5meterseastofBurial1,18centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Thisisanurnburial.Itwasplaceddirectlyinthesuperficialsandcoveringthesite.Thebottomoftheurnwasbrokenoff,presumablytopermitentryofthe
body.Setinthemouthofthevessel,pointdownward,wasaconicalgroovedadobewithbothbaseandtipbrokenoffthesizeoftheremainingfragmentwas17
centimetersacrossthebaseand18centimetershigh.Holdingthisstopperinplacewasatwistedwadofpoorlypreservedandcolorlessplaincottoncloth.
Age/Sex/Condition:Insidetheburialurnwasthebadlycarbonizedmummyofachild,fourtofiveyearsoldseveralofthechild'spermanentteethwereaboutto
erupt.Theskullshowedheavyfrontaloccipitalflattening.Thebodywaswrappedinseverallayersofplaincoarsecloth.
Position:Flexed.Thebodywasheldinpositionbyfour15centimeterlengthsofuprightcanearoundthebody.
Orientation:Notstated.

Page204

14.18.
Strong'splanoftheburialsfoundinhisBurialArea1.

Furniture:Twoearsofcornwereplacedalongsidethemummyinsidetheburialurn.
Remarks:Thevesselwasovoidwitharoundedconicalbottomandflaringneck.Estimatedvesselheightwas60centimeters,mouthdiameterof31centimeters,neck
heightof12centimeters,neckdiameterof18centimeters,maximumbodydiameterof46centimetersatapoint16centimetersbelowtheneck.Thevesselhada
roundeddirectrim.Asmallholehadbeenpunchedinthesideoftheolla(possiblyduetoalooter'sprobe).
Dating:Unknown,butalldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial3
Location:About2meterssouthofBurial1,80centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Thetombroofiscoveredwithgravellysandandash.Itiscomposedof8huarangologsrunningeastwest.Thelogsaverage10centimetersindiameterthe
longestis1.80meters.Theouterlogsareshorterthanthefourcenterlogssothatthewholetombroofisovalinoutline.Itmeasured1.80by1.0metersacross.Just
beneaththeeasternendofthetombroofwasasmallbundleofpaintedcanes.Theshaftbeneaththetombroofwasovalinplan,80centimetersnorthsouth,1.25
meterseastwest,and1meterindepth.Theupper70centimetersweredugthroughgravellysandandthelower30centimetersthroughhardpackedpuresand.The
northwallofthisshafthadbeenwalledforabout1squaremeterwithsmallshapelesslumpadobessetinmortartopreventslumping.
Age/Sex/Condition:Adultmale.Theheadwaspushedforwardoffthespinalcolumn.
Position:Seatedagainstthenorthwall,looselyflexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Threeceramicvessels:twoattherightsideofthebodyandtheotherbesidetheleftknee.
Remarks:ApparentlythenaturalstrataaresomewhatuneveninthisareasincetheyshoweddifferentlyinBurial1,whichislocatedonly2metersaway.
Dating:Nasca5.

Page205

Burial4
Location:About2meterssouthofBurial3,atadepthof82centimeters.
Grave:Ashaftmeasuring65centimetersdeepand1.20metersby97centimetersacross.Theshaftisovalinplanandwasdugingravellysand.Itsbottomwasatthe
levelofthepurehardpackedsandthatunderliesthegravellylayer.Abovetheshaftwasatombroofmadeoffivehuarangologsrunningnorthwestsoutheastand
measuring2.25meterslongby1meterwide.Thelogsaveraged10centimetersindiameterand2.25metersinlength.Thefilloftheshaftwasgravellysandwith
occasionalmediumsizedboulders.
Age/Sex/Condition:Notstated.
Position:Onthenorthsideoftomb,seatedinalooselyflexedpositionwithlowerlegsdrawnupbutkneesapartandrestingonthefloor,armsatsides,andhands
restingonstomachorpelvis.Theheadhadslumpedforwardandfallenfacedownwardonchest.
Orientation:Facingsouthorsouthwest.
Furniture:Beneaththebodyweresomeirrecoverablefragmentsofaplainbrowntextileandanidenticalpairoftallcylindricalceramicvases.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca5.
Burial5
Location:About3meterssouthofBurial4.
Grave:Alargecircularshaft,1.40metersindiameter,dugdirectlythroughthesurfacesandandgravellysandbeneathit,roughlyto1.40metersdeep.Notombroof.
Age/Sex/Condition:Skeletonisbadlydecayed,fallen,andcrushed.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Eightceramicvessels,allbroken.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca6.
Burial6
Location:MidwaybetweenBurials4and5,about50centimetersfromeach,atadepthof1meterbeneaththesurface.
Grave:Anovalshapedshaftmeasuring50centimetersnorthsouthby40centimeterseastwest.Theshaftrunscontrarytothedirectionofthetombroofandisnot
completelycoveredbyit.Thetombroofconsistedoffourhuarangologsaveraging10centimetersindiameterandrangingfrom1to1.30metersinlength.Thelogs
raneastwest,andtheoveralldimensionsofthetombroofwere45centimetersby1.30meters.Theshaftwasdugintotheusualhardpackedgravellysand.
Age/Sex/Condition:Childwithanexceedinglythinskull.Firstmolarswerefullyerupted.Agesixyears.
Position:Seatedtightlyflexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Afewsmallearsofcorninthefillsurroundingthebody.
Remarks:Thethinnessoftheskullismoreappropriatetoaninfant.
Dating:Unknown,butalldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial7
Location:About50centimetersnorthwestofBurial4.
Grave:Acircularshaft,withouttombroof,measuring90centimetersindiameterand2metersdeep.Inthefilloftheshaft,about75centimetersbelowthesurface,
therewasaquantityoflargewaterwornriverpebbles,possiblysubstitutingforthetombroof.
Age/Sex/Condition:Youngwoman.
Position:Seatedinatightlyflexedposition,nowfallenandcrushed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Fourceramicvesselsandabraceletofeightysixsmallshellbeads.
Remarks:Thebeadswerefoundlooseinthevicinityofthecrossedwrists.
Dating:Nasca5.
Burial9
Location:2meterseastsoutheastofBurial6.
Grave:Theshaftis90centimetersdeepandmeasures1.60meterseastwestby1.40metersnorthsouth.Theshaftiscoveredwithatombrooflocatedat1.10
metersbeneaththesurfaceandconsistingofeightfireburnedhuarangologsrunningeastwest.Thetombroofmeasures2metersby1.40meters.Logsaverage15
centimetersinthickness.
Age/Sex/Condition:Middleagedwoman,badlyfallen.
Position:Flexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Fourceramicvessels.
Remarks:Nosignoftextilewrappings.
Dating:Nasca6.
Burial10
Location:About1metereastofBurial9,90centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Theshaftisroughlycircular,93centimetersindi

Page206

ameterand80centimetersdeep.Itwascutthroughgravellysandtothelevelofpurehardpackedsand.Theshaftiscoveredbyafinetombroofconsistingoffour
logs,eachabout10centimetersindiameterand1.15meterslong.Thetombroofwas1.15meterslongby45centimeterswide.Thelogsruneastwest.The
southernmostloghadfallenpartlyupendedintotheburialshaftbeneaththetombroof.Thewholetombroofwasplasteredoverwithadobemortar,andabovethe
fallenlogtherewereseveralirregularlumpsofadobe,includingafragmentofawedgeshapedbuildingadobe,andseverallargestones.Asmallcacheofpacaeseeds
wasencounteredat30centimetersbelowthesurface.
Age/Sex/Condition:Youngadult.Somehairwasstillpresentonthehead.Aroundtheheadwerefragmentsofaplainbrowncloth.
Position:Seatedinaflexedposition.Theheadhadfallenforwardandwasinverted.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Unknown,butalldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial11
Location:1.5meterseastofBurial10.
Grave:Asimplepitburialconsistingofanovalshaft1.45metersdeep,95centimetersnorthsouthby65centimeterseastwest.Theshaftwasdugthroughthe
surfacesandintothegravellysandbeneathit.
Age/Sex/Condition:Oldmale.Manyoftheteetharemissing,withresorptionofthesockets.Skeletonwaswellpreserved.
Position:Thebodyhadbeenthrownorpushedheadfirstintotheshaft.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:AfragmentofaNasca5openbowlalargemusselshell.
Remarks:Thegravegoodswerelocatedjustabovethebodyinthefill.
Dating:Nasca5.
Burial13
Location:1meternorthofBurial10.
Grave:Thisisapitburialwithouttombroof.Theshaftwascircular,80centimetersindiameter,1.20metersdeep,dugthroughsoftandgravellysand.At75
centimetersbelowsurfacetheinvertedbottomhalfofalargeplainwarevesselwasfoundoverlyingtheburial.
Age/Sex/Condition:Afourtofiveyearoldchild,badlycarbonizedanddisintegrated.Thechildwaswrappedinaplaincoarsecloth.
Position:Seatedontheflooroftheshaft,tightlyflexedwithkneesdrawnupunderthechin.Toholdtheheadofthechildinposition,two25centimeterlengthsof
canewereplaceduprightinsidethefunerarywrapping.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Fourteenmaizecobstwosmallceramicvesselsasmall,undecorated,flattenedglobulargourdreceptacle.
Remarks:Thegreatestdiameterofthereducedplainwarevesselwas50centimeters.Itwouldhavemeasured60centimetersinheightexclusiveoftherim,whichwas
missing.Thebasewasroundedandconical.Wallthicknesswas1centimeter.Twoverticalstraphandleswereplaced12centimetersbelowtheneck.
Dating:Nasca6.
Burial14
Location:3.5meterssouthwestofBurial1.
Grave:ItisaDshapedshaft,2.20metersdeep,Imeterindiameter,withthestraightsidetothenorth.Thisshaperesultedfromthebottommeterofthenorthsideof
theshafthavinghadtobeshoredupwitharetainingwallmadeofsmall,irregularlumpadobessetinadobemortar.
Age/Sex/Condition:Youngadultmale(thirdmolarswerejusterupting).
Position:Seatedatthebottomoftheshaftwiththebackagainsttheadobewall.Thelegsweredrawnupbutwithkneesapartandrestingonthefloor.Thearmswere
looselyflexedwithforearmsateithersidesimilarlyatrestonthefloorlevel.Thespinewasbentorsharplybowedforward.Theskullwasinproperrelationtothe
spineexceptthatitwasinvertedwiththeforamenmagnumfacingdirectlyupward.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Fourceramicvessels.
Remarks:Theskullhadbeentreatedasatrophyhead.Thetypicalsmallholeintheforeheadhadbeencutthroughthebone,andthebaseoftheskullhadbeencut
throughinaplaneparalleltobutabovetheforamenmagnum,thusenlargingtheopeningintotheskull.Theroughlydiscshapedpieceofbonethathadbeencutout
wasfounddirectlybeneaththeskull,moreorlessinthelapoftheseatedskeleton.
Dating:Nasca5.

Page207

Burial15
Location:2meterswestofBurial3.
Grave:Aroughlyrectangularshaft,1.30metersdeep,1.25metersnorthsouthby1.40meterseastwest.Theshaftwasenclosedonallfoursideswithwell
constructedwallsofwedgeshapedadobessetinadobemortar,theflatbottomsoftheadobesformingthesurfaceofthewalls.Thewallsdidnotextendbelowthe
floorofthetomb.Theshaftwascoveredwithaverylargetombroofwhichresteddirectlyonthetopofthesewalls.Thetombroofwasencounteredat1.30meters
beneaththesurfaceandconsistedofeightbighuarangologsaveraging20centimetersindiameterand2.60metersinlength.Thewholetombroofmeasured1.60
metersnorthsouthby2.60meterseastwest,withthelogsrunningeastwest.Theendsofallthelogswereburned.Thetombactuallybeganatonly10centimeters
belowthesurface.Asmallplainwarevesselwaslocatedinthenortheastcorneroftherectangularfillofthetomb.Atthebottomoftheollawasabadlypreserved
fragmentofembroideredtextile.Aroughstonemortarandawedgeshapedadobeaboutthesamesizeasthoseusedinconstructingthetombwallswerefoundjust
belowthetombroofinthefillofthecist.
Age/Sex/Condition:Skeletonpoorlypreserved.
Position:Seated,tightlyflexed.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Sevenceramicvessels.
Remarks:Theplainwarevesselhadaroundedconicalbottom,twosmallstraphandles,andalowevertedneckwithroundedrim.Itsheightwas26centimeters
greatestdiameterwas27centimetersrimdiameterwas16centimetersneckdiameterwas14centimetersneckheightwas3centimeterswallthicknesswas5
millimeters.
Dating:Nasca5.
Burial16
Location:1metersouthwestofBurial14.
Grave:Aroughlyrectangularshaftdugthroughthesoftsurfacesandintotheunderlyinggravellysand.Theshaftis1.20metersdeepandmeasures1.20meterseast
westby1.10metersnorthsouth.Theburialwaslocatedatthebottomoftheshaft.Coveringitwasalarge,deeplycurvedplainwarefragmentmeasuring50by60
centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:Smallchild.
Position:Tightlyflexedandoriginallyseated,nowtoppledoverbackward.Burialwaswrappedinaplainweavecoarsecloth.Insidethewrappingthereweretwo10
centimeterlengthsofcane,oneoneachsideoftheheadtheseheldtheheadupright.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Theplainwaresherdwasfromanoxidizedvesselthatwasfireblackened.Itswallthicknesswas1centimeter.Ithadcrackedinseveralplacesfromthe
pressureoftheearthabove.
Dating:Unknown,butalldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial17
Location:1metersouthofBurial16.
Grave:Arectangularshaft1.60metersdeep,1.20meterseastwestby1meternorthsouth.Thereisnotombroof.Theshafthadbeendugthroughthesoftsurface
sandandthegravellysandbeneath.Buriedbeneathonly5centimetersofthesurfacesandandrestingontopofthelevelofhardgravellysandwasasmallsectionof
adobewallintheshapeofaUwithveryshortarms.Itextendedalongtheeastendandembracedasmallsectionofthenorthandsouthsidesoftheshaft.
Constructionseemedtobepurelyofmoldedadobeplaster.Thewallmeasured20centimeterswide,only16centimetersdeep,1meteralongitslongdimension(the
widthoftheburialshaft),withthearms40centimeterslong.Ontheflooroftheshaftinthenorthwestcornerwasaplain,oxidized,conicalbottomvesselwiththerim
andupperpartsmissing.Insidetheurnwastheburial.
Age/Sex/Condition:Atwotothreeyearoldchildwrappedinseverallayersofplainweavecloth.Thewholemummybundlecrumbledtothetouch.
Position:Tightlyflexed.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Theburialurnmeasured55centimetersingreatestdiameter,45centimetershigh,withawallthicknessof1centimeter.Inthenortheastcorneroftheshaft
wasacompanionurn,similarinshapeanditsmissingrimtotheburialurnbutslightlysmaller(45centimetersindiameter,40centimetershigh).Alargecrackonthe
sideofthecompanionurnhadbeenrepairedwithroughlysmearedonbitumen.Theurncontainednothingbutsandofthesameconsistencyasthesurroundingfill.In
thesouthwestcorneroftheshaft,invertedonthefloor,therewasalargeworkedsherdfromalargeplainwarevessel.Thegrindingontheworkedsherdproduceda
perfectlycircularsherd33centimetersindiameterwitha12centimeterwideholeinthecenter.TherewerealsofourNasca5ves

Page208

sels(seeStrong1957:fig.14DG).ThreeofthedecoratedNasca5vesselsareminiatures.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca5.
Burial18
Location:TheburialwaslocatedsomemetersnorthwestofthegroupofburialsbutincludedinBurialArea1.
Grave:Apossibleshaftencircledandcoveredbytwentylumpadobesofvariousshapes,someofthemslightlywedgeshaped.Theburialislocatedatthebottomof
thepitwhichis1.50metersdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Anoldwoman.Theheadwaswrappedwithcloth.
Position:Seatedwithkneesflexed.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Associatedwiththeburialwasafragmentfromalargeolla.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Unknown.MaybeNasca5or6basedonotherburialsinthisburialarea.
Burial19
Location:NearBurial18.
Grave:Apitthatisonly65centimetersdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Awomanwithaslightlyflattenedskull.Thebodywaswrappedinlayersofaplainweavebrowncloth,withpiecesofafinerweavenexttothe
bodyandthoseofacoarserweaveoutside.Thismaterialwasbadlycarbonized,andthebonesoftheburialareinapoorstateofpreservation.
Position:Presumablyflexed.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Fragmentsofpainted,oxidizedware,bighandledollas.
Remarks:Thegravegoodswerelaiddowninthreelayers.
Dating:Nasca5.
BurialArea2
BurialArea2islocatedinthethreesidedareacreatedbyUnit10totheeastandUnit1tothewest.IobservedonlyearlyNascapotteryonthesurfacehere,but
thereisverylittleofthis,possiblyasaresultofextensivecollectinginpreviousyearsbyarchaeologistsandtouristsorpossiblybecausetherewere,inactuality,few
tombsinthisarea.ItisprobablethatBurialArea2isanearlyNascacemeteryarea.
Burial20
Location:Notstated.
Grave:Acircularshaft,70centimetersindiameter,1.30centimetersdeep.Itwasdugthrough70centimetersofgravellysandandtheremaining60centimetersinto
hardpackedpuresand.Theflooroftheshaftishardsandwithanunevensurface.At60centimetersalargeplainwarevessel,withthebottombrokenoff,wasfound
fittedovertheburial.
Age/Sex/Condition:Ayoungwoman(thirdmolarsjusterupted).Thebodywasapparentlyoncewrappedinanenvelopingplainweavecloth,nowmostlydecayed,
whichwastiedaroundthebodywithoneturnofsedgerope.
Position:Seatedonthenorthsideoftheshaft,tightlyflexedwithkneesdrawnupandheadbentfacedownoverthem,armsflexedatsideswithforearmsparalleland
adjacenttothefemora.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:Abottleshapedgourdwhosemouthwasstoppedwithamaizecobwrappedwithshucks.Thegourdwasfoundatthefeetofthebody.
Remarks:Sonindescribesthevesselas"awellmadeneckedvessel,eitherglobularorconicalbottomed[that]hadthreeevenlyspacedverticalstraphandleshighup
onthebodyofthevessel.Totalheightofthefragmentwithoutbottomwas30cm,ofwhich7cmwasneckheight.Greatestdiameterwas36cm,diameterofbottom
ofneck12cm,anddiameterattop9cmsothattheneckwasintheformofatruncatedcone.Thelipwasevertedoutfromthisneck,presentingaflatsurface
upward,andfurtherwaseverteddownwardagainattheoutside,formingincrosssectionafigure7,withserif.Thislipmeasured.5cmacrossitstopplane.Theware
wasadarkbrownreducedware,wellpolishedwithpolishingstreaks.Thestraphandleswereplaced8cmbelowtheneckonthebodyofthevesselandextended
another8cmdownward.Thevesselwasthinwalledforitssize,lessthan.5cminthickness.Painteddecorationintheformofdarkredstripesintheformofan
invertedUloopedovereachhandle(onestripetoahandle)andcontinueddownwardpastthebreaklineofthevessel.Midwaybetweeneachadjacentpairofthese
U'swasasinglewhitestripe(about1cmwide)extendingfromtheheightofthehandlesdownpastthebreakonthevessel."
Dating:ProbablyearlyNascaonthebasisofSonin'sdescriptionofthevessel.
Burial21
Location:6metersnortheastofBurial20.
Grave:Smallestpossiblepittoadmitthebody.Pitis50centimetersindiameterand75centimetersdeep.

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Age/Sex/Condition:Adolescent(nosignofthirdmolars),perhapsafemale.Therewerenosignsofclothwrappings,butthewholeflexedbodywastiedaroundthe
middlewithsedgerope.Theskullshowedslightfrontaloccipitalflattening,andthehairwasinagoodstateofpreservation,allpulledforwardandarrangedinaknot
ontheforehead.
Position:Seatedandtightlyflexedwithkneesdrawnupandheadfacedownonthekneesforearmscrossedbetweenthelowerlegsandfemorasothatthelefthandis
justbehindtherightankleandtherighthandisjustbehindtheleftankle.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Burials21,22,and23formagroup.
Dating:Unknown,butthecranialdeformationisconsistentwithNasca.
Burial22
Location:50centimetersnortheastofBurial21.
Grave:Smallestpossiblepittoadmitbody.Pitis50centimetersindiameterand75centimetersdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Ayoungpersonwithneitherthesecondnorthirdmolarserupted.Noclothwrappingortyingropewasevident.Theskullshowedmoderate
occipitalandslightfrontaldeformation.
Position:Seatedandtightlyflexedwithkneesdrawnupandheadfacedownonthekneesforearmsarecrossedbetweenthelowerlegsandfemorasothattheleft
handisjustbehindtherightankleandtherighthandisjustbehindtheleftankle.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Burials21,22,and23formagroup.
Dating:Unknown,butthecranialdeformationisconsistentwithNasca.
Burial23
Location:50centimetersnorthofBurial22.
Grave:Smallestpossiblepittoadmitthebody.
Age/Sex/Condition:Ayoungpersonwiththesecondmolarsjusterupting.Thebodywaswrappedinabrownishplainweaveclothwhichwastiedaroundthebody
withsedgerope.Theskullshowedmoderatefrontaloccipitalflattening.
Position:Seatedandtightlyflexedwithkneesdrawnupandheadfacedownonthekneesforearmsarecrossedbetweenthelowerlegsandfemorasothattheleft
handisjustbehindtherightankleandtherighthandisjustbehindtheleftankle.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Burials21,22,and23formagroup.
Dating:Unknown,butthecranialdeformationisconsistentwithNasca.
EmptyTomb
Location:90centimetersbelowsurface.
Grave:Thereisanelaboratelyconstructedtombroofofcanes.Abovethetombroofthereisloosefillandquantitiesofburnedclaybearingimpressionsofcanesand
sticks.Belowthetombroofthereisstratifiedhardsandandclay.Belowthetombroofandcenteredsomewhattothewestisanollashapedchamberthatis1.40
metersdeep(2.30meterstotaldepthbeneaththesurface),1.50meterseastwest,and1.60metersnorthsouth.Onthefloorlevelthereisashapelesscavitywhich
extendsnorthfor60centimeterswithacircularopening30centimetersindiameter.
Age/Sex/Condition:Notrelevant
Position:Notrelevant
Orientation:Notrelevant
Furniture:Notrelevant
Remarks:Thetombisempty.
Dating:Unknown.
OtherOpenAreaBurialsatCahuachiExcavatedbyStrong'sProject
Burial27
Location:Thisburialisnot,properlyspeaking,inBurialArea1butisabout30meterswestofitandslightlytothenorth.Thebodyhadbeenplacedonly9
centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Manyrocksandpiecesofadobewerewedgedaroundthebody.Theseshowsignsofgreatheat.Thisismostclearlyseenunderthebody,whichrestsonthe
remainsofalargefirewithincineratedcamelidbones.Maximumdepthoftheburialis90centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:Ayoungperson(sexundetermined)wrappedinasling.Thehairiswrappedinaloosepigtailboundwithathincordofhair.Theskullwasbadly
smashed,possiblybeforeburial.
Position:Thebodyliesonitsleftside.
Orientation:Facingsouth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Unknown.
Burial28
Location:Cemeterybehind(south)Hda.Cahuachionleftsideofroad.Iassumethismeansthesouthsideoftheroadandthatthenotesrefertothemassivelylooted

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areaaroundUnitsVVandWWthatispartofanextensivepostNascacemetery.Theburialbegan15centimetersbelowsurface.
Grave:Theburialwasinapotwhosebottomwasbroken.Themouthofthevesselwasstuffedwithcloth.
Age/Sex/Condition:Veryyounginfantwrappedinaburialbundlewithembroideredbands.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Babies'toysorconchshellsandbeadswerefoundonthenorthsideagainstthepot.
Remarks:Thereweresignsoffireandcharcoalaroundtheburial.Thepothasacircumferenceof95centimeters,adiameterof31.5centimeters,andadepthof30
centimeters.Thevesselisslippedandpolishedoxidizedredwarewithawallthicknessof2centimeters.
Dating:PossiblypostNasca.
Kroeber'sBurialsonMounds:UnitA
Kroeber'sfieldnotesandplanallowustolocatethegravesheexcavatedonseveraloftheterracesofUnitA(fig.2.1).Graves10,11,and12arecontemporaryand
arelinkedtoeachotherbyarticulatingsherdsfromthesamevessels(KroeberandCollierms.:III8788seealsoCarmichael1988:214216).Insofarascanbe
inferredfromKroeber'snotes,theUnitAgravesarenotlocatedinroomarchitectureasisthecaseonUnit19butareexcavateddirectlyintoseveraloftheplatforms
formingthemound.Theseareappropriatelycalled"burialterraces"byKroeber.TheanalysisbelowderivesfromtheKroeberandColliermanuscriptonfileatthe
FieldMuseumofNaturalHistory.
GraveAg1
Location:TerraceAgonUnitA.
Grave:Formofgraveunknown,butitwascoveredbyaroofandpossiblyhadagravemarker.Gravebeganat25centimetersbelowsurfaceandwas170
centimetersdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Askeletonpartlyinplacewithnoskulloronlypartsofone.
Position:Onetibiawasfoundnorthoftherest,andaforearmishighabovethis,pointingup.
Orientation:Unknown.
Furniture:Amanshapedjarwithapaintedfoxskinheadbandwasfoundinthebarbacoa.Fragmentsofsixormorebowlsandplateswerescatteredalmosttothe
bottomofthegrave.Therearefragmentsofcloth.
Remarks:Thisappearstobeasecondaryburial.
Dating:Nasca3B(Proulx1968:table1).
GraveAg2
Location:TerraceAgonUnitA4meterswestofGraveAg1.
Grave:Unknown.Skullwasfoundat40to50centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:Longdeformedskullwithsomehairleft,threeforearmbones,oneclavicle.Nootherremainsofskeleton.
Position:Lyingonleftside.
Orientation:Facingnorthwest.
Furniture:Fragmentsofseveralvessels.
Remarks:Thetombwasdisturbed.TheskullisnotcalledatrophyheadbyKroeber.Noteverydecapitatedheadisatrophyhead.Trophyheadsminimallymusthave
aholeinthefrontalboneforacarryingcord.
Dating:ShouldbeNasca3basedondatesoftheotherburials.Ihavenotseenthepotteryfragments.
GraveAg7
Location:TerraceAgonUnitA,onsouthpartofterraceonwhichnoburialswerefound.Located15centimetersbeneaththesurface.
Grave:No.
Age/Sex/Condition:No.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Thegraveisactuallyacache.Kroeberdescribesitas"anestof2flatwadsofhair,whitequartz,pallarbeans,2canes,fragmentsofPan'spipe."
Remarks:ThepanpipefragmentsarenotdiagnosticofphasebutareNasca.
Dating:Nasca.
GraveAl3
Location:TerraceAlonUnitA,25meterswestofAg1.
Grave:Uncertain.Avessel(seebelow)wasfoundat50centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:No.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Athreehandledstripedjarwithasmallholeinthebottom.
Remarks:Kroeberusestheword"empty"afterdescribingtheceramicvessel.Iamnotcertainifthisreferstoanemptytombortothelackofcontentsinthevessel.I
havenotseenthevessel.
Dating:ShouldbeNasca3basedondatesoftheotherburials.

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GraveAl4
Location:TerraceAlonUnitA,3metersnortheastofAl3.
Grave:Thereisatombroofmadeofcanesplacednorthsouththatwasfoundat40to80centimeterstombis110centimetersdeep.
Age/Sex/Condition:Thebodyisintactsavefortheheadwhichismissing.Theskinispreserved.Carmichael(1988:290291,349)studiedthisskeletonwitha
physicalanthropologist,LyleKonigsberg,andapathologist,RobertPickering.Theydeterminedthatthiswastheskeletonofawomantwentyfiveyearsoldorolder.
Position:Therighthandisontherightkneethelefthandisinsidethethigharoundtherightwrist.Amuchfoldedclothwaslaidaroundthemiddleandthelegsasa
ropewithoneknot.Mustbeflexed.
Orientation:Facingsouthwest.
Furniture:Thewholecadaverwasenvelopedinawhiteclothmeasuring280by180centimeters.Therearefragmentsofasemiveilcloth,adoublespoutandbridge
bottle,andseveralsherds.
Remarks:Seecommentsontrophyheadsinchapter15.
Dating:Nasca3(Carmichael1988:461).
GraveAl5
Location:TerraceAlonUnitA,7metersnortheastofAl3.
Grave:Thetombiscoveredbyaroofconsistingoffourhuarangologsplacedeastwestandunderlainbycanes.Thegraveis160centimetersdeepasmeasuredfrom
theslopingsurface.
Age/Sex/Condition:Notstated.
Position:Thebodyisnotundertheroofbutistothenorthnorthwest.Thebodyisflexedbutonitsstomach,facedown.Theleftarmisbehindtheback.
Orientation:Headistothesouthwest.
Furniture:Afinedecoratedclothadherestotheskull.Twoclothsareovertheshoulders,bothwithcrochetedfringeendsandonewithembroideries.Therearea
hatchetshapedobjectofbraid,string,andfeathers,twoplaidcloths,onestripedcloth,themiddlepartofasling,andfragmentsofcrochetingandembroideries,
includingdesignsoffaces,asinglespoutbirdformjar,threebowls,andtwosmall"cookpotsofcrudemicaceousware."
Remarks:ThetextilesfromKroeber'sgraveswerestudiedbyLilaO'Neale(1937).Theembroideredandcrochetedfringesarecomparabletothosefoundwithour
Burial7andinthelargeFeature80ceramicvessel(seechap.18).
Dating:Nasca3A(Proulx1968:table1).
GraveAl6
Location:TerraceAlonUnitA,5meterssouthofAl5.
Grave:No.
Age/Sex/Condition:No.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Partsofabrokenvesselandanincisedgourd.
Remarks:No.
Dating:"NazcaA"(KroeberandCollierms.:III86).
GraveAl8
Location:TerraceAlofUnitA,10meterssouthwestofAl5.
Grave:No.
Age/Sex/Condition:No.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:Thisisnotagravebutacacheconsistingofa50centimeterhighcoarseredjarwithtwohandlesandaflaringmouth.
Remarks:Kroeberdidnotcontinuehisexcavationhere.Ihavenotseenthevessel.
Dating:Unknown.
GraveAj10
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,nearsoutheastcorner.
Grave:Therewasatombroofat70centimetersbeneaththesurfacewithagravemarker.Theroofiscomposedofcaneslaideastwest.Fourloafshapedadobes
werelaidontopoftheroofandhadcauseditscollapse,breakingthevesselsanddisarrangingtheskeleton.Theskullwasfoundat140to150centimeters.Thegrave
is210centimetersdeep.Thegraveisasmooth"well"(i.e.,shaft).
Age/Sex/Condition:Theskeletonisdisarticulatedbecauseofthecollapseofthetombroof.Theskullisdeformed.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Disarranged(seeabove).
Furniture:"Cottonhadbeenusedtostuffoutthemummy'sclothing."Thegravegoodsconsistedofadoublespoutandbridgebottle,abrokenmodeleddouble
spoutandbridgebottle,twelveormoreplatesandbowls,aboutfifteentextilesthatareplain,embroidered,andcrocheted,awickerbasket,"acradleofcanes,"a
hoofshapedbonehaft,dartshaftfragments,shellornaments,shrimpclaws,feathers,andotherunspecifieditems.
Remarks:OnepieceofthebrokenmodeleddoublespoutandbridgebottlewasfoundinBurialAj11.
Dating:Nasca3B(Proulx1968:table1thisisProulx'sbaselotforthissubphase).

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GraveAj11
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,1.5meterswestofBurialAj10.
Grave:Thegraveisthesameinconstruction,depth,androofasBurialAj10.
Age/Sex/Condition:Therewasnoskeletonorskull,justsomemetacarpalbones.
Position:No.
Orientation:No.
Furniture:OnesherdfromavesselinBurialAj10andseveralsherdsfromabowlfoundinBurialAj12,oneplatebowlandothersherds,threetextilefragments,
threemaizecobs,andaparrotmummy.
Remarks:KroeberandCollier(ms.:III87)emphasizethatdespitetheabsenceofabodythisisa"trueinterment"becauseoftheinterlockingsherds.Carmichael
(1988:354)suggeststhattheoriginaltombcontentswereretrievedforsecondaryburialelsewhere.
Dating:Nasca3B.
GraveAj12
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,2meterswestofAj11.
Grave:Thegraveisasmaller"well"thantheonesinAj10andAj11itsdepthtothetopoftheskullis150centimeters.Thetombroofismadeof"quitesmall
sticks."
Age/Sex/Condition:Abodywithdeformedskull."Tissuespartlyremainingonbody."Ageandsexnotstated.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Onedoublespoutandbridgebottle,twobowls.Noclothwasfound,butKroeberrecoveredtasselsandnarrowbands.Therewere"massesofhuman
hairwithfringecordsandwithslingofbraidedbasketry."Kroeberalsorecovereda"hoofshapedhaftfragmentsofspearthrowersanddartsclothcontaining
obsidiancoreandflakes,humanmetacarpalbones,haft,spoon,etc."Althoughnotnotedinthemanuscript(KroeberandCollierms.:III88),Carmichael(1988:498)
reportsthatfourbitsofcopperalsowerefoundwiththisburial.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Nasca3B(Proulx1968:table1).
GraveAj13
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,1meterwestofAj12"inlinewithAj10,11,12,nearedgeofplatformAj."
Grave:Thegravehadacaneroofat60centimetersandcontainedthreebodies(A,B,andC).
Age/Sex/Condition:Thebodiespertaintoadultmen(Carmichael1988:357).Somesofttissuestilladheredtothebones.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:AfacedeastBfacedAlookingwestorsouthwestCalsofacedsouthwestandwasfoundsouthofAandB.
Furniture:Allbodieswerewrappedincloth.Therewereloosebonesabovethebodies.Aboutnineplatesorbowlswerefound,mostlybroken.Inadditiontothe
mummybundleclothstherewere"cordsforshoulderstuffinghairropearoundbodyCmassesofnarrowturbanbands,string,wadsofhair,slingswithcenterof
braidedfibre,tassels,adrum(?)stick,canedartsorspindles(?),sweetpotatoes,peanuts."
Remarks:ThetextilesarepublishedinO'Neale(1937:plates34,37,56,60).Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III87)commentsontheabsenceofadouble
spoutandbridgebottleandstatesthatthepotteryissimilartothatfoundinAj10,11,and12.
Dating:Nasca3B(Proulx1968:table1).
GraveAj14
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,15metersnorthofAj10.
Grave:Notstated.
Age/Sex/Condition:Skeletonofachildabouteightyearsoldwithaflatdeformedskull.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Fragmentsofplaincloth.
Remarks:Theskullwasfoundat30centimetersbeneaththesurface.
Dating:Unknown,butdeformationisconsistentwithNasca.
GraveAj15
Location:TerraceAjonUnitA,2metersnorthofAj14.
Grave:Anurnburiallocatedat40centimetersbeneaththesurface.
Age/Sex/Condition:"Ababywhosemedialincisorswereonlyjusterupting."
Position:Thebabywaswrappedandwaslocatedinthelowerpartofajarcoveredwithaclothandsherds.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Atthebaby'slegwere"afibrepad,possiblyfordeformingtheskullalsoalittleclothpillowormattress,"andtheclothandsherdsnotedabove.
Remarks:No.
Dating:"ProbablyNazcaA"(KroeberandCollierms.:III90).

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Kroeber'sBurialsinOpenAreas
GraveEd1
Location:ThislocuscorrespondstoTerraceIVorVonUnit19(seechap.12).
Grave:Notstated.
Age/Sex/Condition:Baby.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Browncloth.Copperdisk.Therewasnopottery.
Remarks:"ThisistheonlycopperfoundbytheExpeditionexceptforafewpiecesinclearLateassociation"(KroeberandCollierms.:III91).Iobservedthesame
patternatCahuachi(seechap.5).
Dating:"EitherNazcaorNazcaYTiahuanaco"(KroeberandCollierms.:III91).
GraveEd2
Location:5meterssouthofEd1.ThislocuscorrespondstoTerraceIVorVatUnit19(seechap.12).
Grave:Notstated,buttotaldepthisgivenas250centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:"Skeletonsomewhatscattered,skullslightlydeformed."
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Alsointhegravewerea"trophyheadwithoutocciput"andseveralpiecesofcloth.
Remarks:Thegravehadbeendisturbed.
Dating:Unknown.
LocationG
Location:Attheedgeofcultivation.
Grave:"Therewasalimestoneorhardpanformationcalicheintowhichaboutadozenholeshadbeensunk,1ormoremetersindiameter,6080centimeters
deep,probablygraves,allexcavated"(KroeberandCollierms.:III92).
Age/Sex/Condition:Alongdeformedskull.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:"Inandaroundthesepitswerefoundsomeinterestingbeadsofstoneandshell,spindlewhorls,clothfragments...andNazcaBaswellasA
sherds...mostlyfromonepit"(KroeberandCollierms.:III92).
Remarks:Theskullisnotcalledatrophyhead.
Dating:Nasca.
LocationO:GraveO16
Location:100meterswestofthenorthwestfootofA(atAn),neartheboundaryofwhatwastheHda.Estaquera.
Grave:Thetombhadaroof.Totaldepthofthetombwas200centimeters.
Age/Sex/Condition:Alongishdeformedskull.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Facedwest.
Furniture:"Cookpotwithhandlesbowlplate"(KroeberandCollierms.:III92).
Remarks:(KroeberandCollierms.:III92)writesthatthesite"hasthelayoutandappearanceofsitesupstreamratherthanatCahuachi."Theskullisnotcalleda
trophyhead.
Dating:Nasca2(Carmichael1988:461).
LocationO:GraveO17
Location:6meterswestofO16.
Grave:Anurnburiallocatedat50centimeters.Theurnwascoveredwithanothervessel.
Age/Sex/Condition:Askeletonwithalongishdeformedskull.
Position:Theskeletonwasinalargejar.
Orientation:Notgiven.
Furniture:"Acookpotandafoxskin"(KroeberandCollierms.:III93).
Remarks:Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III93)writesthattheperiodoftheburialisnotdetermined.
Dating:EarlyNasca(Carmichael1988:461).
Doering'sGravesonaMound
Doering(1958,1966)excavatedtwogravesattheMorrolocusatCahuachi.Theexactlocationofthislocusisunknown(AngelikaNeudecker,personal
communication1986),buttheword"morro"suggestsamoundratherthananopenflatarea.
Morro:Grave1
Location:The"Morro"locus(seeabove).
Grave:"Thegravereachedatotaldepthof12ft.andconsistedofasteppedshaftwiththelowerpart,withatimbercover,astheburialchamber"(Doering1966:
142).Therectangulartombwascoveredwithafineroofoffirehardenedhuarangoposts.
Age/Sex/Condition:Male.Theheadandupperbodyofthemummyweremissing.
Position:Seated.
Orientation:Presumablysouthbecausetheuprighthuarangopostsareonthenorthsideofthechamber,behindtheseat.
Furniture:"Remnantsshowthatitsfourwallswerehung

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withfabricswithsteppedpatternsrenderedininterlockedwarptechnique....Inthecentreofthebackwall,andwrappedinagreatcottonclothinplainlightblue
andpink,wasthemostremarkablepieceofthegravefurnishings,theseatofthemummy.Itresembledabasketmadefrombundlesofplantstemswrappedround
withblackclothsandwoundintoaspiral.Insidethespiralweresuperimposedlayersofblackgauzecloth,agreatfoldednetandthickbedsofgrass,andthewhole
wascoveredbythelightcolouredcloth....Behindthebasketseataretwoflatpostsofhuarangowood.Thepotterywasplacedinfrontofthedeadmanonathick
layerofpacayleaves.Atthefrontinthecornerslay[nine]trophyheadswithplaitedhairovermaizecobs.Againstthebackwallontheleftisahemisphericallumpof
lime"(Doering1966:142).Twoofthetrophyheadsrestedonabedofcocaleaves(Doering1958).
Remarks:DoeringarguesthatthetombwasintactandexplainsthedisarrayofitemsandthemissingbodypartsbyhypothesizingColonialPeriodvandalism.
Carmichael(1988:374377)raisestheinterestingpossibilitythatthisandoccasionallyothertombswerereenteredinantiquityaspartofa"multistagemortuary
program."
Dating:Nasca8.ThisisthetypelotfordefiningNasca8.
Morro:Grave2
Location:The"Morro"locus(seeabove).
Grave:Thisgrave"wasevenlargerthangraveI.Theuppershafttapereddownwardsfrom22to18ft.squareanditwas16ft.deep.Thebeamscoveringtheburial
chamberconsistedofeightstrongtimberscutfromhuarangotrunks.Someofthetimbersofthecoverwerewrappedinwhitecottoncloth.Inthecarefullylaiddeposit
aboveitalargecottonclothhadbeenstretchedoutoverthelowestlayerofstones,andsomestoneshadevenbeenwrappedindividually.Thecompletebeamcover
layunderanotherclothofwhitecottonwithcolourfulbrocadedcornerornament"(Doering1966:142).Therewasasmallholeinthenortheastcornerofthetomb
roof.
Age/Sex/Condition:Notstated.
Position:Notstated.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:"Therichestfinds,inqualityandnumberalike,werethetextiles"(Doering1966:142).Eightceramicvessels(seeDoering1958:fig.16)werealsoincluded
inthegrave.
Remarks:Inhis1958article,DoeringstatesthattheearlyNascapotteryinthisgravewassmashed,probablyasaresultofhavingfallenthroughrocksduring
earthquakes.ButinalaterpublicationDoering(1966:143)maintainsthatthegraveis"Morro"(i.e.,Nasca8)andthattheearlyNascavessels"werepossessionsofa
subjugatedNazca,whichwerecontributedtotherichgrave."Hearguesforthecoexistenceofthetwostyles/cultures.However,Doering(1958,1966:143)notesthat
thetombwasdisturbed.TheGrave2textileillustratedinDoering(1966:fig.188)isconsistentwiththeearlyNascadateofatleastfourofthepotteryvesselsfromthis
tomb.TwoearlyNascatextilesthatarenotfromthistombaresaidtobesimilartoonethatdidnotphotographwell(Doering1966:143,figs.186,187)andalso
similartotextilesrecoveredbyKroeberinhisUnitAgraves(seeO'Neale1937).InasmuchasthetombwasdisturbedwhenDoeringexcavatedit,itcouldbe
suggestedthatthispreviousdisturbancemighthavemixedthecontentsoftwograves,withalater"Morro"gravehavingbeenintrusiveintoorplacedverynearanearly
Nascagrave.Analternativeexplanationisthatshaftssuchashereor,possibly,thegarrafasofUnit10(seechap.5)servedasconduitsforacontinuanceof
offeringstothemummy(ies).
Dating:Nasca3ANasca8.
Farabee'sBurials
ThreeofFarabee'sgravelotsfromCahuachiappeartocomefrommoundsatthearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachi(asopposedtofromwithintheterritoriallimitsof
Hda.CahuachiseeCarmichael1988:139).Carmichael(1988:461)datestwoofthesegravelotstoNasca4butprovidesnofurtherinformationonthem.Threeof
Farabee'sCahuachigravelotsdatetoNasca3,fourtoNasca2,sixtoNasca5,andtwotoNasca6(Carmichael1988:appendix1),butitisnotcertainthatthese
camefromthearchaeologicalsiteitself.IhavenotstudiedtheFarabeecollections.
Orefici'sBurialsonMounds
ThusfarOreficihaspublishednoreportsonthevariousburialsencounteredduringhisyearsofexcavationsatCahuachi.Frompersonalcommunicationwithhim,I
knowhehasfoundtombscorrespondingtoseveraloftheNascaphases,mostnotablyaNasca8tombdiscoveredin1986thatcontainedfiveindividuals.Fromour
conversationsitappearsthatOrefici'searlierNascaburialsdonotdifferinquantity,quality,orcontentfromthegravesdescribedabove.

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ConclusionsaboutNascaBurialsatCahuachi
Theconceptualstudyofarchaeologicalmortuarypatternsforgeneratingsocialinferencesaboutthelivingsocietiestowhichthedeadcorrespondhasyieldedmuch
valuableinformationworldwide.ThegeneralpremisesandproblemsofmortuaryanalysishavebeencarefullydiscussedintheclassicpiecesbySaxe(1970)and
Tainter(1978)andbythecontributorstoBrown(1971)andChapman,Kines,andRandsborg(1981)amongothers.LetusnowexamineNascaburialsatCahuachi
toseewhatinsighttheyprovideintoNascasocialstructure.
CertainpatternsemergefromtheprecedinganalysisoftheCahuachiburials.Infants,children,andadultswereburied.Clearly,thepreferredmannerofbody
dispositionamongtheancientNascapeoplewasaseatedandflexedpositionwiththehead(atleast)facingsouth.Themostnotableexceptionstothispatternare
thoseburialsIhavepreviouslyreferredtoas"baddeaths"(Silverman1986:449seeUchendu1965:13),individualswhowereinterredinwaysthatstronglybroke
withcustom,possiblyasaresultoftheunusualnatureoftheirdeathoractstheyhadcommitted(whichmayhaveledtotheirdeath).Examplesofthese"baddeaths"
wouldbemyproject'sBurials1and12andStrong'sBurials8and27.
ThevastmajorityofNascaburialsareindividualinterments.However,multipleintermentsareknown.ItispossibletoconceiveofourBurials4and5onUnit19asa
dualburial.AnotherexampleisKroeber'sBurialAj13which,becauseoftheageandsexoftheindividualsconcerned,couldpertaintotworetainersburiedwiththe
otherperson.Inothercases,however,weareprobablydealingwithhighstatusfamilycryptsaswith,forinstance,Orefici'sNasca8burialatCahuachi(see
Carmichael1988:pl.1)or,possibly,theNasca7cisttombsatChavia(LothropandMahler1957).3
WhileNascaburialsofallphasesareknown,burialsofallphasesarenotrepresentedatCahuachi.ThusfarnoNasca1graveshavebeenexcavatedandreportedat
CahuachioranyotherRoGrandedeNazcasiteNasca1potteryislikewiserareinthelocalmuseumsandprivatecollectionsinIngenio,Nazca,andPalpaeven
thoughtherearemanyNasca1habitationsitesinthesevalleys.Nasca1burialsareknownfromtheIcavalley(seeCarmichael1988),butcautionmustbeusedin
generalizingfromthemtoCahuachiandtheRoGrandedeNazcaheartlandoftheNascaworld.Orefici(personalcommunication1991)hasexcavatedNasca2and
laterburialsatCahuachifourofFarabee'sCahuachigravelotsdatetoNasca2(Carmichael1988:appendix1).Nasca3,5,and6burialsarecommon,aswehave
seen.TherarityofNasca4burialsatCahuachi(includingFarabee'siftheydoindeedcomefromthearchaeologicalsite)isparalleledinthearchaeologicalrecordof
theNazcadrainage,whereNasca4habitationsitesalsoappeartoberelativelyrare.NoNasca7burialshavebeenreportedfromCahuachi.Nasca8gravesare
knownbutshouldnotbeusedinadiscussionofNascaburialpatternsorsociopoliticalandeconomicorganization(seeSilverman1988b).
NascatombsatCahuachivarysynchronicallyanddiachronicallyintheirdegreeofenergyinvestmentasmanifestedintombelaboration,gravefurniture,andbody
preparation.Lookingattombelaboration,atCahuachi,4 wehaveseenthatNascaindividualscouldbeplacedoutintheopenorinverysmallcrudeshallowpitsthat
couldjustadmitthebody.Theycouldbeplacedinshallowtodeepcistsorshaftsofvaryingshape(oval,circular,rectangular,Dshaped)withorwithouttombroofs,
ortheycouldbeplacedinurnswithorwithouttombroofs.Theshaftscouldbesimplyexcavatedintothesoilorreinforcedwithadobearchitecture(e.g.,Silverman's
Burial3Strong'sNasca5Burial15inBurialArea1).Urnburialscouldbelocatedshallowly,burieddeeply,orplacedwithinshafts.Tombroofswerecommonbut
notuniformlypresenttheytoovaryindegreeofelaboration.NoneoftheNascatombsreportedfromCahuachiorelsewhereintheNascaworldwouldhaverequired
aparticularlylargemobilizationofgrouplaboreitherforconstructionofthetombsorproductionoftheirgravegoods.
Nowlet'sexaminetombtypeandgravefurniture.MostofSilverman'sburialsonUnit19atCahuachiwerecisttombscoveredwithfineroofs.Nevertheless,this
degreeoftombelaborationdidnotnecessarilycorrelatewithgravegoods.Burials4and5hadtombroofsbutnocistandtogetherpossessedthreeceramicvessels.
Burial7hadbothatombroofandcistbutnogravegoods.Nevertheless,thisburialhadthefinestassociatedtextileintheseriesweexcavated.Burial8appearstobe
therichestburialoftheUnit19series,withafinetombroof,cist,andvariousgravegoods.Burial9wasinterredoutintheopenaboveBurial8theindividualwas
wrappedinafinedecoratedtextile.
Strong'sBurial1wasplacedinanexcellenttombinBurialArea1butwasnotaccompaniedbygravegoods.Ontheotherhand,Strong'sBurial3wasplacedina
shaftcoveredbyaroofandwasaccompaniedbythreepots.Bothindividualsappeartobeadultmales.Apossibleinterpretationwouldbethatthetwoindividuals
werenotofequalstatus.Strong'sBurial5wasplacedin

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alargecircularshaftdugdirectlyintothedirtwithnotombroof.Thisindividualwasburiedwitheightceramicvessels.Strong'sBurial10wasayoungadultburiedina
shafttombwithafineroof,buttherewerenogravegoods.
ThemostcommongravegoodatCahuachiispottery.Thenumberofceramicvesselsburiedwithanindividualaswellastheirquality,form,andiconographyvaried
greatly.Inassessingthesocialsignificanceofgravegoodswearehinderedbyourcherishednotionsofvalue.Becausepotteryisthemostubiquitousofarchaeological
remainsatceramicperiodsitesandbecauseitcancarryavarietyofinformation,wetendtoweightitdisproportionatelyhighwhencomparedtootheritemsofthe
materialcultureinventory.DidtheoccupantofaNascagravewithadoublespoutandbridgebottle(e.g.,Silverman'sBurial8)havehigherstatusthantheindividual
buriedwithafinepyroengravedgourd(suchastheonerecoveredinthelootedSilverman'sBurial3)?WhilethesamplefromCahuachiistoosmalltobesure,Idonot
seearestrictiverelationshipbetweenpotteryandtombquality(seealsoCarmichael1988:306329).
Intermsofbodypreparationwecandiscussthewrappingoftheindividual.Textiles,whicharesocharacteristicofthehighstatusParacasNecropolisburials,arenot
particularlynotableatCahuachiorelsewhereintheNascaworld.Cahuachi'sreportedbestthosepublishedbyO'Nealein1937arepoorincomparisontothose
oftheParacasPeninsulatypesite.TheNascapeopleappeartohaveexcelledatthreedimensionalknitstemstitching(crossedlooping)attachedtoplaincloths(e.g.,
theshroudofSilverman'sBurial7)butnotattheiconographicallycomplexlinear,broadline,andblockcolorembroideryfoundintheostensiblycontemporary
Necropolisburials(seeSilverman1991).5 SomeNascapeoplewereburiedinbettertextilesthanothers.Mostwerewrappedinplaincottonclothsthatcouldbe
white,cream,ordark(red,green,brown)incolor.Theseclothscouldbecoarseorwellmade.Designscouldbewoven(e.g.,Silverman'sBurial9)orembroidered
(O'Neale1937:pl.33)intotheclothssometimestheclothsboreelaboratethreedimensionalborders(e.g.,Silverman'sBurial7).Thesocial,economic,andpolitical
importanceoftextilesintheAndeanworldprecolumbianandmodernissowellknownitneednotbefurtherexplainedhere(seePaul1990:chap.2foragood
summary).Intheiconographyandlaborinvestmentinherenttotextiles,IseeabasisforrealstatusdifferentiationinNascasociety,evenwithinparametersthatare
muchmorelimitedthanthoseoftheParacassite.
NogoldhaseverbeenreportedfromCahuachi,butitisknownfromotherNascagraves,6 andhammeredgoldmouthmasksandnoseandforeheadornamentswere
wornbyNascashamans/priestsand/orleaders(Lothrop1937seeBancodeCrdito1986:185191).
SpondylusisexceptionallyrareinNascacontexts,andnoneisreportedfromNascagravesatCahuachiorelsewhere.
IdonotregardtheothergravegoodsreportedintheliteratureasoverlyimportantintermsofstatusdifferentiationinNascasociety.
ThemortuarypatternsmanifestedatCahuachishowgreatcontinuityintheNascaburialtraditionovertimeyettheyvary,particularlyinsofarasthekindoftombis
concerned.Aswehaveseen,thereisnofixedpositivecorrelationbetweenfinenessoftombandwealthofgravegoods.Atanygivenmomentintime,however,some
Nascaindividualswereclearlytherecipientsofgreaterattentionindeaththanothers,andthereappearstobegreaterdifferentiationofgravewealth(intermsoftomb
contents,tombconstruction,andbodypreparation)inlateNasca(especiallyNasca5)timesthanintheearlyNascaperiod.Thisconclusionisconsistentwithasuiteof
otherdatathatindicatethatlateNascasocietywasmoresociallydifferentiatedthanearlyNascasociety(seechap.23).
WhatisperhapsmostsignificantinmyanalysisinthischapteristhefactthatCahuachi'sapogeecontemporary(i.e.,Nasca3)gravesarenotcommensuratewiththe
paramountroleCahuachiplayedinNascasociety(seechaps.22,23).EquallyfineandricherNasca3gravesareknownfromoutsidethegreatceremonialcenter.
ExamplesofthesewouldbeStrong'sBurial26fromBurialArea3,Strong'sBurials39and40fromBurialArea4,Kroeber'sAjaB,andseveraloftheUhlegravelots
fromIca(seeProulx1970).Tello'sproveniencedNascagravelotsfromtheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageshouldbeanalyzedtotestthisstatement.
Furthermore,althoughtheNascamortuarydataavailabletomevaryindegreeofdetail,itisveryclearthatnoknownNascaburialsearly,middle,orlatearerich
inthewaythattherecentlydiscoveredMocheburialsatSipn(Alva1988,1990)ortheburialplatformsatChanChan(Conrad1982)were,norhaveIheardany
rumorsorfolkloretothateffect.EvenOrefici,inmanyyearsofmassiveexcavationofmoundarchitectureatthesite,hasbeenunabletolocateareallyrichNasca
tomb(norhashefoundanyelsewhereinthedrainage).WhileitisobviousfromtheburialanalysisinthischapterthatsomemembersofNascasocietywereburied
moreelaboratelythanothers,therangeof

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variationinceramicandnonceramicgravegoods,bodypreparation,andtombconstructionisnotnearlyaswideormarkedasthatwhichcharacterizestheother
Andeansocietiesnotedabove.Rather,Nascamortuarypatternsareindicativeofarankedratherthanarigidlystratifiedsociety(seeSilverman1986:477483).
Carmichael(1988:285289)demonstratesthatpartofthisrankingwasgenderandagedetermined,withadultsandmales,ingeneral,havingmorestatusandbeing
therecipientsofmoreattentionthanyouthsandwomen.
Notes
1.PendingopeningofthisbundlebyMiguelPazos,Iamidentifyingitaspertainingtoachildonthebasisofitssmallsizeandassociatedminiatureitems.Irecognize
thatCarmichael(1988:314)seesminiaturesascorrelatingmorewithstatusthanage.Whileitisriskytouseoneculturetointerpretanother,Carmichaelmaybe
correctinhisremarksforNascabecauseasignificantnumberofminiaturevesselsrecoveredfromtheParacasNecropolisareassociatedwithmanifestlyhighstatus
burials(seeKroeber1953:pl.32).Wallace(1986:fig.3)alsocollectedbelowstandardsizevessels(abouthalfsize)fromadisturbedcemeteryattheChongossite
inPisco.Thesevessels,bytheiruniformappearanceandcontext,shouldbeconsideredceremonialinnature,apointfrequentlyrepeatedbyTelloandMejaXesspe
(1979).
2.Thus,IexcludefromconsiderationtheearlyNascagravesexcavatedbyStronginBurialAreas3and4onthenorthsideoftheNazcaRiveroppositeCahuachias
wellastheNasca8gravesinBurialArea4(seeStrong1957:40,fig.15).
Inaddition,Strong(1957:16)statesthat"upthedrawleadingfromthe[GreatCloth]deposittowardthegreattempleweencounteredseveraldeepemptytombs,
severalofwhichwerecarefullysealedwithcanesandhadnotbeenexcavatedbyhuaqueros."Thesewouldhavebeensmackinsidethearchaeologicalsiteof
Cahuachi.However,IhavebeenunabletofindarecordoftheseemptytombsinthefieldnotesoftheColumbiaUniversityProjectunlessitistherecordofan
emptytombinBurialArea2.Strong'sdescriptionofthelocationoftheemptytombssuggeststhattheywereinBurialArea2andthis,inturn,coincideswiththe
argumentmadeinchapter4thattheGreatClothDepositwaslocatedatStrong'sCut8orwestofitandnorthofUnit8.Thatthisissoissupportedbythe
ColumbiaUniversityProjectfieldnotesforBurialArea2.ThefieldnotesrecordBurials20through23forBurialArea2andanemptytombwith"amost
elaboratelymade`barbacoa'"thatwaslocated37meterssoutheastofBurial20.Nootheremptyintacttombsarementioned.
3.Nasca8,whichIargue(Silverman1987,1988b,1990d)isnotproperlyspeakingNasca,showssignificantchangesfromprecedingNascaphaseswithrespectto
burialpatterns.Mostobviousisanincreasedfrequencyinmultipleburialseventhoughtheyarestilluncommon(Carmichael1988:354).Thesemultipleburials,
dependingonthetemporalplacementofNasca8,couldeitheraugurorbeinfluencedbytheMiddleHorizonpracticeofcollectivetombs(e.g.,ReissandStbel
18801887Pezzia1969:127128).Also,PatrickCarmichael(personalcommunication1990)hasobservedthatinAcartrueextendedburialsappearforthefirst
timeinNasca8.TheseareunknowninearlierNascaphasesexceptas"baddeath"burials(e.g.,Silverman'sBurial1).
4.ThereareotherkindsofNascatombs,butthesearenotrepresentedatCahuachi.Forinstance,intheupperreachesofseveralsouthcoastvalleys,Nascatombs
typicallyaresimplefieldstonelinedpitscoveredbystoneslabs.Massey(1986:323)reportsthemintheupperIcavalleyDavidBrowne(personalcommunication
1989)hasthemintheupperPalpavalleyIhaverecordedthemintheupperIngeniovalleyandintheAja(i.e.,upperNazca)valley.Therawmaterialforthesetombs
wasreadilyavailableonthehillsides.Inthelowervalleys,wherefieldstoneisnotasreadilyavailable,differenttombconstructiontechniqueswereused.
5.AccordingtoPhipps(1989:269),oneofthemostfamoussouthcoasttextiles,calledtheParacasTextile(BrooklynMuseumaccessionnumber38.121),could
havecomefromtheNazcavalley.Tello(1959)statesthatheacquireditfromDomingoCnepainPiscoin1921.Thistextilehasabordercomposedofninety
detailedthreedimensionalcrossedloopedfiguresandacottonbaseclothdecoratedwiththirtytworayedheadsdonebythetechniqueofwarpwrapping.Incolor
schemeandtechnology,butlesssoiniconography,IseesomesimilaritybetweentheParacasTextile'scentralclothandthetextilethatcoveredourBurial9.
6.KroeberfoundasmallgoldplaqueinhisBurial17atMajoroChicoAwhichdatestoNasca4(Carmichael1988:498).

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ChapterFifteen
TrophyHeadsatCahuachi
Theterm"trophyhead"wascoinedin1901byMaxUhle,whoconsideredthedepictionofseveredheadsinancientPeruvianarttocorrespondtotrophiesofwarfare.
UhlefirstnotedthesimilaritiesbetweentheNascaseveredheadsandtheshrunkenJivaroheadsoflowlandEcuador.Bothsocietiesusedspinestosealtheeyesand
mouthandacarryingcordwhichemergesfromasmallholedrilledintotheforehead,butinancientPeruheadswereneverreducedinsize.Tello(1918)arguesthatin
theAndesheadtakingwasafundamentalaspectofsocialorganization,asurvivingpartofasystemofbeliefsfromanearlierperiodwhichcontinuedtohavetheforce
ofaninheritedreligioustradition.Heemphasizestheheadratherthantrophyaspectoftrophyheads.
Theheadwasafetishorimbuedwithmysteriousormagicalpowersorattributesthatnotablyinfluencedtheintellectualandsociallifeofprehistoricman.Thatiswhyitwasso
intenselyandprofoundlyrepresentedinthemostoutstandingmanifestationsofitsart...andwassubjecttothepowerfulimpulseofreligioninitsevolution....Theheadwas
notasimpletrophy....Theheadwas,aboveall,areligioussymbol,asymbolofpoweritwasthemostvaluedattributeofthegods.Maybeinitsoriginitwasasimpletrophybut
itsuseinNascaandinPeruingeneralpresentsanother,muchmoreimportantaspect...initweredepositedthequalitiesofthebelovedperson.(Tello1918:33mytranslation)

Fromasearlyas2000B.C.atthelatepreceramicsiteofAsiaonthecentralcoast(Engel1963),decapitatedindividualsandbodilessskullsarepresentintheAndean
archaeologicalrecord.InthesucceedingInitialPeriodatthetempleofWichqanainAyacucho,forinstance,Lumbreras(1974a:80)discoveredaritualburialoffive
artificiallydeformedskulls.ActualtrophyheadsaswellastrophyheadiconographyoccurattheInitialPeriodShillacotomoundintheeasternhighlandsnearKotosh
(IzumiandTerada1972:308Izumi,Cuculiza,andKano1972).TrophyheadsandmutilatedbodypartsiconographicallydefinethelithicfriezeoftheInitialPeriod
templeofCerroSechinonthenorthcoast(Tello1956).DuringtheEarlyHorizon,trophyheadiconographyisfoundonChavnstonesculpture(KauffmannDoig
1973:figs.262,273).InterestintrophyheadsincreaseddramaticallyonthesouthcoastattheendoftheEarlyHorizon,andtrophyheadsbecameadominant
iconographicthemeonParacaspotteryandtextiles(Sawyer1966:122Proulx1971:17Dwyer1979).TrophyheadsarealsoanimportantelementinEarly
IntermediatePeriodMocheart(Donnan1976)andPucaraart(Chavezms.).TheyarewellrepresentedinWariartoftheMiddleHorizon.Butnowhereandatno
timeinancientPerudidtrophyheadiconographyandactualheadhuntingreachtheveritableobsessionofNasca.1
ActualNascatrophyheadshavebeenexcavatedinAcar(Coelho1972NeiraAvedaoandCoelho19721973LothropandMahler1957),Ica(Proulx1989:73),
andtheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(e.g.,Tello1918Kroeber1956:357KroeberandCollierms.),includingatCahuachiwheretheyhavebeenrecordedby
Kroeber,Strong,Doering,andmyself.2 Letusnowexaminethese

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trophyheadsandthenplacetheminarchaeologicalandethnographicperspective.
Kroeber'sTrophyHeads
GraveAl4
GraveAl4wastheskeletonofanadultfemalethatwasintactexceptfortheheadwhichwasmissing(seechap.14).CarmichaelandKonigsberg(Carmichael1988:
290291,349)determinedthattheheadwastornoffafterthebodyhadmummified.Carmichael(1988:291)hascorrectlyobservedthat"headlessbodieswerenot
alwaystheresultoffreshkills"andspeculatesthat"trophyheadsmayhavebeenacquiredandreveredinavarietyofways."Thisspeculationhasnowbeenconfirmed
bythediscoveryofacacheoffortyeighttrophyheadsinPalpabyDavidBrowneandmyselfin1989.3
GraveAl9
Location:TerraceAlonUnitA,4meterswestofAg1.
Grave:Thisisa"nestofthreetrophyheads,sidebyside"foundat15centimetersbeneaththesurface.
Age/Sex/Condition:Onetrophyheadbelongedtoachildwith"milkdentition."Oneheadbelongedtoayoungwomanwhosewisdomteethhadnoterupted.The
otherbelongedtoamiddleagedmanwhoseteethshowwear.Thewoman'sandman'sheadseachhadaholeinthefrontalboneandanenlargedforamenmagnum.
Allthreeskullshadjawsandocciputs.
Position:Facing"somewhatup."
Orientation:Facingsoutheast.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:No.
Dating:Unknown,butthedescriptionisconsistentwithknownNascatrophyheads.
GraveLocusAn
Location:AtthenorthwestfootofUnitA.
Grave:Threerectangularadobetombs.
Age/Sex/Condition:Atotalofsixtrophyheadswererecoveredonthesouthsideofthewesttombatadepthof40centimeters.Allaredeformedandwithout
occiput.
Position:Thetrophyheadslinedthetomb.
Orientation:Notstated.
Furniture:Redmaize"awooltapestryofEpigonaltype."
Remarks:ByEpigonalKroebermeanspostWaributpreIca.Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III90)notesthat"AnliesatthefootofpyramidA,notpartofit,
anditsmaterialisnotnecessarilyofthesameageastheNazcaAlmaterialfromthetopoflocationA."Kroeber(KroeberandCollierms.:III90)statesthatthestyle
ofthetapestryshoulddeterminetheperiodofthetombinthetotalabsenceofpottery.
Dating:Epigonal.
GraveEd2
Atrophyheadwithoutocciputwasfoundinthegraveinassociationwithadisturbedskeleton(seechap.14).
Strong'sTrophyHeads
Burial12
Location:2metersnorthofBurial9,5centimetersbelowthesurface.
Grave:Itisnotagravebutalargeglobularvesselwithaconicalbottom.
Age/Sex/Condition:SeeRemarks.
Position:Therimandupperpartsofthevesselweremissing.
Orientation:SeeRemarks.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Immediatelytothesouthwestofthevesseltherewasatrophyhead.Nascatrophyheadsareknowntohavebeenplacedwithinplainwarevessels(e.g.,
Coelho1972:180)andcanbecoveredwithvesselfragmentsforexample,theFeature24trophyheadinthecornerofWalls71and72intheLowerEastern
RoomsatthebaseofUnit19(seechap.12Coelho1972:181).ThetrophyheadandthevesselmaybeassociatedbecauseinthegravelthatfilledthevesselStigler
recoveredatooth,aquantityofhair,andtwosmallskullfragments.Thetrophyheaditselfwasrecognizedassuchbecauseithasaholeintheforeheadandthe
foramenmagnumhadbeenenlarged.Theskullwascrackedandinbadcondition.
Dating:Nasca?AlldatableburialsinBurialArea1datetoNasca5or6.
Burial14
Burial14wasacompleteskeleton,buttheheadhadbeentreatedasatrophyhead(seechap.14).
Doering'sTrophyHeads
Morro:Grave1
Aswelearnedinchapter14,theheadandupperbodyofthemaleoccupantofthetombaremissing.Atthefront,inthecornersofthetombovermaizecobs,laynine
trophyheadswithplaitedhair.Twoofthetrophyheadswereonabedofcocaleaves.

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15.1.
Feature21.Trophyheadfromcistinuppermostapisonadoof
Room1onUnit19.Unwrappedinthelab.Itsburlapbaglies
atthebaseoftheskull.Thecarryingcordemergesthrough
theholeinthefrontalbone.Thelipsaresealedwithspines.

Silverman'sTrophyHeads
Feature21(Fig.15.1)
Location:AlongsideWall68inRoom1onUnit19.
Grave:AcistthatwasexcavatedintotheuppermostapisonadoofRoom1.Thecistwaslargeenoughtoaccommodateonlythetrophyhead.
Age/Sex/Condition:Theindividualwasayoungadultmale.Theskullislargeandheavy.Thepreservedskinisleatheryintextureandcopperincolor.Thehairisdark
andstraight.Therearenoeyebrows,eyelashes,beard,ormustache.Thedentitionisnotworn.Allteetharepresent.Themandiblewastiedtothezygomaticarchwith
cord.Thecheekswerestuffedwithplainweavecottoncloth.Theeyeballshadbeenremoved,andtheorbitalcavitieswerefilledwithplainweavetextile.Theforamen
magnumhadbeenenlarged,presumablytoextractthebrainandinsertawoodencrosspiecearoundwhichthecarryingropewastied.Thatropeemergedthrougha
smallholeinthefrontalbone.Thelipswerepinnedtogetherwithtwosplintersofhuarangowood.TheheadexhibitstypicalNascafrontaloccipitalcranialdeformation.
Position:Theskullwaswrappedinaplainweavecottoncloth.
Orientation:Facingnorth.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:ThetrophyheadwasstudiedbyJosPabloBaraybar.
Dating:Nasca5(seechap.12).
Feature24(Fig.15.2)
Location:InthesurfacelayerinthecornerformedbyWalls71and72intheLowerEasternRoomsatthebaseofUnit19.
Grave:No.
Age/Sex/Condition:Anadultmale.Theeyes,eyebrows,beard,andmustachearepresent.Thedarkstraighthairiselaboratelybraided.Theskinispreservedbut
brittle.Thescalpexhibitsaseriesofdeliberateincisionsmadewithasharpinstrument.Thetonguewasremoved.Thelipsaresealedwithtwosplintersofhuarango
wood.Acarryingcordemergesthroughaholeinthefrontalbone.Thecheekswerestuffedwithplainweavecottoncloth.Theheadexhibitsfrontaloccipitalcranial
deformation.
Position:Theheadwaswrappedinaplainweavetextileandcoveredwithlargesherdsfromasootedutilitarianvessel.

15.2.
Feature24.TrophyheadfromsurfacelayerinLower
EasternRoomsatUnit19.Thepersonhasanelaborately
braidedcoiffure.Afinewovencarryingcordendingina
nicelyembroideredgeometricdesignemergesfromthe
holeinthefrontalbone.Thelipsaresealedwithspines.
Hehasabeardandmustache.

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Orientation:Notdeterminedbecausetheheadwascoveredwithaplainweavetextile.
Furniture:No.
Remarks:Coelho(1972)hasnotedthepresenceofscalpincisionsonvariousofthetrophyheadsshestudied(seealsoBaraybar1987).Thetrophyheadwasstudied
byJosPabloBaraybar.
Dating:LaterthanNasca3.
NascaTrophyHeadsinArtandSociopoliticalReality
NascatrophyheadiconographydevelopeddirectlyoutoftheantecedentlateParacasstyle.Sawyer(1966:122)speaksofanewtrophyheadcultwhichheinterprets
asproviding"aceremonialmeansofgatheringthelifeorsoulforceofenemiestobeusedforthebenefitofthe[head]collectorgroup."Proulx(1971:21),following
thisline,suggeststhatheadtakingwasaritualisticactivitypracticed"eithertogainthepoweroftheslainenemyortopreventhissoulorspiritfromharmingthekiller."
Morerecently,however,Proulx(1989:82seealsoPatterson1986)hasarguedthat"Nascatrophyheadswereobtainedduringwarfarewhosemainpurposewas
territorialexpansionandassuch,aretheheadsofenemycombatants,whoevertheymighthavebeen.TheheadswerenottakeninritualbattlesamongtheNasca
people...[although]themainpurposeforremovingtheheadsfromwarvictimswasritualinnature."
Coelhohasemphasizedthisritualaspectand,analyzingthediversebutlimiteddataonNascatrophyheadsavailabletoherasof1972,sheperceptivelyconcludesthat
theterm"trophyhead"isamisnomer.Instead,shesuggeststhattheybecalled"ritualheads,"arguingthattheheadfulfilledaritualandceremonialfunctioninNasca
societyratherthanbeingabyproductofsecularwarfare(seealsoNeiraAvedaoandCoelho19721973).Coelho'sargumentisbasedonthefollowingfactsand
interpretationsofthem.
1.Nascatrophyheadsencompassadultfemalesandchildrenaswellasadultmales(althoughitmustbenotedthatthevastmajorityofreportedheadspertaintoadult
males).Inasituationofwarfareforconquest,Coelhoexpectsthefighterstobemaleandthetrophiestakentobemaleaswell.
2.NascatrophyheadsarefoundinNascacemeterieswheretheyhavebeentreatedsimilarlytootherfullbodyNascaburialsintermsofgravegoodsandcareof
preparation.This,forCoelho,indicatesintraethnicheadtakingactivityratherthanwarfare,whichsheseesasinterethnic.Indeed,thedressandfacialfeaturesofthe
victimsportrayedinNascaartsuggestthattheenemywasNasca,asdoesthetypicallyNascacranialdeformationofvariousactualNascatrophyheads.
3.AmodeledceramictrophyheadcansubstitutefortherealheadofadecapitatedNascaindividualburiedinnormalNascamanner.4 ForCoelho,thismeansthatthe
activityoftakingheadswasconfinedtoNascapeoples.
4.Fineincisionswerefrequentlycutwithcareintothescalpsofvariousofthevictims.Theseincisionscontrastwiththechaoticheadwoundsthatwouldbereceivedin
thebattlefield.Baraybar(1987)hassincespeculatedthattheseincisionswerepartofabloodlettingritepriortotheactualdeathoftheindividual.
IagreethatNascaseveredheadswithexpandedforamenmagnumandcarryingcordsthroughthefrontalboneweretreatedinahighlyritualisticmanner(see,e.g,
Silverman1988c).5 YetthereareproblemswithCoelho'sformulation.Despitetheirparticipationinthesameartstyleandculturalandreligioustradition,Nascapeople
mayhavesociallydifferentiatedthemselvesitispossiblethatthedeterminingfactorinheadtakingwassocialallianceandnonalliancewithintheNascainteraction
sphere.Coelho'sviewofwarfareisalsolimitedbythefactthatsheenvisionsonlyterritorialbattlesanddoesnotconsiderthewelldocumentedethnographicand
ethnohistoriccasesofcompetitiveritualbattlesintheAndes(Gorbak,Lischetti,andMuoz1962Platt1986:239240comparetotheAztecflowerwars[Davies
1977:9698Hassig1988:128130,197,256]whichfulfilledritual,military,andpoliticalfunctions).Ofparticularimportanceisthefactthat,ethnographically,
womenaswellasmencouldparticipateintheseritualbattleswhichcouldbeextremelyviolent,indeeddeadly(Platt1986:239240).Furthermore,Coelho's
interpretationofNascaheadtakingignoressignificantdiachronicchangesthatoccurredinNascasocietyandthesociopoliticalmilieuasevidencediniconographyand
thearchaeologicalrecord.
EarlyNascaheadtakingwasovertlyreligious/ritualisticandmythicinnatureandinart.TrophyheadsabundantlydecorateearlyNascapottery.Theyarefoundinthe
handsofsupernaturalagentssuchastheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing(Proulx1968:fig.18),identifiedasapriest/ritualspecialist/maskedperformerbyTownsend
(1985).TheyarecarriedbytheKillerWhale(Townsend1985:fig.18).ThebodyoftheHorribleBirdtypicallycontainstrophyheads(Wolfe1981:fig.69a)the
HorribleBirdmayalsobeshowndevouringahumanheadorpickingataheadlesshumanbody(BancodeCrdito1986:160topright,176topleft).HarpyBirdsare
decoratedwithtrophyheads(Wolfe1981:figs.123

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126).TrophyheadsalsocommonlyoccurasanindependentthemeonearlyNascaceramicbowlsandvases(Proulx1968:pl.21).
EarlyNascaiconographyshowsanoutstandingemphasisonthemesconcerningagriculturalfertility(Proulx1983).Iamconvincedthatwewilleventuallybeableto
demonstratearelationshipbetweentrophyheads,ancestors,andprinciplesofcyclicaldeathandregeneration/rebirth/fertility(versusProulx1971,1983,1989)similar
totheconnectionoftrophyheadsacrificetoagriculturalfertilityandthemarkingofcyclicaltimethatGillespie(1991)hasindicatedfortheMesoamericanballgame.In
thislight,IwouldpointtothesubstitutabilityofgerminatingbeansandtrophyheadsinParacasNecropolisiconography(whichisintimatelyrelatedtoearlyNasca
iconography)andtotheconjunctionoffertilitycelebrationsandhomagestothedeadintraditionalAndeansociety(seeHarris1982:5758Allen1988:165,182
Rasnake1988:242seealsodiscussionofSoniaGuilln'sworkbelow).
TheproductionoftheseearlyNascaimagescorrespondstoreality.ActualearlyNascatrophyheadshavebeenreportedfromCantallocandMajoroChico(see
Carmichael1988:482).ThesourceoftheseandotherearlyNascaheadsmustbetheheadlessearlyNascaskeletonsreportedintheliterature.Forinstance,Doering
(1966)reportsonan"unusualearlyNascagrave"thatheexcavatednearCahuachiin1932.Init,the"bodylayonitssidewrappedinagauzeclothandwasfirst
thoughttobethatofachild.Closerexaminationshoweditinfacttobethecontractedfigureofafullgrownmanwhohadbeenbeheaded.Histurbanofredcordwas
woundnotroundaheadbutroundthetopofthevertebralcolumnaclothhadbeendrapedoverittogivetheappearanceofahead"(Doering1966:143).
EarlyNascainterestintrophyheadsandheadhuntingoccurredduringtheapogeeofearlyNascasociety,asocialformationthatovertlyemphasizedritualandreligious
sanctionsasitsmeansofcultural(social,political,economic)integration.ThegreatceremonialcenterofCahuachiwastheexpressionofthisculturalflorescenceand
integration.ThereislittleornoarchaeologicalevidenceofterritorialconquestbyanearlyNascastate(versusMassey1986seechap.23),andthiskindofwarfare
probablywasnotthesourceoftherareactualearlyNascatrophyheadsandheadlessbodiesfoundinearlyNascacemeteries(versusProulx1989).
RegardlessoftheargumentsforandagainstaNasca3state(e.g.,Rowe1963Massey1986Silverman1987,1988aversusSilverman1977,1985a,1986,1990a,
b,c,dseechap.23),theevidenceinthearchaeologicalrecordinartandonthegroundstronglysuggeststhattherewasachangeinNascatrophyheadactivity
betweenearlyandlateNascatimes.FollowingtheabandonmentofCahuachiasthemajorcultandculturalcenterofearlyNascasociety,actualheadtakingactivity
apparentlyincreasedinfrequencytherewasanequallynotablechangeinthecontextoftrophyheadrepresentationinlateNascaart,asmilitaristicthemes,ratherthan
supernaturalones,cametobeemphasized(Roark1965).
TheFeature24trophyheadfromtheLowerEasternRoomsatthebaseofUnit19probablydatestoafterNasca3.TheFeature21trophyheadfromRoom1on
Unit19atCahuachidatestoNasca5orlater.TheskulloftheadultmaleindividualinStrong'sBurial14,datingtoNasca5,hadbeentreatedasatrophyhead.In
1989,DavidBrowneandIdiscoveredacacheoffortyeighttrophyheadsinPalpathesemayalsodatetoNasca5.ElevenNascatrophyheads,probablydatingto
EarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5,wererecoveredatChaviaintheAcarvalleybyMximoNeiraAvedaoandVeraCoelho(19721973Coelho1972).More
thanadozenNasca8trophyheadshavebeendocumentedinthepublishedliterature(seeDoering1958Pezzia1969:145).
TheselateNascatrophyheadsoccurinvariouscontexts.Oneisinassociationwitharchitecture.Insuchacontexttheheadmaybewrappedinclothandrest
alongsideawall,itmaybedepositedinacistexcavatedintoafloor,oritmaybeplacedinautilitarianvessellocatedbesideawall.AnothercontextoflateNasca
trophyheadsisasanelementorgravegoodinaburial.YetanothercontextisthecacheDavidBrowneandIhavejustdocumented.Inaddition,lateNasca
decapitatedbodiesareknown.LothropandMahler(1957),forinstance,reportthatthebodyofadecapitatedmalewasfoundinCist3atChaviaaturban
wrappedgourdhadbeenplacedwherehisheadoughttohavebeen.Intheethnographicliterature,theinterchangeabilityofheadandgourdiswelldocumented(see,
e.g.,Harner1972:144148).
LateNascaartconfirmstheincreaseinheadtakingactivityseeninthearchaeologicalrecordand,readliterallyandfromawesternperspective,suggeststhatthesource
oftheseheadswasinternecinebattles.IemphasizeagainthatthevastmajorityofNascatrophyheadsthathavebeenagedandsexedpertaintoadultmalesofusual
combatantage.ThefamousMuseoArqueolgicodeMadridvessel(Larrea1960:pl.42)portraysNascatrophyheadssuspendedfrombannerbearingstandards,as
iftruetrophiesofwar.6 Paintedimagesvividlydepictaggressionamongrealactors,andtheactorsappeartobe

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Nascapeople(seeBensonandConklin1981:67).7 Indeed,twoofthePalpaskullshadhealeddepressedfractures,andathirdhadafreshdepressedfracturethat
couldhaveoccurredatornearthetimeofdeath.Warriorsareshowncarryingtrophyheads(Lapiner1976:491)orareincloseassociationwiththem(Bancode
Crdito1986:167).Mostsignificantly,inlateNascaartwefindthefrequentmodeledportraitureofrichlydressed"bigmen"or"leaders"whocarrytrophyheadsin
theirhandsorarealsoindirectassociationwiththem(e.g.,BensonandConklin1981:64Townsend1985:pl.4).Thisiconographicevidencesuggeststhattheeliteof
lateNascasocietyweresuccessfulheadhunters,notpriestsasinearlyNascatimes,andthatheadhuntinghadbecomeamore"secularized"activity.Nevertheless,in
viewoftheritualistictreatmentactuallateNascatrophyheadsreceived,itcanbearguedthattheheadwasstillimbuedwithsacredqualitiesandsupernaturalpower
attributesnowmanipulatedbythelateNascachiefs(equivalenttowhatDemarest1984:237calls"personallegitimation").
EthnographicExamplesofHeadhunting
Whyistheactoftriumphantandostentatiousdecapitationprescribedbysomanysocieties?Asurveyoftheethnographicliteratureontrophyheadtakingrapidly
revealsthat,worldwide,thispracticeoccursinsocietieswhosesociopoliticalcontextcanunhesitatinglybelabeledastribal.Examplesofsuchsocietiesincludethe
DayakofBorneo(Needham1976),theIlongotofthePhilippines(R.Rosaldo1980M.Rosaldo1980),andtheJivaroofEcuador(Harner1972Karsten1935),to
nameonlythemostfamouscases.Thesalientaspectoftribalheadhuntingisthatallmalesoftheappropriateageseektoengageinthisactivityitisaculturally
sanctionedpracticeintegrallyrelatedtocriticalritualpassagefromonestateandstatusofbeingtoanother(seeR.Rosaldo1980:142M.Rosaldo1980:chap.7).
RenatoRosaldo(1980:140)hasdescribedIlongotheadhuntingasresemblingapiacularsacrificeinitsatoning,"castingoffofburden"nature.Summingupthe
literatureonheadhuntinginAsiaandthePacific,MichelleRosaldo(1980:228)emphasizesheadhunting'sconnectiontothemessuchastheachievementofmale
prestigewhenkillersreturnhomeintriumph.Sheargues(1980:148)thatinIlongotsocietyheadhunterstypifysocietalidealsofpotency,productivehealth,and
beauty.AswithAustronesiangroups,headhuntingisvitallyassociatedwithculturaldefinitionsandconceptionsofwhatitmeanstobeaperson(M.Rosaldo1980:
229).
Atthesametime,however,Ilongotheadhuntingislinkedtothesettlingofgrievancesandisanoutcomeoffeuds(M.Rosaldo:chap.2thiscontraststoJivaro
headhunting,seeHarner1972:180187).Yet,theinsultcausinganIlongotbeheadingisprimarilyattributedinretrospect(R.Rosaldo1980:6162).Theintensityof
headhuntingactivitycanbeaffectedbytheimpingementofchaoticexternalpoliticssuchmayhemcanacttoheightenexistingtensionsandaggressivebehaviorin
society(seeR.Rosaldo1980:257).
EthnographicheadhuntingcorrespondsquitecloselytoClastres's(1977)discussionofthemotivationsunderlyingfrequentlybrutaltribalinitiationpractices:itmakes
individualsaninextricablepartofthesocialwhole,notaboveorbeloworoutsideit.ThisethicisclearlystatedbyRenatoRosaldo(1980:140)fortheIlongot."The
pointinIlongotheadhuntingisnotforonemantotakemoreheadsthanothers,butforallmenwhoarepeerstotakeatleastoneheadandtherebyloseonceandfor
alltheirstatusasnovices."
InthecaseoftheJivaro,however,amansoughttotakeasmanyheadsaspossibleoverthecourseofhisadultlifesoastoalwayshaveanarutamsoul(Harner1972:
112).YetthisdoesnotcarrytheexplanationofJivaroheadhuntingfarenough.WhatisimportantisthattheJivarobelievethatifaboyreachespubertywithout
acquiringanarutamsoulheisconsideredhelplessanddiessoonafter(TurnerandTurner1982:206).8 PossessionofanarutamsoulenablesaJivaromantofulfillhis
sociallydefinedrolesofhunter,fisher,weaver,housebuilder,forestclearer,husband,andfather.
Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderwhoseheadsweretakenandhowthiswasaccomplished.TheJivaroobtainedheadsfromalientribes(Harner1972:182).Anyenemy
wasfairgameman,woman,orchildandasmanyheadsweretakenastherewerevictimsinthesurpriseattack.TraditionalIlongotheadhuntingasopposedto
beheadingsofoutsideincursorsintoIlongotterritory(seeR.Rosaldo1980:36,155156)seemstohavebeenpredominantlyintraethnic.AswiththeJivaro,Ilongot
beheadingsweredirectedatmen,women,adults,andchildrenanyonewoulddoasavictiminordertorightapreviousoffense(R.Rosaldo1980:63).Inboththe
JivaroandIlongotcases,headhuntingwasaccomplishedintheformoforganizedgroupraidscarriedoutassneakattacks.
Finally,wemayconsiderwhytheheadisspecificallysought,evenifitisimmediatelythrownawayasisthecaseinIlongotheadhunting(R.Rosaldo1980M.Rosaldo
1980).Anthropologicalliteratureoverflowswithreferencestothesymbolismofthehumanbody(e.g.,

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Blacking1977Steiner1967)andtheimportanceoftheheadinparticular(e.g.,Willis1979Bloch1987:277,282BenAmos1976:248Gilbert1987:298330
Griaule1965:162167).Steiner(1967:46),forinstance,indicatesthattheheadofaPolynesianchiefwasthe"mostconcentratedmannaobject"inOceaniansociety.
TheDogonofWestAfricalikewiseemphasizetheritualpowerofthehead.Theyhavetwosetsofpersonalaltars,analtaroftheskullandanaltarofthebody."For
theordinaryDogon,sacrificeonhisaltaroftheheadistantamounttosacrificingonhisownhead"(Griaule1965:164).Steiner(1967),Douglas(1970:65),Ellen
(1977),Sutherland(1977),andWillis(1979)specificallyviewthebodyasametaphorfortheorganizationandproperfunctioningofsociety.Theuniquenessofthe
headinclassificatorysystemsisreadilyapparent:itissingularinadomaindominatedbylimbdualityitiscentralonaverticalaxisthatdividesthebodyintotwo
symmetricalhalves.
Totakeaheadonemustdismemberabody.Ifthebodyisculturallyperceivedasaunifiedwholesymbolicofsociety,thenphysicalseveranceofitshierarchically
dominantelementisanalogoustoorsymbolicofsocietalrupture.Itmustberemembered,however,thatthedisruptioncausedbydecapitationisoutwarddirected.
Socialintegrationandreaffirmationresultforsuccessfulheadhunters.Thisisevident,forinstance,inpostheadhuntingceremonies(e.g.,R.Rosaldo1980:163164
Harner1972:146147,189193).
NascaHeadhuntinginComparativePerspective
IhavemodeledearlyNascasocietyasaconfederacyoramalgamofautonomousandcompetingsmallerNascasocieties/chiefdoms(Silverman1986,1990a,b,c,d
seechap.23).WhenthissocialformationwasintegratedbyCahuachi,headtakingappearstohavebeenarareeventinrealityalthoughrelativelycommonamong
Nascasupernaturalagents.
Theapparentlyrealincreaseintheamount/frequencyofheadtakingactivitybetweenearlyandlateNascatimesraisesseriousquestionsaboutthepostCahuachi
Nascasocialformation.Intheethnographicpresent,pervasive,culturallysanctionedheadhuntingisexclusivelyassociatedwithtribalsocieties.Nevertheless,theearly
andlateNascasocialformationunambiguouslycorrespondedtoacomplex(nonegalitarian,sociallydifferentiated)society(Strong1957Rowe1963Silverman1986,
1988aCarmichael1988).Theintense,usuallypoorlyorganizedhitandrunraidingthatcharacterizesethnographicheadhuntingwouldseemtobeanathematothe
maintenanceofthesocial,political,andeconomicinstitutionsthatcharacterizedancientNascasociety.Onewouldthinkthatindependentandspontaneousactsof
aggressioncouldnotandwouldnotbetoleratedinsuchalandscape.
Ontheotherhand,ifasappearstobethecaselateNascasocietycontinuedtobecomposedofuncentralizedsocialgroups,thenthiskindofintergroupraiding
couldhavebeenpracticed,withalliancesandnonalliancesbeingthekeydeterminantofhostilities.Indeed,theevidenceinthearchaeologicalrecordshowsthat
aggressiveactivitiesasmanifestedbyrealtrophyheadsandtheiconographicrepresentationofwarfareandheadtakingincreasedfollowingthedemiseofCahuachi.
Alternativelyand/orconcomitantly,wemaybedealingwithasituationofritualbattlesfoughtforthepurposeofachievingstatus,perhapsbyobtainingsacrificialvictims
(versusProulx1989).Inthepossibleritualbleedingpriortoorimmediatelyjustafterdeath,meticulouspreparation,andcarefuldepositionofNascatrophyheadswe
seeevidencestronglysuggestiveofanoffering/sacrificialfunction.KingcaptureandsacrificeamongtheClassicLowlandMayacitystates(e.g.,ScheleandMiller
1986)areexamplesofhowsuchactsofformalizedaggressioncouldhaveservedbothritualandpolitics(seealsoBoone1984Davies1977:9698Hassig1988:
128130,197,256)Demarest(1984:228)specificallyhighlightsthecriticalroleplayedbycaptivetakingandsacrificeforstatusenhancementandachievementof
politicalpower.Indeed,itcanbenotedthatonlyinthecontextofacomplexsocietywouldthepersonalgainsoftrophyheadtaking(asmanifested,forinstance,inthe
ceramicportraitsofrichlyattired,trophyheadbearingchiefs)beconsolidatedintoeffectivesocialpowerandpassedontothenextgeneration.
Ontheotherhand,SoniaGuilln(personalcommunication1991),aphysicalanthropologist,emphasizesthattheancientNascaswenttoextraordinaryeffortsto
conservetheskullstheytook.ShehasarguedforcefullytomethatthisbehavioriscompellingevidencethatNascatrophyheadswereanimportantelementofan
ancestorcult(andseeevidenceforaNascaancestorcultcitedinchap.13).Inpreparingthehead,anattemptwasmadetoconserveitsrecognizablephysiognomy
(eyesocketsandcheeksstuffedwithcotton,lipssealedwithspinessoasnottodeform,mandiblessewntogether).ThecutmarksCoelho(1972)andBaraybar
(1987)haveobservedmaybetheresultoftrophyheadpreparation

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toenablereplacementoftheskin(andthusmaintenanceofrecognizablefeatures)ratherthandefleshing.Shearguesthatbloodlettingandremovalofthebrainwere
necessarytomummifytheheadandthuspreserveit,puttinghertheoryinoppositiontoBaraybar'sinterpretation(1987)andtoothertheoriesthatpositdeliberate
manslaughtertoobtainheads.Ontheotherhand,NeiraAvedaoandCoelho(19721973:124)observethatoneoftheChaviatrophyheadswasdrenchedin
blood,asiffromtheprocessofdecapitation.ButincontrasttoNeiraAvedaoandCoelho'sobservation,wemayciteCarmichaelandKonigsberg's(seeCarmichael
1988:290291,349)determinationthattheheadoftheadultfemaleinKroeber'sGraveA14hadbeentornoffafterthebodyhadmummified.Clearly,Nascatrophy
headswereobtainedbyvariousmeans.
IncreasedinterestinheadtakingandheadconservationinlateNascatimes,asaresultofwarfareandaspartofanancestorcult,couldreflectaperceivedneedto
assertandaffirm,onthebasisofkinship,claimstoterritoryandresources(materialaswellassocialandideological)inanincreasinglycircumscribedsetting.Sucha
competitivelandscapecouldhavegeneratedthewarfare/ritualbattlesportrayedinlateNascaart.Furthermore,theinterpretationoftrophyheadsasancestorheads
returnsustoTello'sstatement,quotedatthebeginningofthischapter,thatinthetrophyheads"weredepositedthequalitiesofthebelovedperson."Assuch,Guilln's
theoryandtheothersofferedinthischaptermaynotbemutuallycontradictory.Weshouldnotseekorproposeasingle,simple,linealexplanationofthiscomplex
phenomenon(seeNeedham1976forasimilarcautionarynote).
Nascatrophyheadactivityappearstohavefulfilledvariousfunctions.Thedistinctioninthenatureandscaleofheadhuntingbetweentribalandcomplexsocieties
suggeststhatinNascasociety,trophyheadtakingactivitywascarriedoutinadifferentmanneralthoughitmayhaveplayed,inpart,arolesimilartotheoneitfulfilledin
simplersocieties.Ultimately,alltribalheadhuntingdocumentedintheethnographicliteratureseemstoberelatedtotheachievementofappropriatesocialstatus.Tribal
headhuntingwaspartoftheritualizedpassagefromadolescencetofulladulthoodandameansofachievingprestige.TheiconographyandarchaeologyofNasca
trophyheadtaking,althoughcorrespondingtoasocietymorecomplexlyintegratedthanthetriballevelindicatedintheethnographicliterature,suggestasimilarfunction:
increasedstatusandsocialpositionweregainedbysuccessfulheadhuntersor,followingGuilln,headconservators.Atthesametime,therealwarfareand/orritual
battlesthatproducedthesetrophyheadsmayhaveresolvedintergroupconflictaswellasbeingamanifestationofit.
Inconclusion,Nascatrophyheadtakingevincesastrongbreakfromtheethnographictribalsociopoliticalcontextofsuchpractice.Archaeologically,Nasca
headhuntingiscongruentwiththewarfare,ritualbattles,andsacrificialpracticesfoundinotherancientcomplexsocieties(andwelldocumentedintheAndes).Itmust
beremembered,however,thatNascatrophyheadactivitywasnotstaticoverthecenturies.DynamicsocialandpoliticalchangesinNascacultureoccurredovertime
andarereflectedinNasca'siconographyandinthesituationalcontextanddistributionofrealtrophyheads.Despitethesechanges,longtermsymbolicintegrityand
continuitywerepreserved.
Notes
1.OnthebasisofhisstudyofNascamortuaryremainscollectedand/orreportedbyFarabee,Kroeber,Strong,LothropandMahler,Rubini,andOrefici,Carmichael
(1988:183)estimatesthatapproximately5percentoftheNascapopulationendedupastrophyheadsorheadlessbodies(seeDavies1984forcomparativefigures
forhumansacrificeinMesoamericaandelsewhere).ThisfigureismirroredinNascaart.ThepotteryassociatedwithCarmichael'sgravesamplegivesatotal
representationoftrophyheadsof7percentoutofthirtyfivemajormotifcategoriescoveringNasca1through8.Carmichaeldoesnotprovidetheinformation
necessarytobreakdownthesenumbersbyphase.
2.AllofthedataonthetrophyheadsrecoveredbyKroeberduringhisfieldworkatCahuachicomefromKroeberandCollier(ms.).AlldataforStrong'strophy
headscomefromtheColumbiaUniversityproject'sfieldnoteswhichareonfileintheDepartmentofAnthropologyatColumbiaUniversity.Theinformationon
Doering'strophyheadscomesfromDoering(1958,1966).TwotrophyheadswererecoveredduringthecourseofourexcavationsatUnit19(seechap.12).
3.IprovidehereonlythebriefestofcommentsaboutthecacheoffortyeighttrophyheadsdiscoveredonCerroCarapointhePalpavalley.Thisisthesinglelargest
cacheofNascatrophyheadsthusfarknown.FulldetailsarebeingwrittenupforpublicationbyDavidBrowne,whodirectedtheexcavation,RubnGarca,who
assistedintheexcavation,physicalanthropologistJohnVerano,whoanalyzedtheheads,andmyself.

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TheCerroCaraposkullswerelaidintwoconcentricringsandhadbeendepositedinanovoidcistexcavatedintoanaturaldepositofsand,gravel,andboulders.
Carryingcordswereattachedtosomeoftheheadsthroughthecharacteristicholeinthefrontalbonethesuspensioncordswereheldinplacebysmallwooden
crossbars(justaswiththeFeature21trophyheadfromUnit19atCahuachi).Allofthetrophyheadsexhibitedthisperforationinthefrontalbone.Likewise,onall
skullstheforamenmagnumwasopenedtoremovethebrain.Therewasnosofttissue(flesh)ontheskulls,buttracesofhairandhairimpressionswerepresentin
theadherentsoilmatrix.Thisindicatesthathairandskinhadbeenpresentontheheadsatthetimetheywereburied.Onalloftheheadscutmarkswere
distributedwidelyovertheexternalsurfacesoftheskullvault,face,andmandible.Webelievethatthisisevidencethattheskinhadbeenlifted,scrapedcleanof
underlyingsofttissue,andreplacedovertheskull(similartotheFeature21and24trophyheadsfromUnit19atCahuachi).
Veranohasconcludedthattheheadsbelongtoadultmenbetweentheagesoftwentyandfortyfiveyearsexceptforoneindividualofundeterminedsexwhomhe
agestotwelvetofifteenyears.MostoftheCerroCaraposkullsexhibittypicallyNascaartificialcranialdeformation.Fewskullsshowevidenceofviolentinjuries
(but,ofcourse,wedonothavethepostcrania).Theskullsdonotshowanysunbleaching,sotheywerenotbeingkeptoutdoorsforextendedperiodsoftime.
Nordotheyshowsurfacepatinathatwouldresultfromfrequentmanipulation.Yettheskullswerekeptaroundforquitesometimebeforebeingdepositedsince
theteethshowspallingoftheenamel.Thisoccurredpostmortemastheresultoftheteethbangingtogetherorasaresultoftheskullsbeingmovedaround.
Thecachewascoveredbyadepositbetween0.18and0.33meterthickandconsistingofroundedbouldersgenerallyfisttoheadsizebutwithafewlarger
rocksupto0.6meterindiameter,containedinamatrixofverysandybrownsoilwithgravel.Partofthisdeposithadbeenremovedbylooters.Withinthedeposit
weretheremainsofasmallrodent,pottery,asmallfragmentofplaincloth,andllamadroppings.Thislayerisinterpretedasadeliberatedepositiontocoverthe
siteofthecacheoftrophyheadsinotherwords,itwasthefinalactintheritualassociatedwiththeirburial.Therefore,thelatestpotteryfoundinthiscontext
indicatestheterminuspostquemfortheirinterment.ThelatestpotterywerecoveredisadiagnosticNasca5sherd:thecachecannotbemorerecentthanthat
sherd.Wehopethatenoughorganicmaterialwaspresentinthecachetopermitradiocarbondating.Sterilesoilwasencounteredbeneaththecache.Excavation
wasnotextendedhorizontallyfromthecachebecauseourgoalonlywastoconductasalvageoperationforthepurposeofdocumentationbeforethelootingthat
revealedthecachedestroyedtheentirecontext.
4.InCarmichael's(1988:314)sample,headjarswerepresentinsixteengravesofwhichonlytwocontainedheadlessbodies.Itshouldbenotedthatheadjarsoccur
inothernonmortuarycontextsaswell.Forinstance,inchapter12,IcitedMiguelPazos'sdiscoveryofaheadjarinthefillinPassageway1onUnit19.
5.Although"ritualheads"isthemorecorrectterm,Ithinkitwillcausegreatconfusionifwedroptheterm"trophyhead"fromtheliterature.Therefore,Iwillcontinue
torefertotheseheadsastrophyheads.
6.ComparethistotheMochesceneillustratedbyBenson(1972:frontispiece),wherethedisplayofpolemountedtrophyheadsoccursinthecontextofamusical
procession.
7.Insomecases,thebellicoseencountersappearallegorical,aswhenNascawarriorsareshownfightingambiguous"others"(seeCarmichael1988:illus.19),naked
"savages"whodonotcorrespondtothesurroundingsociopoliticalmilieuofthetimessincelateNascasocietywasinteractingwiththegreatMoche,Lima,and
HuarpaWaripolities(orperhapsthisiconographicrepresentationwasadeliberatestereotypingoftheenemy).
8.Cannon(1979)hascogentlydemonstratedtheselffulfillingprophesynatureoftherelationshipbetweensociallyimputeddeathandrealphysicaldeath(seealso
Eastwell1985).

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ChapterSixteen
NascaPotteryatCahuachi
ThischapterisanaccountingoftheceramicmaterialsfoundinmyexcavationsatCahuachiandhowthisceramicsamplecompareswithotherreportedNasca
collectionswithprovenience.ThisdescriptionandcomparisonarenecessarytohelpusinterpretthefunctionofCahuachi.
Eachanalystchoosesthosetraitsrelevanttotheinvestigationathand.Forthepurposeofanalysishere,therecoveredpotteryhasbeenclassifiedintotwomajor
groups:fineware(decoratedpottery)andplainware(utility/utilitarianorundecoratedpottery).Withinthesetwogrosscategoriesofceramicremains,potterymaybe
eitherdiagnosticorundiagnostic.Diagnosticmaterialincludesplainwarerims,plainwarehandles,panpipes,decoratedbodysherds,decoratedbases,anddecorated
rims.Eliminatedfromanalysisareundiagnosticsherdssuchasundecoratedbodysherdsandbases,erodedsherds,andsherdletstoosmalltoorientorphase.All
sherdshave,however,beencountedandcategorized,evenifonlyasundiagnostic.Atotalof7,092sherdswererecoveredfromexcavationsatCahuachi.
Iamconcernedwithvesselshape,painteddesign(thecolorkeyforthesherddrawingsinthischapterisfoundinfig.13.6),relativedateaccordingtotheBerkeley
relativechronology(seechap.3),andthecontextofthepottery.ItisimportanttopointoutthatIdidnotundertakeanewseriationoftheNascastyle.HadCahuachi
turnedouttobeahabitationsitewithpristinemiddens,thismighthavebeenpossible.But,ashasbeendemonstratedinprecedingchapters,suchwasnotthecase.I
alsodidnotcreateanewshapeclassificationbutworkedlargelywithinestablishedmorphologicalschemessubjecttothequalificationsandamendationsnotedbelow.
ThiswasdoneforexpediencysinceIwasdealingwithsherdmaterial,notwholepots.Nevertheless,significantobservationsonvesselshapeandshapedistribution
havebeenmade.
InthisbookIamnotconcernedwithdecipheringNascaiconography,aboutwhichasmallbodyofliteratureexists(seechap.3).Iam,however,interestedinissues
suchashowmuchmythicallydecoratedpotteryoccursatCahuachiincomparisontopotterydecoratedwithnaturalisticandgeometricmotifsandifapatterncanbe
discernedintheoccurrenceofkindsofdecoratedpottery.
IalsodonotdealwithNascaceramictechnologywhichisbeginningtobestudied(e.g.,Proulx1968BlascoBosquedandRamosGmez1980Carmichael
1986)beyondthemostbasicobservations.ThecomparativelocalandregionalstudyofNascaceramictechnology,includingidentificationofmanufacturingsites,
determinationofpastetypes,andtechnicalanalysesofware,temper,andslip,arecrucialprojectsforthefutureatCahuachiandNascahabitationsites.Suchanalyses
willanswermanyquestionsabouttheorganizationofNascaceramicproductionand,inturn,Nascasocial,economic,andpoliticalorganization.Thatisanecessary
butseparatefieldofinquirytowhichmy19841985researchwasnotdirected.
Throughoutthischapterthefollowingnomenclaturalconventionswillbeused.CeramicremainswillbedatedaccordingtotheBerkeleysequencewheneverpossible.

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Nasca1potteryisunambiguousandeasilyrecognizable,evenonthebasisofsmallsherds,andwillalwaysbeidentifiedassuch(seeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson
1964:251256Strong1957:2124,figs.7,9,10).WhenIusetheterm"Nasca2"Iamreferring,unlessotherwisenoted,tothattypeofpotterycalled"Cahuachi
Polychrome"byStrong(1957:2526,fig.11seealsoSilverman1977).Proulx's(1968)descriptionofNasca3and4potterystandsasthebasisofthosephase
identifications.Wherethereareinsufficientdiagnosticfeaturesonasherdtopermitdiscriminationof,say,Nasca2fromNasca3orNasca3fromNasca4,the
expression"earlyNasca"willbeused.VerylittlementionofNasca5ismadeinthischapterbecausesolittleofitwasrecoveredinexcavations.OnepossibleNasca6
sherdwasfoundonthesurfaceoftheUnitFexcavation(seechap.10)andanotherNasca6sherdwasfoundinlevel2ofTestPit2(seechap.11).OneNasca7
sherdwasrecoveredfromthedirtfillingRoom3ontopofUnit19,andanotherpossibleonewasasurfacefindinExcavation17(seechap.12).Partofthelarge
Nasca8corpusfromtheRoomofthePostsonUnit19isillustratedinchapter13theremainderwillbepublishedseparatelysinceNasca8isbeyondthemainscope
ofthisbook.
FinewareandPlainwareatCahuachi
Undiagnosticplainwaresherdsgreatlyoutnumberdecoratedsherds(tables16.1,16.3).Butwhenrimsherdsarecountedintermsofminimumnumberofindividuals
(MNI),aradicallydifferentimageemerges(seetables16.2,16.4).Forinstance,inlevel1ofTestPit3,eightyplainwaresherdswererecovered,buttheycorrespond
toonlytwovessels.TheimpressionofmostvisitorstoCahuachithatthereisanenormousamountofdecoratedpotteryonthesurfaceiscorrectevenafterall
theseyearsofrandombutpervasivecollectingbyarchaeologists,schoolchildren,tourists,andlocalpeople.Tables16.1and16.2usethesurfacematerialofCahuachi
bywayofexample.Thatthesurfaceisavalidindicationofsubsurfacereality(RedmanandWatson1970)isindicatedbycomparingtables16.1and16.2totables
16.3and16.4whichsummarizethesubsurfaceceramicremainsfromthesameexcavations.While5,502sherdsoralmost80percentoftheceramiccollectionsare
plainwareand1,590sherdsor20percentofthetotalceramiccollectionarefineware,infact,theproportionofplainwaretofinewareatCahuachiisthereverse,witha
proportionofabout70percentfinewareto30percentplainware.
Table16.1.ComparisonofPlainwaretoFinewareBasedonSurfaceLevel
ofEachExcavationExhibitingNascaPottery
PlainwareSherds

FinewareSherds

TotalSherds

1970

591

2,561

77%

23%

100%

Table16.2.ComparisonofPlainwaretoFineware.RimSherds(MNI)Only
BasedonSurfaceLevelofEachExcavationExhibitingNascaPottery
PlainwareSherds

FinewareSherds

TotalRims

68

183

251

27%

73%

100%

Table16.3.SubsurfaceSherdCountComparingPlainwaretoFineware
PlainwareSherds

FinewareSherds

TotalSherds

3,532

999

4,531

78%

22%

100%

Table16.4.ComparisonofPlainwareRimstoFinewareRimsfromthe
SubsurfaceStrata(MNIOnly)
PlainwareRims

FinewareRims

TotalRims

140

339

479

29%

71%

100%

NascaVesselFormsRepresentedatCahuachi
SeveralschemesofNascavesselformshavebeenproposed.Theserangefromphasespecific(e.g.,Proulx1968forNasca3and4andRoark1965for5and6)to
phaseinclusive(GaytonandKroeber1927BlascoBosquedandRamosGmez1980).Thetypologiesvaryinthedegreeoflumpingorsplittingexhibited.
GaytonandKroeber(1927:fig.2)segregatedtheNascastylepotteryUhlecollectedinNazcaintotwentyfive"shapeclasses"plusafinalclasscalled"miscellaneous."
In1956,Kroeberreassessedhisearlierscheme

Page229

andconcludedthat,whilerigid,itneverthelessheldgenerally.ThebasicproblemwithKroeber'sfinevesseldistinctionsisthatsomeofthemturnouttohave
chronologicalsignificanceratherthanbeingsynchronicvariationsonamorphologicaltheme.Wenowknow,forinstance,thatthesquatbulbousvasesofNasca4
becametallerandnarrowerovertimetobecomethelongcylindricalvasesofNasca7.OtherdistinctionsmadebyKroeberaresimplyoverlyfinediscriminations,asin
thecaseofhisshapesFandH(seeRoark1965:6).
Proulx(1968)recognizedthechronologicalbiasinsomeofKroeber'sshapecategories,andhecollapsedseveralofthemwhileaddingothers.Proulx(1968:11)
specificallystatesthathedevisedhisclassificationofshapestorepresent"alltheshapespresentduringPhases3and4exceptforuniquemiscellaneouspieces,"andhe
notesthatsomeofhisvesselcategories"differfromGaytonandKroeber'sschemebothinterminologyandorganization."Bywayofexample,Proulxdistinguishes
interiorpainteddishesfromexteriorpaintedflaringbowlswhereasKroeberoriginallyrecognizedaseriesofbowls.Also,Proulx'scollaredjarcategoryencompasses
bothKroeber'swidemouthed(R)andnarrowmouthed(S)jars.WhereKroeberdistinguishedroundbottomed(A)bowls,pointbottomed(B)bowls,andconical
(C)bowls,Proulxlumpstheseasroundbottomedandconicalbottomedbowls.
Roark's(1965)shapeclassificationcorrespondsinparttothoseshapecategoriesdescribedbyGaytonandKroeber(1927Kroeber1956),andheindicatesthe
existenceandlackofcorrespondenceaswellasoverlapinacomparativetable(Roark1965:5).
BlascoBosquedandRamosGmez(1980:241)havestatedthatbecauseNascapotteryishandmade,therearevirtuallyasmanyformvariantsaspots,witheach
vesselconstitutingasubtype.Uniqueorrarevesselswouldrequireaspecialcategory.Thisleadsthemtosuggestarelativelysimpletypologyofdishes,bowls,vases,
jars,bottles,mixedforms,andmodeledvessels.Iaminclinedtogoalongwiththislineofreasoningand,inthischapter,useashapetypologythatfallsbetweenBlasco
BosquedandRamosGmez's(1980)simplifiedtypologyandProulx's(1968)veryfinediscriminations.Myschemeisbettersuitedtotheproblemsofworkingwith
sherdmaterialthanProulx'swhichcreatesfinediscriminationsbasedonpreservedwallheight,basalangles,orshapeofbase.Theseareattributesthatarefrequently
absentonsmall,brokenpiecesofpottery.LikeBlascoBosquedandRamosGmez'stypology,minealsoimplies,Ihopecorrectly,thatNascapottersdidnotmake
allofthefineshapedistinctionsthatweattributetothem(e.g.,compareProulx'sPhase4flaringbowlWandPhase4cupbowlL).Mytypologydoesnotinclude
someoftheshapecategoriesdefinedbyRoark(1965)forNasca5and6potteryrather,itisapplicabletotheearlierNascaphasesfoundatCahuachi.Furthermore,
itcreatesanewvesselcategory,musicalinstruments,toaccountfortheabundantpanpiperemainsatCahuachi.
Allofthevariousshapeclassificationschemes,includingmyown,aretypologies.FutureresearchontheNascastyleshouldindependentlyestablishtheseshape
categoriesfollowingLathrap's(1962:236)guidelines:"Inthecourseoftheanalysisofeachceramiccomplex,aseriesofmodeclusterscametolightinvolvingmodes
ofvesselbodyform,ofrimmodifications,ofliptreatment,and...ofmodesofvariousdimensionsofdecoration.Theseclustersrevealedcategoriesoftotalvessel
form....Thereisconsiderableethnographicevidencethatsuchcategoriesofvesselformhaveaconsiderableculturalreality.Wherestudiesareavailable,itisusually
theseformswhicharefoundtobeindividuallynamed.Basically,suchformcategoriesseemtorepresentgroupsofvesselsspecializedforparticularfunctions."The
schemethatfollowsreflectssuchfunctionallyspecializedandrecognizablynameableshapes:doublespoutandbridgebottles,bowls,cupbowls,dishes,vases(also
encompassesstraightsidedjars),collaredjars,basketvessels,modeledvessels(includingeffigiesandheadjars),compositeforms(e.g.,BensonandConklin1981:
72BancodeCrdito1986:160bottomleft),musicalinstruments,undecoratedand/orutilitarianvessels(tobesubdividedonthebasisofsurveycollectionsfrom
habitationsites).
Buteventhisschemedoesnotpermitassignationofallsherds.Forinstance,becauseacollaredjarhasaroundbodiedclosedshape,assherdmaterialithasthe
potentialtobeconfusedwithabodysherdfromadoublespoutandbridgebottle.Likewise,ashortrimfragmentwillnotpermitdiscriminationbetweenlowwalled
andhighsidedbowls,andasmallvasesherdcouldbeconfusedwithacupbowl.Nevertheless,thiscategorizationisusefulasthebasisforafirstapproximationofthe
rangeofpotteryvesselsfoundatCahuachi.Inparticular,theseproportionswillbecomparablewithceramicinventoriesfromotherNascasiteswhensuchdata
becomeavailable.
FinewareatCahuachi
DoubleSpoutandBridgeBottles
ThedoublespoutandbridgebottleisthehallmarkoftheNascastyleandhasalonghistoryonthesouthcoast

Page230
Table16.5.DistributionofDoubleSpoutandBridgeBottlesatCahuachi
Context

Number

Phase

Sherds

Unit19,Room1,surface

notdeterminable

Unit19,Room4,surface

notdeterminable

Unit19,Excavation13,stratum3

2(?)

notdeterminable

Unit19,Excavation12,stratum10

Unit19,Excavation11,stratum9

notdeterminable

Unit19,Excavation7,stratum1

notdeterminable

Silverman,Burial8,Unit19

3(early)

Silverman,Burial4,Unit19

Kroeber,Grave10,UnitA

3B

Kroeber,Grave12,UnitA

3B

WholeVessels

thatcanultimatelybetracedbacktoHacha,Erizo,andDiscoVerde.Yetitisbynomeansthemostcommonform.Carmichael's(1988:table6)Nasca1sample
includednodoublespoutandbridgebottles,nordidwefindanyofthatphaseatCahuachi.Doublespoutandbridgebottlescomprisedlessthan6percentof
Carmichael's(1988:table6)Nasca2finewareceramicinventory.ForNasca3and4,Proulx(1968:appendix2)reportsthatthisshapeneverconstitutedmorethan
15percentoftheseventeenvesseltypesfoundinburials,andtheaverageiscloserto7to10percent.InCarmichael's(1988:table6)Nasca3sample,doublespout
andbridgebottlesencompassedonlyslightlymorethan2percentofthefinewarecorpusandinNasca4lessthan9percent.Nevertheless,oftheeightyNasca3
through4gravelotsstudiedbyProulx(1968),twentyfivegravesor31percentcontainedthisvesselform.Inotherwords,whilenoteveryonehadaccesstothem,
fullyonethirdoftheNascapopulationdid.InCarmichael's(1988:table8)sample,malesandfemaleshadequalaccesstodoublespoutandbridgebottles,butonly
14percentoftheNasca2through7burialshestudiedcontainedthisvesseltype.Proulx(1968:93)notesadecreaseinthepercentageofthesevesselsfromNasca3
to4thisisconfirmedinCarmichael's(1988:table6)dataaswell.ForNasca5and6thatpercentagedecreasesevenmore(Roark1965:7Carmichael1988:table
6).CarmichaelreportsasingleNasca7doublespoutandbridgebottleoutofatotalofthirtyonefinewarevesselsintheseventeenNasca7burialshestudied.The
shapeisnolongermadeinNasca8(seeSilverman1988b).
Proulx(1968:13)describesthedoublespoutandbridgebottleasthemostprestigiousvesselformbecausethereisnevermorethanoneinagraveandbecausethese
bottlesaredecoratedmainlywithmythicalthemes(Proulx1968:pls.1,2,3a,4b,5,6,7b,9b,10,11b).Doublespoutandbridgebottlesalsoarecommonly
decoratedwithnaturalisticmotifs,suchasbirds(Proulx1968:pls.13b,18),andgeometricandabstractdesigns(Parsons1962:149topProulx1968:pl.26b).
Presenceofthedoublespoutandbridgebottleinagravelotdoesnotnecessarilycorrelatewithalargenumberofburialgoodsoverall.Someverysmallgravelots
containedthisvesseltype.Forinstance,Uhle'sGravelotF6fromIcahadtwoNasca3Cvessels,oneofwhichisadoublespoutandbridgebottledecoratedwitha
forestbirdandtheotheranopenbowldecoratedwithfruit(Proulx1970:pl.19).InthefourKroebergravesfromCahuachiwiththelargestnumberofvessels
(thirteen,fourteen,fourteen,andfifteenvessels),eachhadonedoublespoutandbridgebottle.Otherindividualsburiedwithmanypots(e.g.,ninepots)didnot
necessarilyhavethisvesselform(seeProulx1968:appendix3)althoughotherobjectsofvaluemightbeincluded(e.g.,goldornaments:seeProulx1970onUhle's
GraveB3atOcucaje).
Table16.5presentsthespatialandtemporaldistributionofdoublespoutandbridgebottlesatCahuachiinsofarasthiscouldbedetermined.Phaseanddesigncanbe
reconstructedforonlythreedoublespoutandbridgebottlesrecoveredbymyproject.TwoarecompletevesselsfromburialsatopUnit19.Burial8containedan
earlyNasca3forestbirddoublespoutandbridgebottle(fig.16.1).Burial4isassociatedwitha

Page231

16.1.
DoublespoutandbridgebottlefromBurial8onUnit19.
Decoratedwithaforestbird.Nasca3.

16.2.
DoublespoutandbridgebottleassociatedwithBurial4on
Unit19.Decoratedwithakillerwhale.Nasca3.

Nasca3killerwhaledoublespoutandbridgebottle(fig.16.2).TheotherisaphaseablesherdfromaNasca2doublespoutandbridgebottledecoratedwith
alternatingdarkgrayandwhiteverticalstripes(fig.16.3),similartotheNasca2stripedvesselsillustratedbyParsons(1962:149top).
Nasca1BlackwareBowls
Menzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:252)notetheexistenceoffine,smoked,blackpotteryinNasca1whichischaracterizedbyevensurfacefinish,slipping,anda
fineglossthispotterydisappearsrapidlyafterNasca1.Thesevesselsaretypicallygambreledbowlsalthoughroundincurvingforms,outflaringforms,anddouble
spoutandbridgebottlesareknown(Strong1957:21).Someoftheblackwarebowlshavepatternburnisheddesignsontheinterior.Othershaveinciseddesignson
theexterioror,morerarely,ontheinterior.Menzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:252)callthesekindsofbowls"fineplainware,"butIhavechosentodiscussthem
underthecategoryoffinewarebecausetheyaresoveryrarelyfoundatthemanyNasca1habitationsiteslocatedonsurveyandbecausetheyhavequalitiesof
nonordinarypottery.
StrongfoundtwokindsofNasca1blackwarebowlsinsignificantquantitiesatCahuachi,CahuachiPolishedBlackIncised(Strong1957:24,fig.9AF)andCahuachi
StylusDecorated(Strong1957:figs.7AC,9GI)theyshareseveralforms(Strong1957:22).Myprojectrecoveredseveralsherdsofbothtypes.Thesetypeswill
nowbediscussedwiththeaidofadetailed,anonymousmanuscriptinthefilesofthe19521953ColumbiaUniversityExpeditiontothesouthcoastofPeru.
CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowls
ThreeCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedbowlrimswererecoveredinourexcavations(fig.16.4).ThelargersampleofCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedsherds
collectedbytheColumbiaUniversityprojectenabledthosearchaeologiststosubdividetheCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedtypeintothreebowlshapecategorieson
thebasisofwallheight,wallorientation,andbasalangle(fig.16.5).Inaddition,themanuscriptspeaksoftwosherdsfrommediumsizedCahuachiPolishedBlack
Incisedjarswithconstrictedori

Page232

16.3.
SherdfromaNasca2doublespoutandbridgebottle.Note
constructiondetailvisibleoninterior.Excavation12,
Stratum10.

16.4.
SherdsfromCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedbowls.
AllfromExcavation11,Stratum7.

16.5.
SherdsfromCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedbowlsintheStrong
collectionsatColumbiaUniversity.ac:Bowl1.dj:Bowl2.
k,1:Bowl3.

ficesandroundedincurvingsidesandthreeCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedsherdsfromdoublespoutandbridgebottlesthatcamefromCut5(seechap.4a
completeoneisintheMuseoRegionaldeIca).
CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowl1(fig.16.5ac)isamediumsizedlowbowlwithshortverticalsides,angularshoulders,andconvexroundedbase.Thisisthe
mostcommonCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedformrepresented.Strongrecovered140sherdsofthisshapeatCahuachithisismorethantwicethenumberofthe
secondmostcommonCahuachiPolishedBlack.Incisedform,whichisBowl2.Therimsarethinned.Angularandroundedlipsarecharacteristicflattenedlipsare
present.Occasionally,therimsareslightlyeverted.Inthatcase,thereusuallyisasmallridgearoundtheoutsideofthelip.Thelipaverages1.5millimetersinthickness.
Thevesselwallsaverage4millimetersinthicknessand2.8centimetersinheight(rangeis2.03.6centimeters).Theoutersurfacesofthesidesareslightlyconvexeven
thoughtheycanappeartobestraight.Asharpangleseparatesthesidesfromthebase.Themouthdiameterofthesebowlsrangesfrom11to24centimeters

Page233

withanaverageof18centimeters.ThisformisvirtuallyidenticaltoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl1andbearsmarkedsimilaritytoacontemporaryEarly
IntermediatePeriod1ChongosvesselformillustratedbyPeters(19871988:fig.6topleft).
CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowl2(fig.16.5dj)isamediumsizedbowlwithflaring,concavesidesandangularshouldersthebaseisprobablyconvex
rounded.Strong'sprojectrecoveredsixtyoneexamples.Vesselwallsaverage4millimetersinthicknessand3.3to5.5centimetersinheight,withanaverageof4.4
centimeters.Mouthdiameterrangesfrom11to18centimeters,withanaverageof16centimeters.Therimisthinned.Lipscanbeangular,rounded,orflattenedthey
average1.5millimetersinthickness.Thelipstendtobeeverted,sometimescausingasmallbutdefiniteridge.Sometrueevertedrimsarealsopresent.Theanonymous
authorbelievedtheevertedrimtypetobesomewhatlaterthantheplaintypes.ThisvesselformlooksvirtuallyidenticaltoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl2andto
twoofWallace's(1986:fig.3b,c)Chongosbowls.
CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowl3(fig.16.5k,l)isamediumsizedbowlwithcontinuouslyroundedsidesandbottomtheshapelackstheangularshouldersof
CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowls1and2.Strong'sprojectrecoveredonlythreesherdsofthistype.Therearethinnedrimswithangularlipsandthickenedrims
withflattenedlips.Intheformertype,lipthicknessis1.5millimetersandbodywallthicknessis4millimeters.Inthelattertype,lipthicknessis4.5millimetersandbody
wallthicknessis3millimeters.Mouthdiameterforeachtypeisabout20centimeters.ThisvesselformappearsrelatedtoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl4.
ThetechnologyofCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedbowlsconformstoMenzel,Rowe,andDawson's(1964:252)andthemanuscript'sdescriptions.Itisafine
grainedwarewithaneven,compactpaste.Itstensilestrengthisexcellent,and,likemostNascafineware,itbreakswithanevenfracture.LiketheotherNasca1
blackware,thisblackwarewassmudged(firedinareducingatmosphere).TheinteriorandexteriorsurfacesofCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedbowlsareanevenly
colored,deep,lustrousblackthesurfacescanbepolishedtoalustrousgloss.Occasionally,partsofthesurfacewereleftmattetocreateacontrastingdesign(see
Strong1957:fig.9BEseebelow).Thepasteisametallicgray.
Themanuscriptnotesthatsherdsofthirtyfive"twotonedvessels,i.e.,oneswithblackinteriorsandlightercoloredexteriorsurfaces"wererecovered.This
technologicalfeaturemustderivefromOcucaje10blackinteriorbowlswhich,inturn,relatetothemasterfulcontroloverfiringachievedbytheTopartradition
pottersoftheCaeteChincharegion(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:212213,259).Thepastecolorsinthesevesselsrangefromsteelgrayorgrayblacknear
theinnersurfacetotangrayneartheoutersurface.Themanuscriptconcludesthatsuchvesselswerefiredinaninvertedposition.Furtherproofofthisconclusion,says
theanonymousauthor,isthefactthattheexteriorsofthesetwotonedbowlsareblackonlyneartherimthewidthoftheblackrimbandwasdeterminedbythedepth
towhichtheinvertedvesselwascoveredduringfiring.
Thefinelinedinciseddesignsthatcharacterizethistypeofpotteryweremadewhenthevesselwasinaleatherhardstate,priortofiring.Thedesignswereincisedwith
afinepointedinstrument.Strong(1957:24,fig.9A)notesthatthemostcommondesignis"aseriesofsingleevenlyspacedverticallinesplacedaroundthesidesofthe
vessel."Theanonymousauthorindicatesthat,onaverage,thesesingleverticallinesarespaced3.4centimetersapart.Thelinesusuallyareincisedtowithin5
millimetersoftherim,althoughoccasionallytheyrunupcloser.Usually,nootherdecorationispresentonvesselswithsingleverticallineincision.Strong'sproject,
however,recoveredfivesherdswithanencirclingorborderinghorizontallineabovetheverticallines.Onesherdhadanappliquedribattheshoulder,justbelowthe
beginningoftheverticallines.
Otherdesignswereachievedbycontrastingpolishedandunpolishedareassoastocreatediamonds,stepfrets,triangles,circleswithcheckerboards,andtrianglesand
circleanddotdesignsarrangedinabandaroundthesides(seeStrong1957:fig.9BE).Asinglelineoradoubleincisedlineusuallybordersthedesignbandalongits
upperedges.Occasionallythereareborderinglinesalongtheloweredges.Inadditiontothesegeometricdesigns,Strong'sprojectrecoveredfourteensherdswith
naturalisticdesigns.Twodefiniteandfourpossiblekillerwhaleimageswereidentified.Oneofmyproject'sexampleshasakindofamphisbaenagoinghorizontally
aroundthevessel(fig.16.4a).Geometricdesignsaremuchmorecommon(Strong1957:24).
Inaddition,onsurveyintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys,IhaverecoveredsherdsofNasca1polishedblackwarebowlswhoseexteriorsdonotappeartohave
beenincised.
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowls
CahuachiStylusDecoratedbowlsaremoderatelytemperedwithfinegrained

Page234

16.6.
SherdsfromCahuachiStylusDecoratedbowlsinthe
StrongcollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.a:Bowl
1.b:Bowl2.c:Bowl3.d,e:Bowl4.f:Bowl5.

sand.Theyhaveaneven,smoothtexture.Smoothinteriorsurfaceswerenecessarytoprovideanadequatesurfaceforpatternburnishing.Tensilestrengthisexcellent,
andthisceramictypebreakswithanevenfracture.Halfofthesampleofthisvesseltypehasauniformpasterangingincolorfromsteelgraytograyblack.These
vesselswerefiredinareducingatmosphere.Allblackvesselswerepolishedtoahighluster.SomewhatlessthanhalfofStrong'ssamplehasvariablepastecolors
rangingfromgrayneartheinnersurfacetoredneartheoutersurface.Thesevesselswerefiredinaninvertedposition.AswiththeCahuachiPolishedBlackIncised
bowls,thesetwotonedvesselshaveablackbandaroundtheexteriorrim.Alittleover5percentoftheCahuachiStylusDecoratedbowlshaveredorredbrown
pastecolors.Thesevesselswereprobablyfiredinanoxidizingatmosphere.Thetwotonedandallredexamplesareusuallyonlymoderatelywellpolished,and
sometimestheywereleftdull.
TheanonymousauthorrecognizedfiveCahuachiStylusDecoratedbowltypes(fig.16.6)basedonshape.CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl1(fig.16.6a)isa
mediumsizedopenbowlwithshortverticalsides,angularshoulders,andaconvexroundedbase.Themanscriptnotesthatonlyonesherdofthisshapetypewas
recoveredatCahuachialthoughatleastsevenothersweresuspected.TherimontheonedefiniteCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl1formisthinned.Thelipis2
millimetersthick.Thewallsare4millimetersthickand2.2centimetershigh.Themouthdiameteris16centimeters.CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl1appearsrelated
toourplainwareNasca1Bowl5form(seebelow).ItisalsosimilartoCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowls1and3(fig.16.5)andtoaChongosvesselillustrated
byPeters(19871988:fig.6topleft)which,inturn,appearsrelatedtoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl4(seebelow).
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl2(fig.16.6b)isamediumsizedbowlwithflaring,concavesides,angularbases,andaconvexroundedbase.Itiscloselyrelatedto
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl1.Therimisthinnedandroundedwithanevertedlip.Sometimesthereisaslightridgearoundtheouteredgeofthelip.Thelips
average2millimetersinthickness.Vesselwallsare4millimetersthickandvarybetween3.2and4.4centimetershigh.Thisvesselformrangesfrom15.5to19.5
centimetersinmouthdiameter,withaheightofapproximately6.5centimeters.ThesevesselsarecloselyrelatedtoCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowl2(fig.
16.5dj)andtotwoofWallace's(1986:fig.3b,c)Chongosbowls.
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl3(fig.16.6c)isamediumsized,continuouslyrounded,openformwithathinroundedrim.Averagewallwidthis4millimeters.The
lipaverages2millimetersinthickness.Mouthdiameterontheonemeasurablespecimenwas18centimeters,withavesseldepthofapproximately5.5centimeters.It
looksquitesimilartoPeters's(19871988:fig.4)Chongosfinecurvingbowls.
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl4(fig.16.6d,e)isaverydistinctmediumsizedopenform.Itswallsareshortandcurvein.Althoughthesevesselslackabasalangle,
theyexhibitamarkeddiagonalorientationwithregardtothecurvatureoftherimperse.Thisvesselformvarieswidelyinmouthdiameter,rangingfrom14to24
centimeters.Thegreatestbodydiameterisattheshoulderandisapproximately2centimetersgreaterthanthemouthdiameter.TheformappearsrelatedtoCahuachi
StylusDecoratedBowl1,CahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowls1and3,andtooneofPeters's(19871988:fig.6topleft)Chongosbowls.
CahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl5(fig.16.6f)iscloselyrelatedtoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl3butismuchmoreopen,almostbecomingaplate.Thereis

Page235

onlyoneexampleofthisforminStrong'sCahuachicollections.Thismediumsizedvesselhasamouthdiameterof21centimeters,aheightof5to6centimeters,and
bodywallsthatare4millimetersinthickness.ItlooksquitesimilartothefineChongosplatesillustratedbyPeters(19871988:fig.4).
ThedesignsontheCahuachiStylusDecoratedvessels(seefigs.16.716.10)weremadewithabluntpointedtool(henceStrong'sterm"stylusdecorated")thatwas
pressedandrubbedagainstthesurfaceofthevesselwhenitwasintheleatherhardstatebeforefiring.Thepatternburnisheddesignsstandoutaslustrousonthe
mattesurfacebackground(seeStrong1957:fig.9GI).ThedesignscanappearhighlyspecularandarereminiscentoftheiridescentpaintcharacterizingEngoroy
pottery(900100B.C.)ofsouthcoastalEcuador(seePaulsen1977).DetailedmicroscopicexaminationoftheCahuachiStylusDecoratedaswellasCahuachi
PolishedBlackIncisedmaterialsbyceramicistRobertSonin(whoparticipatedinStrong'sCahuachiproject)andAllisonPaulsen,however,indicatesthatthespecular
effectonCahuachipotterywascreatedsolelybytheprocessofpatternburnishing."Patternburnishinghadcompressedtogetherlaterallythesharpedgesofrille
shapedsurfacedepressions,withouthavingdepositedanymaterialwithinthesedepressions.Underhighmagnification,theburnishingmarkscouldbeseentobe
channelshapedincrosssectionwhilethesupposedareasofiridescentpaintreversedfromshinytodullblackasthespecimenwasturnedunderthelight"(Paulsen
andSoninms.).
Thedesignsareprimarilygeometric(figs.16.716.9).Forthemostparttheyarelineal.Thereisalsosomesolidareapolishing.Themostcommongeometricdesigns
arestraightandzigzaglines,curledrays,spirals,dotsandcircles,grids,harlequins,arcsandsemicircles,andSshapedfigures.Inaddition,naturalisticdesignsare
presentmostoftheseportrayfish(fig.16.10).
Thestylusdesignsweremadewithnarrowlinesmeasuring1millimeterorlessinwidthalthough,insomeinstances,linesabout2millimeterswideareobserved.The
manuscriptnotesthatmostexamplesofwiderstyluslinescomefromvesselswithatwotonedsurfacefinishtheanonymousauthorbelievesthatthesevesselshave"a
somewhatearlydistribution."
Usually,thedesignsarelimitedtotheinnersurfacesofthevessels.Inthemostcharacteristiclayout,thedesignsarefoundontheinteriorbottoms(seeStrong1957:fig.
7AC).Theinteriorsidesarehighlypolished,andthispolishformsaframeforthedesigns.Veryoccasionally,theinteriorsidesaredecorated.Afewexamplesof
exteriorstylusdecorationandinteriorandexteriorstylusdecorationwererecordedbyStrong'steam.
ThemanuscriptspeaksofauniqueNasca1stylusdecoratedbowlintheTruelCollectionfromIca.Theinteriorbaseofthisvesselisdecoratedwithtypicalpattern
burnisheddesigns,butthereisalsoarowofpunctatecirclesanddotsaroundtheinside,justbelowtherim.Therowiswithinthepolishedinteriorrimbandandwas
nearlyobliteratedbythepolishingtracks.Theanonymousauthorsuggeststhatthepotterhadstartedtomakeonetypeofvesseldecorationandthenchangedto
another.ThisisareasonableconclusionandisveryinterestingbecauseMenzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:fig.54b)illustrateanOcucaje9patternburnishedbowl
withpunctatecirclesanddotsalongtheupperrimbetweentwopatternburnishedbands.TheOcucaje9vesselisverycloseinshapetotheCahuachiStylus
DecoratedBowl5formandalsotoaseriesoffineChongosplatesillustratedbyPeters(19871988:fig.4).IsuggestthatpatternburnishingatCahuachiandin
NazcainNasca1timeswasderivedfromtheEarlyHorizonParacaspotteryofIcawhich,inturn,wasstronglyinfluencedbyTopar(seeMenzel,Rowe,and
Dawson1964:259).
Nasca1NegativeDecoratedBowls
NegativedecoratedbowlsareoneofDawson'sdiagnosticNasca1markers(seefig.3.2).Myprojectdidnotrecoveranysherdsfromthisvesseltype.However,
Strong(1957:fig.6FJ)illustratesseveralexamplesfromhisexcavationsatCahuachi.ThesebowlsderivedirectlyfromOcucajephase10shape5band5cnegative
decoratedbowls(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:254).MyprojectalsodidnotrecoveranyNasca1"falsenegative"bowlssuchasthoseillustratedbyStrong
(1957:fig.8A,C,D)thesebowlscanbeproperlyconsidered"fineplainware."
EarlyNascaBowls
EarlyNascabowlsbearawidevarietyofpolychromeslippainteddesigns(e.g.,Proulx1968:pls.12a,14,19,21a,22,27).Proulx(1968:appendix2)found"flaring
bowls"tobethemostcommonvesselshapeinNasca3and4(seeProulx1968foradescriptionoftheshapeandassociateddesigns).Thisconclusionisborneout
evenmorestronglyintheCahuachiceramicassemblage,wheresherdsfrom251flaringbowlswererecoveredinexcavations.MostofthesebowlsdatetoNasca2
and3aboutthirtydatetoNasca4.Inadditiontothesherdmaterial,wholeNasca3bowlswererecoveredinBurials5

Page236

16.7.
CahuachiStylusDecorateddesignsrecordedfrommaterialintheStrongcollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.
Quartereddesignfields.

16.8.
CahuachiStylusDecorateddesignsrecordedfrommaterialintheStrong
collectionsatColumbiaUniversity.af:designfieldsdividedinto
eighths.g:designfielddividedintosixths.h:radiatingdesign.

16.9.
CahuachiStylusDecorateddesignsrecordedfrommaterialinthe
StrongcollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.ae:rimarcs.fh:zigzags.

16.10.
CahuachiStylusDecorateddesigns
recordedfrommaterialinthe
StrongcollectionsatColumbia
University.Naturalisticdesigns:fish.

Page237

16.11.
OneoftwobadlyerodedopenbowlsfromBurial5atUnit19.

16.12.
OneoftwoalmostidenticalNasca3bowlsfrom
Burial8atUnit19.

16.13.
NascabowlleftasanofferingbetweenWalls121and
16atUnit19,Excavation18.

16.14.
Nasca1dishfromStrong'sCahuachicollectionsatColumbia
University.CorrespondstohisCahuachiPolychrome
Incisedceramictype.

(fig.16.11)and8(fig.16.12)inRoom2onUnit19awholeNasca3Dor4bowl(fig.16.13)hadbeenleftasanofferingbetweenWalls121and16atUnit19
(Excavation18:seechap.12).
Dishes
Sherdsfromthirtysevendisheswererecovered.Dishesaredefinedhereaslowwalledopenvesselswhoseinteriorbaseisslippaintedandwhoseinteriorsidewalls
maybeslippaintedaswell.DishesbegininNasca1andcontinuethroughNasca2,3,and4.Theyarequitepopular"aboutthemiddleofphase3"(Proulx1968:13)
andthendeclineinfrequency.Theybeginasagambreledformthisformroundsoutovertime(seeProulx1968:figs.7,8).
Nasca1Dishes
IdidnotrecoveranyNasca1dishesbutcandiscussthisformfromStrong'scollections.Nasca1disheshaveverylowwalls,verysharpbasalangles,andalmostflat
bases.ThegambreledNasca1dishderivesfromOcucaje10bowlswithsharpbasalangles,asdotherarerNasca1"incurved,roundforms"(comparetoMenzel,
Rowe,andDawson's[1964:253254,fig.25]Ocucaje10form5b).

Page238

16.15.
DiagnosticNasca2Type1dishdecoratedwithmottling,from
Strong'sCahuachicollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.

Nasca1dishesconformtoStrong's(1957:21,fig.10)"ProtoNazca"typecalledCahuachiPolychromeIncisedinwhichtheareasofcolorareseparatedbyincised
lines.StrongrecoveredadishfragmentwiththistypeofdecorationinCut5thatfragmentshowsaseriesofflatfishonthebaseofthedish(fig.16.14).Fishbeginto
berepresentedonthebasesofdishesinNasca1andareprobablythemostpopularmotifondishesthroughoutthesequence.
Nasca2Dishes
Nasca2dishesarevaried,andatleastthreekindscanbedistinguished.Tentatively,wemaycallthemType1,Type2,andType3.
Nasca2Type1dishesmaybecompletelydecoratedontheinteriorsurface,notjustthebase.AnexamplewouldbeadishfragmentfromCut5atCahuachiwhich
exhibitsbrownonwhitemottlingonitsinteriorsurfacewithwidelyspacedverticalredlinesextendingdownfromthelip(fig.16.15).
OnNasca2Type2dishes,thedesignmaybeconfinedtothebaseofthedishandelaboratedonawhitebackgroundthatisnotseparatedfromthewallsofthevessel.
Thoseinteriorwallsmayhavesingleverticallinesextendingdownfromtheliptojustbelowtheinteriorbasalangle.Figure16.16showsacurledfishdrawnonawhite
background.TheNasca2Type2dishevolvedintoNasca3Adishes,describedbyProulx(1968:30)ashavinga"maindesign[that]ispaintedontheinteriorbottom
ofthevesseloverabackgroundthatextendsoverthewholeinterior.Thereisnobandseparatingthemaindesignfromthewalls,andbothexamplesinthesamplehave
interiorwallsdecoratedwithverticallines."OnthebasisofsherdmaterialaloneitwouldbedifficulttodistinguishaNasca2dishfromaNasca3A(orlater3)dish.In
thecaseofStrong'sexample,itwasdoneonthebasisofcontext:allothersherdsinassociationwiththatfragmentareNasca2.
Nasca2Type3dishesaredistinguishedbythepainteddemarcationofthebasaldesignarea.Inthesecasesabandwhichcontrastsincolorwiththebackgroundof
thedesignispaintedaroundtheinsidecircumferenceofthebase,setinsomemillimetersfromtheactualinteriorbasalangle.Anexampleofthiscanbeseenin
Kroeber(1956:pl.36F).AnotherNasca2Type3dishfromtheLowieMuseum(slideinmypossession)exhibitsthesamepatterningwithapaintedwhiteline
separatingtheredwallsfromtheblackdesignsurface.IntheCahuachicollections,Ihaveobservedthatonthiskindofdishthereistypicallyaridgeontheinterior
vesselsur

16.16.
Nasca2Type2dishdecoratedwithcurledfishdesign,from
Strong'sCahuachicollectionsatColumbiaUniversity.

Page239

face,moretactualthanvisual,wherethepaintedcircumferentialbandisplaced(Silverman1977).Disheswiththepaintedinteriorcircumferentialbanddonot,I
believe,haveverticallinesdescendingfromthelip,whereastheothertwokindstendtohavethem.TheNasca2interiorpaintedcircumferentialbandisnotpickedup
inNasca3untilsubphaseC(seeProulx1968:51,his"encirclingborderband").Thesetypesoffactorsmakemesomewhatuneasyaboutthefinesubdivisionsof
Nasca3andmakephaseattributionstosherdmaterialextremelydifficult.
ThethreetypesofNasca2dishesaresimilarinshape.Allhavelowsidewallsandbasalanglesrangingfrompronouncedtolesssharp.Amongtheslippainteddesigns
onNasca2dishesarebirdsholdingcigarshapedfishintheirbeaks,curledfish,flatfish,andmottling.Flatfishmaybeportrayedonasplatteredwhitebackground(on
splatterinNasca2potteryseeSilverman1977Strong1957:fig.11H)asisthecaseinKroeber's(1956:pl.36F)Nasca2dish.Hereagainaproblemarisesin
workingwithsherdmaterial,forProulx(1968:51)notesthatinNasca3C"broadbrushstippling"maysometimesbeused"asaspacefillerortorepresentwater"the
latterwouldoccurwhenfisharedrawn.Insherdmaterialofsmallsizethisstipplingcouldbeconfusedwithsplatter.
Nasca3Dishes
Nasca3dishesareexhaustivelydiscussedbyProulx(1968).TheslippainteddesignsontheinsideofNasca3dishesmayportrayfish(Proulx1968:pl.20Eisleb
1977:figs.2426,28,29),shellfish(Eisleb1977:fig.31),birds(Strong1957:fig.13H),fruit(Proulx1968:pl.23),flowers(Proulx1968:41),rarelyallamaorother
animal(Proulx1968:51Eisleb1977:figs.13,23),seaanimals,andgeometricstardesigns(Eisleb1977:fig.30).InanalyzingthesherdmaterialfromCahuachi,I
havebeenlargelyunabletodistinguishNasca2dishesfromNasca3dishes.
CupBowls
Cupbowlsareexteriorpaintedvesselswithadistinctivebellshape(Proulx1968:12).TheformbeginsinNasca3BNasca1and2cupbowlsarenotknown.At
Cahuachisherdsfromfifteencupbowlswererecovered.TheyrangeindatefromNasca3through5.Ourmostbeautifulandcompleteexample,datingtoNasca5,is
showninfigure16.17.
Vases
Themostdiagnosticandeasilyrecognizablevaseshapeisthebulbousvase(seeProulx1968:1314).Thevessel

16.17.
Nasca5cupbowlfromExcavation6,Stratum6.Top:
reconstructedfromsherds.Bottom:rolloutofdesign.

shapeappearsquitesuddenlyinphase3Bandisscarceuntilphase4(Proulx1968:13).Sherdsfromtwentyfourbulbousvases,datingtoNasca4and5,were
recoveredatCahuachi(seefig.16.18forexamples).
Jars
TwokindsofjarswererecoveredfromtheexcavationsatCahuachi,thecollaredjarandtheheadjar.HeadjarsarediscussedunderthecategoryofModeled
Vessels.
CollaredjarsappeartobeaNazcaareaform,mostcharacteristicofNasca4(Proulx1968:appendix3).TheyappearforthefirsttimeinNasca3B.Avery
recognizableshape,theyconstitutedonly5percentofProulx'sNazcasample.OneNasca4collaredjarsherdwasrecoveredatCahuachi.

Page240

16.18.
Vases.a:Nasca4Excavation18,surfacefind(compareto
Eisleb1977:fig.132).b:Nasca5Excavation6,Stratum3.c:
Nasca5Excavation6,Stratum5.d:Nasca5
Excavation7,Stratum3.

16.19.
BrokenheadjarrecoveredbyMiguelPazosfrom
Passageway1onUnit19.

16.20.
MiniaturemodeledfishfromBurial8atUnit19.

BasketVessels
BlascoBosquedandRamosGmez(1980:256,tableIC8bseealsoBancodeCrdito1986:fig.160top)illustrateabasketvesselwithaglobular,carinatedbody
whoseneckhaslowdivergentwallsandtowhoselipahighstraphandleisattached,likeaneggbasket.TheystatethatthisformexistsintheirEarlyandFinalNasca
periods.Itisnotacommonshape.AfineNasca8basketvesselwasfoundasanofferinginthesterilesandfillingtheRoomofthePostsatUnit19(seechap.13fig.
13.34).
ModeledVessels
Headjarsareonekindofmodeledvessel.TheyareaNazcaratherthanIcavalleyshapethatbeginsattheendofNasca3.MiguelPazosrecoveredalmosthalfofa
NascaheadjarinhisexcavationofPassageway1(fig.16.19).Iamuncertainofitsphase,whichcouldbeNasca3D(basedontheturban)orperhapsabitlater.
Sherdsfromthirtysevenothermodeledvesselswerefound,someofwhichmaycorrespondtoheadjarsandotherstoeffigyvessels.Iamunabletodatethesesherds,
beyondsayingthattheyareearlyNasca,becauseofalackofdiagnosticfeatures.
OnecompleteNasca3modeledvessel,aminiaturemodeledfish,wasfoundwithBurial8(fig.16.20).
CompositeForms
Novesselsofthistypewererecovered.
MusicalInstruments
AlthoughNascadrumsarewellknown(e.g.,Morales1982Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:254Sawyer1968:fig.403),Iwasunabletoidentifyanyfragments
ofthisvesselcategoryfrommyexcavationsatCahuachi.Isuspect,however,thatsomeofStrong'sPolychromeIncisedThicksherdsmaycomefromsuchashape.
Norwas

Page241

Iabletoidentifytrumpetsalthoughthese,too,areknownforNasca(e.g.,Lapiner1967:item65).Nowhistleswererecovered.Panpipes,however,wereabundant
some207fragmentswerefound(figs.16.21,16.22),andtheylitterthesurfaceofCahuachi.ThisclassofceramicremainsisalsoabundantlyrepresentedinStrong's
collections.
AtCahuachi,Strong(1957:31)foundabundantpanpipefragmentsatoptheGreatTemplealongwith"llamaremains,birdplumage,andotherapparentlyfeastingand
sacrificialmaterials."TheirassociationwithNascaceremony,includingfuneraryrites,ismanifestedinNascaiconography(Bolaos1988:cover,figs.2,3)aswellas
context.Inmyexcavations,panpipeswerefoundinRooms1,4,5,and6andtheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19(chap.12)inthefillbetweenWalls45and65
behindtheRoomofthePosts(Excavation19chap.13)atvariouslevelsinTestPits1and4inthesurfacelevelsofTestPits7,15,and17(chap.11)andin
variousstrataofExcavations1(chap.9)and7(chap.12).
BeyondCahuachi,panpipesareknownfromtombssuchasthefamouscacheofsixmatchedNasca3panpipeswhichwereinterredwithanindividualintheCopara
cemeteryinLasTrancas(Tello'stombSIIICQT5seeBolaos1988:57,60).Inaddition,manypanpipefragmentswererecoveredfromNascasitesduringmy
recentsurveyoftheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys.
Nascapanpipeshavereceivedlittleattentionintheliteraturedespitetheirubiquityinthearchaeologicalrecord(onNascapanpipesseeDawson1964Haeberli1979
Bolaos1988Kvietokms.).TheseartifactsareasmuchanelementofNascafinewareasanyothervesselformandareofthegreatestrelevanceinreconstructing
NascasocietyandtheactivitiesthattookplaceatCahuachi.
PanpipesappearintheIcavalleyinOcucaje9andarequitepopularinOcucaje10(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:187,211).Ocucaje10panpipetubesare
composedof"threeseparatesectionsjoinedtogetherwith

16.21.
Examplesofpanpipefragmentsrecoveredat
Cahuachi.Detailsofmanufactureclearly
visibleindrawing.

16.22.
Paintedpanpipefragmentrecovered
inExcavation13,Stratum5.

thickened,knobbyjointsshowingtoolmarksontheinterior"(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:226).Incontrast,Nascatraditionpanpipeshavestraightsidedtubes
(Bolaos1988).Bolaos(1988:42)statesthattheevolutionaryprocessbetweenParacasandNascapanpipesisunclear.Paracastypepanpipescontinuedtobe
madethroughtheEarlyIntermediatePeriodandcarrythemostelaborateiconographicdesigns,ratherthanthepanpipesoftheNascatradition(Bolaos1988:107).
PanpipesceasedtobemadeafterNasca7(Dawson1964:109Silverman1988b).
Dawson(1964:109)arguesthatstraighttubesofuniformdimensionswereproducedbythetechniqueofslipcastingandthatthispermittedcontrolofpitchand
productionofinstrumentsinmatchedsets.However,usingexperimentalreplication,microscopicinspection,andthinsectionanalysis,Kvietok(ms.)hasrejected
Dawson'sconclusionandproposesthatpanpipesweremanufacturedbyextraordinarilyskilledhandmodelingoverasolidtemplate.Soadeptweretheceramicists
whoproducedNascapanpipesthatBolaos(1988)suggeststhatthesewerenotthemusiciansthemselvesbutadifferentgroupofspecialistsinNascasociety.
Haeberli's(1979:71)studyrevealsthattheancientNascapanpipemakersachievedanarithmeticscalebasedonequalfrequencystops,andheconcludesthatthis
sharedscaleand"theoccurrenceofspecificfrequenciesamongmanyoftheinstruments,whichspanabout600yearsandwhoseproveniencecouldbefromanyof
severalvalleys,isindicativeofahighlydevelopedandstandardizedculturaltraditionandofsomecentralizedorganizationalsystemontheSouthCoastduringtheEarly
IntermediatePeriod."IwillreturntoHaeberli'sculturalreconstructioninchapter23.
Therewasaseriesoftechnologicalimprovementsin

Page242

panpipesbetweenOcucaje9andNasca3includingmodificationoftheaperturesandnumberoftubes(Dawson1964:109).Significantly,byNasca3,"manypipes
weremadeingraduatedsetsoftwoorthreeinstruments,presumablytobeplayedinsomepolyphoniccombination"(Dawson1964:109).Bolaos(1988:103)
confirmsthisobservation,describingNascapanpipesas"antarascomplementarias."ThisispreciselyhowpanpipesareplayedinthehighlandsofPerutoday(Thomas
Turino,personalcommunication1985seeValencia1982).Troopsorbandsofpanpipeplayerscreateadialogueonemusicianalonecannotproducethemelody.
ThismusicaldialogueisseeninNascaiconography(seeBolaos1988:cover,figs.2,3)andprobablyreflectsseveralprinciplesofNascasocialorganization:duality,
complementarity,cooperation,andconfrontation(seeUrton1990seechaps.22,23).
OtherFineware
Irecoveredasubstantialnumberofdecoratedsherdswhoseshapecouldnotbedetermined.
FinewareatCahuachiComparedtoFinewareinCemeteriesBeyondCahuachi
ThefinalcomparisonthatwillbemadeisbetweenthedecoratedshapesfromCahuachiandthecollectionsusedbyProulx(1968)inhisanalysisofNasca3and4
pottery(seetables16.6,16.7).Inreadingthesetablesitmustbeborneinmindthatthisistheroughestapproximationofreality,complicatedbythesherdnatureofthe
ceramicsamplefromCahuachiandtheimpossibilityofdeterminingshapeforalargeportionofthatsample.Tables16.6and16.7mustbeinterpretedwiththegreatest
caution,butitappearsthatatCahuachi,bowlsconstitutethesinglelargestcategoryofdecoratedvesselshape,comprisingalmosttwothirdsofthevesselinventory.
ThisisconfirmedinProulx'sanalysis(1968:appendix2),whichshowedtheproportionofopentoclosedformswasontheorderof52percentto30percent.Iwill
returntothispointinchapter22.
DesignThemes
SeveraltypologiesofNascapainteddecorationhavebeenpublished.Proulx(1968),forinstance,speaksofMythicalCreatures,Birds,Fish,TrophyHeads,Fruits,
GeometricDesigns,Animals,andOther.AmorerecenttreatmentbyProulx(1983)simplifiesthisschemetoMythicalCreatures,TrophyHeads,NaturalisticAnimal
Forms,Plants,HumanFigures,andGeometricDesigns.BlascoBosquedandRamosGmez(1980)divideNascapainteddecorationintoGeometricMotifs,Vegetal
Motifs,NaturalisticAnimals,HumanFigures,TrophyHeads,FantasticAnimals,andFantasticPersonages.Blagg(1975)makesamorebasicdistinctionbetween
mythicalthemes,ontheonehand,andthemesdepictingthenaturalworld,ontheother.Shedoesnotcon
Table16.6.ComparisonofDecoratedVesselShapesatCahuachiandinGraves
VesselForm
Doublespoutandbridge

Number(MNI)

CahuachiPercentage

Proulx'sGraves
Percentage

11

1.842

Bowls

251

42.043

23

Dishes

37

6.197

10

Cupbowls

15

2.512

15

0.167

10

Deepbottomedbowls
Bulbousvases

23

3.852

11

Headjars

0.167

Collaredjars

0.167

Modeledvessels

36

6.030

Panpipes

207

34.673

nodata

Other

14

2.345

15

597

99.995=100

100

Total

Note:TheCahuachicalculationdoesnotincludethepotteryfromtheUnit19graves.Proulx'ssampleincluded
Kroeber'sCahuachigravematerial.

Page243
Table16.7.ComparisonofDecoratedVesselShapesatCahuachiandinGravesRecalculatedwithout
Panpipes

VesselForm

No.ofSherds(MNI)

CahuachiPercentage

Proulx's
Graves
Percentage

Doublespoutandbridge

11

2.813

Bowls

251

64.194

23

Dishes

37

9.462

10

Cupbowls

15

3.836

15

Deepbottomedbowls

0.255

10

Bulbousvases

23

5.882

11

Headjars

0.255

Collaredjars

0.255

Modeledvessels

36

9.207

15

3.836

Other

391

Total

99.995=100

15
100

Note:TheCahuachicalculationdoesnotincludethepotteryfromtheUnit19graves.Proulx'ssample
includedKroeber'sCahuachigravematerial.

Table16.8.FrequenciesofDesignThemesatCahuachiandinCemeteries
CahuachiSherds

Motifs

Number

Proulx'sVessels

Percentage

Number

Percentage

22

112

19

Naturalistic

133

39

284

47

Geometric

132

39

205

34

Mythical

75

sidergeometricdesign.ForthepurposeofthisanalysisIwilluseatripartiteschemeofMythical(Supernatural),Natural(Representational,Referential),andGeometric
(Abstract)themes.
ThemajorearlyNascaMythicalthemesaretheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing,SpottedCat,HorribleBird,Harpy,KillerWhale,SerpentineCreature,andHead
Taster.Naturalthemesincludehumanfigures,trophyheads,birds,animals,snakesandotherreptiles,insects,plants,shellfish,fish,andweaponssuchasmissilesand
darts.Geometricthemesencompasssuchdesignsasstepfrets,circles,wavylines,zigzags,triangles,diamonds,hatching,stars,splatter,andfansorfootlikeelements.
MyinteresthereistocomparefrequenciesofMythical,Natural,andGeometricrepresentationatCahuachiwiththosereportedbyProulx(1968:appendix4).
Ultimately,whenthedatafromtheearlyNascahabitationsitesdiscoveredonsurveyin19881989areanalyzed,itwillbepossibletocomparethesefrequencieswith
theceramicfrequenciesfromthosesitesandfromsitesdiscoveredbyothercolleagues.
Itriedtoquantifytheoccurrenceofthemesbyphase,butthiswasimpossiblebecauseoftenasherddidnotcontainsufficientfeaturesformetodistinguishphase,let
alonethefinerNasca3subdivisions.Furthermore,althoughasherdmightexhibitpainteddecoration,Icouldnotalwaysdetermine,fromtheportionpreserved,to
whichcategoryofdesignthemeitbelonged.Also,theGeometriccategoryisoverweightedbythepresenceofNasca2"CahuachiPolychrome,"acategoryof
ceramicsnotdealtwithbyProulx,andsothesefiguresmustbeusedwithcarewhencomparingthemtoProulx'sresults.Ifwetakeintoaccountmywarningabout
skewing,thentable16.8suggeststhatmyproportionsarewithinProulx'sparameters.

Page244
Table16.9.ContextsofThematicPaintedPotteryatCahuachi
MythicalMotifs

NaturalMotifs

GeometricMotifs

OnUnit19

Rooms1,3,4,5,6,7

Rooms1,3,4,5,6,7

Rooms1,3,4,5,6,7

Wall4565fill

Wall4565fill

Wall4565fill

LowerEasternRooms

LowerEasternRooms

LowerEasternRooms

BaseofUnit19

BaseofUnit19

BaseofUnit19

Looters'Holes3,4,5

Looters'Hole3

Looters'Holes3,4

TestPit4

TestPit4

TestPit4

PointSample2

PointSamples1,2

TestPit17

Unit16:Excavation1

Unit16:Excavation1

UnitF:Excavation5

UnitF:Excavation5

ElsewhereattheSite

TheContextsofFinewareatCahuachi
Besidescountingtheoccurrencesofpaintedpotteryassignabletooneofthethreemajordesigncategoriessoastocalculatetheproportionsoftheseatthesite(table
16.8),wecanalsoexaminethecontextswithinwhichthesepaintedpotsoccurtoseeifanypatternemerges.InTable16.9,Ihavelistedthosecontextswherepainted
potteryisfound.AtCahuachi,thelocationaldistributionofthemesdecoratingNascapotteryisnotrestricted.Basically,IfounddecoratedpotterywhereverI
excavated.Thequantityofdecoratedpottery,however,variesdependingonthepottery'scontext.Thus,theUnit16kancha,whichhasfarfewerculturalremainsthan
Unit19,alsohasfarlessdecoratedpottery.AtUnit19,Room1hasagreateramountofmythicallydecoratedpotterythantheothercontexts,withtwentythree
sherds(MNI)comparedto,forinstance,onesherdeachinRooms3and5,threesherdsinRoom4,fivesherdsinRoom6,andtwosherdsinRoom7.Thenext
largestconcentrationofmythicallydecoratedpotteryisfoundinExcavation6atthebaseofUnit19,wheretensherdsfromtendifferentearlyNascavesselsplusan
almostcompleteNasca5cupbowl(fig.16.17)werecollectedfromseveralstrata.Onesherdfromamythicalthemevesselandninesherdsfromavesseldecorated
withaNasca5AnthropomorphicMythicalBeing(fig.16.23)wererecoveredabovetheflooroftheUnit16wallinExcavation1.LowerdowninExcavation1,two
otherpossiblemythicalthemesherdswererecoveredoneisaNasca3sherdfoundinthelargepostholeinStratum6,

16.23.
SherdsfromaNasca5vesseldecoratedwithan
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeing.Excavation2,Stratum2.

Page245

andtheotherisaNasca1polychromeincisedsherdintheFeature4/6depressioninStratum8(seechap.9).
UtilitarianPotteryatCahuachi
Proulx's(1968,1970)studyofNasca3and4potteryisbasedongravegoods.Notsurprisingly,then,utilitarianwareconstituteslessthan3percentofhissample,but
Proulx'sinclusionofdataonNasca3and4plainwareisofthegreatestvalueinviewofthescantdatacurrentlyavailableforundecoratedNascapottery.Proulx
(1968:15,32)describesthissampleofutilitarianwareascookingpots.Allareglobularinformandhaveverticalstraphandlesonthesides.Manyhavefire
blackenedexteriors.Cookingpotsmayhavesomedecoration,suchassloppyredstripesrunningdownfromtherim,painteddotsbetweenthestripes,oranincision
at/ontheneckorjustbelowit(veryniceexamplesofthiscanbeseeninKroeber1956:pl.34e,f).BututilitarianwaredoesnotbearstandardNascaiconography.
Utilityvesselsalsodifferfromthepaintedfinewareintheirthickerwallsandcoarserpaste,whichcontainsmoreabundantandlargerinclusionsthanthefineware.
Frequently,theseinclusionsprotrudetothesurface,givingthesurface"agrittyfeeling"(Proulx1968:32).Inaddition,cookingvesselsusuallyarenotwellfinishedand
havebeenonlyrudimentarilysmoothed.Wewillsee,however,thatotherutilitarianwarecanbenicelysmoothedandslipped.
ProulxstatesthatinearlyNasca3theverticalstraphandlesattachtothebodywhereasinlateNasca3andNasca4theyattachtotherim(Proulx1968:32,fig.17).
HealsonotesthatintheearlyphasesofNasca3handlesarecharacteristicallymadeoftworollsofclayjoinedtogether,thoughthesecancooccurwithhandlesthat
areovalincrosssection.OursurveydataindicatethatthiskindofrolledhandlebeginsearlierintheNascasequenceandhasitsorigininthelateEarlyHorizon
Paracaspottery.
InNasca3therimsofcookingpotscanbestraight,convex,orscalloped(Proulx1968:44).InNasca4therimsmayalsobeflaringandoutturned(Proulx1968:
80).ThecookingpotsillustratedbyProulxrangeinsizefromabout11centimetersacrossby8centimetershightoabout20centimetersacrossby15centimeters
high.
LetusnowcompareProulx'sutilityvesselstotheplainwarerecoveredatCahuachiintermsofsize,form,surfacefinish,andpaste.Bearinmindthatasignificant
sampleofutilitarianpotterywascollectedfromearlyNascahabitationsiteslocatedonsurveyin19881989,butanalysisofthesedatahasnotyetbeencompleted.I
havedividedtheplainwarerecoveredintoeightshapecategoriesIamconsideringhandlesseparatelyalthoughobviouslytheyadheretosomeoftheothervessel
shapes:necklessollas,neckedollas,bowls,jars,vases,basketvessels,cornpoppers,andhandles.
NecklessOllas
Necklessollasareglobularvesselshavingnocollarorothermodificationoftheirsmoothlyincurvedexteriorwalls(Burger1984:47).Iamusingthetermherebothfor
vesselsthatcorrespondtothatdefinitionandalsoforsmoothlyincurvingglobularvesselswhoseexteriorlipisthickenedbutwhichthenexhibitthesmoothcurveand
globularshapesocharacteristicofnecklessollas.
BecausethesampleofnecklessollasissmallsixdiagnosticsherdsIhesitatetocreatecategories,thoughdifferencescanberecognizedinthelipmorphology,wall
orientation,presenceandabsenceofdecoration,surfacefinish,andpaste.Rather,Iwillillustrateanddescribeeachsherdwiththehopethatanalysisofpotteryfrom
Nascahabitationsiteswillprovidelargersampleswithwhichtocreateameaningfultypology.Theexamplesarenumberedforeaseofreference.
NecklessOllas1to6fromCahuachiwouldfitintheEarlyHorizonTajoceramiccorpusrecentlyidentifiedintheIngeniovalley(seeSilverman1989b,1991).
PreliminaryanalysisofthesurveysurfacecollectionssuggeststhatthesenecklessollasdonotcharacterizeNascasites,butthisstatementissubjecttoamendation
whenceramicanalysisofthesurveycollectionsiscompleted.Theneedforexcavationofselectsurveysitesisrecognized.
NecklessOlla1(fig.16.24a)hasaroundedlipwhichisthickenedandincisedontheexteriorandthickenedandelongatedontheinterior.Theinteriorthickeningis
smoothlyjoinedtotheinteriorsurfaceoftheolla,whereastheexteriorthickeningissharplydefinedfromtheexteriorcurveofthevesselwall.Theexteriorofthevessel
hasbeenselfslippedandisunevenlypolishedwithvisibleirregularitiesduetosmoothing.Exteriorcolorisdarkreddishbrown(Munsell5YR3/23).Incisionconsists
ofasinglerowofsmalldiagonalslashes.Theinteriorisunslippedsurfacecolorisgray/reddishgray(Munsell5YR5/12).Theinteriorsurfaceisunevenandmatte,and
itwassmoothedwhiletheclaywasplastic.Thevesselisincompletelyoxidized.Thepasteissoftandcrumblywithsomemediumsizedangularinclusions.Thesherd
hasathingraycorewithbrownborders.

Page246

16.24.
Necklessollas.a:NecklessOlla1Excavation2,Stratum6.b:
NecklessOlla2Excavation1,Stratum4.c:NecklessOlla3
Excavation11,Stratum12.d:NecklessOlla4Excavation11,
Stratum3.e:NecklessOlla5Excavation1,Feature13.f:
NecklessOlla6TestPit4,Level6.

NecklessOlla2(fig.16.24b)issimilartoNecklessOlla1butwithouttheincisionsontheexterior,thickenedlip.NecklessOlla2hasaroundlipwhichisthickenedin
ahighriseontheexteriorandwhichelongatesdiagonallytowardtheinteriorbutwithoutexceedingthecurveoftheinteriorvesselwall.Theexteriorthickenedlipjoins
theexteriorvesselwallinasmoothcurve.Theexteriorofthevesselissmooth,matte,andlightlyandunevenlypolished,creatingacompactsurface.Polishingextends
overontotheinteriorsurfaceforsome15millimeters.Thevesselexteriorwaspolishedwhileplasticwithascraperorotherhardimplement.Theexteriorisself
slippedandsurfacecolorisreddishbrown(Munsell5YR43/3).TheexteriorsurfacecolorischaracteristicofmanyplainwaresherdsonthesurfaceofCahuachi.The
interiorsurfaceissmooth,matte,andunpolished.Theinteriorisfireblackened,anditssurfacecolorisalmostblack(Munsell2.5YR32.5/0)thisvesselwasclearly
usedforcooking.Thevesselisincompletelyoxidizedtheexteriorismoreoxidizedthantheinterior.Thepastevariesincolorfromabrownishred(Munsell2.5YR3/4)
ontheexteriortoablackishbrown(Munsell10YR2/12)ontheinterior.Itisacoarsesoftpastewithmanyvisibleinclusions,suchaslittlerockfragments.
LikeNecklessOlla2,NecklessOlla3(fig.16.24c)isathinwalledvessel,thoughthickerthanNecklessOlla2,withanaveragewallthicknessof6millimeters.The
vesselhasadirectrimwhoseunthickenedlipisalmostflatwithroundedcorners.Theslightindentationontheexteriorsurface,some7millimetersbeneaththelip,does
notappeartobetheresultofabrokenneck.Thevesselisselfslippedandsmudged.Surfacecolorisblackbrown(Munsell7.5YR2/0).Thepasteisverycoarsewith
large,visible,angularinclusions.
NecklessOlla4(fig.16.24d)hasanunthickenedinteriorrimandagentlyroundedandthickenedexteriorlipwhichcreatesarathersharpbreakwiththeexteriorwall.
Theexteriorofthevesselhasbeenpolishedandisevenandsmooth.Itisfirecloudedoveritssurfacecolor,whichisreddishbrown(Munsell2.5YR5/4).Theinterior
isselfslippedandmatte.Interiorsurfacecolorisdarkreddishgray(Munsell5YR4/2).Thesherdhasanevensurfacethatisroughtothetouch.
OnlytheuppermostportionoftherimofNecklessOlla5(fig.16.24e)ispreserved.Ithasathickroundlipwhichisverygentlythickenedontheexteriorandwhich
smoothlyjoinstheexteriorvesselwall.Theexteriorsurfaceisevenandirregularlysmoothwithslightlyraisedstriationsasaresultofthefinishingtoolusedinlightly
polishingthevessel.Thevesselinteriorissmoothandevenwithsomedeep,sharp,thingroovesandshallowwidegroovesasaresultoffinishing.Theexterioris
slipped,andtheslipiscrackled.TheexteriorsurfacecolorisdarkreddishbrownandvariesfromMunsell2.5YR3/4to5YR3/3.Theinteriorisalsoslippedits
surfacecolorisdarkreddishbrown(Munsell2.5YR3/46).Thevesselisnotoxidizedthecoreisbrownthroughoutthoughlighterattheedges.Thepastecoloris
brown(Munsell7.5YR4/4).Thepasteisfairlysoft,abitcrumbly,withmanyangularinclusionsofmediumsize.
NecklessOlla6(fig.16.24f)hasaroundlipthatisnotthickened.Therimisthinanddirect,andpresumablythevesselwouldwidengreatlybeyondthepreserved
portion.Thevesselhasamatte,smoothexteriorwhichisselfslipped.Surfacecolorisreddishbrown(Munsell5YR5/4).Theexteriorsurfaceisdecoratedwithat
leasttworowsofpunctatedots,fairlyevenlyspaced,whichbeginabout15millimetersbeneaththeexteriorlip.Thisvesselisnoticeablythinnerthantheotherneckless
ollas,withanaveragewallthicknessofonly4millimeters.
NeckedOllas
OllaswithlargeevertedrimsattacheddirectlytothemouthofanotherwisenecklessollaappeartobethemostabundantformofplainwareatCahuachiandarethe
mosttypicalkindofplainwareidentifiedatNascahabitationsitesduringthe19881989surveyintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys.Although,properly

Page247

16.25.
NeckedollafromUnit13.

16.26.
Feature83neckedollafromExcavation17.

16.27.
TheimmenseFeature80vesselfromExcavation17.
Ithaslostitsneck.

16.28.
ThebrokenFeature82vesselfromExcavation17.

speaking,thereisnoneckonthesevessels,Iwillcallthemneckedollasbecausethistermbetterconveysthecontrastwiththenecklessollas.Twowholevesselsfrom
Cahuachistillhavetheirrimsinplace.ThesearethevesselfromUnit13(fig.16.25)andtheFeature83vessel(fig.16.26)fromUnit19.InadditiontoFeatures80,
88,and75whichlosttheirrims(e.g.,fig.16.27),aminimumoffiftyothersherdsareattributabletothisvesselcategory.TheFeature82vessel(fig.16.28)mayhave
hadarim,butitissodamagedbylootersthatIcannotbecertain.
Neckedollasmayormaynothavehandles(e.g.,Features83and88havehandleswhereasFeature80doesnot).Whentheydohavehandles,thesemayattachto
thebodyonly(e.g.,Features83and88).Neckedollasmayhavebeenusedforcooking.TheFeature83vesselisthoroughlysootedinsideandout,whereasother
neckedollasarenot.Typically,neckedollashaveacoarsepastewithabundantandvisibleinclusionsthatprotrudetothesurface,givingthevesselanemeryboard
roughsurfacethepastemayincludemica,whichcreatesaglittery,tinygoldspeckledsurface.Suchvesselsarecharacteristicallyincompletelyoxidized.
Otherneckedollas,suchasthoseofFeatures80and88,arefirecloudedbutnotsooted,andtheirexteriorsurfacesareselfslipped,matte,andsmoothed.Their
surfacecoloristypicallyaverypalebrown(Munsell10YR7/4),andthevesselsarealmostcompletelyoxidized.Thesevesselsalsohaveacoarsesoftpastewith
abundantlargeinclusions.
Neckedollasmayhaveasmoothcurvingwallwithnobreaksintheprofile(e.g.,Feature80),ortheymayhave

Page248

16.29.
Traditionalmethodofcarryingwaterattheturnofthecentury.
PhotographfromHansHeinrich(JuanEnrique)Bruning'sarchive.PublishedinFotodokumenteAusNordPeru:
DocumentosFotogrficosdelNortedelPer(MuseumfrVlkerkunde,1990).

shouldersatvaryingheightsalongthevesselwall(compareFeature83toFeature88).Thesevesselsvarygreatlyinsizeandweight.Againusingthewholepotsas
examples,Feature80hasanorificediameterof21centimetersandaheightof98centimeterscomparedtoFeature83whichhasanorificediameterof27.5
centimetersandaheightof49centimeters.Exceptionallyheavy,withouthandles,andwithitscircumferenceof180centimeters,Feature80isavesselthatwasclearly
notmeanttobemovedaround,incomparisonwithFeature83whichcouldbetransportedbyoneperson(comparetofig.16.29).
Fourbasickindsofneckedollascanbeidentifiedonthebasisoflipandrimmorphology.NeckedOlla1(fig.16.30)isthemostcommonneckedollaform.Its
stronglyevertedneck(asinFeature83andtheUnit13wholevessel)hasadistinctiveinflectionpointontheexteriorsidebeneaththeroundlip.Inaddition,someof
thesenecksmayhaveanarrowbandofhorizontal,parallelstriationsontheexteriorsurfacebetweenthelipandinflectionpointaswellasathickerbandofsimilar
striationsontheinterior.Someoftherimsofthisshapemayalsohaveanundulatinginteriorprofileratherthanadirectone.
NeckedOlla2(fig.16.31)isaminortypewhosedistinguishingcharacteristicappearstobetheresultoffinishing.Theliphasasubtlebutcharacteristic"heartlobed"
profile.Thenecksoftheseollasmaybesharplyeverted.Therimsvarygreatlyinthickness.
NeckedOlla3(fig.16.32)ischaracterizedbyathick,stronglyeverted,directneckwhichhasaroundlip.Therimeithertapersslightlytowardthelipormaintainsa
fairlyevenwallthicknessthroughouttheextentofthepreservedrim.Someofthesevesselsmayalsoexhibitfine,parallel,horizontalstriationsontheinteriorsurface.
Thesevesselsvarygreatlyinsizeascanbeseeninthefigure.
NeckedOlla4(fig.16.33)ischaracterizedbyathin,stronglyeverteddirectneckwhoselipisroundortapersslightly.Theneckmaintainsafairlyeventhickness.
ThesenecksarenoticeablythinnerthanthoseofNeckedOlla3.

Page249

16.30.
NeckedOlla1.a:Excavation12,Stratum10.b:Room6,fill.c:Room6,fill.d:Room3,surfacefind.e:Looters'Hole3.f:Point
Sample1.g:Excavation6,Stratum6.h:Excavation17,surfacefind.i:Excavation16,Stratum1.j:Excavation16,Stratum1.
k:Excavation16,Stratum1.l:PointSample3.

Page250

16.31.
NeckedOlla2.a:UnitF,Stratum2.b:Excavation18,surface
find.c:Excavation17,surfacefind.d:Excavation18,
surfacefind.

16.32.
NeckedOlla3.a:Excavation16,Stratum
1.b:Excavation7,Stratum7.c:
Excavation6,Stratum5.

16.33.
NeckedOlla4.a:Excavation12,Stratum12.b:Excavation
18,surfacefind.c:Excavation17,surfacefind.

Nasca1Bowls
Bowl1(fig.16.34)isthemostcommonNasca1bowlintheCahuachicollections(mineandStrong's).ItisalsothemostcommonNasca1bowlformfoundon
Nasca1habitationsitesintheIngenio,middleGrande,andPalpavalleys.ThevesselislowwalledandsharplyconvexwithanalmostCshapedprofile,although
variantscanbestraightersided.TheformappearstoderivefromOcucajephase10negativedecoratedshape5band5cbowls(seeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson
1964:fig.25).Itisusuallyanoxidized,lightbrownbuffwarewithavaryinglyeven,smooth,andmattesurfacefinish.Wateryredorwhitestripesmaybepaintedonits
exterior(e.g.,Strong1957:fig.8C,E).FollowingMenzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:252),theseNasca1bowlscanbeconsidered"fineplainware."Whenanalysis
ofsurfacecollectionsofNasca1bowlsrecoveredduringthe19881989surveyiscompleted,itislikelythatthisbowltypewillbefurthersubdivided.
Bowl2(fig.16.35a)isanexceptionallylarge,deep,convexbowl.Theoneexampleofthisbowlformhasamouthdiameterof35centimeters.Thelipisroundand
unthickenedandformsacontinuoussteepcurvewiththevesselwall.Thevesselsurfacewasprobablyslippedredallover(exteriorandinterior).Thevesselis
completelyoxidized,andpastecolorisred(Munsell2.5YR54/6).Thepasteisfairlyhardwithoccasionaltinywhiteroundinclusions.
Bowl3isaverylargeunoxidizedblackwarebowlthatispolishedonbothsides.Itsexteriorisrippledfromthe

Page251

16.34.
Nasca1Bowl1.a:Excavation7,Stratum5.b:Excavation12,
Stratum10.c:TestPit7,Level1.d:Excavation11,Stratum11.e:
Excavation11,Stratum12.f:Excavation12,Stratum7.g:
Excavation12,Stratum9.h:TestPit7,Level1.

finishingprocessbutsmooth.Itisquiteheavyandhasaporouspastewithabundanttinywhiteinclusions.Thebowlhasaflatorinteriorbeveledlip.ThisNasca1
vesselshape,sometimeswiththickerwalls,wascollectedduringthe19881989survey.Fromthesurveycollections(fig.16.36),Inowknowthatthisvesselhasan
unexpectedchangeinwallangleabout5centimersbelowthelipandthatitbecomesquitedeep,atleast15centimeters.JohnyIsla(personalcommunication1991)
believesthatthisformcontinuesintoNasca3IamlesscertainaboutthisbecauseIhaveneverobserveditisolatedinNasca2or3contexts.Still,Iraisethisasa
possibilitytobeconfirmedordisproveninthefuture.Atthesametime,IwishtoindicatethesimilaritybetweenthisNasca1vesselformandoneofPeters's(1987
1988:fig.6topleft)Chongosforms.Also,thissamekindofvesselappearstobepresentattheTopartraditionQuebradasiteinCaete(slidekindlyduplicatedfor
mebyDwightWallaceseeWallace1986).
Bowl4(fig.16.35b)isadiagnosticNasca1shapethatIpreviouslyidentifiedasanextremelywide,shallow,openbowl(Silverman1986:262,fig.310).Sherds
recoveredonthe19881989survey,however,indicatethatthe"markedirregularitynearthebaseofthebowl"Ihadobservedis,infact,wherethevesselbecomes
remarkablydeepbottomed.Thebowlcanbethickwalled.Thelipisunthickenedandslightlyflatatthetop.Thesurfacefinishisroughandmatteandsomewhat
ridgedonboththeinteriorandexterior.Theinteriorexhibitsparallelstriationsindifferentdirections.Exteriorsurfacecolorislightgraytoverypalebrown(Munsell
10YR7/23).Interiorsurfacecolorislightreddishbrowntolightbrown(Munsell5YRto7.5YR6/4).OnsurveyIhavemorecommonlyobservedthisshapeas
blackwareorsmudgedwareitisincompletelyoxidized.Thepasteiscoarsewithabundantsmallangularinclusions.
Bowl5(fig.16.35c)isrelatedtoBowl3initswallbreak,color,paste,andfinish.Itisaverylarge,thinwalled,deepbottomed,unoxidizedblackwarebowlwhichis
polishedonbothsides.Itsexteriorisrippledfromthefinishingprocessbutsmooth.Ithasaporouspastewithabundanttinywhiteinclusions.Thisvesselshapealso
appearstoberelatedtoChongosforms(seePeters19871988:fig.6topleft).
Bowl6(fig.16.37)isthefine,plainslipped,relativelyhighwalled,sharpbasalangledbowldiscussedbyMenzel,Rowe,andDawson(1964:252253).Thisbowl
formisrelatedtoCahuachiPolishedBlackIncisedBowl2andmayberelatedtoCahuachiStylusDecoratedBowl2.ItmayalsoberelatedtooneofWallace's
(1986:fig.3b)Chongosforms.
SeveralotherNasca1bowlforms,notillustratedhere,wereidentifiedduringthe19881989survey.Excavationathabitationsiteswilleventuallytellusiftheseforms
arerestrictedtoNasca1orderivefromlateParacas.
EarlyNascaBowlForms
Bowl7(fig.16.38)is,atpresent,acatchallcategoryforaseriesofaveragesized(1721centimetersindiameter)deepbowlswithwallsthataverage8millimetersin

Page252

16.35.
a:Nasca1Bowl2surfacefind.b:Nasca1Bowl4recoveredinside
Feature80vessel.c:Nasca1Bowl5Room1,surfacefind.

16.36.
Nasca1Bowl3.

16.37.
Nasca1Bowl6.a:Excavation11,Stratum12.
b:Excavation11,Stratum11.c:
Excavation7,Stratum3.

16.38.
EarlyNascaBowl7.a:Excavation7,Stratum3.
b:Feature60inExcavation11.

thickness.Thesebowlstypicallyhaveacoarsepaste,maybecompletelytoincompletelyoxidized,maybefirecloudedand/orsooted,andhavesomewhatirregular
surfacesthatcanberippledbutfairlysmooth.ThebowlsareNasca,butIdonotknowiftheypertaintoanyparticularNascaphase,thoughthevesselillustratedin
figure16.38aappearstoexhibitawallbreakleadingtoadeepbottomthatisreminiscentofNasca1Bowl5.
Bowl8(fig.16.39)correspondstotwominiaturedeepbowls.Despitethesmallsizeofthesevessels,thevesselwallsarequitethick.Theselittlebowlsvaryinsurface
finishfromsmudged,rough,andmattetomuchmoreeven,slipped,andsmooth.
Bowl9(fig.16.40)isanothercatchallcategoryforsmall,wellmadebowls.One(fig.16.40a)isafine

Page253

16.39.
EarlyNascaBowl8(miniaturedeep
bowls).a:Excavation7,Stratum3.b:
TestPit7,Level1.

16.40.
EarlyNascaBowl9.a:Excavation13,
Stratum3.b:TestPit4,Level7.

monochromerimofavesselslippeddarkgray(Munsell7.5R4/4)onbothsides.Thesurfaceismatte,smooth,andeven.Theotherbowl(fig.16.40b)isslippedvery
darkgraytoduskyred(Munsell7.5R3/02)andhasaverylightlypolishedinterior.Itsexteriorsurfaceismatte,even,andsmooth.
Jars
Jarsaredistinguishedfrombottlesbyhavingawideandshortneck.Presumablytheyhadglobularbodies.AlljarfragmentsrecoveredfallwithinProulx's(1968)
categoryofcollaredjars.Threekindsofplainwarejarscanbedistinguishedonthebasisofrimmorphology.

16.41.
Jars.a:Jar1Excavation7,Stratum3.
b:Jar1Room4,surfacefind.c:Jar2
Excavation2,Stratum6.

Jar1(fig.16.41a,b)isacollaredjarthathasadistinctivetallundulatingprofilewithastronglyevertedlipandbulbousmidsection.Theexamplesareselfslippedbut
varygreatlyincolorfromreddishbrowntobrowntoverypalebrown(Munsell2.5YR5/4to7.5YR65/2to10YR7/3).Thesejarshavematte,fairlyevensurfaces.
Pasteishardandcoarsewithabundantvisibleinclusions.
Jar2(fig.16.41c)issimilarinshapetoJar1,butitsneckisshorterandwiderthanJar1'salthoughtallerthanJar3's.Ithasadistinctiveundulatingprofilewitha
stronglyevertedlip.Itcanhaveabulbousmidsection.ThesejarsareselfslippedbutvarygreatlyincolorinthesamewayasJar1.
ThesherdsfromJar3(fig.16.42)correspondtoacollaredjarwhoseneckismuchshorterandwiderthanthatofJar1.Theneckjoinsthebodyinasmoothercurve.
Therearetwobasicvariants:aneckthatisstraightorinsloping(fig.16.42ad)andaneckthatiseverted(fig.16.42e).OursamplescorrespondtoProulx's(1968:
fig.14AG)examplesofthisshape,bearinginmindthedifferencesthatcanbetheresultofhismaterialbeingfinewareandoursbeingplainwareandthatthelipofour
jarsmayberoundorsomewhatsquaredoff.AllofourplainwareJar3'sareselfslipped,andsurfacecolor

Page254

16.42.
Jar3.a:TestPit2,Level4.bd:Feature75,
Element1inExcavation14.e:TestPit
15,Level1.

variesfrompinktodarkgray(Munsell5YR7/34to2.5YR4/4).Allhavesoftcoarsepastewhichmaycontainmica.Surfacefinishingcanvarygreatlyfrommatteand
uneventopolishedandfairlysmooth.
Vases
Vases,followingProulx's(1968:13)definitionofdecoratedvases,are"tallcylindershapedjarswhoseheightisgreaterthanthemouthdiameter."Althoughacomplete
plainwarevasewasnotfound,itispresumedbyvirtueoftherimprofilethatthesesherdscorrespondtotallvessels,thoughsomearepossiblymoresquatthan
cylindrical.Threebasictypescanbedefined.
Vase1isavesselwhoseexteriorprofileismarkedbyanoticeableinflectionpointjustbeneaththelip,creatingapronouncedeversion(fig.16.43a).Thevesselshave
selfslippedexteriorsandvaryincolorfromlightgraytoreddishbrown(Munsell5YR7/1to5YR5/34).Surfacesarematteandfairlysmooth.Theexteriorsurface
mayberidgedfromthefinishingprocess.Theinteriorisselfslippedandroughtothetouchbuteventotheeye.Theclaycanbefoldedovertheliptotheinteriorofthe
vessel(fig.16.43b).
Vase2(fig.16.43c)hasadirect,inslopingrim.LikeVase1,thisvasehasafoldedoverlip.Thislipandinnersurfacehavebeenpolished.Theexteriorsurfaceofthe
vesselislightlypolishedandfairlysmooth.Itisselfslippedpinkishgraytolightbrown(Munsell7.5YR6/24).Theinteriorofthevesselisrough,matte,andalsoself
slipped.

16.43.
Vases.a:Vase1TestPit13,Level4.b:Vase1Excavation12,
Stratum5.c:Vase2Excavation12,Stratum3.d:Vase3Excavation19,fill.

16.44.
Plainwarebasketvesselfrom
Burial8atUnit19.

Vase3(fig.16.43d)hasabulbous,elongatedformandanalmostflatlip,slightlyroundedtowardandslightlythickenedontheinterior.Thelipispaintedblack.The
exteriorsurfaceisblack(Munsell2.5YR3/8)andisverysmooth,even,andpolished.Theinteriorishorizontallyparallelstriatedasaresultoffinishing.Interiorcoloris
gray(Munsell2.5YR6/6).
BasketVessels
AplainwarebasketwasrecoveredfromBurial8atopUnit19(fig.16.44).TheBurial8basketwoulddatetoNasca3onthebasisofitsotherceramicassociations.
ItsneckandbodyshapearestronglyreminiscentofKroeber'sNasca3Acookingpot(illustratedbyProulx1968:fig.17A)thehandlesattachfromthevesselbody
totheneck,atraitcharacteristicofphase3Candlaterand,

Page255

16.45.
CornpopperfromExcavation11,Stratum4.

possibly,oftheIcavalley.Thevesselhasagrittysurfacefinishandisfirecloudedoverayellowishbuffsurfacecolor.Thehandleisquitehighandarched.Thelip
showsthesamecharacteristiceversionthatwesawinNeckedOlla1shapes.Theplainwarebasketvesselhasitsparallelinthedecoratedbasketvesselsdiscussed
earlierinthischapter.
CornPoppers
FromthewellpreparedStratum4floorinExcavation11atUnit19(chap.13)cameauniquesherd(fig.16.45)identifiedasacornpopper(comparetoRowe1944:
fig.8k).Itissootedandhasaverycoarsepastewhoseinclusionsgivethesurfaceagrittyfeel.
Handles
SixkindsofhandlesfromutilitarianvesselswererecoveredinexcavationsatCahuachi.Inadditiontothissherdmaterial,handleswerepresentonsixwholeutilitarian
vesselsrecoveredinexcavation.

16.46.
Handle1.a:TestPit15,Level
2.b:PointSample1.

Handle1(fig.16.46)isthesmallestofthehandles.Itispositionedverticallyandisalmostroundincrosssection.
Handle2(fig.16.47)variesincrosssectionfromalmostroundtoovoid.Itcorrespondsmostlytolargevesselstojudgebyitsownsize.Itispositionedverticallyon
thevessel.
Handle3(fig.16.48)isverysimilartoHandle2saveitssideswhicharedeliberatelybeveled,creatingadistinctivebilobalcrosssectionwithanalmostflat,lower,
middlesection.Thisisclearlythemostpopularhandleform.
Handle4(fig.16.49a,b)consistsoftwocoilhandleswhoserollsofclayarejoinedtogether.Thesehandleshaveaverydistinctive"doublestrand"crosssection.
Proulx(1968:32)specificallyidentifiesthemascharacteristicoftheearlierphases(i.e,earlyNasca3).Theexamplesrecoveredbymyprojectareallmatte,even,and
smooth.Colorcanrangefromblack(Munsell7.5YR2/0)topinkishgray/lightbrown(Munsell7.5YR6/24).Onthebasisofthenewsurveycollections,Inowbelieve
thatthesetwocoilhandlesdatetopreNasca3timesaswell.Excavationisneededathabitationsitestopindownthechronologyofthesehandlesandthevesselsto
whichtheycorrespond.
Handle5(fig.16.49c)mayderivefromHandle4byjoiningandsmoothingsoastoalmosterasethetraceof

Page256

16.47.
Handle2.a:Excavation6,Stratum3a.b:TestPit4,Level6.c:
PointSample1.d:Excavation17,surfacefind.

16.48.
Handle3.a:TestPit18,Level1.b:Excavation13,Stratum3.c:Excavation
6,Stratum3.d:Feature60inExcavation11.

16.49.
Handles.a:Handle4Excavation7,Stratum3.b:Handle4Excavation
11,Stratum7.c:Handle5UnitF,Stratum1.

Page257

twocoils,therebyaccountingforitsdistinctlysunkenmiddleincrosssection.
Ioccasionallyobservedbraidedhandles(Handle6,notillustratedhere)onthesurfaceofCahuachi,similartotheonesillustratedbyMenzel,Rowe,andDawson
(1964:fig.26c,d)forOcucaje10cookingollas.Onthebasisofoursurveycollections,ItentativelysuggestthatthesehandlessurviveintoNascatimes.
CommentsontheNasca1PotteryatCahuachianditsImplications
VirtuallynoneoftheNasca1ceramiccorpusfromCahuachiorfromNasca1habitationsiteslocatedonsurveycanbederivedfromlocalRoGrandedeNazca
antecedents.IsuggestthatpatternburnishingatCahuachiandinNazcawasanintroductionfromtheIcavalleywhereitdevelopedoutofthe"trendtowardsshallow
incisionsondecorativegraters"inthelateOcucaje(Paracas)ceramiccorpus(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:155,comparefig.41ato54b).Atthesametime,
wemustrecognizethatOcucaje10potterywasheavilyinfluencedbytheToparJahuay3phase(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:211,213,259)andthatNasca
1andToparChongosphasepotteryshareseveralsignificantshapesandfeatures(seeMenzel1971:116118),withthemajordifferentiatingexceptionofslip
paintediconographyinNasca.Thespecificsoftheseformalsimilaritieshavebeendetailedabove.
Wallace(1986:4546)hasarguedthatthespreadsouthwardofToparceramictraitswastheresultofanadvancingstatefrontier.Thediscontinuitybetweenlate
EarlyHorizonandearlyEarlyIntermediatePeriodpotteryatCahuachiandinNazcacouldsupportWallace'scontention,ascoulddramaticchangesobservedinvalley
settlementpatterns(theconstructionhistoryofCahuachiisstilltoopoorlyknowntocommentonthis).Analternativeexplanationwouldbethatproposedby
Lumbreras(1974a:8788),whoarguesthatpolychromeresinpaintedpotteryandthinwalled,wellmademonochromepotteryweretwocoexistingtechnological
aspectsofasingleceramictraditionitremainstobeseenifthathypotheticalceramictraditioncorrespondstoasinglemacroethnicgroup/society.Athirdinterpretation
isofferedbyMenzel(1971:116118),whoforcefullyarguesthatChongosandNasca1potterycorrespondtodistinctculturesthatsharedrootsandwereinintense
andcompetitivecontact.Thisisoneofthemostimportantissuesfacingsouthcoastarchaeologists.Itwillnotberesolvedwithoutexcavationathabitationsitesinallof
theaffectedvalleys.Atpresent,IwouldsaythatNasca1potteryatCahuachiandintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageis,essentially,Toparpotterywithtwo
significantqualifications.First,ToparpotteryiswelloxidizedwhereasourToparlikecorpusisnotalwayssofired.Second,atCahuachi(andrarelyinordinary
Nasca1habitationsites)therearenotableamountsoficonographicallycomplex,slippaintedpotteryforexample,Strong's(1957:fig.10)Nasca1typescalled
CahuachiPolychromeIncisedandModeledThinandCahuachiPolychromeIncisedThickthatdevelopedsmoothlyoutofOcucaje10antecedents.AtCahuachi
andintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage,Nasca2developedsmoothlyoutofthisslippainted,motifbearingNasca1corpus.
CeramicChronologyatCahuachi
Strong(1957:2829,3132,34)concludes,onthebasisofthepotteryherecoveredthroughexcavation,thatCahuachi'smainoccupationcorrespondedtoGayton
andKroeber'sNazcaAphase,whattodayisidentifiedasNasca3(seeProulx1968:97).Herecognizes,however,thattherewasamajorProtoNazca(Nasca1)
andEarlyNazca(Nasca2)occupationatthesite.HealsoarguesthattherewasanareaofLateParacasdomesticdwellings(Strong1957:13)but,ashasbeen
showninchapter3,mostofStrong'sLateParacasmaterialtodayfallswithinthedefinitionofNasca1(seeMenzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:251256).
Strong(1957:24)notesthatitwasdifficulttodistinguishbetweenEarlyNazcaandNazcaAPolychromeonthebasisofsherdmaterials,aproblemIandall
investigatorshavehad.Thus,Iwasabletoconclusivelyphaseonlyapproximately30percentofthetotalnumberofdiagnosticsherdsrecoveredinthecourseof
excavation.Nevertheless,thedatingofthisphaseablematerialunambiguouslyconfirmsStrong'sobservationsandtheBerkeleyteam'slaterinterpretationofStrong's
material(seeProulx1968:9798).TheapogeeofCahuachiclearlyoccurredinepoch3oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodandwasprecededbythegrowthofthesite
inepochs1and2(figure16.50).AsProulx(1968:98)indicates,Cahuachisufferedasignificantdeclineinepoch4oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodcorrespondingto
Nasca4oftherelativeceramicchronology.Wehavesignificantbutminorevidenceforacontinuationofsomeactivityatthesiteinepoch5oftheEarlyIntermediate
Period(seechap.12)butvirtuallynoevidenceofuseotherthanforburialinthesucceedingepochsoftheEarlyIntermediatePeriod.

Page258

16.50.
HistogramshowingpercentagesofphaseableNasca
potteryfromexcavationsatCahuachi.Nasca3is
clearlytheapogeeofthesite.

SpatialCorrelatesoftheDistributionofEarlyNascaPotteryatCahuachi
EarlyNascapotteryatCahuachiconformstotheabundantlypublishedcorpus.Itoccursinfourmajorspatialcontexts:scantilyonthesurfaceofunlootedareas
betweenmounds,invaryingamountsonthemounds,moderatelytoabundantlyinlootedareasbetweenthemounds,andaswholevesselsandsherdsintombsatop
mounds.Nasca1potteryoccursinthefirstthreecontextsbutinlesseramountsthanNasca2,3,and4ceramicremains.TherearenopublishedreportsofParacas,
Nasca1,andNasca2tombsatCahuachi,thoughthesetombsmayexist.Farabee'sNasca2tombs,saidtobefromCahuachi,donotnecessarilycomefromthesite
ofCahuachiitself.AburialdiscoveredbyStronginBurialArea2isearlyNascabyvirtueoftheassociatedbrokenvesselfoundwithit(drawnontheproject'sfile
card,316)butcannotbeattributedwithcertaintytoNasca2asCarmichael(1988:appendix1)claims.
NascapotteryoccursindifferentcontextsatCahuachiandfulfilleddifferentfunctionsinthesediversecontexts.Nascapotteryisnotevenlydistributedoverthesite
surface.Thisunevennessindistributionanddensityisclearlyvisibleifwecomparetheceramicscollectedintwopointsamplesfromtheunlooted,unconstructedarea
enclosedbyUnit16withthepotterycollectedinfourpointsamplesonthelootedsurfacenorthofUnit19andifwecomparethesefourpointsamplesamong
themselves(table16.10).Ingeneral,openlootedareashavefargreateramountsofsurfacematerial,includingpottery,thanunlootedopenareas.Unfortunately,Ido
nothavesherdcountswithwhichtocomparethenumberanddensityofceramicremainsonmounds(seechap.5).Nevertheless,thesurveyofCahuachiclearly
revealedagreatdisparityintheamountofsurfacematerialonthevariousmounds.Lootedmoundstypicallyhadmuchgreateramountsofsurfacematerialthan
unlootedmounds.Forinstance,Units2,11,19,A,andKhavefarmoresurfacematerialthanUnits1,5,6,or9.Theissueofsurfaceceramicremainsisdirectly
relatedtothenatureandfunctionofthemound.Ifamoundservedfortombs(whatKroeberaptlycalled"burialterraces"),itwaslootedwhenlooted,largeamounts
ofceramicswerebroughttothesurface.
Table16.10.NumberofSherdsRecoveredinPointSamples
PointSample

NumberofSherds

105

94

27

LocalDifferencesinEarlyNascaPotteryatCahuachi
Proulx(1968)hasidentifiedsubtlelocaldifferencesinproveniencedNasca3and4potteryand,onthisbasis,statesthatIcavalleypotterycanbedifferentiatedfrom
Nazcavalleypottery.Implicitinhisanalysisisthebeliefthatthosepotsfoundinaparticularvalleyweremanufacturedbypeopleresidentinthatvalley.Thisisan
assumptionthathasyettobedemonstratedbytechnicalceramicanalysis.Alsoimplicitisthenotionofstylisticchronologicaluniformityinthepotteryofthemulti
tributaryRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(asopposedto,forinstance,geographicvariation).CeramicanalysisofsurveycollectionsfromthevariousNazcavalleysand
excavationathabitationsiteswillconfirmordisputethisassumption.AssumingProulxiscorrect,canwerecognizeregionaldifferencesintheCahuachiceramic
material?
DiagnosticNazcaValleyPottery
AsherdfromalargeclosedvesselfromtheStratum2fillintheblockeddoorinthesouthwallofRoom6depictsanAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing.Thesherd
showsasignificantportionofthehandgraspingtheclub.The

Page259

thumbhasadistinctivetriangularshape(fig.16.51),whichsuggestsaNazcavalleyprovenience(seeProulx1968:appendix5,pl.1c).
Theforestbirddoublespoutandbridgebottle(fig.16.1)fromBurial8datestoNasca3Aor3B.ItappearstobefromNazcabecauseoneofthebirdshasanextra
segmentbetweenthepouchandlobesfromwhichthefeetemerge.Also,thebirdshavecompletelysegmentedunderbelliesthistraitisnotfoundintheIcavalley
(Proulx1968:36).
Proulx(1968:92)statesthatheadjarsareexclusivelyaNazcavalleyform.AnalmostcompleteheadjarwasrecoveredbyMiguelPazosinPassageway1onUnit19
(fig.16.19).Variousotherfragmentsofheadjarswerefound.ThesetoowouldcomefromtheNazcavalley.
DiagnosticIcaValleyPottery
FromStratum6ofExcavation6atthebaseofUnit19twolargerimsherdsfromopenbowlswererecoveredwhichdepictfullfacetrophyheads.Thesesherdsare
probablyattributabletoNasca4intheIcavalleybecausetrophyheadsarefrequentlydepictedasindependentthemesintheIcavalleyinphase4,fullfacetrophy
headsaredrawnasindependentelementsforthefirsttimeonlyinNasca4,andintheNazcavalleyindependent,fullfacedepictionoftrophyheadsisalmost
nonexistent(Proulx1968:8990).
Adecoratedpanpipefragmentonwhichagarzaisrepresented(fig.16.22)wasrecoveredfromStratum5ofExcavation13(chap.12).ItdatestoNasca3B.Iargue
thatitcomesfromtheIcavalleyonthebasisofitsScurveneck,shortorangebeak,andorangeeye,andthefactthatgarzasareextremelyrareinNazca(Proulx
1968:46).
AsherdfromPointSample1onTerraceIVofUnit19isfromalargeclosedvessel.Thesherdconservesasegmentedcircle(fig.16.52).Thismotifisidentifiedby
Proulx(1968:appendix5,pl.27a)astypicalofphase4intheIcavalley.
Theutilitarianbasketshapedpot(fig.16.44)fromBurial8canbearguedtobeofIcavalleyprovenienceonthebasisofitsshape(comparabletoProulx1968:fig.
17E)andthefactthatthehandlesattachtoboththebodyandrim(Proulx1968:fig.17C,E).ANasca3Bto3Cdateisalsosuggestedonthebasisofthesefeatures.
Thissuggesteddateconformstothephaseofdecoratedpotteryfromthisburial(seechap.14).

16.51.
Sherddisplayingapointedthumb,presumably
diagnosticofpotterymadeintheNazcavalley.

16.52.
Thelargesherdinthecenterofthephotographdisplaysa
segmentedcircle,presumablydiagnosticofpotterymade
intheIcavalleyduringEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch4.

IarguedabovethattheNasca3forestbirddoublespoutandbridgebottleinBurial8(fig.16.1)hasaNazcavalleyprovenience.Ontheotherhand,thebirdsonthis
vesselallhavefeetthatemergedirectlyfromtheunderbellywithoutlegsasisseeninProulx's(1968)plates13Band14AfromtheIcavalley.Nevertheless,Proulx
(1968:36)maintainsthatallhummingbirds(abirdverycloselyrelatedtotheforestbird)havefeetwhichattachtolegsinIcawhereassomeofthesebirdsinNazcado
not,butthisisnotborneoutbyhisplates13Band14A.

Page260

ChapterSeventeen
OtherCeramicArtifacts
Figurines
OnthesurfaceoftheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19atgridpointN16/E45,asolidmodeledceramicfigurinethathasbeenbrokenandlacksitsheadandlowerleft
legwasrecovered(fig.17.1).Preservedheightofthefigurineis88millimeters.Maximumwidthis58millimeters.Maximumthicknessis24millimeters.Thefigurineis
completelyoxidized,andtheclayisabrightorange.Thepasteisgrittywithabundantsmallwhiteinclusionsandoccasionaltinypebbles.Thefigurinehasbeenslipped,
buttherearenotracesofpainteddecoration.Surfacecolorislightreddishbrowntolightred(Munsell2.5YR6/46).ClearlythefigurineisNasca.Itisidenticalinits
slightlybentbodyposture,size,andformtootherNascafigurines,suchastwopublishedbyMorgan(1988:pls.I1,2,3).Itmay,therefore,datetoNasca4or5.
PerforatedandUnperforatedCeramicDisks
Atotalofelevenreutilizeddiscoidalsherdswerefound.Threethatareperforatedmaybespindlewhorls.AlthoughStrong(1957:28)suggeststhattheremainsinhis
Cut5(Unit7)pertainedtoatextilecraftarea,nomentionofspindlewhorlsismadeinthefieldnotes,andspindlewhorlsareunreportedbyPhipps(1989).Thesethree
artifactsarepiecesofbrokenpotterythathavebeenmodifiedintodisksthroughwhichacentralholehasbeendrilled(seefig.17.2foranexample).Thesediscoidal
artifactshavebeenmadefromclosedutilitarianvesselsthatwereslippedontheexteriorbutnottheinterior.Thesherdswerenotperfectlysmoothedround.Their
holesvaryincentricityandsize(from6to12millimeters).Thethicknessoftheseartifactsisbetween5and6millimeters.Diametersrangefrom36to42millimeters.
Eightofthereutilizedsherdsareunperforatedceramicdisks(seefig.17.3forexamples).Thislackofperforationsuggeststhattheyfunctioneddifferentlyfromthe
perforateddiskstheymighthavebeenplugs.Someweremadefromsherdsfromopenvesselssincetheyareslippedonbothsidesothersweremadefromsherds
fromclosedvesselswhichwereslippedontheexterioronly.Theyrangefrom22to50millimetersacrossandfrom5to11millimetersinthickness.
OtherReutilizedSherds
Alarge,roughlytriangularreutilizedsherdfromanopenslippedvesselwithasmooth,evensurfacewasrecovered.Itshowsabrasiononthetwolongestsides(fig.
17.4).Itmeasures13by6.9centimetersandis1centimeterthick.
RepairedSherds
Variousexamplesofrepairedpotterywererecovered,andmanymoreareknownfromtheliteratureandmuseums.Onesherdwitharepairholeisnoteworthyforthe
ornatenessofthecordtiegoingthroughitsrepairhole(fig.17.5).Thevesselisanoxidizedslippedbowl

Page261

17.1.
BrokenNascafigurine.

17.2.
Exampleofaperforatedceramicdiskmadefrom
areutilizedsherd.Excavation11,Stratum7.

withmarkedbasalangle.Therepairholeisjustabovethebasalangle.
Beads(?)
Anotherceramicobjectisarounded,truncated,littlecone.Ithasadarkbrownsurfacecolorandanincisedgeometricdesign(fig.17.6).Becauseofitssmallsizeand
finedecoration,itispossiblethatthisisaceramicbead(comparetoWilley1943:163,fig.8d).Alternatively,itmaybeaspindlewhorl(comparetoKroeber1944:
fig.7).

17.3.
Examplesofunperforatedceramicdisksmade
fromreutilizedsherds.a:Excavation2,
Stratum2.b:Room6,fill.c:TestPit13,
Level13.d:TestPit1,Level1.

17.4.
Reutilizedsherd.Excavation7,Stratum3.

SpecialObject
Figure17.7illustratesanobjectwhosepurposeisuncertain.Twolittle(20by10millimeters)piecesofthick(7.5and8millimeters)utilitarianpotteryareseparately
andsecurelytiedbyathincottonstringwhichjoinsthem,forminganartifactthatlookslikeaminiatureortoyversionofbalancingscales.Itisasurfacefindfromthe
top

Page262

17.5.
RepairedsherdfromsummitsurfaceofUnit
19.Top:front.Bottom:back.

oftheUnit19mound.AsomewhatsimilarartifactisillustratedbyTelloandMejaXesspe(1979:fig.396)theyshowalittleroundrocktiedwithcordwhich,along
withotherlittleriverwornrocks,isinterpretedasnetweightsandsymbolicofferings.
UnbakedClayObjects
Threeobjectsofunbakedclaywererecovered.One(fig.17.8)wasrecoveredfromwithinFeature75Element1,thelargesubsurfacestoragevesseljustnorthofthe
RoomofthePostsatUnit19(seechap.12).Theobjectisbrokenbutcanbeseentobeathicktubewithapreservedlengthof41millimetersanddiameterof25.5
millimeters.Thisobjectdoesnotcorrespondtoanunfiredspoutfromadoublespoutandbridgebottlenor

17.6.
Smallceramicobjectwithinciseddesign,possibly
abeadorspindlewhorl.

17.7.
ObjectofuncertainfunctionfromsummitsurfaceofUnit19.Two
smallplainwaresherdsaretiedtogetherwithathincottonstring.

Page263

17.8.
Unbakedclaytube.

doesitappeartobeatemplatearoundwhichclaywouldhavebeenwrapped.Itsfunctionisunknown.
Anotherobjectofunbakedclay,aminiaturebrazierlikebowl,wasrecoveredwithBurial8(seefig.18.3).

17.9.
Miniatureunbakedclaybowl.

Thefinalobjectofunbakedclay,alsoadeepminiaturebowl(fig.17.9),wasfoundinthenichelikedepressioninWall31intheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19(see
chap.12).Itsdiameteris3centimeters,anditsheightis2centimeters.LikethelittlebowlassociatedwithBurial8,thisonehasalsobeenmodeledwhiletheclaywas
plasticfingerimpressionsarereadilyvisible.

Page264

ChapterEighteen
TextileArtifacts
TextilesarebyfarthemostabundantnonceramicartifactrecoveredatCahuachi.Theseremainsencompassspecialartifactsaswellasmiscellaneousbitsandwadsof
unspuncottonfiber,individualfragmentsofsingleandmultiplethreadsofvariouscolorsandplies,scrapsofundyedplainweavesandtwocolored(whiteandbrown,
bothfromnativePeruviancotton)patternedplainweaves,embroideredplainweaves,threedimensionalimages,fineborders,nettedorloopedfragments,textilerope
orcord,possibleturbantiesand/orbelts,andotheritemswhosefunctionisnotyetknown.
Feature17
Feature17istheveryspecialartifactfoundinExcavation4(seechap.9fig.18.1).Theobjectisroughlycrossshapedandisformedofacaneframefilledwithwool
(unidentified)andwrappedaroundwithacoarsecottonplainweavethatistiedtothecaneframewithstring.Thisconstructionmethodisclearlyvisibleonthedorsal
sideoftheobject.SomewhatsimilarobjectsareillustratedbyKroeber(1954:fig.33).
Thecrossisnotsymmetrical.Itsrightarmisalmostsemihemispherical,whereasitsleftarmisnarrowerandlonger,endinginaslightlyoutflaringprotuberance.The
woolandplainweaveconstructionisvisibleonthefrontsideofthesearms.Theobjectis42centimeterslongand16centimeterswide,measuredfromarmtiptoarm
tip.Theleftarmis6.5centimeterslong,andtherightarmis4.5centimeterslong.
Thefrontsideisnoteworthybecauseoftheembroideredtextilefragmentthatwassewntotheplainweavecoveringtheframe.NobukoKajitani,atextileconservator
attheMetropolitanMuseumofArtandconsultanttotheUNESCOtextileconservationprogramattheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologa,examined
thisartifactin1985.Shebelievesthatthecoloredembroideryismadeofalpacawool.Sheobservesthatthetextileisaremnantofacompletetextile,giventhefact
thattheleftsideofthetextileisselvagewhereastherightsideistornitwasnotmadeespeciallyforthecaneobject.Shesuggeststhatthewidthoftheembroidered
areaandthefactthatthedesignsareorientedinonedirectionindicatethatthepiececomesfromarectangulartextileofthekindgenerallyconsideredtobea
headdress.AnnePaul(personalcommunication1986),basedonexaminationofslidesin1986,likewisebelievesthatthetextileisaborderfragmentfromaturban.
Shenotesthattheimagedepictedissimilartothoseoftenembroideredonturbans.
Theimageonthetextilefragmentisastandingfigureinfrontalpositionwithabroadlygrinningmouth(fig.18.2).Thearmsareflexedandextendedouttoeithersideof
thetorso.Appendages,terminatinginstylizedfelineandhumanfigures,flowfromthehead.Thelegspointinthesamedirectionandhangdownfromthetorso.Paul
considersthislegpositionpeculiar,forwithextendedarmsthelegsoughttobedepictedinasplayedposition.Shenotesthatthelegsnotonlypointinthesame
directionbutalsoareattachedtothebodyinareallybizarreway.Insteadofcomingoutofthebottomlineofthetorso(the"normal"wayofdoingitinParacas

Page265

18.1.
Feature17.AcrosslikeobjecttowhichafragmentfromalinearstyleParacasturbanhasbeenattached.Left:
frontview.Right:backview.

embroideredimages),theydanglefromonesideofthebody.Asnakelikeappendageortail,recurvinguptothecrookoftheleftelbow,wasplacedinthespace
createdbytheoffcenterlegposition.
Theembroiderywasdoneinorange,green,andyellowthreadsonadarkpurplishredbackground.KajitaniandPaulareinagreementthatthecolorsofthispieceare
notsimilartothosefoundinthetextilesfromtheNecropolislocusattheParacassiteontheParacasPeninsula,althoughthestyleofembroideryisthelinearstylefound
inNecropolisbundles.Furthermore,Kajitanisuspectsthatnocochinealhadbeenusedinthetextilebut,rather,madder(probablyrelbunium),avegetabledye
obtainedfromaroot.Tello'stextilesfromParacasusedcochineal.Interestingly,cochinealdoesnotappeartohavebeenusedinEarlyHorizontextilesfromOcucaje,
Karwa,orChucho,thoughthisstatementmaybeabitpremature.NorwascochinealusedinthetextilesGayton(1961)reportedfromYaucaorOcoa.Paulstates
thatthecolorsofthetextileremindherofthecolorsinborderfragmentsthatareallegedlyfromtheOcucajearea,particularlythecombinationofadeepburgundyand
aturquoisegreen.
ThistextileartifactiscontemporarywiththeParacassite'stextiles.PauldatesittoEarlyHorizon9or10,notingthatitisoftendifficulttodatepiecesdoneinthelinear
stylebecausesomelinearimagesarerepeatedwithvirtuallynochangeiniconographyoverquitelongspansoftime(seePaul1986).Theactualartifactcouldbean
heirloom,oritcouldhavebeenputtogetheraftertheEarlyHorizon9or10dateoftheremnanttextile'smanufacture.Thetextileappearstohavebeenmanufacturedat
alocationsouthoftheParacassite.
MiniatureClothDoll
AmongthevariousminiatureitemsassociatedwithBurial8onUnit19wasaclothdoll(fig.18.3).Althoughrare,Nascadollsareknown(seeHori19901991
Rowe19901991).

Page266

18.2.
DrawingofthemainimageontheFeature17artifact.A
standingfigureinfrontalpositionwithbroadlygrinning
mouthandappendages.Suggestedrelativedate:
EarlyHorizon9or10.

ThreeDimensionalFiguresandEmbroideredBands
Abundantfragmentsandcompletespecimensofvivid,polychrome,threedimensionallittlefigureswererecoveredatCahuachi.Mostofthesetextileremainscome
fromFeature80,thelargeutilitarianceramicvesselthat

18.3.
MiniaturetextileitemsfoundwithBurial8:clothdoll,
fragmentofpaintedtextile,threedimensionalfigures,other
clothscraps.Alsonotetinyunbakedclaybraziertowhich
thetagisattached.

18.4.
DetailofthreedimensionalbandonfuneraryshroudofBurial7.

wasfoundinsideawalledpatioatthebaseofUnit19(seechap.12).Theirtechniqueofmanufacturehasbeencalledbyvariousnamesintheliterature:loopstitch
(D'Harcourt1974),knitstemstitch(BirdandBellinger1954),andneedleknitted(O'Neale1937:172).
ThethreedimensionalfiguresrecoveredfromtheFeature80vesselrepresentflowers,plants,birds,killerwhales,parrots,andotherfigures.Thelittlefiguresarevery
similartothosepublishedbyBirdandBellinger(1954:pl.16).TheFeature80vesselalsocontainedcrocheted(?)crosses,narrowplainweavebandstowhichthe
individualthreedimensionalfigureswouldhavebeenattached,shapedblanksonwhichthefigures

Page267
Table18.1.DistributionofThreeDimensionalFiguresandAssociatedTextileRemains
No.a

Figure

Context

Description

Reference

Exc.19

fabricscoveredwithan
embroiderednetworkofloop
stitchc

D'H:pl.86Cb
T&M:fig.101C(lastoneright)
Eisleb:185

Room1

18.5

surface,Room5

figureholdingfan

Amano:52

surface,Wall10

D'H:pl.86A

18.6

surface,LER

bandwithtabs

D'H:pl.86A

18.7

surface,LER

parrot

D'H:pl.87C

18.8

Feature80

flowers

B&C:76

Feature80

variousfigures

D'H:pl.88

Feature80

birds,plants

B&C:76

10

18.9

Feature80

killerwhales

Amano:52

11

18.10

Feature80

flowers

B&C:76

12

18.11

Feature80

figuresattachedtoband

D'H:pl.87A,C

B&B:pl.CXI

13

18.12

Feature80

shapedbasefabricoverwhich
figureswillbeembroidered

14

18.13

Feature80

"PacMan"

15

18.14

Feature80

fabricoverwhichfigureswill
beembroidered

18

18.15

Feature80

bandoffabriccoveredwith
unravellingembroidered
networkofloopstitch

D'H:pl.87B

19

18.4

Burial7

borderdecoratedwithbirds
andplants

B&B:pl.CXIIrightd

a"No."referstoartifactnumbersdiscussedintext.Notethatanartifactnumberdoesnotnecessarilyimply

justonetextileremainbutcanrefertoseveralfragmentsofonetype.
b

Comparativereferencesareabbreviatedasfollows:Amano,MuseoAmanon.d.B&B,BirdandBellinger
1954B&C,BensonandConklin1981D'H,D'Harcourt1974Eisleb,Eisleb1975T&M,TelloandMeja
Xesspe1979.
cThedescriptionofalltextileremainsinthiscolumnis"fabriccoveredwithanembroiderednetworkofloop

stitch."Specificformsthisneedleworktakesaregivenforallnumberedartifactexamplesexceptartifacttype
2.
dBirdandBellinger(1954:82)notethatthistypeofknitstemstitchbordermatchesothersofsimilartype

from"NazcaA"graves,referringtoO'Neale(1937:pl.LXIIb).

wouldhavebeenelaborated,multicoloredthreads,andplainweavecloth.
AparticularlyfineborderofthreedimensionalfigureswasattachedtotheshroudofBurial7fromUnit19(fig.18.4).
Table18.1providesthecontextforeachofthethreedimensionalfiguresrecoveredatCahuachiincluding,whereverpossible,aparallelinthepublishedliteratureon
southcoasttextileart.(Figures18.5through18.15illustratethattable.)Thetextileartifactshavebeenarbitrarilynumberedforeaseofreference.
O'Neale(1937:176177)haswrittenthatthe"weaversoftheEarlyperiodinNazcaseemtohaverevelledinpassementeriesofthe3dimensionaltypeandveneered
bandswithtabsorfringesorboth."Phipps(1989:314315)specificallyconcludesthatthetextilesfromCahuachiarean"extensionanddevelopmentofthe
Necropolistraditionsespeciallyapreoccupationwithneedleworkasthedominantmodeoftextileexpression,althoughwedonotseetheidenticalproductionof
mainstreamNecropolisstyletextilesatthesite.Instead,thethreedimensionallyconstructedneedleworktook

Page268

18.5.
Threedimensionalfigureholdingfan.Top:front.
Bottom:back.

18.6.
Textilebandwithtabs.

18.7.
Threedimensionalparrot.

18.8.
Threedimensionalflowers.

Page269

18.9.
Threedimensionalkillerwhales.

18.10.
Threedimensionalflowerswithstems.

18.11.
Threedimensionalfiguresattachedtotextileband.

18.12.
Shapedbasefabricsreadytobeelaboratedinto
threedimensionalfigures.

18.13.
Threedimensionalfigurenicknamed"PacMan."

18.14.
Basefabricsoverwhichfigureswillbeembroidered.

18.15.
Bandoffabricwithunravellingembroidered
networkofloopstitch.

Page270
Table18.2.SummaryofBirrell'sAnalysisofTextilesinStrong'sCuts

TextileType

NumberofFragments
Cut1

Cut2

Cut3

Cut4

Cut5

Cut6

Cut7

Fringes

Embroideries

18.16.
Plainweavewithembroideredbandonselvage.

ondistinctiveanddominantcharacteristics,elaboratelydecoratingtheedgesofthetextiles."
O'Neale(1937:172178)discussesseveralsuchtextileremainsfromKroeber'sgraveexcavationsatCahuachi.Inaddition,Kroebercollectedsimilarfragmentson
thesurfaceofCahuachi(e.g.,catalognumber170211).
Strong(1957:28)reportsthatinCut5therewere"numerousclothfringesandotherunwornfragmentsfrombeautifullywovenandcoloredembroideriesaswellas
othertextiletypes."Birrell's(1961:3235)discussionandtabulationofStrong'sfringesandembroideredtextilesaresummarizedintable18.2.
Fivefragmentsofplainweaveexhibitembroideredbandsontheirselvages(seefigs.18.16and18.17fortwoexamples),similartothetypeillustratedbyO'Neale
(1937:pl.52c,d)formantle171220fromKroeber'sNasca3GraveAj10atCahuachi.Inallfivecasestheembroiderywasdonewitharussetorangethreadona
browncottonfabric.InthecaseofKroeber'sCahuachimantle,theembroiderywasdonewithnavyblue,russet

18.17.
Plainweavewithembroideredbandonselvage.

orange,yellow,andolivegreenthreadsonabrowncottonplainweavecloth(seeO'Neale1937:165,pl.33).Theseplainweavetextileswithembroideredbandswere
foundonthesurfaceofRooms3and4andTerracesIIIandIVatUnit19andintheFeature80storagevessel.
FilledCrocheted(?)Crosses
TheFeature80storagevesselcontainedvariouscrocheted(?)cottonoutlinesofsquarecrosses(seefig.18.18foranexample).Someofthesehavebeenfilledinwith
asimilarlymadesolidcolor(eitherredorgreen).
PatternedPlainweave
NinefragmentsofpatternedplainweavecottonclothwererecoveredatUnit19onthesurfaceofRooms1,2,3,and4,theLowerEasternRooms,andTerraceIII.
BypatternedplainweaveIrefertoplaidsandstripeswovenintothecloth(seefigs.18.19and18.20forexamples).

Page271

18.18.
Crossshapedoutlinesfilledwithcontrastingsolidcolor.Cotton.

Thedesigniscreatedthroughuseoftwokindsofcotton:anaturalwhitecottonandabrownindigenouscottonknownasalgodndelpas.Woolmayalsobeused.
D'Harcourt(1974:1619)andO'Neale(1937:160172)discussthedifferenttechniquesofmakingplaidandstripedplainweave.Thetextileillustratedinfigure18.20,
initsdesignandcoloring,issomewhatsimilartoaNasca2fragmentoftiedyedtextile"wovenwiththewarpyarnsdovetailingaroundascaffoldweft"publishedby
AnnRowe(1972).
AlloftheCahuachiexamplesareverysimilartothestripedandcheckerboardcottonandwoolmaterialsillustratedbyO'Neale(1937:pls.36,37),someofwhich
comefromKroeber'sgravesatCahuachi.GiventhepresenceoftombsatopUnit19,itishighlylikelythatmanyofourtextilefragmentslikewisecomefromlooted
graves.
UndecoratedPlainweave
Itisriskytodescribeafragmentarypieceofplainweaveclothwithoutselvagesasundecoratedsincetheedgescouldhavebeenspeciallytreated.Nevertheless,four
largepiecesandvariouslittlefragmentsofwhatmaybeundecoratedplainweavewererecoveredatCahuachi.Theyareallofwhiteorbrowncotton.Thepieceswere
recoveredfromthelootedsurfaceofRoom1onUnit19andfromthelootedBurial3onUnit19.KroeberrecoveredidenticalmaterialinhisgravesAj11andAj13
onUnitA.
Birrell(1961:table8)foundplainweave(includingdecoratedplainweavebutwiththeundecoratedplainweave

18.19.
Patternedplainweave.

18.20.
Patternedplainweave.

predominating)torepresentthevastmajorityofStrong'stextilecollectionsfromCahuachi,otherkindsofclothbeingtwill,gauze,doublecloth,andreversibleand
nonreversiblewarppickups.Phipps(1989:226)alsofoundundecoratedtextilestobemorecommonthandecoratedtextilesinStrong'scollectionsfromCahuachi.
TwinePlaitedBands(?)orOpenSpaceTapestry(?)
OnetextilefragmentrecoveredfromFeature80(fig.18.21)maycorrespondtowhatO'Neale(1937:pl.53b)illustratesasatwineplaitedband.Oritmaybeakind
ofopenspacetapestry(seeD'Harcourt1974:pl.13).TheartifactisillustratedheretofacilitatecomparisonwithO'Neale'sdiagramandD'Harcourt'sphoto.

Page272

18.21.
Twineplaited(?)band.

Netting
ThreetextilefragmentsfromCahuachihaveanetlikestructure.Nettedtextilescanbemadewiththick(seefig.18.22foranexample)orfinethreads.O'Neale(1937:
202,pl.65g,h)mentionsandillustratestwonettedspecimensfromKroeber'sgraveAgatCahuachi.Birrell(1961:31)notesthatknottednetting,loopwork,knot
lessnetting,andbraidingwerefoundinallofStrong'scuts,ranginginfrequencyfromonepieceinCut4tonineteenpiecesinCut5.Ourspecimensarewhite,red
andwhite,andmulticolored.TheywerefoundonthesurfaceofUnit19inRoom1andonTerraceII.
PlaitedBandsandCords
O'Neale(1937:pl.42)hasacategoryof"plaitedbandsandcords."Oneofourtextileartifactsmaycorrespondtothiscategory.Itisabraidedobjectwhosebraid
elementsarecomposedofthinnerbraidedstrings,eachoneadifferentnaturalcolor(white,buff,brown,black).Thesestringsareheldtogetherbyhavingbeen
wrappedaroundseveraltimeswithwhiteandbuffstring.Theobjectis6centimeterslong.ItwasrecoveredfrominsideFeature80.
TiedObjects
Severaltiedobjectswerefound.Oneisawadofcottonwrappedtightlywithstringitis25centimeterslong.Anotherisatinytuftoffurorwooltiedtightlysothatit
fansout(fig.18.23).Thisissurelyanornament.Itmeasuresapproximately20millimetersby15millimeters.
FeatheredTextiles
Figure18.24illustratesasurfacefindfromUnit19.Itisafragmentofacolorfulfeatheredtextile.Thesetextiles

18.22.
Netting.

18.23.
Tiedtuftoffurorwool.

18.24.
Fragmentoffeatheredtextile.

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18.25.
Cord.

areexceedinglyrareinNascaculturethoughknown(e.g.,BensonandConklin1981:7475).VariousfeatheredtextileobjectssaidtocomefromNazcaareillustrated
intheBancodeCrdito's(1986:94114)volumeonNascaart.Note,however,thatinthatvolumethereisapersistentconfusionofthegeographicalprovenience
withculturalidentification.MostofthefeatheredtextilesillustratedbytheBancodeCrditodatetothelaterhorizonsandcomefromWariandIncacontexts.
PaintedTextiles
EarlyNascapaintedclothshavebeenpublishedbySawyer(1979).Onlyonetinyscrapofapaintedtextile,foundinBurial8,wasrecoveredbymyproject(fig.
18.3).Strong,however,isreportedtohavefoundfragmentsofpaintedfabricsinvariousofhiscuts:eighteeninCut1,fourinCut2,fiveinCut3,fiveinCut5,and
seveninCut7(seeBirrell1961:table12Phipps1989:232233).
Cords
Cords(seefig.18.25foranexample)wererecoveredfromthesurfaceoftheLowerEasternRoomsandRoom1onUnit19,inStratum5ofExcavation6atthebase
ofUnit19,andinStratum6inExcavation1intheUnit16kancha.Noneofthesecordsisdecoratedordyed.
BraidsofHumanHair
Threelongthinbraidsofhumanhair(seefig.18.26foranexample)and/orwoolwererecoveredatCahuachi.Thesewouldhavebeenpartofelaborateheaddresses
(seeBancodeCrdito1980:157rightforanexample).TheywerefoundonthesurfaceofRoom2andtheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19andinStratum2of
Excavation1atUnit16.Birrell(1961:5)notesthepresenceofsmallcordsofhumanhairinStrong'scollections,ranginginquantityfromnoneinCut3tosixorseven
inCut2.

18.26.
Braidofhumanhair.

CottonandWool
Birrell(1961)observesthatcottonhadanoverallfrequencyof84percentascomparedtotheuseofwoolwhichwas16percentinStrong'scollections.Phipps's
(1989:221222)restudyofthismaterialyieldedsimilarresults.SheconcludesthatthemajorityofallwoventextilesatCahuachiwerecomposedofcotton,bothfor
thewarpandfortheweft.Fewitemscombinedfiberusage.Theproportionofwoolandcottoninourcollectionsremainstobedetermined.
ParacasandNascaTextilesatCahuachi
Feature17(fig.18.1),thetextilecoveredcross,istheonlytextileremainencounteredduringfieldworkatCahuachithatcanunambiguouslybeascribedtotheParacas
ratherthanNascatextiletradition.Specifically,itisanexampleofthelinearstylediscussedindetailbyPaul(1980,1982,1990:6973).
AlthoughthethreedimensionalfiguresrecoveredinFeature80arecomparabletoothersfoundonParacasmantles,theyarealsofullywithintheNascastyle(see,for
example,O'Neale1937:176177),andmanyarecomparabletopiecesKroeberrecoveredfromtheNasca3gravesheexcavatedonUnitAatCahuachi.Inthis

Page274

light,Phipps's(1989)studyofStrong'stextilematerialsisespeciallyrevealing.Phipps(1989:313314)concludesthattheCahuachitextilesrepresentalocaltradition
notidenticalwiththetextilesoftheParacassiteontheParacasPeninsula.TheNascatextiletraditionasO'Neale(1937)andPhipps(1989:314315)have
recognizedemphasizedoneparticularaspectoftheelaborateParacastextiletradition:threedimensionallyconstructedneedleworkasthedominantmodeoftextile
expression.InNasca,thisneedlework"tookondistinctiveanddominantcharacteristics,elaboratelydecoratingtheedgesofthetextiles"(Phipps1989:315).The
paucityofParacas(CavernasandNecropolis)textileremainsatCahuachiconformswiththeceramicevidencefromthesite.
TextileProductionandTextileUseatCahuachi
TheabundanceandnatureoftextileremainsatCahuachistronglysuggestthattextileproductionwasoccurringatthesite.AsevidenceIcancitethenumerousthreads
andcottonballsrecoveredbyStrongandmyselfaswellasneedles,heddles,ceramicspindlewhorls,andotherwoodentextilerelatedartifacts(seechap.19seealso
Pezzia1969:142foralistofweavingimplementsfoundinaNascatombatHda.Cahuachi).Phipps(1989:pl.246.2)illustratesastickwrappedwithcottonyarn
fromStrong'sCut7,whichsheplausiblyinterpretsasaspindle.
Phipps(1989:307)arguesthatthe"embroiderieswereproducedbyskilledcraftspeople,specializedintheneedlework"andthatweaverswovetheclothtowhich
elaborateembroiderieswereattached.ShedoesnotknownordoIiftherewereoneormoregroupsofprofessionaltextilecraftspeople.Nascatextileproduction
wascertainlynotrestrictedtothesiteofCahuachi.
Astowhatthetextilecorpustellsusaboutthesite,Phipps's(1989:203)studyofStrong'stextilecollectionsfromCahuachirevealsthat"withfewexceptions,all
fabricshadbeenusedrepeatedlybeforebeingdiscardedintothecontextfromwhichtheywereretrieved.Thefragmentaryandwornstateofthetextilesisevidenceof
theirrepeateduse,andtheirvaluedstatus.Manyhadpulledthreads,showedsignsofabrasion,staining,andotherindicationsofuse.Thestitchingofonepieceto
another,asasignofsecondaryuse,ratherthanastheoriginalgarmentconstruction,wasseeninmanyexamples.Layersoffabrics,stitchedtogether,werefoundin
severalcuts....relativelyfewpieceshadrepairs."ThenatureofthetextilefragmentsrecoveredbyStrongintheconstructionfillsofUnits5and6ledPhipps(1989:
310)toarguestronglythatCahuachiwas"anactivecenterwithdailyfunctionsinvolvinguse,reuse,andrefuseofdomesticgoods."Isuggestthattheseordinary
garmentscorrespondtotheclothingwornbythemanypilgrimswhocamefrequentlytoCahuachiratherthantoalarge,permanent,domesticpopulationatthesite.I
alsoenvisionasituationsimilartotheonepositedforpotteryoffinenewtextilesbeingtakenintothesiteandrituallyexchangedandtakenoutagain,withworn
clothsendingupasrefuse.Inaddition,IbelievethatmuchtextileproductionatCahuachiwasassociatedwithmortuaryactivitiesandthatshroudswerebeingmade
and/orfinishedatthesiteaspartoffuneraryrituals.ItisconsistentwitheverythingweknowaboutAndeanattitudestowardclothanddeaththatthetextilesfoundin
Cahuachi'sburialcontextsarefinerandtechnologicallymoresophisticatedthanthoseofeverydaywear.

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ChapterNineteen
ArtifactsinOtherMedia
Shell
ShellartifactsarenotcommonatCahuachi.Atotalofelevenpiecesofworkedshellwererecovered(table19.1).Sevenofthese(shellartifacts17)correspondto
chaquiraorlittleroundshellbeadsthatarediscoidalandquitesmall,averaging7millimetersindiameterwithanorificediameterusuallyonly1to2millimeters(the
exceptionisshellartifact6).Ofthesebeads,onlyonehasbeenidentifiedastomaterialitisChoromytiluschorus.Thatshellbeadwasintheprocessofbeing
finished.
Inadditiontothesevenshellbeads,tworectangularshellornamentswithdrilledholes,eitherforattachingtoclothingorforwearingwithastringaroundsomepartof
thebody,wererecovered(shellartifacts8and9)theyhavenotyetbeenidentifiedastogenusandspecies.Oneofthese(fig.19.1)stillconservesthestringgoing
throughahole.Theother(fig.19.2)isquitesimilartothedepictionoftheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing'scollar(seeProulx1968:pl.3a).Eitheroneofthesetwo
ornamentscouldcorrespondtoearringsofthetypewornbyNascafemalefigurines(seeSawyer1975:fig.139).
AnotherpieceofworkedshellisatrapezoidalfragmentofSpondylusfromthesurfaceoftheupperpartoftheUnit19mound(shellartifact10).
ThefinalshellartifactisaFisurellawithalargeovoidholedrilledinthemiddle(shellartifact11).Itisnotcertainthatthiswouldhavebeenabead.
Feathers
Strong(1957:31)reportsthathefoundabundantbirdplumageinCut6atoptheGreatTemple.Abundantfeatherremainswerenotrecoveredbymyproject,but
someartifactsweremadeoforusedfeathers(seechap.18).Thesecanbedividedintotwotypes:tiedfeathersand"swabs."Besidestheseovertlyartifactualfeathers,
bitsoffeatherwerefoundinseveralexcavationunits,butthesemaybeattributabletowindandsubsequentnaturaldeposition.Athirdassociationofordinaryfeathers
isinthecontextofalittleoffering.Thebirdsfromwhichtherecoveredfeathersweretakenhavenotyetbeenidentified.
TiedFeathers
Tiedfeathersarejustthatlittlefeathersnotexceeding2centimetersthathavebeentiedtogetherwithcottonstring.Mostoftenthefeathersarebrownorwhite.
RarelythefeathersmaybebrightlycoloredasurfacefindfromtheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19consistedofskybluetiedfeathers.Inallbutoneinstance,the
tiedfeathersrecoveredareeitherindividualorjustafewinnumber.Theexceptionisasectionofafeatherednecklaceorheadbandorsomeotherkindofpersonal
adornment(fig.19.3)recoveredinStratum3ofExcavation7atthebaseofUnit19.Today,localpeopleconsiderfeatherstobeasignofwitchcraft(Armando
Valdivia,personalcommunication1984).

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Table19.1.DistributionofShellArtifactsatCahuachi
No.

Object

Material

Diameter(mm)

Context

bead

uncertain

911.5

Excavation6,Stratum5

bead

uncertain

4.24.1

Excavation8,Stratum3

bead

uncertain

7.17.4

Room5,surface

bead

uncertain

66

Room6,Stratum3

bead

uncertain

87

Unit19,summitsurface

bead(brokenpiece)

uncertain

161

Excavation16,Stratum5

bead

Choromytilus

57.3

Excavation17,Stratum3

pendant

motherofpearl

118

Excavation19

pendant

motherofpearl

2315

Feature88(insidepot)

10

uncertain

Spondylus

3010

Unit19,summitsurface

11

bead?

Fisurella

1810

Excavation14,Stratum4

19.1.
Shellartifact8stillconservesitsstringforwear
orattachment.Excavation19,fill.

FeatherSwabs
Ihavecoinedtheterm"swabs"todescribeanotherkindoffeatherartifact.ByswabIrefertoanartifactthatlookslikeaQtipcottonswab.Featherswabsuse
feathersratherthancotton.Onesuchswabisathinpieceofwood,7.6centimeterslong,aroundwhosetiptwowhite

19.2.
Shellartifact9.Feature88vessel,Excavation17.

19.3.
Featheradornment.Excavation6,Stratum3.

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feathershadbeentiedwithbrownstring.Adifferentkindofswabisthatformedbyalongfeatherlessquillatoneendofwhichbrowncottonthreadhasbeenwrapped
(fig.19.4).BothoftheseartifactswerefoundinStratum3ofRoom6onUnit19.Notracesofpaintwereobservedonthem.
FeatherOfferings
OfferingsoffeatherswerefoundatCahuachi.Feature51/56inExcavation11intheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19consistsofaconcentrationofseventyseven
MNIPerumytiluspurpuratusshellsinawholegourdbowlthatalsocontainedlittlefeathers(seechaps.12,21).
WoodandCane
TiedArtifacts
Threeotherswabswerefound.Theseareallsmallpiecesofwoodtippedatoneendwithcottonthreadorcottonfiber(fig.19.5).Theydonotappeartobe
ornamental,noraretheretracesofpigmentonthem.Theirfunctionisunknown.
Twootherartifactsaremadeofthinshaftsofcanetowhichthreadhasbeentied.Inthefirstcase,oneendofthecaneisswablikewithplaincottonstringtiedaround
oneendbuthanginglooseperhapsitunravelled(fig.19.6).Theotherismoreelaborate,witharectangularsectioncutoutofthehollowthincaneandathicktuftof
redthreadtiedtooneend(fig.19.7).Thereisnotraceofanysubstancewithinthecaneoronit.Functionisunknown.
Possiblyrelatedtotheartifactshowninfigure19.6arefourlittletwigs,eachofwhichhasredorwhitecottonstringtiedaroundaroundedtipandlefttohangloose
(fig.19.8).Inaddition,therearetwolittlewoodensplinterstowhichhumanhair,inonecase(fig.19.9),andalongtuftoffur(unidentifiedsource),intheother(fig.
19.10),havebeentiedsecurelyatoneend.Nomaterialadherestotheseobjects.Functionisunknown,buttheylookverymuchlikepaintbrushesusedbythe
contemporaryCanelosQuichuaoflowlandEcuador(DorotheaWhitten,personalcommunication1985).Otherofourswabsandtiedartifactsmaybepaintbrushesas
well.
Thesetiedobjectsvaryinlengthfrom1.1to9.6centimeterswithanaveragelengthof4.7centimeters.TheywerefoundthroughouttheUnit19excavations.
Frame(?)
Onebrokenandbentwoodartifact(fig.19.11)wasrecoveredfromExcavation7,Stratum5.Itissharplybent

19.4.
Featherlessquillswab.Room6,fill.

19.5.
Cottontippedwoodswab.Room6,fill.

19.6.
Cottontippedcaneswab.Room6,fill.

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19.7.
Thin,hollowcanewithcutoutrectangularsectionandthick
tuftofredthreadattachedtooneend.Excavation13,Stratum3.

19.8.
Littletwigtowhichcottonstringhasbeenattached.
TestPit8,Stratum7.

19.9.
Littlewoodsplintertowhichhumanhair
hasbeentied.Unit19,TerraceIV,
surfacefind.

19.10.
Littlewoodsplintertowhichlongtuftof
furhasbeentied.Room6,fill.

Page279

19.11.
Bentwoodartifactofuncertainfunction.
Excavation7,Stratum5.

soastoformaU.Ifextendeditwouldmeasureapproximately52centimeters.Itsfunctionisuncertain,butonepossibilityisthatitformedpartoftheframeusedto
makegroovedconicaladobes(seechap.6).Anotherpossibilityisthatitispartofanetorbasket.
Needles(?)
Abrokenneedle(?)(fig.19.12)wasrecoveredinthefillatthebaseofUnit19.Itspreservedlengthis9.6centimeters.Itsholeislocated2centimetersbeneaththe
preservedtip.Themaximumpreservedwidthis8millimeters.Insofarasitispreserved,itissomewhatsimilarinshapetowoodneedlesorawlsfromtheParacassite
thatareillustratedbyTelloandMejaXesspe(1979:figs.375,291).AtChavndeHuantar,Burger(1984:207)recoveredaseriesofboneawlshesuggeststhat
thiskindofartifact"wouldhavebeenappropriateforperforatingsoftmaterials,likeleather,andformanipulatingelementsduringtextileorbasketryproduction."
WeavingImplements
Awoodcomb(fig.19.13),inperfectconditionsaveforthelossofonespinetoothoneachside,wasfoundonthesurfaceofTerraceIIIofUnit19.Theshaftofthe
combmeasures8.6centimetersby1.3centimeters.Eachtoothis1.6centimeterslong.Therewouldhavebeenfortytwoteethoneachside.Virtuallyidenticalobjects
areillustratedbyTelloandMejaXesspe(1979:figs.371,372,503,611)fromtheParacassite.Thiskindofobjectwasprobablyusedtopushdownortighten
weftthreads(see,e.g.,Cordry1968:38).

19.12.
Abrokenneedleorawl.Excavation
6,mixedfill.

19.13.
Woodcomb.Unit19,surfacefind.

Alsorelatedtoweavingactivityarethreeotherwoodobjects,eachonemadeofahard,durabledarkwood.Twooftheartifactscomefromwithinthelargeutilitarian
vessel,Feature80,atthebaseofUnit19,whichalsocontainedscoresoflittlethreedimensionaltextilefigures.Oneobject(fig.19.14)isalong,thin,bipointed,
bitaperingshaft,30.5centimetersinlength,7millime

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19.14.
Woodweavingimplement.Feature80vessel,Excavation17.

19.15.
Woodweavingimplement.Feature80vessel,Excavation17.

tersmaximumdiameterdiameteratthetipsis3.2millimeters.Itcouldhaveservedasaspindlearoundwhichthreadswerewrappedforspinning.Theotherobject
(fig.19.15)isashorter,uniformlythickpiecethatis20.7centimeterslongwithadiameterof1.5centimeters.Oneendofthisobjectisscored,andathinlineisincised
aroundthescoring,whichis15millimetersawayfromthetip.Threadcouldhavebeenwrappedaroundthisendandpulledthroughthewarpthreadsasashuttle,or
theobjectmaybeaheddle.
AwoodobjectfromFeature2inExcavation1atUnit16isirregularlytaperingandnotsymmetrical,unliketheprevioustwoartifacts.Itis15centimeterslongwitha
maximumwidthof1.75centimetersandaminimumwidthof4millimeters.Thisobjectcouldbeaspindle(foracomparison,seeCordry1968:pl.8).
PaintedCanes
Threefragmentsofpaintedcaneshafts(correspondingtotwoobjects)werefoundonthesurfaceofUnit19,twoonthesurfaceofRoom1andoneonthesurfaceof
TerraceIII.Paintingconsistsofthinblackbandsdrawnaroundthenarrow(lessthan1centimeterindiameter)canes.Thethicknessofthebandcanvary,anda
geometricdesignisformedbythealternationofthickand

19.16.
Heavywoodartifactofuncertainfunction.Room1,surfacefind.

thinblackbands.Thesepaintedcaneshaftsmaybefragmentsofdarts.
ClubsorClodbreakers(?)
Sixheavyhuarangowoodartifacts,eachlookingsomewhatlikethenumberonewoodgolfclub(thedriver),wererecoveredatCahuachi.Theycanhaveadistinctly
triangularheadandnarrowshaft(fig.19.16).Theheadcanmeasure8to10centimetersonaside,oritcanbemoreelongatedandovoid(fig.19.17).Theseobjects

Page281

shownoevidenceofwear,noristhereanysubstanceadheringtothemthatmightindicatefunction.Theywouldbeequallyappropriateforbashinginsomeone'shead
asforbreakingupclumpsofearth.Ihaveseennosimilarartifactsreportedintheliterature.FiveofthesixaresurfacefindsfromRoom1andTerraceIIIofUnit19
thesixthonecomesfromStratum2inExcavation6atthebaseofUnit19.
OtherWoodObjects
Pezzia(1969:144145,item139onaccompanyingmap)reportsonanIncakeromadeofchontawoodwhoseprovenienceiscontradictorilygivenasCahuachiand
asHda.Majoro.

19.17.
Elongatedwoodartifactofuncertainfunction.Unit19,
TerraceIII,surfacefind.

19.18.
Cacheofpetrifiedwood.Feature81,Excavation17.

PetrifiedWood
Acacheofunworkedpetrifiedwood(fig.19.18)wasfoundinFeature81atthebaseofUnit19(chap.12fig.12.35).Thesourceofthisexoticmaterialisnot
known.Besidesthecache,severalotherpieceswereobservedonthesurfaceofUnit19andontheterracesnorthofitbutnowhereelseonthesite.Theworkers
statedthattheyhadneverobservedsuchmaterialintheimmediateareaorbeyond.IhaverarelyfoundpetrifiedwoodonsurveyintheIngenioandGrandevalleys.
TheFeature81cacheconsistsoftwentysixpieceswhosedimensionsrangefrom10.5millimetersto96.8millimeters.Oneofthelargerpiecescouldbeakindof
chert,thoughinappearanceitisverysimilartopetrifiedwood.Likewise,oneortwoothersmallpiecesmaybepetrifiedbone.Asidefromthematerialitself,themost
notableaspectaboutthecacheisthemusicaljinglejanglesoundthepiecesmakewhenshakentogether.
Bone
Oneboneartifactcorrespondingtoanawlwasfound(fig.19.19).Itisbrokenwithapreservedlengthof5.5centimeters.Itgraduallytaperstoanarrowroundpoint.
Thesourceofthebonewasnotdetermined.ItsprovenienceisthelootedcenterofRoom6onUnit19.Itis

Page282

19.19.
Boneawl.Room6,lootedcenter.

19.20.
Carvedgourdfragments.Excavation11,Stratum9.

quitesimilartoabrokenboneawlorneedleillustratedbyTelloandMejaXesspe(1979:fig.374).
Gourd
AtotalofthirteenfragmentsofpyroengravedgourdwererecoveredonthesurfaceoftheLowerEasternRoomsonUnit19,intheFeature80vessel,andinTestPit8
(seefig.19.20forexamplesseechaps.11,12).Innocasecanthecompletemotifbereconstructed,thoughenoughofthedesignsarepreservedtoassureusofan
earlyNascadate.
Inadditiontothesepyroengravedgourdfragments,amagnificentpyroengravedgourdbowlwasrecovered

19.21.
Pyroengravedgourdbowl.Burial3,Unit19.

fromthelootedtomb,Burial3,inRoom2atopUnit19(figs.19.21,19.22seechap.12).Thegourdwasdamagedbythelooters.Thehemisphericalvesselhasthree
anthropomorphicfiguresgoingarounditscircumference.Thesehavebeencarvedintothegourd'ssurfacewithextremeprecisionandskill,asevidencedbythesure
strokesanderrorlesscompositionintermsofdesignandspacing.Blackeninghasbeenappliedsparinglyandonlytofacilitateobjectidentificationandtocreatesome
visualrelief.Thehairhankofthetrophyhead,theobsidianpoints,partofthewing,andtheclothlengthoftheloinclothareblackened.Thefiguresareidenticalsavethe
objecttheyholdintheirlefthands.Oneofthethreefiguresholdsatrophyhead.Theothertwoholdhaftedobsidiankniveswithtriangularpoints.Thegourdhasa
diameterof18centimetersandadepthof10centimeters.AverysimilarpyroengravedgourdisillustratedintheBancodeCrdito's(1986:182)bookonNascaart
(seealsoobject138onmapaccompanyingPezzia1969).
ThefigurerepresentedinallthreecasesontheBurial3gourdcanbeeasilyidentifiedastheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingbyvirtueofthemouthmask,forehead
element,collar,earrings,andtheoppositionofaclubheldinonehandtoatrophyheadorknifeintheother.TheseparticularAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingsare
winged.Theywearasemihemisphericalloincloth,partofwhichhangsdownfromthewaisttothefeet.Theywearashortsleevedshirt,shownveryrealistically.
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeingshavebeengroupedbyProulx(1968)intofivetypesbasedonpresenceorabsenceofasignifer,terminatoronthesignifer,

Page283

19.22.
RolloutofoneofthreealmostidenticalAnthropomorphicMythicalBeings
decoratingtheBurial3gourdbowl.

positionofthebody,numberofhandsholdingatrophyhead,andotherspecificfeatures.ThethreeAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingsonthegourdbowlconformto
Proulx'stype3byvirtueoftheir"standing"position,thoughtherearesomenotabledifferencesfromhistypedefinition,inpartduetothemediuminwhichthefigures
areexpressed.ThegourdAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingsarenotdrapedoveraclosedvesselbutratherextendhorizontallyaroundadeep,large,openbowl.With
theceramicAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingtype3theysharethelackofasigniferbutdonothavesnakesalongthesideofthebodyandelementsattachedtothe
topoftheheadwhichsooftencharacterizethisAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingonpottery.Theshirtisstripedonitslowerhalfasintype3,butthereisno
decorativewaistband.
TheAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingsrepresentedonthegourdprobablydatetoNasca3.ProfiletrophyheadsareknownfromNasca2and3pottery.The
mouthmaskwithitswideopeneyesandslitmouthisliketheNasca3AAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingillustratedbySeler(1923:fig.29).Thegourd
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeings'roundeyes,however,aremorecharacteristicofNasca2.TakingintoaccountProulx's(1968:34)observationthattype3
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeings"aremostfrequentduringPhase3A,afterwhichtheybecomerare,"Ithinkwemayconcludethatthisgourdbowldatestoearly
Nasca3.Ifso,thenitmayalsobesuggestedthatthepiececomesfromtheIcavalleyratherthanNazca(seeProulx1968:appendix4).
Adeep,semihemisphericial,undecoratedgourdbowlwasfoundinBurial8(seechaps.12,14).Ithasamouthdiameterof12centimetersandaheightof7.5
centimeters.AfragmentofaplaingourdbowlstainedwithredpigmentwasfoundinExcavation9inRoom1(seechap.12),inthefillbetweentheuppertwo
apisonados.
Inaddition,wemustnotforgetthetwogourdrattlesthatwerefoundinassociationwithFeature52,thecacheofbluepaintedajpeppersintheRoomofthePosts
(seechap.13fig.13.38).Onerattleisplain(notmodified).Theovoidgourdfruithasaverticalheightof8.2centimeters.Itsitsonacottonstringwrappedstickstem
measuring9.3centimeters.Therearefourlittleholesatthebaseofthefruit.Thegourdoftheotherrattleiscarvedandpyroengravedintoahumanface.Thefacewas
suggestednaturallybyanirregularityinthecenterofthefruitthatsuggestsahumannose.Aschematic,scratchedinmouthandincisedeyeswitheyebrowswere
added.Thehairispyroengravedanddescendsthebackoftheovoidfruitinlongtresses

Page284
Table19.2.DistributionofStoneBeadsatCahuachi
Context

Color/Material

Shape

Diameter(mm)

Thickness
(mm)

surface,Room6

bluegray

discoidal

40

4.5

Excavation6,Stratum5

bluegray

discoidal

Excavation7,Stratum3

bluegray

discoidal

surface,LER

turquoise?or
chrysacolla?

discoidal

2.5

surface,Unit19,top

porouswhite

unfinished

15(max.)

2.7

Excavation6,Stratum6

yellow

discoidal

12

No.

thetreatmentiscongruouswiththeNasca8potteryfoundintheRoomofthePosts(e.g.,fig.13.22).Thefruitmeasures8.5centimetersinlength.Itsitsonan8.2
centimeterlongcottonthreadwrappedstem.Fourlittleholesarefoundatthebaseofthisfruitaswell.Theseholeswereusedtotiethefruittothestem,forwesee
cottonthreadgoingthroughthem.Thiswouldexplainthefourlittleholesintheuncarvedgourdrattle.
Thefinalgourdartifactisalittlebead1.6centimetersindiameter,withanasymmetricallyplacedcentralholewhosediameteris5millimeters.Othergourdartifacts,
mostlybowls,notdealtwithherebutmentionedinthetext,decomposedtoorapidlyand/orbadlytobestudied.Anexampleisthegourdspoonfoundwithinthe
Nasca8Feature36ceramicvesselintheRoomofthePostsonUnit19(seeFig.13.25).
MetalObjects
IdidnotrecoveranymetalobjectsinstratigraphiccontextatCahuachi.Pezzia(1969:143144,item137onaccompanyingmap)infersthatfivegoldobjectsinthe
MuseoRegionaldeIcaarefromCahuachi.Theseobjectsaretwobracelets,atinygoldmask,aforeheadornamentofthekindwornbytheAnthropomorphic
MythicalBeing,andamodeledhummingbirdsittingatopaspatulaorspoon(forcocause?).Carmichael(1988:pl.3A)illustratesafewbitsofcopperfromoneof
Kroeber'sgravesatCahuachi.
Lithics
StoneBeads
Sixstonebeadswererecovered(table19.2).Oneoftheseisquitelargewhereastheotherfive,oneofwhichisstillunfinished,areverysmall.Bead4isthesmallest
beadandrepresentstrueprecisionartisanship.

19.23.
Fragmentofastonevase.Excavation5,Stratum2.

StoneVase
Afragmentofasmall,undecorated,groundstonevesselwasrecoveredinStratum5ofExcavation6(fig.19.23).Thevesselhasaninteriorbevelledrimandslightly
convexsidewallsandappearstohavebeenasmalldeepbasedcup.Itsdiameterisapproximately5.5centimeters.Thestoneisattractivelymarbledwithcreamywhite
patchesonapurplishredbackground.Likemarblewhoseveinscanbedeliberatelychosentobeworked,sotoothewhiteveininthisrockseemstohavebeen
emphasized,particularlyonthethickinteriorbevelledlip.Neithersidehasbeengrounddownenoughtocreateasmoothsurfacethesurfaceisevenbutroughtothe
touch.IamawareofonlyoneotherNascastonevessel,andthatpiecegoesfarbeyondthebrokengroundstonefragmentfromourexcavationsintermsofquality.I
refer,ofcourse,tothefamouscarvedstonecylindrical

Page285

vase(Tello1940)whichisreputedtocomefromacemeteryatCahuachi(TelloandMejaXesspe1979:97).
ObsidianKnife
OnemagnificentobsidianknifewasfoundasapostapogeeofferingalongWall34intheLowerEasternRoomsofUnit19.ThisisFeature23,whosecontexthas
alreadybeendescribed(seechap.12).
Thefeatureconsistedofasmallpacketofbrittlemaizeleavestiedwithathin,vegetalfiberrope(fig.19.24).Theendsoftheropewerenotactuallytiedtogether
rather,theropewassimplywrappedandcrisscrossed

19.24.
Feature23beingunwrapped.Anobsidianknifeisprotected
inabedofcamelidfurandwrappedinmaizehuskstiedwith
vegetalfiberrope.

tightlyaroundthepacketatleastseventimes(theropewasbroken),withthefinalsectionofropegoingunderonesegmentofitselfsoastosecurethepacket.Atrace
offurpeekedoutthroughthemaizeleaves.ArchaeologistSergioChavez(personalcommunication1985)identifiesthefurasvicuaBernardinoOjeda(personal
communication1985)statesthatitisdefinitelycamelid.Astheleaveswerepeeledbacktorevealthefurunderneath,obsidianappeared.Oneendofthemaizeleaves
wasfoldedinovertheobsidianthewayonefoldscornsheathsoveratamal.Whentheleavesandfurwerecompletelypulledbackamagnificentblackobsidianknife
wasrevealed(fig.19.25).BurgerandAsaro's(1977:2627)studysuggeststhatthesourceoftherawmaterialistheQuispisisamineintheCastrovirreynaareaofthe
Huancavelicahighlands.
Theknifeis12.02centimeterslongwithamaximumwidthof6.06centimetersandamaximumthicknessof1.7centimeters.Theartifactisteardropshaped.Itsnotable
curvaturesuggeststhattheknifewaselaboratedovertheshapeoftheoriginalflake,andthisinturnarguesthatitwasnotutilitarian,aconclusionalsosupportedbyits
context.BurgerandAsaro(1977:17)alsoindicatetheritualnatureofsomeoftheNascaobsidianblades.Theknifemayhavebeenmadewithsofthammer
percussionascanbeseenbyitsdeepflakes(SergioChavez,personalcommunication1985).Thereissomeretouchingalongbothsides.
ObsidianknivesarewellknowninNasca,bothasactualartifactsandintheiconography(e.g.,Lapiner1976:fig.467).Informandsize,however,thisknife'sclosest

19.25.
FrontandbackviewsofFeature23obsidianknife.

Page286

19.26.
ObsidianprojectilepointsrecoveredatCahuachi.Letterscorrespondtonumericalorderintable19.3.

parallelisanobsidianknifethatwashangingaroundtheneckofanelaborateMiddleHorizonWarimummybundleondisplayintheMuseodeArteinLimain1985.
InasmuchasFeature23wasfoundclosetotheFeature24trophyheadandinthesamestratigraphicposition,itcanbesuggestedthatthetwodatetothesamepost
apogeetimesatCahuachi,probablyNasca4or5.IfIamcorrectinsuggestingthatNasca5andearlyWariarecontemporary(Silverman1987,1988a,1990d),then
thesimilaritybecomesevenmoresignificant.
ObsidianProjectilePoints
Atotaloftwelveobsidianprojectilepointsorfragmentsthereofwerefoundduringmyproject(seefig.19.26).Onlytwoofthese(points9and12)wererecovered
fromexcavations.Thedistributionandmeasurementsoftherecoveredobsidianprojectilepointsarepresentedintable19.3.
Theobsidianpointsare,forthemostpart,triangularinformwithedgesthatvaryfromstraighttoconvexandbasesthatcanbestraightorconcave.Theartifactshave
beenfinishedbypressureretouchalongtheedges.Theobsidianpointshavebeenelaboratedonflakes.Thesizeoftheflakeisafunctionofthesizeofthepointthat
wasdesired,whichinturnderivesfromthenucleus.Itwouldappearthattheywerelargenucleisincetheflakesthemselves,onwhichthepointsweremade,arelarge.
GroundStoneandChippedStone
FrancesHayashidastudiedthelithicsrecoveredbymyproject.Shedividedtheseintogroundstoneandchippedstoneindustries.Thefollowingcommentsarebased
onherstudyofthismaterial.
GroundStone
Themostimportantartifactclasswithinthegroundstoneindustryismortars.Nomortarswererecoveredinexcavationorinsystematicsurfacecollectionspriorto
excavationhowever,mortarswereobservedonthesurfaceofCahuachi(fig.19.27).Inallcases,thesesurfacemortarsarecobblesintowhichafairlyround(shallow)
orUshaped(deep)depressionhasbeenground.
ChippedStone
HayashidadistinguishessixcategoriesofchippedstoneatCahuachi:flakes(debitagefromtoolmaking),utilizedflakes(flakesthatshowusealongone

Page287
Table19.3.LocationandDescriptionofObsidianProjectilePoints
No.

Provenience

Length(mm)

Width(mm)

Thickness(mm)

Unit19,surface

32

16

Unit20,NEofmound,surface

29

12

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,surface

39

19

Unit19,summit,surface

23

16

Unit19,surface

20

17

Unit19,surface

32

15

Unit19,surface

23

20

Unit19,LowerEasternRooms,surface

32

19

Unit19,Feature61

42

21

5.2

10

Surfacefindbyworker

24

16

11

Unit19,surface

45

25

12

Excavation2,Stratum2

28

20

19.27.
StonemortarsandpestleobservedonsurfaceofCahuachi.

ormoreedges),projectilepoints,largetoolswithheavywear(heavydutytoolsusedforchoppingorsmashing),cores,andnotchedtoolswithwearinthenotch
(possiblyusedforstraighteningorshapingwoodandbone).Rawmaterialsusedincludequartzite(mostcommon),obsidian(imported:seeBurgerandAsaro1977),
chert,alocalfinegrainedrock,alocalcoarserock,andalocal,finegrained,lightgreenrockwithdarkergreeninclusionsthatvaryinsize.Hayashida'spreliminary
analysisrevealsthatthevastmajorityofchippedstone

Page288
Table19.4.ChippedStoneToolClasses
Number

Percentage

Flake

295

74.307

Core

57

14.357

Utilizedflake

25

6.297

Projectilepoint

12

3.022

Notched

1.259

ToolClass

Heavydutytool

3
397

Total

0.755
99.997=100

19.28.
Tinymaizecobtiptiedwithcottonstring.Excavation7,Stratum3.
Table19.5.DistributionofLithicRawMaterial
RawMaterial

Percentage

Quartzite

49

Chert

15.4

Localfine

11.8

Localcoarse

10.7

Localgreen

9.2

Obsidian

3.9

Total

100

atCahuachicorrespondstothecategoryofflakes(table19.4).Table19.5presentsthedistributionoflithicrawmaterial.
UniqueObject
AuniqueobjectwasrecoveredatCahuachi.Itisthetinytipofathinmaizecobaroundwhichtwistedcottonstringhasbeenwrapped(fig.19.28).Theobject
measures2.8centimetersby1.1centimeters.Functionisunknownbutispresumablynondomestic.

Page289

ChapterTwenty
BotanicalRemains
BeglerandKeatinge(1979:209)state:
Whilelackofpreservationinmanypartsoftheworldmakessuchaproblem[thequantificationofplantremains]amootissue,inaridregionssuchascoastalPeruitisofpractical
aswellastheoreticalinterest.Recently,anumberofarchaeologistsexcavatingonthecoastofPeruhavehadtomakethedecisionwhetherornottoquantify,giventheexcellent
preservationofsubsistenceremains.Inaclimatewheredehydratedcoprolitesofllamaandguineapighavebeenexcavatedinsuchafinestateofpreservationthatindividual
coprolitescouldactuallybecounted,thedecisiontoquantifyallsubsistenceremainscancommitonetolargeexpendituresofbothtimeandmoney....Itistheauthors'
contentionthattheapplicationofquantitativetechniquestotheanalysisoflargequantitiesofwellpreservedplantremainspresentsthearchaeologistwithanumberoftheoretical
andmethodologicalproblemswhichasyetremainunresolved.

TheproblemtowhichBeglerandKeatingereferispreciselytheonewefacedatCahuachi:morethan21kilosofperfectlypreservedplantremainswererecovered
duringmyproject.Preservationwassoperfect,infact,thatittookBernardinoOjeda,whostudiedthesematerials,morethansixmonthstocompletetheidentification
andweighingofeachplantsamplefromeachstratum/levelorotherarchaeologicalcontext.Insomecases,suchasthemaizecacheofFeature50inExcavation12in
theLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19,itwaspossibletocountthenumberofpreservedcobswithenoughtime,eventhenumberofloosekernelscouldhavebeen
countedandthenumberofpreservedcobsestimatedtoachieveatotalMNIcount.
Ojeda'sstudyyieldedninetysevenrawdatasheets(eachonewithanaverageoftwentyfiveplantidentifications).Withthesedataitispossibletosetuptablesfor
eachexcavationunittocomparetheplantremainslevelbylevelandbetweenareasofthesite.Throughstandardizationbymeansofcubicmetersofdirtmoved,some
meaningfulcomparisonsmightemerge.However,BeglerandKeatinge's(1979)variouswelltakencriticismsofquantifiedstudiesofplantremainsbothintermsof
weightsandcountsfromfullyagriculturalsocietieshaveconvincedmethatsuchamassiveeffortisnotwarranted,particularlybecauseCahuachiwasnotanordinary
habitationsite.Therefore,onlyamacroviewoftheplantassemblageatCahuachiispresentedhere.BeglerandKeatinge's(1979:221223)warningsthat
quantificationisnotadeterminationoftherelativeimportanceofthevariousfoodsinthedietshouldbeheeded.
EdiblePlants
Table20.1presentstheediblevegetalmaterialsrecoveredatCahuachi.Intermsofweight,maizeisthemostabundantedibleplantrepresentedinthecollections,
takingintoaccountallsurfaceremains(suchasfromcleaningwalls),thematerialintheRoomofthePosts,theexcavationunits(includingcachesofmaizeasinFeature
50),pointsamples,cleanedlooters'holes,and

Page290
Table20.1.EdibleVegetalMaterialsRecoveredatCahuachi
SpanishName

EnglishName

BotanicalName

RecoveredParts

Maz

cornormaize

Zeamays

cob,grains,stem,roots

Man

peanut

Arachishypogaea

shell,seed

Calabaza

squash

Cucurbitamoschata

seed,outerskin

Zapallo

squash

Cucurbitamaxima

seed,outerskin

Frejl(frijl)

commonbean

Phaseolusvulgaris

seed,pod

Pallar

limabean

Phaseoluslunatus

seed,pod

Pallardegentiles

bean

Canavalia

seed

Yuca

manioc

Manihotesculenta

tuber,stem

Camote

sweetpotato

Ipomoeabatatas

tuber

Papa

potato

Solanum

tuber

Achira

Canna

tuber,shell

testpits.Atotalof5,333.9gramsofmaizewererecovered.Ifthe2,023.9gramscorrespondingtoFeature50aresubtracted,atotalof3,310gramsofmaizeremain.
Bearinmind,however,thatthegreatpreservabilityofmaizeandtheweightofthepreservedpartsmaybebiasingandoverrepresentingmaizeinourcollections.
MostmaizerecoveredcorrespondstoConfitemorochowithsmallkernels.Confitechavinenseisassociated.BernardinoOjedasuggeststhatthismaizehadbeen
preparedbytoasting,byboilingitaschoclo,andasaflour.Inotherwords,itappearsintheelementaryformsofconsumption.
Morethanhalfakilo(556.2grams)ofbeanswerefound.Ofthese,Phaseoluslunatushasthegreatestrepresentationbyweight(218.8grams)followedby
Phaseolusvulgaris(194grams)andthenCanavalia(143.4grams).
Anotherfoodproductgreatlyrepresentedinthecollectionsisthepeanut.About240gramsofpeanutwererecovered,correspondingmostlytotheshell.
Thelesserrepresentationoftuberssweetpotato,yuca,achira,andpotatointhebotanicalcollectionsisduetothefactthattheentireplantmaybeconsumed,
leavinglittleevidenceinthearchaeologicalrecord.
EightkindsoffruitwereidentifiedfromthebotanicalremainsrecoveredatCahuachi(table20.2).Somethingquitenotableistheabundanceofhuarangointheplant
remains.Atotalof4,786.4gramsofhuarangofruitwererecovered.Evenifthe3,047gramsofhuarangoremainsconstitutingFeature66intheRoomofthePostsare
removedfromconsideration,1,739.4gramsremain.Huarangoseedsareevenpresentinhumancoprolites.Itisclearthattherewasmassiveconsumptionofhuarango
fruitatthesite.
Table20.2.EdibleFruitRemainsRecoveredatCahuachi
SpanishName

BotanicalName

RecoveredParts

Lcuma

Lucumabifera

seed,shell

Guayaba

Psidiumguajava

fruit,seed

Pacae

Ingafeuillei

leaves,seed,pod

Huarango

Prosopischilensis

seed,pod

Palta

PerseaMill.

seed

Jquima

Pachyrrhizus

shellofthetuber

Cirhuelodelfraile

Bunchosia

seed

Aj

Capsicum

seed,fruit,stem

While1,325.6gramsofajwererecoveredinFeature52intheRoomofthePosts,only3gramsofajwererecoveredintheotherinvestigatedcontexts.
NonedibleorIndustrialPlants
Atotalofseventeennonedibleplantspecieswereidentified(table20.3).CottonwasalsofoundinsidefourceramicvesselsintheRoomofthePosts(table20.4).
Table20.5presentstheweightsandpercentagesofallplantremainsrecoveredexceptforcotton,whereastable20.6correctsfortheskewingcausedbytheplant
accumulationsofFeature50(thecacheofmaizeinthefillbeneathWall78intheLowerEasternRooms),Fea

Page291
Table20.3.NonedibleorIndustrialPlantRemainsRecoveredatCahuachi
SpanishorLocalName

BotanicalName

RecoveredParts

Carricillo

Pennisetun

rhizome,stem,leaves

Totora

Typha

stems,leaves

Junco

Cyperaceae

fragments

Caabrava

Gyneriumsagittatum

stems

Mate

Lagenaria

seeds,shell

Uadegato

Byttneria

branches,stems,spines

Coladecaballo

Equisetum

stem

Chilco

Baccharis

stem

Cactus

Cereus

epidermisofstem,spines

Algodn

Gossypiumbarbadense

fiber,flower

Choloque

Sapindus

seed,shelloftheseed

Molle

Schinus

L.stem,branches,bark

Grama

Setaria

Beauv.stem,leaves

Sauce

Salix

stem

Pajarobobo

Tessaria

stalk

Zargazo

Macrocystishumboldtii

leaves

Hierbasanta

Cestrum

branches

Table20.4.PresenceofCottonintheRoomofthePosts
Feature

Weight(grams)

Feature28

752.5

Feature36

187.5

Feature62

530

Feature70

289

Total

1,759

Table20.5.WeightsandPercentagesofTotalsofAllPlantRemainsRecovered
ExcludingCotton
Plant
Zeamays

Weight
(grams)

Percentage

5,333.9

24.833

Phaseolusvulgaris

194.0

0.903

Phaseoluslunatus

218.8

1.018

Canavalia

143.4

0.667

Manihotesculenta

634.6

2.954

Solanum

5.2

0.024

25.6

0.119

220.8

1.028

62.9

0.297

Arachishypogaea

239.3

1.114

Lucumabifera

115.9

0.539

Psidiumguajava

225.0

1.047

Ingafeuillei

249.9

1.163

10.4

0.048

2.7

0.012

Ipomoeabatatas
Canna
Cucurbitamaxima,moschata

Perseaamericana
Bunchosiaarmeniaca
Pachyrrhizustuberosus

36.8

0.171

Capsicum

1,328.6

6.185

Prosopischilensis

4,786.4

22.284

983.1

4.577

6,661.1

31.013

21,478.4

99.991=100

Lagenariasiceraria
Vegetalfibers,woodymaterials
Total

Page292
Table20.6.WeightsandPercentagesofTotalsforAllPlantRemainsRecovered
ExcludingFeatures50,52,and66andCotton
Plant
Zeamays

Weight
(grams)

Percentage

3,310.0

21.946

Phaseolusvulgaris

194.0

1.286

Phaseoluslunatus

218.8

1.450

Canavalia

143.4

0.950

Manihotesculenta

634.6

4.207

5.2

0.034

Solanum
Ipomoeabatatas
Canna
Cucurbitamaxima,moschata

25.6

0.169

220.8

1.464

62.9

0.417

Arachishypogaea

239.3

1.586

Lucumabifera

115.9

0.768

Psidiumguajava

225.0

1.491

Ingafeuillei

249.9

1.656

10.4

0.068

2.7

0.017

36.8

0.244

Perseaamericana
Bunchosiaarmeniaca
Pachyrrhizustuberosus
Capsicum
Prosopischilensis
Lagenariasiceraria
Vegetalfibers,woodymaterials
Total

3.0

0.019

1,739.4

11.533

983.1

6.518

6,661.1

44.166

15,081.9

99.989=100

ture52(thecacheofajfoundwithtwogourdrattlesintheRoomofthePosts),andFeature66(theofferingsofhuarangofruitfoundintheRoomofthePosts).Table
20.7dealsonlywithedibleplantremains,eliminatingthenonedibleand/orindustrialplantsfromconsiderationTable20.8presentsthesamedata,correctingforthe
featuresthatwouldskewthesepercentages.Tofullymanipulatethedatavariousothercorrectionswouldhavetobemade,suchasfortherelativedateofthestrata,
otherspecialfeatures,andplantremainsfromexcavatedcontextsasopposedtosurfacecollections.Thesefourtablesrepresentmorethantwentyhoursofrepetitive
manualmanipulationofthedatasheetsandshouldindicatethemagnitudeofthetimeelementreferredtobyBeglerandKeatinge(1979:209).Indeed,itisforthis
reasonthatthecategoryof"woodymaterial/vegetalfiber"hasnotbeenbrokendownintothevariousspeciesidentifiedbyOjeda(Pennisetun,Typha,Cyperaceae,
Gyneriumsagittatum,Byttneria,Equisetumspp.,Baccharis,Cereus,Sapindusspp.,SchinusL.,SetariaBeauv.,Salix,Tessaria,Cestrum).Ifatalatertimeit
appearsthatsuchquantificationisnecessary,thedataareavailableforsuchoperations.
Table20.7.WeightsandPercentagesofTotalsofAllEdiblePlantRemainsRecovered
Plant
Zeamays

Weight
(grams)

Percentage

5,333.9

38.555

Phaseolusvulgaris

194.0

1.402

Phaseoluslunatus

218.8

1.581

Canavalia

143.4

1.036

Manihotesculenta

634.6

4.587

Solanum

5.2

0.037

25.6

0.185

220.8

1.596

62.9

0.454

Arachishypogaea

239.3

1.729

Lucumabifera

115.9

0.837

Psidiumguajava

225.0

1.626

Ingafeuillei

249.9

1.806

10.4

0.075

2.7

0.019

36.8

0.266

1,328.6

9.603

Ipomoeabatatas
Canna
Cucurbitamaxima,moschata

Perseaamericana
Bunchosiaarmeniaca
Pachyrrhizustuberosus
Capsicum
Prosopischilensis
Total

4,786.4

34.598

13,834.2

99.992=100

Table20.8.WeightsandPercentagesofTotalofAllEdiblePlantRemainsRecovered
ExcludingFeatures50,52,and66

Plant
Zeamays

Weight
(grams)

Percentage

3,310.0

44.503

Phaseolusvulgaris

194.0

2.608

Phaseoluslunatus

218.8

2.941

Canavalia

143.4

1.928

Manihotesculenta

634.6

8.532

Solanum
Ipomoeabatatas
Canna
Cucurbitamaxima,moschata

5.2

0.069

25.6

0.344

220.8

2.968

62.9

0.845

Arachishypogaea

239.3

3.217

Lucumabifera

115.9

1.558

Psidiumguajava

225.0

3.025

Ingafeuillei

249.9

3.359

10.4

0.139

2.7

0.036

36.8

0.494

3.0

0.040

1,739.4

23.386

7,437.7

99.992=100

Perseaamericana
Bunchosiaarmeniaca
Pachyrrhizustuberosus
Capsicum
Prosopischilensis
Total

Page293

IngeneraltermsitcanbenotedthatcarricillowasanimportantindustrialplantthatcouldhavebeenusedbytheancientNascasasaconstructionmaterial(seechap.
6)ortomakeutensilsofdailylife.Thegourd(Lagenaria)isespeciallyabundant.Variousfragmentsofvegetalfiber(totora,junco,orcarricillo)ropewerefound.
Cottonwasabundant.Vegetalfibersandwoodymaterialscouldhavebeenusedaskindling.
Comparisons
ExceptfortheabundanceandpresumedimportantroleofhuarangointheearlyNascadietatCahuachi,therearenorealsurprisesinthebotanicalremainsrecovered
bymyproject.WefoundthesamematerialsasthosedescribedbyTowle(1961)forotherNascasites,includingCahuachi,andwhichareinferredfromtheirpresence
onNascaart(seeO'NealeandWhitaker1947Yacovleff1933YacovleffandHerrera19341935).
Towle(1961:2324)statesthatmaizewaswellrepresentedinallofStrong'sstratacutsatCahuachidowntosterileandthatthesamekindofmaizewasalsofoundin
Strong'sexcavationsatEstaquera,HuacadelLoro,andintheIcavalley.Strongrecoveredachiraandmanioctubers,Cucurbitamoschata,Canavalia,and
abundantgourdfragmentsatCahuachi,Estaquera,andHuacadelLoroavocado,sweetpotato,andpacaeatCahuachipeanutremainsinthestratacutsandburials
atCahuachi,HuacadelLoro,andOcucajelimabeans,lcuma,huarangopodsandseeds,cottonseedsandbolls,andcholoqueinhisstratacutsatCahuachiandat
HuacadelLorolimabeansinanOcucajeburialandcommonbeanandguayabaatCahuachiandEstaquera(Towle1961:34,41,43,45,47,53,54,56,62,63,
65,73,77,79,92,94).
Towle(1961:68)identifiesachiote(Bixaorellana)amongthevegetalremainsrecoveredbyStrongatCahuachi.Itspresenceissuspectedinourownbotanical
collectionsfromthesite,butidentificationisnotconclusive(BernardinoOjeda,personalcommunication1985).Towle(1961:72)alsonotesthat"wellpreservedfruits
ofC[ampomanesia]lineatifolia[palillo,aspice]werefrequentlyfoundatCahuachiintheNazcaValley....Thespecieswasonlysparselyrepresentedatthe
neighboringsiteofHuacadelLoro."Thusfar,C.lineatifoliahasnotbeenidentifiedinourowncollectionsfromCahuachi.

Page294

ChapterTwentyOne
MalacologicalAnalysis
ByMaradelCarmenRodrguezdeSandweiss
Sample
Ianalyzed2,735.9gramsofshellremainsrepresentingaminimumnumberofindividuals(MNI)of690.Inaddition,Iinspectedtheremainsofthreeotherphyla:
Echinoderms,Arthropoda,andChordata(fish).Thischaptersummarizestheresultsofthesestudies.
Methodology
MyconcernwastodeterminetheranksoftheremainsintermsofweightandMNI.Allshellmaterialwasclassifiedusingastandardanalysisformonwhichthe
followingdatawerenoted:nameofsiteexcavationproveniencedateofexcavationdateofanalysisacolumnwiththescientificnameoftheidentifiedspecies,
unidentifiedspecies,andtotalsacolumnforobservationsabouttheremainsandacolumnforweightingramsandforMNI.MNIwascalculatedusingthegreater
countofleftorrightvalvesforbivalvesandthegreatercountofapicesorcolumellaraxesforgastropods.UnidentifiedfragmentsarenotdiagnosticofMNI,andonly
theirtotalweightineachareawasnoted.Inthecolumnforobservations,recordeddataincludedwhetherthespecimenshowedsignsofhavingbeenburned,ifit
exhibitedevidenceofuse,ifithadnaturalorartificialperforations,ifitwasworked,andsoon.Weightmeasurementsupto0.1gramweredeterminedwithaprecision
scale.Specimensofeachspecieswereweighedseparately.PercentageswereobtainedforeachspeciesbyweightandbyMNIforeachexcavationcontextandfor
thewholesite.Eachanalysisformwasnumberedtofacilitatework.
Spondylus
SpondylusplayedanimportantreligiousandideologicalroleinancientAndeansociety(Paulsen1974Murra1975bMarcos19771978).Itisnotincludedinthe
analysisbelowbecauseofitsoutstandingsacrednatureanduniquelyexoticcharacter.Rather,arecapitulationismadeinthissectionofitsoccurrenceatCahuachiand
comparativepresenceatothersouthcoastsites.
AtrapezoidalfragmentofSpondyluswasrecoveredonthesurfaceoftheUnit19mound(seechap.19)otherpieceswereobservedonthesurfaceofothermounds
atCahuachi(UnitEE:seechap.5).SpondyluswasalsoinvolvedintheritualentombmentoftheRoomofthePostsbyNasca8people(seechap.13).Onthesouth
coastSpondylusiswellrepresentedattheParacassite(e.g.,TelloandMejaXesspe1979:fig.135).OnthebasisofherIngeniomiddleGrandesurvey,Helaine
Silverman(personalcommunication1991)statesthatitappearstobemorecommoninpostNascacontextsthaninearlyNascacontexts,althoughitispresentonthe
coastofPeruinthelateEarlyIntermediatePeriod(Paulsen1974).ShenotesthataproblemindeterminingthefrequencyanddistributionofSpondylusinNasca
societyisthatshellartifactsarerarelyidentifiedbygenusandspeciesintheliterature,and,whereSpondylusartifactsareillustratedasNascaartifacts,documentation
oftheirNascaassociationisoftenlacking(see,e.g.,Sawyer

Page295
Table21.1.SiteTotalsforMollusksRecoveredfromExcavationsatCahuachi

Weight

Taxon
Semimytilusalgosus

Grams

Rank

MNI

Count

Rank

1.1

0.0

14

0.7

10

1,290.7

47.1

179

25.9

507.4

18.5

115

16.7

Perumytiluspurpuratus

99.4

3.6

142

20.6

Eurhomalearufa

37.4

1.4

11

0.6

11

Protothacathaca

64.3

2.4

25

3.6

Choromytiluschorus
Aulacomyaater

Protothacaspp.

26.9

1.0

12

0.3

13

Muliniaedulis

166.1

6.1

33

4.8

Mesodesmadonacium

118.6

4.3

78

11.3

51.1

1.9

10

41

5.9

1.0

0.0

15

0.1

16

Tegulaatra
Prisogasterniger
Calyptraeatrochiformis
Crepipatellaspp.
Thaischocolata
Concholepasconcholepas
Scutalusspp.
Chiton
Unidentifiedfragments
Total

0.4

0.0

15

0.1

16

158.0

5.8

45

6.5

0.3

0.0

17

0.3

13

81.3

3.5

11

1.6

0.1

0.0

18

0.3

13

8.1

0.3

13

123.7

4.5

2,735.9

690

0.6

11

1975:96,98,fig.133).Forthemorerecentpublishedliterature(thatofthepasttwodecades),anyshellnotidentifiedasSpondyluscanprobablybeassumednotto
beSpondylussincethisshell'srecognizedimportanceinAndeanprehistorywoulddictateitsnotationinanyreport.
SummaryofDatabyIdentifiedSpecies
Thediscussionofeachspeciesfollowstaxonomicorderasintable21.1.Detaileddescriptionsofthedifferentspeciesarenotprovidedasthesearereadilyavailablein
themalacologicalliterature(e.g.,Keen1971Lorenzenetal.1979Marincovich1973Olsson1961).RanksforweightandMNIareforsitetotals(seetable21.1).
SemimytilusalgosusranksfourteenthinweightandtenthinMNI.Onlyfragmentsofthissmallmusselwererecovered,thoughoneoftheseislarge.
Choromytiluschorusisveryimportant,rankingfirstinweightandMNI.Indeed,onavisittothesite,IobservedthatmostoftheshellonthesurfaceofCahuachiis
thislargepurpleshell.ThisspecieswasveryimportantinprehispanicPerubothforfoodandforritual(Sandweiss1985SandweissandRodrguez1991:5859).The
specimensrecoveredinexcavationatCahuachievinceavarietyofconditions.Therearelargeandsmallspecimens(5.514centimeters).Somearewornsome
appearcutsomeareperforatedsomeareburned.Othershaveredpaintontheirexteriorandinteriorsurfaces,followingamillenniaoldtraditionassociating
ChoromytilusvalvesandredpigmentfromtheEarlyPreceramicPeriodthroughtheLateHorizon(SandweissandRodrguez1991:5859).Silvermanrecovereda
beadofthisshellstillintheprocessofbeingworked(seechap.19).
AulacomyaaterrankssecondinweightandthirdinMNI.InsizetheexamplesatCahuachivaryfromsmalltomediumtolarge.Thelargeexamples(88.7
centimeters)arealsoquitethick.
PerumytiluspurpuratusranksseventhinweightandsecondinMNI.Fragmentsaswellassmallandlargewholespecimenswerefound.Inonecontext(Stratum12
ofExcavation11intheLowerEasternRoomsatUnit19)theshellwasburned.PerumytiluspurpuratuscomprisestheconcentrationofshellcalledFeature51/56in
Excavation11(seebelow,databylocus).
EurhomalearufarankseleventhinweightandMNI.

Page296

Bothfragmentsandwholevalvesofthislargeclamwerefoundthesearelargeandthick.
ProtothacathacaranksninthinweightandeighthinMNI.Thewholespecimensandfragmentsthereofareallbigandthick.Oneburnedfragmentwasobserved.
Protothacaspp.rankstwelfthinweightandthirteenthinMNI.
MuliniaedulisranksthirdinweightandseventhinMNI.Thespecimensarelargeandthick,measuringbetween4.5and8.1centimetersinlength.
MesodesmadonaciumrankssixthinweightandfourthinMNI.TheremainsatCahuachiincludevalvesandfragments,allfrombig,thickspecimens.Thecomplete
specimensofthiswedgeclamare5.8to8.5centimetersinlength,similartomoderndayexamples.Onefragmentmaybeworked,orperhapsitisjustwornfromthe
erosionofthebeach.Somefragmentswereburned.
TegulaatrarankstenthinweightandsixthinMNI.Onepieceofthissnailhadanaturalperforation.
PrisogasternigerranksfifteenthinweightandsixteenthinMNI,asonlyonepieceofthissmallsnailwasfound.Itislikelythatshellsofthisspecieswereoftencarried
accidentallytosites,asitoccursinnaturetogetherwithmoredesirablespeciesfrequentlygatheredwithmasscollectionmethods.Supportforthisideaisthefactthat
Prisogastervalvesareoftenrecoveredwiththeoperculumstillinplace,indicatingthatthemeatwasnevereaten(seeSandweissandRodrguez1991:60).
CalyptraeatrochiformisrankssixteenthinweightandMNI,asonlyonespecimenofthissmallsnailwasfoundatCahuachi.Theapproximatediameterofthis
specimenis1.5centimeters.
Crepipatellaspp.ranksfourthinweightandfifthinMNI.Thespecimensofthisslippershellaremediumsizedandlargefragments(24.5centimetersfromedgeto
edge),withanaveragediameterof3centimeters.
ThaischocolataranksseventeenthinweightandthirteenthinMNI.Onlytwotinypiecesofthislargesnailwerefound,soourobservationsarelimited.
ConcholepasconcholepasrankseighthinweightandninthinMNI.Thespecimensofthisfalseabalonearelargeandthick,withanaveragelengthof6.2centimeters.
Bothwholeexamplesandfragmentswerefound.
Scutalusspp.israreatCahuachi,whereitrankseighteenthinweightandthirteenthinMNI.Onlyfragmentsofthislandsnail(nowholevalves)werefound.Scutalusis
nativetothelomasalongthePeruviancoast.
Chitonsarenotcommon,rankingthirteenthinweightandeleventhinMNI.
Aftermolluscanremains,echinodermsoccupythenextrankamongthemarinephylaatCahuachi.Onlyonetypeofechinodermwasfound:aseaurchin,probably
Stronglyocentrotusalbus.Thistaxonispresentonlyasfragmentswhosetotalweightis70.7grams.Stronglyocentrotuslivesontherockyshoresoftheintertidal
andsubtidalzonesalongthesouthcoastofPeruandiscapturedbyhandandbydiving.
Becauseoftheirfragility,manyarthropodscouldnotbeidentified.Forthisreason,ImadeaclassificatorydistinctionbetweenBalanus(barnacles)andUnidentified
ArthropodaRemains(crabfragments).Theweightofunidentifiedarthropodsis20.1grams,whilethebarnaclefragmentsweigh17.5grams.WithrespecttoBalanus
(phylum:Arthropoda,class:Crustacea,family:Balanidae),thoseatCahuachiarenotbig.Barnaclesliveintherockyintertidalanduppersubtidalzones.Generallythey
adheretothevalvesofothermolluskssuchasCrepipatellaspp.andAulacomyaater,sotheyoftenarriveatsitesbyaccident.
ThefishremainswerekindlyidentifiedformebythebiologistMauroGilberMarianoAstocndorofSanMarcosUniversity.SpeciespresentatCahuachiinclude
ayanqueorcachema(Cynoscionanalis),corvina(Sciaenagilberti),andcoco(Paralonchurusperuanus),aswellasremainsofthefamiliesSciaenidaeand
Clupeidae.
UnidentifiedFragments
Unidentifiedfragmentsconstituteslightlylessthan5percentofthetotalweightoftheshellremainsrecoveredintheexcavationsatCahuachi.Inotherwords,some95
percentofallshellremainshavebeenidentified.IwasunabletoestablishtheMNIoftheunidentifiedfragmentsbecausemanyfragmentsarenotdiagnostic,eitherof
speciesorofMNI(i.e.,nohingesforbivalvesorapicesorcolumellaraxesforgastropods),duetonaturalwearonthebeachortosevereburning.Includedinthis
categoryofunidentifiableshellremainsarematerialsofanartifactualnaturediscussedinchapter19.
SummaryoftheSpeciesFoundatCahuachibyLocus
Malacologicalremainswerenotfoundinalllociwhereexcavationwasundertaken.Thefollowingparagraphsdiscussthoselocithathadshellremains.
Unit16Kancha
AtotaloftentaxawererecoveredfromtheUnit16Kanchainadditiontounidentifiedfragments:Choromytiluschorus,Aulacomyaater,Perumytiluspurpuratus,
Protothacathaca,Protothacaspp.,Muliniaedulis,Mesodesmadona

Page297

cium,Tegulaatra,andCrepipatellaspp.ChoromytiluschorusranksfirstinbothweightandMNI,althoughMesodesmadonaciumsharesthetoprankinMNI.
Crepipatellaspp.rankssecondinweight.
Unit19
AllofthedeliberatelymodifiedshellremainscamefromUnit19.Sixteentaxawereidentifiedinthisarea,alongwithunidentifiedfragments:Semimytilusalgosus,
Choromytiluschorus,Aulacomyaater,Perumytiluspurpuratus,Eurhomalearufa,Protothacathaca,Protothacaspp.,Muliniaedulis,Mesodesma
donacium,Tegulaatra,Prisogasterniger,Calyptraeatrochiformis,Crepipatellaspp.,Thaischocolata,Concholepasconcholepas,andChiton.Choromytilus
chorusranksfirstinweightandMNI.
Feature100inRoom6onUnit19(seechap.12)wascomposedofAulacomyaater.TheMNIisfour(fourrightvalvesandthreeleftvalves)andweightis83.7
grams.Shellsvaryinsize.Threeshellshadforeignmatteradheringtotheirinteriorsurfaces:ajseedsnearthehingeofoneshell,smallfeathersinanother,andan
unidentifiedlayeroforangecoloredorganicmatterinthethird.
MoredetailedinformationonUnit19shellremainsisprovidedbelowforseveralkeyexcavations.
Excavation6
Choromytiluschoruswasfoundinallstrata,andthisspeciesranksfirstinweight.ChoromytilusalsoranksfirstinMNIexceptinStratum6,wherePerumytilus
purpuratusisfirst
Excavation11
ExcludingthespecialfindsinExcavation11,rankoneinweightwasoccupiedbyChoromytiluschorus.RankoneinMNIvariedfromleveltolevel.
Feature51/56,locatedjustabovetheStratum4floor,consistedentirelyofPerumytiluspurpuratus(MNIisseventysevenweightis56.8grams).Clearly,the
ancientsdeliberatelyselectedPerumytilus,asnootherspecieswerefoundinthisfeature.Feathers,ajseeds,andothervegetalremainswereobservedinsomeof
theseshells.
Excavation12
Molluscanremainsappearedineightofthethirteenstratathatwererecognized.InStrata6,7,and13,ChoromytiluschorusranksfirstinweightandMNI.Rankone
inweightandMNIvariesintheremainingstrata.
UnitF
Fivespecieswereidentifiedinadditiontounidentifiedfragments:Aulacomyaater,Choromytiluschorus,Thaischocolata,Tegulaatra,andScutalusspp.
ChoromytiluschorusranksfirstinbothweightandMNI.
TestPit5
OneMesodesmadonaciumfragmentwasrecovered.
TestPit6
OnefragmentofAulacomyaaterwasrecovered.
TestPit7
Threespecieswereidentified:Aulacomyaater,Choromytiluschorus,andConcholepasconcholepas.EachcorrespondstooneMNI.Inaddition,1.5gramsof
crabremainswererecovered.
TestPit8
Fivespecieswererecognized,inadditiontounidentifiedfragments:Choromytiluschorus,Aulacomyaater,Perumytiluspurpuratus,Muliniaedulis,and
Mesodesmadonacium.ChoromytiluschorusranksfirstinMNI,whileMuliniaedulisranksfirstinweight.Choromytilusrankssecondinweight,andAulacomya
rankssecondinMNI.
IntherichStratum7ofTestPit8,AulacomyaaterranksfirstinweightandMNI.
TestPits12,16,and17
Threetaxawereidentified:Protothacathaca,Choromytiluschorus,andCrepipatellaspp.ChoromytiluschorusranksfirstinweightandMNI.TestPit17,level
3,hadafragmentofProtothacathacawithpossibletracesofredpaintontheexteriorandinteriorthisfragmentweighs0.6gram.
Comparisons
Intermsofweight,Unit19hadthemostshellremains(thisisalsowherethemostdirtwasmovedinexcavation)followedbytheUnit16kanchaandTestPit8.These
resultsarealmostthesameforMNI,withthedifferencebeingthatUnitFfollowsTestPit8.
Therearefewerechinoderms,arthropods,andfishatCahuachithanshellremains,perhapsbecausetheformerarephysicallyfragileandhavedisappearedfromthe
record.Also,theratioofdurableremainstomeatismuchgreaterformollusksthanfortheothermarinephyla,andthisfactortendstocauseanoverrepresentationof
shellremainsinthearchaeologicalrecord(e.g.,Bailey1975).
Conclusions
Table21.2showsthehabitatsofthemolluscantaxaidentifiedatCahuachi.Acomparisonoftables21.1and

Page298
Table21.2.MolluskSpeciesfromCahuachibyHabitat
Zone

Species

RockyIntertidalZone

Semimytilusalgosus

Calyptraea

Perumytiluspurpuratus

Crepipatellaspp.a

Chiton

Concholepasconcholepasb

Prisogasterniger

Tegulaatra

RockySubtidalZone

Aulacomyaater

Thaischocolata

SandyUpperSubtidalZone

Muliniaedulis

SandySubtidalZone

Choromytiluschorus

Mesodesmadonacium

Eurhomalearufa

Protothacathaca

Protothacaspp.

Other

Scutalusspp.Lc

Note:CompiledfromOlsson(1961)Marincovich(1973)Sandweiss
(1982)Valdiviezo(personalcommunication).
aCrepipatellaspp.alsooccurinthesubtidalzone,mostlyonvalves

ofAulacomyaater.
bConcholepasconcholepasalsooccursintheupperrockysubtidal

zone.
cLomas(land).

Table21.3.RangesofMarineMolluskTaxafromCahuachi
Taxon

Range

Semimytilusalgosus

Paita,Peru,toArauco,Chile

Choromytiluschorus

Pacasmayo,Peru,toTierradelFuego

Aulacomyaater

Callao,Peru,toStraitsofMagellan

Perumytiluspurpuratus

EcuadortoStraitsofMagellan

Eurhomalearufa

northernPerutoConcepcin,Chile

Protothacathaca

Callao,Peru,toChonosArchipelago

Muliniaedulis

Callao,Peru,toStraitsofMagellan

Mesodesmadonacium

Sechura,Peru,toValparaiso,Chile

Tegulaatra

Pacasmayo,Peru,toStraitsofMagellan

Prisogasterniger

Pacasmayo,Peru,toStraitsofMagellan

Calyptraeatrochiformis

Manta,Ecuador,toValparaiso,Chile

Crepipatellaspp.

coldwatersofPeruandChile

Thaischocolata

Paita,Peru,toValparaiso,Chile

Concholepasconcholepas

Callao,Peru,toStraitsofMagellan

Chiton

coldwatersofPeru

Note:CompiledfromLorenzenetal.(1979)Olsson(1961)Marincovich(1973)PeaG.(1970).

21.2indicatesthatfortheidentifiedmarinemollusks,1 rockyandsandyhabitatsareroughlyequivalentintermsofMNI(47percentversus53percent).However,
sandyhabitatsaremoreheavilyrepresentedbyweight(65percentversus35percent),duemainlytotheabundanceofChoromytiluschorus.2
Table21.3showsthatallofthemolluscantaxaidentifiedatCahuachiarenativetothecoldwatersofPeruandhaveknowngeographicranges,includingthesectionof
coastclosesttoCahuachi.TheonlyexceptiontothisisSpondylus,whoseclosestsourceisthetropicalwatersoftheGulfofGuayaquilandwhichisnotincludedinthe
analysis.
TheshellsfoundinsomeofthefeaturesatCahuachiseemnottohavebeenusedforsubsistencebutratherasofferings,giventhecarefulselectionevidencedinthese
cases.Thepresenceofshellswithorganicremainsorpaintsupportsthehypothesisofnonsubsistenceuse.Similarfindshavebeenmadeatsitesthroughoutthe
Peruviancoast,suchastheRingSite(Sandweissetal.1989:67),LaPaloma(Quilter1989),Garagay(Sandweiss1982:224),MorrodeEten(CarlosElera,personal
communication1991),andLoDems(Rodrguezms.).ThesesitesspanthePeruviancoastfromLambayequetoIloandrangeintimefromtheEarlytoMiddle
PreceramicPeriodtotheLateHorizon.Othersuchfindsoccurinthehighlands,beginningintheEarlyPreceramicPeriodatsitessuchasCaru(Ravines1967:45).

Page299

ThemostabundantspeciesatCahuachiisChoromytiluschorusbothintermsofweight(47.1percent)andMNI(25.9percent).Asnotedabove,Choromytiluswas
animportantshellinAndeanritual,anditwasthemolluscanspeciesthatprovidedmostmeatperindividual(Sandweiss1985SandweissandRodrguez1991).Given
thevariedcontextsinwhichChoromytiluswasfoundatCahuachi,itislikelythatbothfactorshelpaccountforitspopularityatthesite.
Notes
1.Thecategory"identifiedmarinemollusks"includesallofthetaxalistedintable21.1exceptScutalusspp.andunidentifiedfragmentstheidentifiedmarinemollusks
total2,612.1gramsinweightandhaveanMNIof688.
2.Incontrasttomostothermussels,Choromytiluschoruslivesgenerallyinsandorpebbleandsandbeaches.

Page300

ChapterTwentyTwo
TheIdentificationofCahuachiasaCeremonialCenter
ExcavationandsurveyatCahuachihaveconclusivelynegatedthesite'sallegedurbannature(versusRowe1963:1011Lanning1967:116117Proulx1968:96
Lumbreras1974a:123124).Cahuachi'smoundsareceremonialconstructions,nothabitationmounds.MissingfromthearchaeologicalrecordatCahuachiin
Strong's,Orefici's,andmyexcavationsareextensivezonesofdense,permanenthabitationandquotidianactivityareascorrespondingtoepoch3oftheEarly
IntermediatePeriod,Cahuachi'sapogee.
Ithasbeenempiricallydemonstratedthatthedearthofsurfacematerialintheunlootedopen(unconstructed)areasofthesitecorrespondstominimaldomesticrefuse
intheunderlyingstrata(chaps.912).Nevertheless,itemsofadomesticnaturewerefoundintheconstructionfillsofmounds,althoughonlyrarehintsofstratified
kitchenmiddenswereencounteredduringtheprogramofexcavations.Inaddition,OreficiandIbothrecognizetheunusuallyhighpresenceofritualobjectsinthese
constructionfills(chap.2).IarguethatthequotidianandritualobjectsinCahuachi'sconstructionfillsaretheresultoffrequentpilgrimageepisodesatthesite.
ThenonurbancharacterofCahuachiisseeninotherpatternsaswell.Fewvesselsappropriateforfoodstoragewerefound,suggestingonlyalimitedneedtostore
largequantitiesoffoodforlongperiodsatthesite.TheonlyformalstoragefacilitiesidentifiedatthesiteappeartobetheagglutinatedroomcomplexesofUnit2
(Strong'sGreatTemple)whereritualparaphernaliaintheformofpanpipeshasbeenrecovered(chap.5seebelow).Ritualparaphernaliaandsacrificialand
offeringitemsarefoundelsewhereatthesiteaswell.Thepatternofceramicremainsalsoconfirmsthesite'snonordinarynature,sinceiconographicallyelaborate
potteryfaroutnumbersutilitarianwareduringtheperiodofCahuachi'smainoccupation(seetables16.116.4).Indeed,evenCahuachi'sspatialorganization(chap.6)
iscongruentwiththeidentificationofthesiteasaceremonialcenterwithapilgrimagefunction,forCahuachiiscomposedofsomefortyceremonialmoundsofgreater
andlessersizeinassociationwithkanchasplazaswherepilgrimscongregated.Cahuachiwasasacredfocusinanaturalandartificiallyconstructedsacredlandscape.
Evenafteritsapogee,Cahuachiremainedasacredplace,appropriateforburialsandtheleavingofofferings.Theevidenceinsupportofthesecontentionsand
identificationshasbeenpresentedintheprecedingchapters.Itissummarizedbelow.
TheNatureofHabitationatCahuachi
Cahuachiappearstohavebeenahabitationsiteinepoch1oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriod,foratUnit6StrongfoundaNasca1habitationzoneunderlyingNasca3
ceremonialconstructions(chap.4).ThesizeoftheNasca1settlement(areaandpopulation)isunknownatpresent.Cahuachiwasnot,however,anexclusively
domesticsiteatthattime.ContemporarywithitsNasca1residentialoccupationaremonumentalconstructionsofamanifestlyceremonialnature,suchastheStep
MotifTempleatUnit8discoveredbyOrefici(1987).Further

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more,thespecialorprimatenatureofCahuachiinepoch1oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodisindicatedbythelargeamountoffancyNasca1potteryrecoveredby
Strong(1957:figs.9,10).
WhatremainstobeelucidatediswhatcausedtheatrophyofCahuachi'sdomesticfunctioninfavorofthehyperdevelopmentofitsceremonialaspectstothepointthat,
byepoch3oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriod,CahuachihadbecomethegreatestNascaceremonialcenterbutwithapparentlyfewpermanentresidentscertainly
nowherenearthe10,000or20,000or50,000inhabitantsproposedforundisputedAndeancities(see,e.g.,Schaedel1978Parsons1966TopicandMoseley1983:
157)eventhough125hectaresofunconstructedspacewereavailable.
TempleMounds
ThemodifiedhillsofCahuachididnotgrow,telllike,throughsuperpositionandfillinginofdomesticcomponents.Theyarenothabitationmounds.Rather,theyare
templemoundsnaturalhillsthatwerearchitecturallyelaboratedtoserveasthelociofreligious/civicactivities.Ceremonialfunctioncanbeascribedtothemajorityof
themoundsatCahuachionthebasisoftheirarchitectureandassociatedmaterialremains.Strong'sGreatTemple(Unit2),forinstance,hadanabundanceof
panpipesamusicalinstrumentusedintheNascacultaswellasfeathers,finepottery,andllamaremains.Archaeological,ethnohistoric,andethnographicevidence
identifytheRoomofthePostsatUnit19asatempleandUnit19asanarchitecturalcomplexoffundamentallyreligiouscharacter(seechaps.12,13).
ThewallsoftheRoomofthePostsreceivedrepeatedattentionaslayerafterlayerofadobeplasterwasappliedtokeepthemingoodrepair.Onthefinalwallsurface
panpipes,rayedfaces,andotherdesignsweretraced.Thepanpipes,inparticular,canbeassociatedwithNascaritualactivitiesonthebasisofceramiciconography.
Twelvestandingwoodpostswerearrangedintheroom.Ihavearguedthatthesepostsareevidenceofanancestorcultonthebasisoftheappearanceofsimilar
huarangopostsinNascaandlatertombsandonthebasisofceramiciconography.Therearelargecirculardepressionsintheflooroftheroom,andasmall,low,
brokenmudplatformisdirectlyassociatedwithoneofthese.IassociatethisfeaturewiththelaterIncaconceptofushnu,aconnectiontotheunderworldand
ancestors(seeZuidema19771978:165).TheroomitselfispartoftheUnit19ceremonialmoundonwhichapogeecontemporaryburialsandritualparaphernalia
(e.g.,finepottery,abundantpanpipefragments,elaboratetextiles)werefound.AlsoindicatingthesacrednatureoftheRoomofthePostsisitsritualentombmentin
Nasca8times.Thatepisodesawtheroomburiedintonsofclean,sterilesandinwhichofferingsofwholepots,groupsofsherds,andotheritemswereleft.
PostapogeeofferingswerealsoleftatotherplacesontheUnit19mound.Thosediscoveredbymyprojectincludetrophyheadsandafineobsidianknifewrappedina
packetofmaizesheaths.ClearlyUnit19(includingtheRoomofthePosts)retainedasacredauracenturiesafterCahuachi'sdecline.
Pottery
Ceramicanalysis(chap.16)hasshownanoutstandingpredominanceoffinewareratherthanutilitarianware,ontheorderof70percentto30percent.The
proportionswouldbereversedatahabitationsite.Thefinewarebearssupernaturalormythicalthemesaswellasrepresentationalandabstracticonography.
DomesticArtifactsandRitualParaphernalia
Someoftheartifactsrecoveredatthesite(seechaps.1719)wereofapotentiallydomesticnature,suchasceramicplugs,possiblespindlewhorlsandother
textilerelatedimplements,plaingourds,plainweavetextiles,andmiscellaneousthreadsandcords.IdidnotrecoveranybasketryalthoughStrongfoundsome.Stone
mortarsandpestlesarerareatCahuachi(althoughIrecognizethatthesecouldhavebeencarriedoffthesiteinrecenttimes).
Butmanyotherrecoveredartifactshadadistinctlynonutilitarian,specialpurpose.Forinstance,myprojectrecordedmorethan200panpipefragments,thirteen
pyroengravedgourdfragmentsandamagnificentwholegourdbowlbearingearlyNascasupernaturaliconography,elaboratetextilefragmentsincludingintricatethree
dimensionalfiguresofthekindfoundonearlyNascafuneraryshroudsandritualattire,smallspecialobjectsofunknownfunction,offeringsoffeathersandshell,
offeringsofmaize,cachesofpetrifiedwoodandhuarangofruit,afragmentofastonevase,andvariousotheritems.AtopUnit2Strongfoundabundantllamaremains,
feathers,panpipes,andfinepottery.InhisCut5,onthenowdestroyedUnit7,Strongfoundfancytextileremains.Oreficihasrecoveredabundantmaterialofthe
samenaturefromhisexcavationsatthesite,most

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notablyacacheofhundredsofpanpipesinoneoftheagglutinatedroomsofUnit2.Allofthesenonutilitarianobjectssomeofwhichmayhavebeenusedinthe
celebrationofthecultaretobeexpectedataceremonialcenter.
StorageFacilitiesforRitualParaphernalia
UnderSchaedel's(1980a)argumentfortheredistributivefunctionofceremonialcenters,weshouldexpecttofindstoragefacilitiesforritualparaphernaliaand
communalfeasts.Theonelargeareaofplanned,presumablystoragefacilitiesidentifiedatCahuachitheagglutinatedroomsatthebaseofUnit2,Strong'sGreat
Templeisalreadyyieldingevidencethatquantitiesofritualparaphernaliawerestored,suchasthelargecacheofpanpipesrecentlyfoundbyOrefici.
Itisalsopossible,giventheirsmallsize,theirlootedcondition,andremainsrecovered,thatRooms3,4,and5onUnit19couldhavestoredcultobjectssuchas
elaboratetextilesandpottery(chaps.12,16,18).Itissimilarlypossible,giventheirsize,context,andcontent,thatsomelargeutilitarianurnssuchasFeature80in
whichscoresoffancytextilefragmentswerefound(chap.12)werealsoasimilarfacility.
ExcavationatUnit19(chap.12)hasrevealedapatternofsmallscalelocalizedutilitarianurns(which,presumably,storedfoodandbeverages)sealedinclayfloors
andlarge,freestandingutilitarianpots(someofwhichstoredritualparaphernalia,butothersmighthavestoredcomestibles).Theseareappropriatetotheayllulevel
useofCahuachi'smoundsthatispositedinthischapter.Thestoragevesselsandthebotanical(chap.20)andfaunalremainssuggestthatfoodwasbeingbroughtto
thesitetobeimmediatelyconsumedthere.Iarguethatsuchapatternofbehavioriscongruentwithapilgrimagefunction.
CraftProduction
Nascapotteryisrenownedforitshighaestheticandtechnologicalqualities.Nascasociety'scosmology,sacreddogma,andworldviewareexpressedonitspainted
pottery.Theabundanceoffine,iconographicallycomplexpotteryatCahuachiiscongruentwithalloftheotherevidencethatindicatesthatthesitefunctionedasagreat
ceremonialcenter.ItisreasonabletoexpectthatatleastsomeofthissymbolladenandiconographicallycomplexpotterywasbeingproducedatCahuachi,perhaps
bytheprieststhemselves.YettheevidenceforceramicproductionatCahuachiistenuous.Oreficihasfoundpigmentsandfinehairedobjectsthatcouldbe
paintbrushes.Ihavefoundfragmentsofredpigmentandpigmentstainedrocksaswellasobjectsthatlooklikelittlepaintbrushes(chap.19).Butthusfar,nopottery
craftworkshopsorartisan'sdistrictshavebeenidentifiedatCahuachioratanyotherNascasite(versusthesituationdocumentedbyJohnTopic[1982]atChanChan
andbythelateMarthaAnders[1990]atMaymi).
ItispossiblethatsomepotterywasbeingproducedatCahuachiaswellasbeingbroughttothesiteforusethere.Inthecourseofsuchuse,theceramicvesselswere
accidentallyand,Ibelieve,alsodeliberatelybroken(seebelow),therebyaccountingforthehighproportionoffinesherdmaterialatthesite(inadditiontolooters'
damagetowholepotsintombs).Fancypotterymayalsohavebeenredistributed,exchanged,andtakenoutagain.AuniqueNascamodeledscene,discussedby
Tello(1931fig.22.1),mayillustratethissuggestion.Itdepictswhatappearstobeafamilygoingto/comingfromsomepossiblyspecialplacetojudgefromthe
individuals'fineclothing.Thefatherplaysapanpipeandthemothercarriestwomore,oneineachhand.Parrotsperchontheshouldersofthemotheranddaughter.
Thedaughtercarriesadoublespoutandbridgebottle.IsuggestthatthefamilyisgoingtoCahuachioranotherNascaceremonialcenterandthattheyarebringing
parrotstosacrificeand/ordeplume,panpipestoplayenconjunto(Valencia1982),andafancyceramicbottletosacrificeorexchangewithotherfamiliesorgivein
tributetothepriestsofearlyNascasociety.Thedogsthataccompanythefamilycouldbepetsandalsopotentialsacrificial/feastingobjectsthoughdogremainsare
thusfarunreportedatCahuachi(butseeNeiraAvedaoandCoelho19721973:120122).
IftheabovescenarioiscorrectatleastinregardtotheceramicvesselsthenourcurrentviewoflocaldifferencesinNascapottery(Proulx1968seechap.16)
couldbeseverelyaltered,withtherecognitionthatnotallpotteryfoundinPalpa,forinstance,wasmadetherebutcouldhavecomefromLasTrancas,andpotteryin
IngeniomightbecomingfromIca,andsoforth.
Arnold(1985)haspresentedanexcellentmodelsuggestingacausalrelationshipbetweenritualactivityandincreaseddemandforproductionofspecialpotterysucha
processisbelievedtohaveobtainedatCahuachi.Fulltimecraftspecializationisnotnecessarilyimpliedbytheiconographiccomplexityandtechnicalexcellenceof
Nascapottery.Ethnoarchaeologicalstudiesfromaroundtheworldindicatethatparttimeartisanscan

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22.1.
Artist'srenderingofthemodeledNascapilgrimagescenediscussedbyTello(1931).

achieveastoundingartistryandtechnologicalperfection(see,e.g.,WhittenandWhitten1988).
Strong(1957:28)mayhaverecoveredevidenceofaspecialtextilecraftresidentialareaatUnit7atCahuachi.
RitualConsumptionofPottery
IcontendthatpotterywasrituallyconsumedatCahuachi.AnoutstandingethnographicexampleofpotteryproductionforritualconsumptionisdescribedbyReeve
(1985)fortheCanelosQuichuaofeasternEcuador.Amonthbeforethecelebrationofanannualfiestacalledjista(whosepurposeistoguaranteerenewalofthe
tropicalforestresourcesnecessaryforthesurvivaloftraditionalcultureandtorenewinterethnicbonds),thewomendedicatethemselvestomakingasua(slightly
fermentedmaniocorplantaingruel)andthepotteryspecificallyneededforthefiesta.Eachwomanhelperofthefiestasponsormustmakeatleastseventoten
mucahuas(theservingbowlforasua),tenpurus(anthropomorphicservingvessels),twocornetas(trumpets),fivecallanas(eatingbowls),andoneormoreusisapurus
(flowervasesforthechurch).
Asthefervorbuilds[onthethirddayofthejista],suddenlythechayujcalls"stop,"orderingalltheceramicstobebroken.Theguestmalejisterosarehandedceramicsbythehost
femalejisterosandselectingasuitablepartoftheroof,preferablyinthesouthwest,onebyonethemenhurltheceramicsupagainsttheroof,attemptingtopiercethewovenpalm
thatchwithsherdswhichwillremainthereasareminderthatthejistatookplaceandendedinthathouse.Theybreakthepurus,mucahuasfullofasuaandtheremainingcornetas.
Astheythrowtheceramicsthemenyell"endthefiesta"("Jistatucurin").Oncealltheceramicsarebrokeninthehuarmijistahuasi,allgotothecarijistahuasiwheretheceramics
arebrokeninthesameway.Followingthisthemenagainbegintodrum,theirdrumssoundingnowonlyheavythudsfromtheasuasoakedskins,whilethewomendanceona
housefloornowturnedto

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asuamudmixedwithceramicsherds.Anyremainingceramicsareusedtocontinueservingtillalloftheasuahasbeendrunk.(Reeve1985:170171)

Reeve(1985:174176)analyzesandinterpretsthejistainthecontextofandasanAndeanritual.Unfortunately,shedoesnottelluswhathappenstoallthesherds.
Aretheyleftinthemudtobecomehardenedintoanapisonadooristheflooreventuallycleaned?AtCahuachisherdswererarelyfoundworkedintofloorsofany
kindasherdfoundintheflooroftheRoomofthePostsisoneofthoserareinstances.
TheCanelosQuichuasituationis,ofcourse,differentfromMiddleHorizonpatternsofritualpotterysmashing(e.g.,Pacheco,Conchopata,Ayapata,Maymi:see
Menzel1964Ravines1968Cookms.Anders1990).ItisalsodifferentfromthepatternIobservedintheRoomofthePostsonUnit19atCahuachi(chap.13),
whosehundredsofsherdsintheNasca8style(inadditiontothesixteenwholevessels)wereleftasofferingsinthedeliberatelyinterredtempleroombutcannotbeput
backtogetheragainaswholevessels.Nevertheless,theRoomofthePostsandtheCanelosQuichuaservetoillustrateanancientandenduringpanAndeancustomof
rituallybreakingpottery.
Indeed,IsuggestthatthetremendousamountofbrokenearlyNascafinewareatCahuachicannotbeduesolelytoaccidentalbreakage.Rather,potterywasprobably
beingmadeespeciallytobetakentotheceremonialcenter.Itwasusedthere(inceremonyandinburial).Somebrokesomewasdeliberatelybrokenaspartofthe
activitiesoccurringatthesite(includingburialrites)andsomepotsweresurelytakenoutofthesiteagain.
TheabundanceofdecoratedbowlsatCahuachiisnotable(chap.16)andprobablysignificant.Isuggestthatthehighquantityofthesebowlsatthesiteisindicativeof
foodconsumption(festiveeating)andritualactivity(exchange,ceremony,burial).
FaunalRemains
ShimadaandShimada(1985)haveconvincinglyarguedthatsinceatleasttheEarlyHorizon,llamasandperhapsothercamelidswerekeptonthePeruviancoast
wheretheyservedmultiplefunctionsasfood,tools,beastsofburden,andsacrifice.ThisargumentfitstheevidencefromCahuachi.Llamaexcrementiscommoninour
excavations,andIsuggestthatitspresenceintheUnit16kanchaisdirectlyrelatedtotheinterpretationofthatareaasaplaceofpilgrimcongregation,withthellamas
carryinggoodstoandfromthesite.ValdezCardenas(1988),ontheotherhand,reportsthatOreficirecoverednocamelidexcrementOrefici'sscreeningprocedureis
notstatedinthearticle.
StrongrecoveredabundantcamelidremainsinaceremonialcontextatopUnit2(hisGreatTemple).Hespecificallyspeaksoffinding"llamaremains...andother
apparentlyfeastingandsacrificialmaterials"(Strong1957:31).Wedidnotrecoverbutcheredcamelidbones,althoughOreficipresumablydidsinceValdez(1988)
speaksaboutcamelidsasasourceofmeatprotein.Allamaburial(Burial10)wasdiscoveredonUnit19itdatestoafterCahuachi'sNasca3apogee.Allamaleg
wasalsorecoveredbyMiguelPazosfromoneofthedeeppreparedcylindricalshaftsonUnit12Bitisinterpretedasasacrificialitemfromaspecializedritual
architecturalcontext(seebelow:ushnus).Oreficidiscoveredasacrificialofferingofmorethansixtyllamasduringhis1991fieldseason.
ValdezCardenas(1988)reportsthatOreficirecoveredtheremainsof154adultand65youngcamelidsfromhisexcavationsinconstructionfillinceremonialmounds
atCahuachi.Therewerenoremainsofjuvenileandinfantcamelidstheundifferentiatedpresenceofthedifferentpartsoftheanimalwasrecorded(ValdezCardenas
1988:34).Thissuggeststhattheanimalswerebeingkilledandconsumedinthesameplace.IagreewithValdezCardenas(1988:32)thatthismeansthatcamelids
werenotbeingkept/bred/herdedatCahuachi.Orefici'scamelidremainsareconsistentwithmineandStrong's.Isuggestthatcamelids,notablyllamas,werebeing
sacrificedatCahuachiandconsumedinceremonialepisodes.TheuseofllamasinritualsacrificeiswelldocumentedintheAndes(e.g.,StrongandEvans1952
DonnanandMackey1978GuamanPoma1936:240,270).
Guineapigsarerareinexcavationbutaremultiplyrepresentedinthecontextofanoffering(Feature89)atthebaseofUnit19(chap.12).Theydonotoccurasfood
perseinourexcavations.ValdezCardenas(1988)reportsremainsofthreeguineapigsinhisanalysisofOrefici'sfaunalmaterialandcontraststhepoorguineapig
evidencefromCahuachiwiththehighproportionofguineapigremainsatTamboViejo,amajorNascahabitationsitebeingexcavatedbyFrancisRiddellandthe
CaliforniaInstituteforPeruvianStudies(seeMenzelandRiddell1986Kowta1987b).IagreewithValdezCardenas(1988:33)thatthisdifferentialpatternindicates
that"eachsettlementfilledspecificfunctions,"andIsuggestthatthesefunctionswereceremonialinthecaseofCahuachianddomesticinthecaseofTamboViejo.

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SacredBurialGrounds
Aceremonialcenter,byvirtueofitssacredness,couldalsobeexpectedtobeanappropriatelocusforburial.Cahuachimeetsthisexpectation.Thereisevidenceof
theapogeecontemporaryuseofCahuachi'smoundsforburial(e.g.,Kroeber'sburialsonUnitA,ourburialsonUnit19),andwehaveseenthatthesitecontinuedto
beadesirablespotforintermentafteritsheyday,whichaccountsforthelateNascaandpostNascagravesatCahuachi(chap.14).
Ushnus
PreparedcylindricaldepressionswerefoundatopUnits10and12B(chaps.5,6).Inform,thegarrafasofUnit10arereminiscentofshafttombs.Ifthegarrafaswere
shafttombs,theycouldalsohavebeenwiththeUnit10moundushnus.Anushnuis"aritualcomplexofaltar,platformorpyramidtogetherwiththebasicholeor
tubeleadingundergroundinfrontofit"(Zuidema19771978:161,165).Ushnusareconduitstotheunderworld.Assuch,itispossiblethatofferingswererenewed
throughtheroofsofthenarrowshaftsandthatthetombsiftheyweretombswerereentered.
IbelievethatanushnuisportrayedinauniqueNasca2vesselillustratedbyLapiner(1976:fig.524).Ahumanagentwearstheforeheadornamentandmouthmaskof
theAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingandisseatedwithinabuildinghavingtwodoorways.Inthecenteroftheroomisaholeorceremonialheartintowhichsix
currentsofliquid(chicha?blood?)descend.Afan,thekindcarriedbyoneofthethreedimensionalfiguresrecoveredatCahuachi(fig.18.5),liesontheground.
IalsoidentifytherowsofcylindricaldepressionsatopUnit12Bassacredconduitsand/orofferingpitsand/orstoragefacilitiesforritualparaphernalia.An
accumulationofhuarangopodswasrecoveredfromoneshaftonUnit12Bandallamalegbonefromtheother(seechap.5).Asindicatedabove,theuseofllamasin
ritualandsacrificeiswelldocumentedintheAndes.IsuggestthathuarangowasanitemofpotentialceremonialuseamongtheancientNascapeopleaswell(chap.
13).
SacredPlace
Alltoooftenarchaeologistslookatthelandscapeinpurelyeconomictermsasalocusforagriculture,watersupply,pasturage,andtheacquisitionofmineralorother
naturalresources.Althoughtheancientssurelyviewedtheirphysicalenvironmentintheseterms,thereisabundantevidencefromtheCentralAndesthatlandscapes
alsowereimbuedwithsacredqualitiestheyweretopographicallysignificantforritualreasons.IsuggestthatCahuachiwasasacredplaceaplacewithsupernatural
propertiesevenbeforethefirstceremonialconstructionwasundertakenthere.MillenniaofwinderosionhaveterracedthehillsofCahuachiintonaturallytruncated
mounds,possiblymakingCahuachiaplaceofnaturalhuacas(sacredshrines).
CahuachiisalsooneofthefewlocationsintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagewherethesubsurfacewatertablemeetsthesurface,therebycreatinganaturalspring.
GiventhewellknownritualisticattitudestowardpukiosorsourcesofwaterintheAndes(seeSherbondy1982forasummaryofthisliterature),itislikelythat
Cahuachiwasperceivedasamagicallocation.Cahuachiisstillknownbylocalpeopleasaplace"dondeafloraelagua,"wherewatercomestothesurface,even
thoughthereisverylittleofit.
Alsointermsofsacredgeography,Cahuachiisborderedtothenorthandsouthbyflatdesertplains(pampas)onwhichgreatgroundmarkings(e.g.,longstraightlines,
animalfigures,trapezoids)weretraced,someofwhicharecontemporarywithCahuachi'smainoccupation(Silverman1990a,b).AllofCahuachi'smoundsfacenorth
tothePampadeSanJos,andoneofthegreattranspampalinesrunsdirectlybetweenCahuachiandtheIngeniovalley(Silverman1990bseebelowchap.23).
SeveralofthestraightlinesinageoglyphcomplexonthePampadeAtarco,justbehindCahuachi,pointdirectlyatthesite'smajorarchitecturalfeatures(fig.22.2).
Furthermore,thenameCahuachi,whichinQuechuameans"makethemsee,makethempredict,tohavebadluck"(SergioChavez,personalcommunication1984
BernardinoOjeda,personalcommunication1985),suggeststhatCahuachiwasaplacewheresacredactivitiestookplace,someofwhichwererelatedtothepampa,
itselfthelocusofaritualsocialastronomicalcalendarpossiblyancestraltothecequesystemoftheIncas(Silverman1990a,b).IsuggestthatCahuachiwasintimately
relatedtothegeoglyphphenomenonofthepampaandthatthepampaandCahuachitogetherformedacenterofgravityandanirruptionofthesacredonthesouth
coast(seeSilverman1990a,b).
Zuidema(1982:427),citingGuamanPoma(1980:263,264),hasobservedthatthe"healthofthe[Inca]kingandhisgovernmentwasindirectcorrelationtohis
knowledgeofhucha[sin]andtohisabilitytoremoveitfromanypartofhisterritory."Toknowhucha,theIncaking,TupaYupanqui,consultedwithtwelvehuacasto
knoworlearnaboutthepastandfuture.Aswehave

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22.2.
ComplexofgeoglyphsinthePampadeAtarcodirectlybehind(south)Cahuachi.Someofthelinesappearto
pointdirectlyatsomeofCahuachi'sprincipalarchitecturalfeatures.

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seen,theglossesofCahuachialsohaveapredictiveorforetellingsemanticconnotation.ThisabilityoftheIncakingtoknowisanalogoustowhatoccursoverthe
horizon.Hereacomparisoncanbedrawnbetweenthisinvisible,temporallylinearknowledgeandcequesthatcanextendoverthevisiblehorizon.Zuidema(personal
communication1985)suggeststhatthiscouldtieintoshamanswho,ontheirhallucinogenicjourneystogetknowledgeofdistantplacesandtimes,go"overthe
horizon"andthenreturn.
Isuggestthatthereisasemanticandphysicalrelationshipbetweencequeandcachahui(bothasusedbyZuidemabelow)andCahuachi.Ofallthemanyfunctions
ascribedtothegeoglyphsofthepampa(e.g.,Reiche1968Kosok1965MejaXesspe1940Morrison1978Hawkins1969Reinhard1988Silverman1990b),
theorieswhicharenotallmutuallyexclusive,perhapsthemostsatisfyingisthatwhichwecandrawfromZuidema's(1964,1973,1982)discussionofceques.
Zuidema(1973:29)emphasizesthenatureofcequeas"line."InthecaseofthecequesystemofCuzco,lineswerenotphysicallyvisibletracingsbutratherstraight
directionsoverwhichahumansacrifice(capachucha)wouldtravel.FromMolina's1573account,Zuidema(1982:431)isabletodiscernthreecontextsofceques.
"Thefirstiscomposedoftheofferings,cequeorcachahui,thatareindirectvisualcontacttothehuacathatisworshipped.Thesecondcontextisthatoftheceque
systemofCuzco.Herethecequesaresightlinescoveringthewholevalley,andbecauseoftheirlongerextension,varioushuacasascachahuisareorganizedalongeach
ceque....Inthiscasecertaincequeswentbeyondtheimmediatehorizon....Thethirdcontextisthatofthecapachucha.Herethevisualconnectionisexpandedby
theactoftheacllaactuallytravellingasacachahui(`messenger'orceque)betweentwodistantpoints...travellinginastraightline."Zuidema(1982:431)also
mentionsdatafromtheseventeenthcenturychroniclerMuruawhichindicatepilgrimagesbypriestswhowould,likethecapachucha,walkstraight.
WiththepossiblyuniqueexceptionofthelongcurvinglinesouthofCahuachiand,ofcourse,thefiguresthemselves,theNazcageoglyphsarequintessentiallystraight.
Furthermore,wehaveseenthatsomeoftheNazcalinespointrightatCahuachi,specificallyUnits1and2fromthePampadeAtarcoandUnitsVVWWfromthe
PampadeSanJos.Otheralignmentscouldprobablybefound.
Aveni(1986),basedonZuidema'sresearchintothecequesandrevivingMejaXesspe's(1940)originalnotionofthelinesassacredroads,cogentlyarguesthatthe
NazcalinesfunctionedlikethecequesystemofCuzco(Zuidema1964seealsoMorrison1978).Inotherwords,theNazcalineswereamyriadreligiopolitical
phenomena:theyweresacredroadsacrossasacredterrain(anendinitself)andtoCahuachiandfunctionedasroutesofpilgrimagetheyweretherecordingofan
astronomicalcalendarwhichwasusedinecologicalregulationaswellastoordertheperformanceofritualtheywerea"highlyorderedhierarchicalcosmographical
map,amnemonicschemethatincorporatedvirtuallyallimportantmattersconnectedwiththe[Nazca]worldview"(Aveni1986:37)theywerechutaandmit'a(see
Urton1984)withaparticularNazcalinepossiblypertainingtoacertainsocialgroup(Aveni[1986:39]suggeststhataparticularlinecouldhavebeenassignedtoits
walkers)theywererelatedtowatersources(Reinhard1988Aveni1986,1990)and,finally,theraycentersasplacesofconvergencemayhavebeenimportant
placesofworshiporsacrifice.
IfweacceptthecequenatureoftheNazcalines,aconnectionwithCahuachibecomesevenmorelikely.ItcanbesuggestedthatCahuachiwasthelocus,amongother
things,forceremonialactivitiesinvolvingprediction.Thepriests,asissuggestedbyNascaiconography,probablyhadashamanicdiviningcharacter.Itwouldnotbe
unreasonabletosuggestthattheirforetellingactivitieswerelargely(butnotexclusively)concernedwithagriculturalfertility,particularlywiththeregularityand
sufficiencyofwaterwithwhichtoirrigatethisdesertzone.TheregularperiodicityofrainhadtohavebeenofgreatconcerntotheentireNascanation,andrituals
designedtopredictandensureadequatewatersupplymusthaveinvolvedthesituationalparticipationofthelargestgroupofpeoplepossibleincontrasttoritesofa
morespecificnature.IhavearguedthatNascasocietywasorganizedintocognaticdescentgroups(Silverman1990aseebelow).Inthesituationalcontextofritesof
agriculturalfertility,itishighlylikelythattheentiresocialentityparticipatedorwasrepresented.Thus,itisofinteresttonotetheharvestfestivalscenetextilesillustrated
anddescribedbyAlanSawyer(1979)inwhichtheparticipationofhundredsoffarmersisshown.Thetextilessurelyshowscenesofcelebrationsimilartotheonesthat
occurredatCahuachi.
Predictionnodoubtinvolvedtheobservationofnaturalphenomena:theskies,themovementofheavenlybodies,animals,plants.Somelinesmayhaveanastronomical
orientation(PhyllisPitluga,personalcommunications1985,1990,1992seeKosok1965:chap.6).ItcanbesuggestedthattheNascapriestsobservedthenatural
andsupernaturalworldfromCahuachiand

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fromthepampa.Thepampa,withitslines,andCahuachi,withitsmounds,arepartofaunitaryreligiouscomplexinwhichobservationforthepurposeofprediction
wasaprincipalactivity.Indeed,Reinhard(1988)proposesadirectrelationshipbetweentheNazcalines,mountaindeities,rainfall,watersupply,andagricultural
fertility.Histheoryiscompletelycongruentwiththeviewsexpressedhere.
ThecoordinationandschedulingofreligiousactivitiesperformedbythesocialgroupscomprisingNascasocietycouldhavebeenbymeansofaritualcalendar.This
ritualcalendar(acequesystem)isreflectedonthepampa.Itcanbesuggestedthateachline(chuta:seeUrton1984)wasmadeatitspropermomentoftime(mit'ain
thesenseoffulfillingaritualobligation)byadistinctsocialgroup(ayllu).ThisisanalogoustoZuidema's(1982:428)observationthatthehuacasofthecequesystem
andhuacasingeneralrepresentedthedistinctsociopoliticalunitsthatworshippedthere(seealsoLathrap1985:252).Eachaylluorsocialgroupwasresponsibleforits
huacaandwas,concomitantly,relatedtoaceque.If,followingLathrap(1985),eachhuacaisatthesametimeanushnu,theneachNazcalineisanushnu/opening,
huaca/temple,temporalsocialgroupsignifier,andritualorganizer.
Kosok(1965:chap.6)referstothePampadeSanJosasthe"world'slargestastronomybook."Theanalogywithabookisproperfor,indeed,inordertopredict,
knowledgehastobeaccumulatedthroughempiricallyrepetitiveexperiences(experiments)andthenstored.Theknowledgeinvolvedwithpredictionwasbeingwritten
(physicallyrecorded)onthepampa.Thepampawasatextthatwasread.Thetextwastheproductofmanywords(socialgroups),allofwhichwerenecessaryto
createthecompositestory.Toreadthelines(bothsensesoftheword),thetexthadtobeclearlyunderstandable.Onthepampasomelinesaremoreeasilyseenthan
others(theyarebrighter)perhapsthisisbecausetheancientpeoplessweptthelinescurrentlyinusetokeepthemvisible.BothUrton(1990)andIagreethatthelines
werebeingkeptrituallyclean(seealsoBurgerandSalazarBurger1985onthesweepingormaintainingofritualareas).Notonlywouldthehypothesizedsweepingof
theNazcalineshavebeenareligiousactinvolvingdistinctsocialgroupsbut,atthesametime,thissweepingwouldhaveaidedthereadingoftheappropriatetextby
highlightingtherelevantportionsothatonewouldnot"readbetweenthelines"(readextraneousmatternolongerpertinent).
WiththedeclineofCahuachithepampamayhavebecomeanevenmoreimportantlocusofNascasocioreligiousactivity(seeSilverman1990b).Thepatternof
cyclicaluseofthepampaforobservationandrecordingaswellasfortheperformanceofotherrelatedsociopoliticalreligiousritescontinuedtoevolve.Theconfusing
proliferationoflinesweseetodayonthepampaisthecumulativeresultoftherepetitiveenactmentofaritualcalendarinwhichthelinesweremadetorecordthedata
(astronomical,social,political)necessaryforsuchactivityandatthesametimeserveasthelocifortheseactivities.
Thesethoughtstieinverywellwiththeideathatcertainhumanbehaviorcantransformthenaturalworldintoaculturalworld.Iarguethatthetwomajorwallsof
Cahuachi,Units4and16,servedtodelineateonekindofspace(natural)fromanother(cultural).Itcanalsobearguedthattheveryactofmakingthelinesservedto
transformthenaturalterrainintoculturalterrainand,inthiscase,sacredterrain.
Todrawawallaroundanareaistobringitwithinone'ssphereofcontrol.AtCahuachi,wheretheartificialmoundsarebasicallynotmuchdifferentfromthe
unmodifiednaturalhillsaroundthem,this"bringingwithin"wasanecessaryculturalacttocreatesocialspace.Likewise,thetracingofthelinesontheemptypampa
surfacebroughtthisspacewithinthehumansphere,domesticateditsotospeak.Thepampathusceasedtobeavastexpanse(Eliade1959)andanobstacletobe
crossedsoastoreachCahuachibutratherbecameanintegralpartofNascareligionandthepilgrimageroute.Whilecrossingit,humanbeingsenteredtheliminal
phasethattransformedthemfromtheordinarypeopletheyweretotheritualsocialbeingstheywouldbecomewhentheyarrivedatthesacredsiteofCahuachi.Itis
quitelikelythatthistransformationwasachievedbydressingup,dancing,trancing,andmasking,forwhichthereisampleiconographicandethnographicevidence.
Thus,inacomparisonofthepropertiesofAndeandancetotheactofpilgrimageitself,Poole(1991:333)suggeststhat"theuseanddisplayofthesehierarchical,
spatial,andtranformationalprinciplesindanceparallelandrecursivelyreinformtheimportanceofthesesameabstractprinciplesinthepilgrimageritualswhichpresent
thatcontextfordanceperformance.Inthisrespect,theritualizedmovementofAndeanpilgrimage...derive[s]muchofitscoherenceandmeaningasareligious,
devotionalactfromthesedancesinwhichtheformalcharacteristicsofpilgrimagearepresentedintheentertaining,emotive,anonymous(masked)andartisticformof
dance"(seealsoSallnow

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1987Silverman1990b:453).TheNascaandNazcalinesmustbeunderstoodinthetermspresentedabove.
Thus,wehaveaconjunctionoffactorsthatcanexplainwhyCahuachiiswhereitisand,concomitantly,whatitis.Cahuachiisasiteofnaturalhuacas.Itisaplace
wherewatermagicallycomestothesurface,anditisconnectedtoandisontheedgeofthepampas.Thesepampasplayedanintegralritualroleinearlyandlater
NascaandNazcareligionandwereroutesofcommunicationwiththevalleysnorthandsouthofCahuachi.Cahuachi,withtheadjacentpampas,formsanirruptionof
thesacred,anaxismundi,andasacredconduit.
CahuachiislocatedinthegeographicalcenteroftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.Thislocationisappropriatethoughnotnecessaryforagreatceremonial
center.
IncontrasttoCahuachi'ssacredandcentralsetting,wemaynoteitseconomicallypoorlocation(Kroeber1944Kosok1965ONERN1971chap.1).Givenscant
waterdespitethenaturalspring,anunpredictableriverthatwoulddisastrouslyfloodthevalleybottomeveryyearorso,marshysalinesoils,topographicallyrestricted
arableland(atCahuachithevalleyislessthan500meterswide),andfrequentparacas(violentwindandsandstorms),Cahuachiwasnotsituatedinanenvironmentally
desirablespotforagricultureorconcentratedhabitation.Noristhesitestrategicallylocatedfortheexploitationofanytangibleluxuryorsubsistenceresource.Butitis
centrallylocated,providingrelativelyeasycommunicationwiththerestofthedrainageacrossthepampas.Anditisstrategicallylocatedtoexploita"magical"water
source,itsownnaturalhuacas,andthePampadeSanJos.
ContinuedSacredness
Cahuachi,afteritsapogee,continuedtobeanappropriateplaceforburial(lateNascaandpostNasca)andalsofortheleavingofofferingssuchaspottery(the
Feature93wholevessel[chap.12]andthewholepotsandgroupedsherdsintheRoomofthePosts[chap.13]),ritualobsidianknives(chaps.12,19),andtrophy
heads(chaps.12,15),amongotheritems.
Cahuachi'sMultiplicityofMounds:
AnAndeanModel
ThemostimportantcharacteristicofCahuachiisitsmultiplemoundsratherthanasinglearchitecturalfocus.ThisiswhatmakesCahuachiCahuachi.Itisthisfeature
whichisparamount,whichdistinguishesthesite,andwhichmustbeexplainedifwearetounderstandCahuachiandearlyNascasociety.Cahuachi'sspatial
organizationholdsthekeytoitsnatureandfunction.IbelievethataspectsoftraditionalAndeanaylluorganizationcouldhavegeneratedthespatialandmaterial
patternsthatareobservableatCahuachi.Let'sexaminethissuggestion.
StudiesofcontemporaryAndeankinship(Lambert1977Mayer1974,1977Bolton1974Isbell1974interalia)stronglysuggestthatsocialgroupssuchastheayllu
areorganizedascognaticdescentgroups.Likeunilinealdescentgroupswhicharegenerallyconsideredtobecorporate(i.e.,persistovertime),cognaticdescent
groupscanalsohavecharacteristicsofcorporatedescentgroupsbutonlyifothercriteriasuchasresidence,membershipaffiliation,orlocalityareadded.Thisis
becauseacognaticdescentgrouppotentiallytracesalldescendants(maleandfemale),therebycreatingoverlapping,nondiscretegroups.Potentialityarisesbecause
egohasachoiceofhowtoaffiliateandthedecisionisnotpermanentitcanbechangedtoego'sadvantageattheappropriatetime.Zuidema's(1977interalia)studies
ofAndeankinship,inparticular,demonstratetheelastic,flexible,expandingandcontractingnatureofAndeankinshipbasedsocialorganizationaswellasitsinherent
hierarchical(i.e.,internallydifferentiated)character.
BillieJeanIsbell(1977:91),citingalocalinformantinChuschi,definestheaylluasanygroupwithaleader.Theabilitiesofanyparticularaylluleaderwoulddetermine
thefateofhisgroup.(Thereisnoevidenceoffemaleaylluleaders.)Aleaderwhocouldattractandholdmanyfollowersbymanifestinggreatreciprocalgenerosity
wouldbeabletocreatealargesocialgroupandasaresultwoulddisposeofthesufficientresourceswithwhichtobuildmajorconstructions.Butinasmuchasany
individualpersonhasoverlappinggroupmemberships,thatleadercouldbeabandonedbyhisgroupifhewerenottoperformadequatelyaccordingtoculturally
definedstandards.Thisisonepossiblepoliticalramificationofcognaticdescentgroups,particularlyintheAndeancontextofseoriosorchiefdoms(e.g.,thepolitical
structureoftheChucuitopolityinwhichreciprocaldemandsweremadebytheleaderandthepopulaceandinwhichtheleadercouldberefused:seeDiezdeSan
Miguel[1567]1967seeSchaedel1988)asopposedtothestatewithitsgreateraccesstoanduseofcoerciveforce.
Byspecifyinganyofthesecondarycriteriamentionedabove,discretegroupsofpeoplecanbegeneratedthatareorganizedeithersequentiallyorspatially(syn

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chronically)orboth.Itispossibleforallmembersofthedescentgrouptobeinoneplaceatthesametime.Itisthenestingofcomponentayllus(ordescentgroups)
thatformsthelargersocialunits,whichcanrangeuptoethnicandmacroethnicgroups(seePlatt1986).
ThisbriefdiscussionofAndeanaylluorganizationprovidesaseriesofpropositionsagainstwhichthedatafromCahuachicanbetested.
1.Therewouldbeseveraldiscrete(yetperhapsoverlapping)socialgroupsusingCahuachi,eachonewithitsownlocalizedplaceofcongregation.Thiswouldaccount
fortherepetitivespatialpatternofmanymoundsandkanchasatCahuachi.ThatthiswassoissupportedbyDalton's(1977:194)definitionofacorporatedescent
groupas"acohesivereligiousunit"with"commonclanancestors,heroicclanfounders,specialdivinespirits,andsupernaturalbeingswhomythicallyaidedclan
ancestorsandfounders"aswellaslandholdinggroups.TheidentificationoftheRoomofthePosts'huarangopostsasancestorposts(chap.13)alsowouldsupport
theinterpretationofCahuachi'smanymoundsasthetemplesofthedistinctsocialgroupsthatworshippedatthesite.
IhypothesizethateachNascasocialgroupconstructedandmaintaineditsowntemplemoundatCahuachi.Cahuachi'smanymoundsvaryinsizebutareinterpretedas
functionallyidentical(withtheexceptionsnotedbelow).JustasUrton(1984)foundthatbigayllussweepbigchutasandsmallayllussweepsmallchutasintheplazaof
Pacariqtambo,thesizeofmoundsatCahuachicouldcorrelatewiththedemographicbaseavailablefortheirconstruction.Thosesocialgroupswithmoreresources
builtlargerandmorecomplexmoundswhereasthosewithlessresources(basicallylabor)builtsmallermounds(seeDillehay's[1990:227]discussionofMapuche
ceremonialfields).
Thedifferencesamongmostofthemoundsarelargelyduetothenatureofthehilluponwhichtheywereelaborated.Idonotknowhowterritorialaccesstoacertain
naturalhillorstripofspaceatCahuachiwasachieved.PerhapstheritualtopographyofCahuachiwasconceivedofingroupdesignatedchutasevenbefore
constructionbegan(seeDillehay1990:227228seePlatt1986).
However,inadditiontothemanymoundsatCahuachithatwouldhavebeenfulfillingidenticalfunctions,atleastsomemoundssuchasUnit12Bappear
functionallydifferent.
2.Theshortterm,transient,sequentialgatheringsofthesocialgroupscouldbetakencareofbyaritualcalendar(e.g.,acequesystem).Forgroupsorganizedby
cognaticdescent,awellorganizedritualcalendartoregulateandcoordinatetheoperationofmultiple,overlappingdescentgroupswouldbeaconvenientmannerfor
avoidingsocialorganizationalchaos.Thisritualcalendarregulateswhenthesocialgroupscomeintophysicalexistencebyindicatingwhoistoparticipateinwhatritual.
ItcanbearguedthatthegeoglyphsofthePampadeSanJos,amongtheirseveralfunctions,servedasthephysicalrepresentationofthisritualcalendar(Aveni1986
Silverman1990a,b).
3.Eachsocialgrouphasitsowndevelopmentalcycletheayllusarenotevolvinginunison.Somegroupsmightbeattheirapogeewhileothersareindecline.We
knowfromAndeanmythologythatsocialgroupstypicallytracetheirorigintospecificancestorsemergingatknownplaces(pacarinas).Theritualuseofasacredplace
probablyinvolvedthelongtermprocessofestablishmentoftheshrine,periodicgathering,templebuildingandtempleuse,andexpansionandcontractioncycles
accordingtothedemographicsofthesocialgroup.Alsopossibleistheeventual,partialconversionofdiachronicallyabandonedportionsofthesocialgroup'stemple
intocemeteriesasmembersofthegroupdieoutandsomeareburiedattheshrine.Finally,thereisthebringingofofferings,perhapsbyremnantsoftheoriginalsocial
groupthatfoundedtheshrine.ThisisthesequenceofoccupationintheUnit19mound(seechap.12comparetothediachronicdescriptionofMapucheceremonial
fieldsprovidedbyDillehay1990:230).
4.Thismodelofayllusocialorganizationpermitstheexistenceofoneallembracingsocialgroupandwouldthereforepromptustolookforanappropriatelocusof
macrogroupactivity.Indeed,itisparticipationinreligious,social,andpoliticaleventsatCahuachithatwouldhavereinforcedNascaidentityamongthediverseand
dispersedconstituentgroupsformingtheNascanation.1 Unit2,whichStronglabeledtheGreatTempleandwhichissignificantlydifferentfromtheotherunitsandis
centrallylocatedatthesite,mighthavefulfilledsuchapanNascafunction.OrthecentralfocusofearlypanNascadevotioncouldhavebeenthe"acropolis"formed
byUnits2,1,9,and8.IsuggestthatthevarioussocialgroupseachhadtheirownhuacasorshrinesatCahuachibutrecognizedthewholeceremonialcenterasthe
macroNascareligiouscenter.Cahuachithusfulfilledaninclusiverolewhilepermittingtheexpressionofexclusivetendencies.
5.Ayllusoperateaccordingtocontext.Thesituationalcontextinwhichtheyfunctioncanrequiretheparticipationofsmall,mediumsized,orlargehierarchicalor
egalitarianunits:thecontextdeterminesthenatureofactivityinvolvementofsocialgroups.Asituation

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suchasthiscouldleadtotheperformanceofconflictexpressing/conflictresolvingrituals(seeTurner1967,1974Dillehay1990:227).
VillagesintheAndesareandprobablywerecomposedofmorethanonesocialgroup.Theceremony(limpiaacequia)tocleananirrigationcanalrunningthroughthe
landsofalowermoietywouldcallintophysicalexistencethosegroupsformingthelowermoiety.Membershipinthelowermoietyisclaimedandaffirmedby
participationinthistemporallylimitedactivity.Anentirevillagemightmobilizeitselfforaboundarydisputeagainstanothervillage.GiventhatAndeanvillagesare
multicomponential,itisconceivablethatcertainVillageAmemberswouldhavetofightagainsttheircosocialgroupmembersinVillageB.
Thetensionsinherentinthesituationbeingdescribedcouldhaveescalatedovertimetothepointthatritualbattlesbecamenecessarytoexpressandresolveconflict
(seePlatt1986).Cahuachicouldhavebeenthearenaforsuchsocialdrama(manifestedinthearchaeologicalrecord,perhaps,bytrophyheadsseechap.15).
6.Becausenewayllusmaybeformingwhileoldayllusdieoutandbecausethesesocialgroupschangeovertime,agglutinativeconstructionofasiteanditscomponent
architecturewouldbecharacteristicratherthanasinglephasemasterplan.Thesitewouldgrowasnewgroupscameintoexistence,andindividualmoundswould
undergoaccretionarygrowthanddiachronicabandonment.Individualpeculiaritiesofthedistinctmoundsreflectthelackofunitarycontrol(religiousorpolitical)over
theseconstructions(incontrasttotheprovincialtemplesofPachacamacwhicharereplicativeofadesign)aswellasnaturallygivendifferencesatthecommencement
ofbuilding.Yetallmoundspossesscertainfeatures(seechap.6),nottheleastofwhichistheirnorthwardorientation,typeofadobeconstruction,useoffills,and
frequentoccurrenceoforassociationwithkanchasofvaryingsizes.ThepervasivemoundkanchapatternatCahuachiexistsbecausethesocialgroupsare
participatinginthesameculturaltradition.Theculturallyprescribedspatialpatternishorizontallyextendedasnewsocialgroupsestablishnewceremonialfociatthe
site.
7.ItisthisdiachronicaccretionthataccountsforthelackofprecisesiteboundariesatCahuachi.Nophysicalmarkersindicatetheendofthesite.Rather,themound
kanchapatternsimplypetersout.
8.TheprevioustwopointsexplainthefillinginofCahuachi'ssurfaceareasaswellastheincreasingcomplexityofindividualunitsofarchitectureovertime(withnew
constructionphases,abandonedportionsofolderbuildings,etc.).ExcavationatUnit19haspermittedthedelineationoftheoccupationalhistoryofoneparticular
mound.FurtherexcavationsatthesiteshouldpermitthechronologicallypreciseelucidationofCahuachi'soveralloccupationalhistoryandspatialpatternofgrowth.
Cahuachi'sPilgrimageFunction
ThevariousconstructionphasesandrepeatedarchitecturalmodificationseeninthemoundsofCahuachiwerecarriedoutduringpilgrimageepisodesbythevarious
socialgroupsoftheNascaethnicgroup/nation/confederacy,witheachsocialgroupbuildingandsynchronicallyworshippingatitsownhuacainaccordancewitha
Nascaritualcalendarofsocioritualobligations(e.g.,aprotocequesystemseeZuidema1964forthebasicdescriptionoftheIncacequesystem).Pilgrimagealso
accountsforthepostholeswithoutstructuresandtherefuseinconstructionfillswithoutpermanenthabitationareas.Ipositapilgrimagefunctiononthebasisof
archaeologicalpatternsobservedatthesite(seechaps.513),onthebasisofcomparisonwithPachacamac,andonthebasisofanethnographicanalogy.Thelatter
twocaseswillnowbedescribed.
ThePachacamacComparison
TheAndeanayllumodelIhaveproposedinthischapter(seealsoSilverman1990a)fitsothergreatAndeanceremonialcenters,mostnotablytheparamountAndean
pilgrimagecenterofPachacamac.AsanalyzedandinterpretedbyJimenezBorjaandBuenoMendoza(1970JimenezBorja1985),LateIntermediatePeriod
Pachacamacwascharacterizedbyamonotonouspatternofsimilarlyconstructedpyramidsofdifferentsizeswithrampsandenormousstoragefacilities.Thesewere
the"provincialtemples"establishedbythedistinctcentralcoastethnicgroups/politiestoservethecultofPachacamac.JimenezBorjaandBuenoMendozaarguethat
thecentralcoastpolitiesthatmaintainedshrinesatPachacamacwerelinkedintoaconfederacyandsociopoliticalhierarchyinordertomaintainthecultand
ceremonialcenterofPachacamac.
DespitethefactthatCahuachineverbecameagreaturbancenterandlargescalestoragefacilitiesaremissingfromthesite,therearecertainstrikingsimilarities
betweenthetwogreatAndeanceremonialcenters,althoughCahuachifunctionedonamuchsmallerscalethanPachacamac.Iattributethesesimilaritiestobothsites'
performanceofpilgrimagefunctionswithinanAndeansocialcontext.First,IcontendthatCahuachi's

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22.3.
MapshowingthelocationofthemodernCatholicpilgrimageshrineoftheSanctuaryoftheVirginofYauca,eastofIca.

ayllutemplesaretheequivalentofPachacamac'sprovincialtemples.Anothersimilarityisthat,likePachacamac,Cahuachiexhibitsanoverallunityofspatial
organizationinthiscasethroughthemoundkanchapatternandarchitecturaldesigndespitedifferencesinthedimensionsoftheindividualmoundsandthefactthat
thedegreeofarchitecturalstandardizationpresentatPachacamaccannotbeseen.UnityatCahuachiexistsbecauseoftheparticipationinthesameregionalcultural
tradition(Nasca)bythesocialgroupsthatworshippedatCahuachi.
YetanothersimilarityistheprobableexistenceofapangrouparchitecturalfocusatCahuachijustastherewasoneatPachacamac.Withitscentralityandheight
abovetheplain,thearchitecturalcomplexformedbyUnits2,1,9,and8isvisiblythemostimportantoneatCahuachiandmayhavebeentheresultandfocusofpan
Nascaattention.Thisacropolislikegroupingcouldhavefulfilledsomeofthe"palace"functionsdescribedbyScheleandMiller(1986:133134)fortheLowland
Maya:eliteresidences,thesettingsfordramaticrituals,administrativehubs,andtheplaceswherevisitingdignitarieswerereceived,leadersinstalled,tributepresented,
andcaptivesdisplayedanddispensed.
AnEthnographicAnalogy
AspartoftheprogramofarchaeologicalfieldworkatCahuachi,IcarriedoutanethnographicstudyofacontemporaryCatholicpilgrimagecenterintheIcavalleyso
astoobservepatternsofmaterialremainsgeneratedbythisbehavior(Silverman1990a).ThesanctuaryoftheVirginoftheRosaryofYaucaisthelocusofanannual
pilgrimagethatiscarriedoutovertheweekendofthefirstSundayinOctober.ItattractsdevoteesfromtheentireDepartmentofIcaandbeyond.Theshrineislocated
about30kilometerseastofIca(city)inthemiddleofadesolatesandyplaininasidebranchoftheIcavalleythatisundergoingdrasticdessication(fig.22.3).The
Yaucavalley

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22.4.
ShrineoftheVirginofYauca,seenbeforetheannual
pilgrimage.Theplazaisempty,thesanctuaryabandoned.

isanaturalcommunicationroutetotheadjacenthighlandsofHuancavelica.LocalinformantsspeakoftheYaucaarea'shuacasornaturalshrines.
TheVirginmiraculouslyappearedonOctober3,1701.Herappearanceconformstotheshepherds'cycletraditiondefinedbyTurnerandTurner(1978:4142),
whichsuggestsprehispanicorigins(theconnectionwiththeearthorstrikingnaturalfeaturesthatinPeruwouldbecalledhuacas).Itislikelythattherewasa
prehispanicshrineintheYaucaareaandthatlandownerNicolsOrtegawitnessedtheappearanceoftheVirginpreciselywherehisIndianpeonswereworkinginthe
fieldsbecausehesawthemperformingsomepaganorsyncreticriteassociatedwiththeplace.
ThesanctuaryoftheVirginofYaucacouldbeclassifiedasafourthordershrine.ItisnotinternationalliketheVirginofGuadalupeornationallikeSeordelos
MilagroswhosechurchisinLima.ItisregionalbutnotonaparwithSeordeLuren,alsoinIca.Itisnot,however,alocalshrine(seeSallnow1982).
Weeksbeforeitsfestival,theYaucashrineisalonelyspotindeed(fig.22.4).Itsausterewhitechurchisclosedbecausethereisnopriestinresidence.Thebuildings
aroundthelarge(approximately10,000squaremeters)plazaareabandonedandinvaryingdegreesofdisrepair.Theplazaitselfisemptysaveforthepresenceoftwo
postswhichservetotieuptheburrosofthemuleteerswhotrafficbetweentheHuancavelicahighlandsandIcaabundantburroexcrementsurroundedthesehitching
posts.Themuleteersstopherebecausethereisawellatwhichtheycangetwater.Theplazasurfaceisabrokenapisonadowithlittleevidenceoftheactivitiesthat
takeplaceyearly.Somecornhusks,abitofbrokenglass,brokenchina,afragmentofrope,bitsoftextile,andsomeloosecaneswereobservedintheplazaatthis
time.Behindtheabandonedhousessurroundingtheplazatherewasagreaterconcentrationofrefuse.Inotedduringmyfirstvisitthattheplacehasastrongechowhen
thewinddoesnotblow.Interestingly,thesamefeaturewasobservedatCahuachibetweenUnits12and13onasimilarlyquietday.
Tendaysbeforethefestivaltheplazaisrituallysweptinaceremonyappropriatelycalledthe"sweepingoftheplaza."Thisoccurseventhoughtheplazaisbasically
clean.InformantsattheshrineandinIca,however,perceiveitas"reallydirty."Thefaithfulthuscomewiththeirnewbrooms,carryingshawlsandplasticsacks,and
enthusiasticallysweeptheplaza,removingloosedirtandburroexcrementandthefewothersurfaceremains.Thisrefuseisthrownoutbehindtheplazaintheplain
throughwhichthedryYaucaRiverruns.Thewindblowstherefuseupagainstthebacksoftheplazahouses,catchingittheretherestoftherefuseiscarriedawayby
thewindinotherdirectionsorwashedawaybytheriverwhenitoccasionallyfloods.Followingthebriefsweeping,theshrineisagaindeserted.
Whatachangeoccursthenextweek.BylateFridayafternoonthesanctuarybeginstofillupwithpilgrims.Manyofthefaithful,whohavemadeapromisetothe
Virgin,crossthedryYaucaplainonfootonasixtoeighthourtrekfromIcaunderthehotspringsun.AsisthecasewithChristianpilgrimageingeneral,theypassa
seriesofsmallerreligiouswaystationsenroutetotheshrine(TurnerandTurner1978:23).InYauca,thesearenaturalandartificialstoppingplaces:aspecialhuarango
tree,severalcrosses,andalittledryriverthatchargesduringthesummerwhenitrainsinthehighlands.Mostpilgrimsarrivebypublictransportation(aservice
providedbythemunicipality),inprivatecar,orbytruck(privatelyownedbusinesstruckswhoseownersearnextramoneycarryingpilgrimsandtrucksfromthe
variousagrariancooperativeswhichtransporttheirmemberstotheshrine).BySaturdaytherearethousandsofpersonscampingoutsidetheplazaareaoronthe
terraceofthechurchitself,sleepinginthecarsandtrucks,orbeinglodgedintheotherwiseabandonedhousesliningtheplazawhich,duringthefestival,servicethe
pilgrimsofthedistinctcofradas,eachcofradahavingahouseontheplaza.Certainfamiliesalsohavehousesontheplaza.
Theplazaitselfistransformedintoagreatmarketpackedwithpeopleandkioskssellingfood,alcoholicbeverages(beerandmoonshine),andsoftdrinks(figs.22.5,
22.6).Amongtheseephemeralreedstructureswhichserveasrestaurantscirculatethepedestrianhawkersofcolddrinks,icepops,andsweetbeanpastefrom
Chinchainitsenticing,white,gumsealedgourd

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22.5.
DuringthepilgrimagethesanctuaryatYaucafillsupwith
thousandsofpilgrimsandthepersonneltoservicethem.
Anephemeralcityarisesovernightintheformerly
emptyplaza.

22.6.
DoaRicardina'skioskintheplazaatYauca.Notethehearth
builtofadobe.Thewallsoftherestaurantarecanemats.

22.7.
OnSundaymorningthefaithfullineupbehindthealtarvirgins
fortheprocessionoftheVirginoftheSanctuaryofYauca.
Followingtheprocessionthepilgrimsquicklyabandonthesite.

22.8.
OnMondaymorningtherestoftheBrigadooncityatYaucais
dismantledasthecanematwallsofthetemporaryrestaurants
andbarsarerolleduptheirsupportingpostsarepulledup.

containers.Manyvendorsofreligiousparaphernalia(candles,images,orations,andamulets)plytheirwaresonthemainstaircaseofthechurchandontheterraceon
whichthechurchrests.ThecandlemakerstoldmethattheyareaguildandtravelfromshrinetoshrinethroughoutPerusellingtheirwaresduringtheparticularsaints'
days.
ItisonlyonSundayduringthemassandagainatthemomentofremovingtheVirginandherfourlittleassistantVirgins(altarVirginsforthefouraltarsinthefour
cornersoftheplaza)fromthechurchthatapartialcessationinsecularactivityoccurs.Many(butnotall)ofthepubliclineupbehindthepriestsandlitterstoformthe
procession(fig.22.7).Aftertheprocession,thethrongofpilgrimsquicklyabandonsthesite.
Ireturnedthenextday,Monday,towatchtheprocessofabandonmentoftheceremonialcenterandespeciallytonotethematerialconditionofthesiteonce
abandoned.Theshrinewasfilthy.Refuseleftbythethousandsofpilgrimslitteredthesitesurface:therewerefoodremains,toppledhearths,andbrokenglassesand
plateslotsofplasticbagsandpaperwereblowingabout.Butoncethekioskownershadrolledupandtakendownthematwallsoftheirstandsandpulledupthe
postsaroundwhichthematshadbeenwrapped(fig.22.8),therewasvirtuallynotraceoftheBrigadooncity

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22.9.
OnlyafewmonthslateralmostallthatremainsofthelivelypilgrimagecenteratYaucaaresomeburnstainsin
theplaza'sapisonadosurface(wherepenis).Mostoftherefusegeneratedbythepilgrimshasblownaway.

thathadexistedthedaybefore.The"city"hadbeendismemberedalmostasquicklyasithadbeeninstalled.Iaskedvariousvendorsiftheyweregoingtocleanupthe
shrineorleaveitinthislitteredcondition.Allansweredthattheywouldnotcleanitnordidtheyevercleanit"becausethewindcarriesawayallofthefilthinashort
while.Heretheairblowshard."Indeed,threemonthslaterwhenIreturnedtothesite,itwasalmostasdevoidofsurfacerefuseasithadbeenseveralweeksbefore
thesweeping.
ThepatternofmaterialremainsattheYaucashrinecorrespondsquitecloselytothesituationencounteredatUnit16andtheotherkanchasatCahuachi.The
apisonadosattheYaucashrineandinthegreatkanchaformedbythearmsofUnit16wereessentiallyclean.AtCahuachi,postholes,interpretedastheremainsof
temporarystructures(seefigs.9.3,9.4),werelocatedinthekancha'sapisonado.ThesewouldcorrespondtothetemporarystructuresofYauca'splaza.Thecircular
andirregulardepressionsexcavatedintotheapisonadooftheUnit16kanchaatCahuachi(fig.9.5)containedashandsomegarbage.Thisashcorrespondstotheburn
stainsleftonYauca'sapisonado(fig.22.9)theseburnstainsareallthatremainsoftherestaurateurs'hearthsatYauca(fig.22.6).Plainwarewasobservedonthe
surfaceoftheUnit16plazapriortoexcavation.Thatplainwarecorrespondstothebrokenplates,brokenglasses,andbottlecapsleftbehindontheapisonadosurface
oftheYaucashrine.AlloftheevidencefromtheUnit16kanchaindicatesthatthekanchawasaplaceofcongregation,thelocusofsomekindofactivityinvolving
impermanentstructuresandfood.IsubmitthatthearchaeologicalevidenceatCahuachiiscomparabletothephysicalevidenceofpilgrimagethatIobservedatYauca
andthatitiscomparabletothearchaeologicalevidenceforpilgrimageatPachacamacthatissummarizedbyShimada(1991:xliii).
TherefusethataccumulatedatYaucaeitherblewawayorwascarriedofftheplazapremisestobedisposedofelsewhere.Thepaucityofstratifiedkitchenmiddensat
Cahuachihasbeennotedbyvariousresearchers.IsuggestthatCahuachiwasbeingkeptcleanbywindandpeople.Therefusethataccumulatedduringthecyclical
useofCahuachiblewaway,wasdumpednearorinthe

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NazcaRivervalleybottomwhereitwascarriedawaybyperiodicandsometimesintensefloods,orwasrecycledintheconstructionfillwithwhichCahuachi's
monumentalarchitecturewasbuilt.WhereasatYaucatheinfrequentuseofthesiteservedtopermitthewindtocleantheplazaandsweepingwasmoreaperfunctory
ritualgesturethanhygienicact,atCahuachi,wheretheuseoftheshrine(s)wasfrequentandintense,windalonewasnotasufficientcleaningagencyandsweepingmay
havebeennecessarytomaintaintheritualpurityofthezone(e.g.,Douglas1966:chaps.1,2)aswellasacertainlevelofsanitation.
Thesettingsofthetwopilgrimagecentersarealsosimilar.LikeCahuachi,Yaucaisreachedbycrossingableak,barrenplain.InthecaseofCahuachi,comingfrom
thenorthonecrossesthePampadeSanJosandfromthesouththePampadeAtarcotoarriveatthesite.Atbothshrinesthewindfrequentlyblowsfiercely.The
templesatbothshrinessitraisedabovetheirplazaswhich,atbothplaces,arekeptrituallyandnaturallyclean.
Insummary,IhypothesizethatpilgrimageepisodesfrequentlyandcyclicallybroughtthegreatemptyceremonialcenterofCahuachitolifeasa"nowyouseeitnow
youdon't"urbancenter,generatingthedomesticandespeciallytheabundantritualmaterialremainsrecoveredinexcavations.Permanentdomestichabitationat
Cahuachiifpresentmightcorrespondtotheresidencesofacadreofpriestsandtheirretainers.
PoliticsandPilgrimage
IhavereconstructedCahuachiasthegreatNascaceremonialcenterandasapilgrimageshrine.ThestudyofAndeanpilgrimagetodaycan,Ibelieve,providemuch
insightintothenatureandsociopoliticalcontextofpilgrimageatCahuachi.ThemostimportantpointisthatunlikethecommunitasofCatholicpilgrimage(Turner1967,
1974TurnerandTurner1978),principlesofhierarchyareexpressedinAndeanpilgrimage.Poole(1991:334)isexplicitonthispoint."PilgrimageintheAndes
functions...toaffirmtheinternal,ultimatelyvertical(i.e.,hierarchical)structuringofthesocialgroupstravelingtoapilgrimageshrine.Pilgrimageisanimportantmeans
bywhichindividualsattainprestigecargoswithintheircommunity.Asritualrepresentativesoftheircommunity,moreover,pilgrimsidentifythroughouttheirjourneywith
thislocal(hierarchized)groupandnot,asinsomemodelsofChristianpilgrimage,withalarger,theoretically`undifferentiated'massofpilgrimsatasanctuary."
Sallnow(1981)hasshownthatformodernAndeanpilgrimagecenters,manifestationsofcompetitionandconflictcharacterizethiskindofmultigroupencounterthe
pilgrimagecenterbecomesthearenafortheenactmentofsocialdrama(Turner1974).ThesituationdescribedbySallnowappearstofittheNascadata,especially
insofarasritualizedtrophyheadtakingisconcerned(seechap.15).
Sallnow(1981:180seealsoPoole1991)alsostatesthatlocalidentitiesaretakenalongonpilgrimageandseesthisasthecauseofdisharmonyatthepilgrimage
centers.Iwouldarguethattheseidentitiesareenhancedattheceremonialcenterandthatitispreciselyduringtheperformanceofrites,intheliminalityofsucha
context,thatstructuralchangesinsocialorganizationcanoccur.
Furthermore,iconographicandmaterialevidenceindicatesthatNascapeopledresseduptogotoCahuachiandotherimportantcenters(e.g.,theTello[1931]
modeledscenediscussedabove,seefig.22.1Sawyer1979:figs.1315).AsCiezadeLeon(1959)notedthroughouthischronicle,dressintheAndesisawayof
expressingethnicidentity(seePaul1990seealsoWobst1977).AtCahuachi,theotherwisedormantNascasocialgroupsmusthaveregaledthemselvessoasto
recognizecoparticipantmembersofthegroup,expressgroupidentityinoppositiontoothergroups,andcompeteforstatuswithregardtotheothersocialgroups.2 At
thesametime,dressmusthavebeenpartoftheritualsymbolismofthepilgrimagewhich,withtheiconographyofearlyNascaart,formedaclusterofritualsymbols,"a
limitedsetofrootmetaphorsormetaritualsymbols"(MorinisandCrumrine1991:3).
Cahuachiitselfwasthe"aestheticlocus"(Maquet1979,1986)ofearlyNascasociety.MorinisandCrumrine(1991:6)emphasizethatthe"artisticpresentationof
themesofpilgrimageinthecontextofpilgrimageperformanceservestoimpressupontheaudienceofpilgrimsthemeaningoftheactivityinwhichtheyare
participating"(seealsoMaquet1979:3031).ThepublicperformancesatCahuachiwerenotjustreligiousactsbutalsopoliticalactsclothedinritualandembodying
Nascaideology.ThepublicdisplayofideologyandmanipulationofritualfordemonstrationoflegitimacyarealsokeypointsemphasizedinScheleandMiller's(1986)
pathbreakinginterpretationofMayaculture(seealsoGeertz1980Braithwaite1984Tilley1984interalia).
AshortcomingofSallnow(1987),however,ishislackofrecognitionofthesignificanceofthefinalstageofsocialdrama,thatofreintegrationorsocialrecognition
(Turner1974:3742).IhypothesizethatNascasocial

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drama,includingitsfinalstage,wasplayedoutatCahuachi(andpossiblyatothersitesaswell,includingthepampa).Cahuachi,asagreatceremonialcenterandplace
ofcongregation,wasanappropriatelocusofsocialdramasinceduringtherestofthetimethecomponentmembersofthelargersocialgroups(thosethatcoalescedat
Cahuachi)wereinlessercontactwitheachotherbecausetheyweredispersedoverthelandscape.AtCahuachithecurrentsocialrelations/hierarchywereplayedout
andtested.Anewsocialordermightbecomeoperational,atleastuntilthenextgatheringandconcomitanttestingandreworkingofthehierarchyestablishedatthe
previouscelebration.
Seeninthislight,theenactmentsofsocialdramasatCahuachiweremultifacetedsocialandpoliticalactswhichmayhaveservedtocyclicallyredistributestatus.
Poole'scommentsontheroleofdanceinAndeanpilgrimageandontheactofpilgrimageitselfparallelthisreconstructionofearlyNascapilgrimageandsociety:
"...thereligiousandsocialtransformation[achievedthroughpilgrimage]atransformationitselfcloselyrelatedtoshiftsinpoliticalrankingandprestigewas
specificallyrelatedtothisjuxtapositionofmovementalongastraightlineintoasacredprecinctandaspiralorcircularmovementaroundthatcenter"(Poole1991:331
myemphasis).3
Ihypothesizethatthroughpilgrimageandritual,earlyNascasocietywascyclically,periodically,andephemerallyreordered.EachcelebrationatCahuachiprovidedthe
opportunityforachangeintheprevioushierarchy.Thecrucialpointtorememberisthattherewasstatushierarchyevenifthoseoccupyingpositionsatthetopofthat
hierarchydidnotmaintaintheirrolespermanently.Personnelmayhavechangedordeliberatelyrotated(likecargos),butapermanenthierarchystructureispositedto
haveexisted.
IbelievethattheNascasocialgroupsorayllusthatmaintainedthedifferentmoundsatCahuachiconstitutedthemselvesenroutetoCahuachi,onthepampas(see
Silverman1990b),andatthesiteitselftheliteratureontheQoyllurR'itipilgrimageexemplifiesthispoint(see,e.g.,Gow1974Sallnow1987).Onceperiodic
celebrationsattheceremonialcenterwereended,themacrogroupswoulddecomposeintotheirsmallerparts,returningtotheirdistincthomevillageswhereother
principlesofsocialgroupmembershipwouldexerttheirclaims.Thetransient,markedsocialhierarchywouldthusdisaggregateintoalesshierarchical,morepermanent
daytodaysocialorganization.ThisreconstructionofearlyNascasocietyisconfirmedinthearchaeologicalpatternsdetailedinchapter23.
CahuachiOverTime
ThePreceramic
ThelatefifthmillenniumB.C.occupationatCahuachi,documentedbyIsla(1990seechap.5),isdiachronicallyandculturallyseparatefromthearchaeologicalsite
discussedinthisbookandwillnotbefurtherconsidered.
Strong'sLateParacas
Asshowninchapter4,StrongdidnotfindadiachronicallydiscreteLateParacasoccupationatCahuachi.HisfewLateParacas(equivalenttoOcucaje10oftheIca
valley)sherdswerefoundinassociationinNasca1pottery(thispatternisrepeatedathabitationsitesintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleys).Myownprojectdid
notrecoverParacaspotteryfromexcavatedcontexts,norhasOreficireportedany.
Nasca1
WithOrefici's(1987)recentdiscoveryoftheStepMotifTemple,itbecomesclearthatCahuachialreadyhadaceremonialfocusattheverybeginningoftheEarly
IntermediatePeriod.ArchaeologicalsurveyintheIngenio,middleGrande,Palpa,andViscasvalleys(Silverman1989a,1990c,dBrownen.d.)suggeststhat
CahuachiwasthemostimportantsiteintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageatthistime,fornootherNasca1sitehasitsvolumeofmonumentalarchitecture,
concentrationoffineware,andquantityofritualparaphernalia.Indeed,giventhehighproportionoffancyNasca1potteryatCahuachi,weshouldhaveanticipated
Orefici'sdiscovery.TheStepMotifTempleissurelynotuniqueatCahuachi,and,asOrefici'slargescalestrippingoperationsproceedacrossthesite,otherNasca1
structuresprobablywillbefoundunderlyingtheNasca3constructionphases.ThoseNasca1ceremonialconstructionsarecontemporarywiththeordinarydomestic
architectureStronglocatedunderlyingUnit6andwiththenumerousNasca1habitationsiteslocatedinthenorthernvalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage.
Nasca2
ThemostnotableNasca2occupationatCahuachiisthenowdestroyedUnit7moundwhereStrongexcavatedhisCut5(chap.4).ThefunctionofUnit7appearsto
havebeenspecialpurposetojudgefromthequalityofitsadobewallsandthefinetextileremainsrecovered.Unit7isinterpretedasaspecialtextilecraftresidential
area(Strong1957:28).IftherewereotherlociatCahuachidedicatedtoartisanalproduction,thesehavenotyetbeendiscovered.MoreNasca2architecturewill

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surelybedefinedasOrefici'sworkproceeds.AttheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch2(Nasca2),theGreatTemple(Unit2)begantobeconstructed.
Nasca3
AlmostallexcavatedandsurfacearchitectureatCahuachidatestoNasca3,andthereisnodoubtthatthisistheapogeeofthesite(Strong1957chaps.4,9,12fig.
16.50).Almost50percentofthephaseableNascapotteryrecoveredinmyexcavationsatthesiteisNasca3.
ContemporarywiththeabundantbuildingactivitiesatCahuachiinNasca3times,Nasca3peopleburiedsomeoftheirdeadonsomeofthesemounds,asevidenced
byourfindsonUnit19andKroeber'sgravesonUnitA(chaps.12,14).
Nasca4
Previously,ithadbeenargued(e.g.,Proulx1968:9798)thatCahuachiwasabandonedinNasca4times.However,thediscoveryofNasca4sherdsinthefill
betweenthesouthwalloftheRoomofthePostsandtheUnit19moundindicatesthatsomeceremonialconstructioncontinuedatthesite(seechap.13).Atthesame
time,areasoftheUnit19moundwerebeingtakenoutofcirculationthroughtheblockingofaccesses,annulmentofpassageways,andlayingoffills.Theleavingof
postapogeeofferings,includingtrophyheads,intheseabandonedarchitecturalcontextsbeginsatthistime.ThedeclineofCahuachiinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch
4ismirroredinthevalleysettlementpatterns(Silverman1990dBrownen.d.).
Nasca5
MyprojecthasrecoveredsignificantevidenceofNasca5useofCahuachi.TheuppermostapisonadoofRoom1onUnit19waslaidatthistime,anditispossible
thatthepanpipes,rayedfaces,andotherfiguresincisedintothemostrecentlayerofplasteronthewestandsouthwallsoftheRoomofthePostsweredoneatthis
timeaswell(chap.13).
Nevertheless,inEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5,theroleofCahuachiseemstohavechangedgreatlyfromthatofthemajorfunctioningNascaceremonialcenterto
asacredburialground.ThiscontentionisarguedonthebasisofStrong'sBurialArea1,whichisaNasca56cemeterylocatedinwhatwasundelimitedopenspaceat
thenortheastcornerofUnit11ratherthanonamoundaswastheNasca3pattern.GeoglyphmakingmayhavebecomethefocusofNascareligiousactivityatthis
time(Silverman1990b).IncontrasttothedeclineofCahuachi,thereisaflorescenceofNasca5settlementinthevalleys(Silverman1990d).
TrophyheadsweredefinitelyleftasofferingsalongabandonedarchitectureinNasca5times,asisthecasewiththeFeature21trophyheadfromRoom1onUnit19
(seechap.12).
Nasca6and7
WeknowfromthepotteryinStrong'sBurialArea1thatNasca6peoplecametoCahuachitoburytheirdead,butotherevidenceofaNasca6useofthesiteis
scantyatbest.UhlepurchasedNasca7potssaidtobefromCahuachi(chap.2)presumablythesecamefromlootedburials.Clearly,useofCahuachiinEarly
IntermediatePeriodepochs6and7wasminimal.ThisconclusioncorrespondstosurveydatafromtheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleyswhichshowadramatic
declineinNascahabitationsitesatthistime.
Nasca8
Priortomyresearch,allweknewabouttheNasca8functionofCahuachiwasthatDoering(1958,1966)hadexcavatedarichNasca8graveattheMorrolocus(if,
indeed,thattombwasfoundonthegroundsofthearchaeologicalsiteofCahuachiashereindelimitedseechap.14).ThediscoveryoftherituallyentombedRoomof
thePosts(chap.13)providesexcitingnewdataontheEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch8useofCahuachi,alongabandonedsitewhenNasca8peoplearrivedat
Unit19.ThecarewithwhichtheRoomofthePostswasinterred,includingtheleavingofofferings,impliesthatCahuachistillhadgreatprestige.AlthoughStrong
(1957:40,fig.14)excavatedNasca8gravesinhisBurialArea4oppositeCahuachi,noNasca8habitationsiteshavebeenidentifiedinthenorthernRoGrandede
Nazcadrainage(Silverman1989a,1990c,dBrownen.d.),soitisuncertainthatthosewhorituallyburiedtheRoomofthePostscamefromthisarea.Katharina
Schreiber(personalcommunication1991),however,reportsamajorNasca8occupationinLasTrancas,contemporarywithHuacadelLoro(seeStrong1957:36
41).
MiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriod
MiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodpotteryisfoundincemeteriesatCahuachi.ThesecemeteriesarelocatedwithinsomeofNasca3Cahuachi'skanchasas
wellasinundelimitedopenspaces,mostespeciallyintheextensivelylootedareabetweenUnitsHHandNN(seefig.7.2).Toomuchsignificanceshouldnotbe
attachedtothesecemeteriessinceMiddleHorizon

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andLateIntermediatePeriodcemeteriesareabundantthroughouttheNazcadrainage(Silverman1989a,1990c).AlthoughCahuachimayhavebeenaparticularly
attractivelocusforintermentbecauseofitssacrednessandformerprestige,lateburialsarenotconcentratedexclusivelyatCahuachi,norarethoseatCahuachithe
richestburialsofthesepostNascatimes.
LateHorizon
ThereisnoevidenceofaLateHorizonoccupationatCahuachibeyondanIncakerothatmaybefromthesite(seePezzia1969:144145).
Conclusions
Cahuachiismuchlargerandmorecomplexthanitiscommonlyportrayedinthearchaeologicalliterature(e.g.,Strong1957:fig.4),but,surprisingly,its150hectares
donotcorrespondtoagreatcityasscholarspreviouslybelieved.Rather,Cahuachiisanextensivenonurbansiterepletewithpyramids,temples,plazas,ritual
offerings,sacredparaphernalia,burials,andanearbycomplexofgeoglyphswhichwas,alongwiththegeoglyphsonthemainpampa,anintegralpartofthesite
(Silverman1988a,1990a).Cahuachiwasagreatceremonialcenterwhosepopulationsize,density,andcompositionchangedinaccordancewithacyclicalritualand
politicalcalendar.
AdiachronicsurveyofCahuachirevealsanalmostuninterrupteduseofthesitefromtheverybeginningoftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodthroughtheLateIntermediate
Period,eventhoughconstructionwasrestrictedtoamuchbriefermomentoftime.TheevidencesuggeststhatCahuachiwasasacredsitefromitsearliestoccupation.
However,althoughitbecamealocusoforganizedritualandpilgrimageactivity,itdidnotdevelopintoaceremonialcityorurbancenterasdid,forinstance,
Pachacamac.CahuachididnotfollowthetrajectoryofurbangrowtharoundceremonialfunctionsthatisdescribedinWheatley's(1971)magnumopus.Followingthe
demiseofthesite,thelocusoforganizedNascaritualactivitymayhaveshiftedtothepampa(seeSilverman1990b)andotherceremonialsitesinthevalleys,with
Cahuachibecomingmoreappropriateasasacredburialgroundandlocusforspecialofferings.Throughouttime,Cahuachiretaineditsceremonialcharacter.The
natureandsociopoliticalcontextofitsritualsandceremoniesvariedbutnotthesacred,nonurbanqualityofthesiteitself.
Notes
1.ThefollowingpassagefromDillehay(1990:226227)fortheMapucheisanexcellentethnographicparalleltotheargumentdevelopedhereandinSilverman
(1990a)forCahuachi:"ParticipationingroupactivitiesattheselocationsleadstothereinforcementofpanMapuchesocial,economic,andreligiousinstitutions(e.g.,
alliances,publicceremony,ancestralworship).This,inturn,resultsintheemergenceandpersistenceoflineagespecifichistoricalandsocialcontextsatthesametime
thatitcontributestoanuninterrupteddevelopmentofMapuchearchitecturalideologythatisetchedacrossthelandscapeintheformoffieldsandmounds.The
materialandspatialcontinuityofthisarchitectureandoftheceremonialactivityassociatedwithitarevitaltothesocialandculturalpersistenceoflineagesbecauseit
contributestotheintegrationandcontinuityoftheseinstitutions."
2.Dillehay's(1990:225)observationontheMapuche,whomhedescribesonachiefdomlevelofsocietysimilartotheAndeanAmazonianFormative,isrelevant
here."Itistheparticipationofmembersindifferentceremoniesthroughouttheyearthatcreatesinterlockingandperduringlocalandregionalnetworksofindividualand
lineagerelationsindependentofacentralizedauthoritativesystem"(Dillehay1990:227).IammakingasimilarargumenthereforearlyNascasociety,whichIinterpret
asacomplexbutnonstatesocialformation(i.e.,"simplycomplex"seechap.23).
3.Poole's(1991)studyofpilgrimageanddanceisalsodirectlyrelevanttotheculturalcontextualizationoftheNazcalinesofthepampa.BothPooleandSallnow
(1987)discussaspectsofdanceduringthereturnfromtheQoyllurR'itipilgrimagethatappeartodescribehowthegreatmarkingsonthepampaoriginated,were
conceived,andwereused(seeSilverman1990b).

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ChapterTwentyThree
TheSignificanceandBroaderContextofCahuachi
ForyearsscholarshavetriedtoexplaintheconditionsthatproducedthewidearealdistributionofanessentiallyhomogeneousNascastyle.Inconsideringthe
sociopoliticalcontextofthefamousNascastyleandespeciallythepoliticalsignificanceoftheconcentrationofceremonialbehavioratCahuachi,oneofthethorniest
problemsistodeterminehowtheterm"political"shouldbedefined.Forthepurposeofthischapter,Iwillconsider"political"torefertotheculturallysanctionedintent
togetothers/othergroupstodoone's/one'sgroup'swill,tothe"distribution,maintenance,exerciseof,andstruggleforpowerwithinasocialunit,"with"power"
referringtorelationsofdominationandsubordination(Cohen1979:88).Irecognizethatmanyotherdefinitionsof"political"exist,butthisdefinitionisappropriateto
thestatenonstatedebatethathasguidedmuchofrecentNascaresearchandwhichwillbeconsideredinthischapter.
Mostcommonly,thewidearealdistributionofanessentiallyhomogeneousNascastylehasbeencorrelatedwiththeexpansionofacentralizedstateledfromCahuachi
intheNazcavalley(seeRowe1963:1112Lanning1967:121Proulx1968:9697Lumbreras1974a:123124Massey1986).Ioriginallyrejectedthatnotion
andinterpretedearlyNascasocietyasareligiousinteractionsphere(Silverman1977).Then,onthebasisofthedatacollectedatCahuachiin19841985,I
reconstructedtheearlyNascapoliticallandscapeasaconglomerateorconfederationofcoordinatingandcompetingindependentNascasocieties/chiefdoms
(Silverman1985a,1986).Morerecently,influencedbynewlyavailabledatafortheupperIcavalley(Massey1986)andinconjunctionwiththeexistingAcardata
(Rowe1963MenzelandRiddell1986),Iacceptedandpropoundedthestatemodel(Silverman1987,1988a).AsaresultoftheIngeniomiddleGrandesurveydata,
IhavesincereturnedtomypreviousinterpretationofNascasocietyasaflexibleconfederacyofindependentsocietiesonachiefdomlevelofsociopoliticalcomplexity.
ThemodelsofNascasociopoliticalorganizationarereviewedbelow,andtheevidenceforandagainstthemispresented.Thechapterconcludeswithatrial
reconstructionofancientNascasocietyandacautionarystatementabouttheuseofaunilinealculturalevolutionaryparadigmfortheinterpretationofancientAndean
socialformationsandasagoalofarchaeologicalinvestigation.
Model1:AState
Model1isthemodelofearlyNascasocietythatwasoriginallyputforthbyRowe(1963)toexplaintheceramichomogeneityfoundoveralargepartofthesouth
coastduringtheEarlyIntermediatePeriod.Accordingtothismodel,Cahuachiwasthecapitalofacentralizedstateormilitaristicempire.Thewidespreaddistribution
ofahomogeneousNascaartstylewasconsideredtobetheresultofandwasusedasevidencefortheexistenceofthisstate.Inparticular,thesupposedlysuddenco
occurrenceofallegedlyfortifiedsitesandNasca3potteryintheAcarvalleywasnoted.TheabandonmentofthesefortifiedsitesinAcar,contemporarywiththe
declineofCahuachiattheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3,wasconsidered"suggestive"of"alittleempireonthecoastwhichwasdestroyedaftera
generationor

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two"(Rowe1963:12).EarlyNascasocietywasalsoimputedtobeastatebyvirtueofthesupposedlyurbancharacterofCahuachi(Rowe1963:11).
OnthebasisoftheirfieldworkinthelowerPiscoandupperIcavalleys,Peters(1986)andMassey(1986)havearguedthatNasca3societywasorganizedasa
conqueststate.Peters'sdataremaininpreliminaryform.Ihavenotexaminedherpotteryandsitesandamreluctanttouseherpaperforresolutionofthe"chiefdom
statedebate."However,brieffieldreconnaissanceintheupperIcavalleyin1988,conductedwithMiguelPazosandSusanaArce,disputesMassey'scontentionofa
Nasca3administrativecenteratCerroTortolita(seeMassey1986:fig.4.13).WehavefoundnosuchNasca3sitebutonlythesmall,planned,specialpurpose
architecturalcomplexmappedbyMassey(1986:fig.4.14)thatcomplexisinsurfaceassociationwithmostlyNasca4and5pottery.ThemultitieredNasca3site
hierarchyfortheupperIcavalleyfallsapartwithouttheCerroTortolitaadministrativecentersinceMassey'sotherNasca3sitesaredifferentiatedbysizeonly.
IntheAcarvalleythereisamajorNasca3occupationatthesitesofTamboViejo,Chocavento,Huarato,andAmato(Rowe1963MenzelandRiddell1986see
illustrationsofpotteryfromthesesitesinRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:figs.3133).Thusfar,theimmediateantecedentsoftheseNasca3sitesinAcararenot
clear.However,itappearsthataburiedNasca1and2occupationexistsatTamboViejo(seeRiddell1985:fig.7b,gRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.38,
toptwosherds).Nasca1and2potteryisalsopresentatMontegrandeAlto(seeRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.36).Nasca1andotherearlyNascapottery
wasrecoveredfromtheBocadelRositeontheeastsideoftheAcarRiver(seeRiddellandValdezCardenas1988:fig.39).Furthermore,atthePaqlasite,Riddell
andValdezCardenas(1988:fig.29a,b,c)appeartohavefoundlateearlyHorizon1 andNasca1pottery.Nasca1potteryisalsopresentatAmato(Riddelland
ValdezCardenas1988:fig.30).Rowe's(1956:fig.2)chronologicalchartindicatesthepresenceofNasca1potteryintheAcarvalleyaswellthiswouldbetheElsar
site(Lanning1960:468).IffutureresearchinAcarbyRiddell'steamrevealsmorematerialofthisnature,thenRowe'sreconstructionofasudden,aggressiveNasca3
intrusionwillnothold,andAcarmayberevealedtobeasmuchapartoftheancientNascaworldaswasIca.Indeed,FrancisRiddellandMakotoKowta(personal
communication1990)nowstatethatthesupposedlydefensivewallsofTamboViejoandtheotherAcarvalleysitesmaybespatialdivisionsonly.
Model2:AReligiousInteractionSphere
InModel2(Silverman1977),CahuachiandearlyNascasocietywouldnotreflectaunitary,statecentralizationofcontrolandtheemergenceofeffectivesocialpower
butratheraninteractionspherebasedonasharedreligioustradition(see,e.g.,Caldwell1977foradiscussionofinteractionspheresas"interactionsamongseparate
societies...resultinginwhatappearstobeadistinctivesetofphenomena").Inrejectingthecentralizedstatemodel,Iwasinfluencedbythelackofevidencefor
intrasitestratificationatCahuachiandintersitestratificationintheearlyNascasettlementpatternasthenknown,theabsenceofareticulatedcommunicationsystem
interconnectingthislargeareaofthesouthcoast,theperfunctoryand,atthetime,unillustrateddescriptionsofTamboViejowhichdidnotsuggestformalsimilarity
betweenitandCahuachiandwhichconsequentlydidnotsupportTamboViejo'sidentificationasaNasca3administrativecenter,thelackofstoragefacilitiesand
garrisonsintheareasupposedlyunderearlyNascacontrol,theabsenceofevidenceofincreasedeconomicactivity,andthelargescalepresenceofNascapotteryin
theIcavalleypriortotheallegedNascaNascainvasion.ItisobviousthatmanyofthesestateattributeswerebasedonanalogywiththeIncastate.Theuseofa
unitarymodelofAndeanstatehoodhasappropriatelybeencriticized(seeCostin1986Shady1986seebelow).
Model3:AChiefdom/ConfederacyofIndependentSocieties
Model3isrelatedtoModel2initsproposalthatNascasocietywascomposedofindependentsocietiesparticipatinginasingleculturaltradition.
SurveyandexcavationatCahuachicausedmetoconsiderthepoliticalattributesofthereligiousinteractionsphereIhadproposed(Model2)whilestillmaintainingthe
overwhelminglyreligiousfunctionofCahuachi(Silverman1986:chap.16chap.22herein).IinterpretedearlyNascasocietyasanuncentralizedconfederatedsocial
formationwhoseconstituentsocialgroupshomagedandworshippedatCahuachialongthelinesofPachacamac'sprovincialtemples(Silverman1985a:94,1986:
chap.16seeJimenezBorjaandBuenoMendoza1970chap.22).
ThisinterpretationwasnevermeanttobereadasastatementofegalitarianisminearlyNascasociety.Rather,IconceivedofearlyNascasocietyasthedynamic
interactionoflocalizedchiefdomsorindependentsocietiesorganizedintoaregionalsystemthatwasheldto

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getherthroughparticipationinasharedreligiouscultandculturaltraditionmanifestedatCahuachi.Shimada(1991:liv)hassuggestedthatthiskindoforganization
characterizedothergreatAndeanceremonialcenters,suchasPachacamacandPacatnamu.Hedescribes"aconcentricorsectorialsettlementsysteminwhich
peripherallysituatedsettlementswereinconstantcommunicationandhadasetoflongtermsocialandritualobligationstothereligiouscenter.Inthisview,thenucleus
isacenternotintermsofpopulationdensityorsizebutratherintermsofinteraction."IamincompleteagreementwithShimadaand,forNasca,nowhavethe
settlementpatterndatafromtheseperipheralareaswithwhichtoprovethathisgeneralmodelworksforCahuachias,indeed,hepredicteditwould(Shimada1991:
livseebelow).
Model3envisionsearlyNascasocietyasaparamountchiefdominwhichparamountcymayhaverotatedorbeenthesubjectofcompetition.Cahuachi,inthismodel,
wouldhavebeentheseatoftheparamountcy.Assuch,Ihaveargued(Silverman1986:chap.16)thatCahuachicouldhavebeenplayingarolesimilartoDelphiinthe
contextoftheamphictyoniesintowhichpreHellenicGreektribalgroupswereorganized(Finley1981:130132MeletzisandPapadakis1968:7Sealey1976:35ff).
AttheGreekoracularshrineofDelphi,thevariousmembersoftheamphictyonicleaguemetinthesixththroughfourthcenturiesB.C.fortheperformanceofreligious
dutiesandtodiscussandplancertaincommonpolicies(thepoliticsoftheDelphicshrine).Eachofthemembergroupshaditsowntempletreasuryaroundtheoracular
templeitself(liketheprovincialtemplesofPachacamacdiscussedbyJimenezBorjaandBuenoMendoza1970).Delphi,likeanyotheramphictyonicshrine,wasa
sacrosanct,neutralplace,andasacredtrucewasdeclaredduringtimesofworshipbothattheshrineandenroutetoit.IntheAndes,too,thereisethnohistoric
evidenceindicativeoffreepassagetoandfromceremonialcentersduringcertaintimesoftheyear(see,e.g.,Crespo1974).
TheconstituentmembersoftheDelphicamphictyonicleaguearedescribedinthecitedliteratureasethnicallyhomogeneous,competitivetribalgroupssharingthesame
artstyle,culture,andreligion.TheyworshippedatDelphibutalsousedthesiteasalocusforpoliticaldecisionmakingandotheractivities.Delphi,despiteitsreligious
preeminence,wasnotthemostpowerfulofthecitystatesoftheleague.
TheamphictyonicmodelfitstheNascadataverywell.ItrecognizesthatNascasocietywascomposedofethnicallyhomogeneous,competitivesocialgroups(the
ayllus)thatsharedasingleartstyle,culture,andreligion.ItpermitsandrecognizesearlyNascasociopoliticalcomplexitywithoutascribingaunicephalicandunitary
centralizationtoit,forwhichvariousproblemsexist(seebelow).TheamphictyonicmodelalsoaccordswellwiththepilgrimagefunctionascribedtoCahuachibased
onotherindependentlinesofevidence(chap.22).ItalsoletsusconsiderthepoliticalconcomitantsofCahuachiasaceremonialcenter.Inaddition,theamphictyonic
modelenablesustoconceiveofthevariousparticipantsintheNascaculturalsystemasvaryinginscaleandlevelofsocioculturalintegrationordegreeofcomplexity.
ThesociopoliticalmilieuofthismodelisaptlyperceivedbyConklinandMoseley(1988:158),whowritethat"individualitywithculturalcoherencebutwithout
evidenceoflargescalepowermarksallofthetypesofpatterningthatoccurintheNa[z]caValleyintheEIP."
SincethesemodelswerepresentedIhavehadtheopportunitytoconductanextensiveandsystematicsurveyintheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleysandtoexamine
otherrelevantsites.Thefollowingtwosectionsreflectthesenewresearchopportunities.
TestingtheNasca3SocialFormationagainsttheExpectationsofStatehood
Pottery
GeographicalDistributionofNascaPottery
IbeginwiththegeographicaldistributionofNascapotterysinceitwaslargelyonthebasisofthearealdistributionofNasca3potterythatearlyNascasocietywas
interpretedasastatelevelsocialformation.
ThevalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagewerethecenteroftheNascacultandstyle(seechap.2).Iconographically,mostinnovationsappeartobeginin
Nazca(Proulx1968).ProulxclaimsthattherewaslessstylisticvariationintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagethanintheIcavalley,eventhoughinNazcathereare
sometentributaries(itwillbeimportanttotestthiscontentionagainsttherecentlycollectedsurveydata).Hearguesthatthissituationindicatesgreatercentralizationin
NazcathaninIca(Proulx1968:71).
Nevertheless,itcannotbesaidthattheNascastylefromNazcareplacedalocalstyleinIca.TheNascastyleevolveddirectlyoutoftheprecedingOcucaje(Paracas)
styleinsituintheIcavalley(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:251).Nasca1potteryisabundantinthelowerIcavalleyintheupperIcavalley,Nasca1potteryis
foundatCorderoAlto,PampadelaIsla,JuanPablo,andothersites(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:251Sawyer1966,ms.WilliamsLenandPazosRivera
1974).

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TheseNasca1sitesincludecemeteriesandhabitationsettlements.ThelattervaryinsizefromsmallhamletstothegreatCorderoAltosite(Rowe1963:11).
FollowingNasca1,Nasca2ceramicremainsarealsoknownfromhabitationsitesandcemeteriesintheIcavalley(Pezzia1968:181WilliamsLenandPazos
Rivera1974).Thus,Nascaisnotanintrusiveforeignstyle.Topar,however,is,andToparinfluenceonpotteryoftheupperIcavalleyduringEarlyIntermediate
Periodepochs1and2(Menzel,Rowe,andDawson1964:259Wallace1986Massey1986)shouldbenoted.
ThedisappearanceofToparinfluenceintheupperIcavalleyattheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch2hasbeenattributedtoaNazcaNascainvasion
(Wallace1986Massey1986).However,thedegreeofpoliticalcontrolinvolvedinthisstylisticshiftisopentoquestionsincethepresenceofNasca3potteryinthe
Icavalleycannotbeconsideredabruptandunprecedented,norwasthevalleysettlementpatternreorganized.Rather,foreignToparinfluenceonupperIcavalley
potterydeclinedforreasonsthatremaintobeelucidatedintheToparheartland,andtheNascaceramictraditioncontinuedunbrokenintheupperandlowerIca
valley.EvenafterthefalloftheallegedNasca3empire,theIcavalleycontinuedtoproducepotteryvirtuallyidenticaltothatfoundintheNazcadrainage.Potteryis
notagoodlineofevidenceforclaimingNazcastateconquestinIcasinceitremainsthesamebetweentheseareasbefore,during,andafterthesupposedepisodesof
stateformationanddecline.
IntermsofAcar,thedata,asdiscussedabove,showNasca1and2potteryinthevalleypriortothestrongNasca3occupationdocumentedbyRowe(1963).
Althoughregionaldifferencesmayeventuallybedocumented,thesmallamountofpublishedproveniencedNascapotteryfromAcarthusfarlooksquitesimilartothat
foundintheNascaheartland.
Iconography
WhatdoesNascaarttellusaboutNascasociety?Asseenonceramicsandtextiles,amajorconcernofearlyNascasocietywasagriculturalfertility.Asitdeveloped
outofParacas,Nascareligionappearstohavesoughttocontrol,throughritual,suchfundamentalfertilityfactorsasthelifegivingpowerofwater,thegrowthpotential
ofseeds,andtheproductivityofplants.Theabundanceofalllifeformsbecameinseparablyassociatedwithfertilitythebirdsandcreaturesofthefieldandwaterwere
seenasbeneficentspiritstowardagricultureandwererepresentedassuchinart(Sawyer1966:122),conceivablyalsointhegreatgroundfiguresofthepampaitself
(Reinhard1988).
TheNascaindividualswhoweremostinvolvedwiththeNascacultappeartohavebeen"ritualperformers"(Townsend1985).Blagg(1975:12)describestheritual
performerasa"manincostume,probablyapriestwhoisengagedinritualactivitiesandwhomaybeimpersonatingasupernaturalbeing."Thisindividualwas
previouslyinterpretedastheprincipalNascamythicalfigure,theAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing(Proulx1968)orMaskedMythicalBeing(Blagg1975).Blagg's
identificationoftheseiconographicmaskedpersonageswithrealpeopleiswellsupportedbythediscoveryofgoldmouthmasksandforeheadornamentsinNasca
graves(seeLothrop1937),suggestingthatthemotif"depictsthehumanagentratherthanthecultfigureitself"(Blagg1975:12).Itdoesnotmatter,however,ifthe
personagebeingdepictedwashumanornot,foroncethecostumewasdonnedandtheritualcontextentered,thebeingwassupernaturalandendowedwithsacred
power,perhapstocommunicatewiththeothersupernaturalforcesoftheNascapantheonsuchastheKillerWhale,HorribleBird,SpottedCat,andSerpentine
Creature.
Iconographically,thereisnounambiguousevidencethatNasca'spriests/shamanswereagroupoffulltimeoccupationalspecialists,noristheredirectarchaeological
evidencetothateffect(unliketheMochesituationasrevealedatSipanwhereactualmembersofsocietywereburiedintheregaliainwhichtheyhadperformedthe
supernaturalrolesdepictedinpottery:seeDonnan1988).
EarlyNascaartdoesnotillustratesocialhierarchy,palacetemples,andoccupationalspecializationasdoes,forinstance,Mocheart(e.g.,Donnan1976:figs.15,47,
48).Intherarescenesofhumaninteractiontowhichsocialrealitymightbeimputed,weseeritualactivityinvolvingtheparticipationofseveraltomanydozensof
performers,thenumberinpartbeingconditionedbythemedium(ceramicvesselsaccommodatefewerindividualsthantextiles).Nasca3peoplewearingmasks,
headdresses,finetunics,andwingsandholdingagriculturalproductsperformdances(seeSawyer1979:figs.68).OtherearlyNascaritualperformershold
(presumablytake)trophyheads(Sawyer1979:fig.2)andareportrayedinposessosimilartothoseofthecelebratingagriculturaliststhatthetrophyheadand
agriculturalproductsmustbemutuallysubstitutableimages(seechap.15).Nasca5individualscostumedinfinebreechcloths,sleevedtunics,wings,turbans,and
headdressesplaypanpipesandholdrattles(Sawyer1979:fig.13).Nasca5harvestfestivalswithhundredsofdancingparticipantsaredepicted(Sawyer1979:figs.
1416,18,20,22).Theharvestscenesareparticularlyinterest

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ingfortheirlackofnoticeablydifferentiatedindividualstheparticipantsweardifferentcostumes,butnoneismuchmorebedeckedthananyother.Theactorsare
clearlyhumanratherthanmythical.Priestsarenotspecificallyshown,anditcouldbesuggestedthatmanyindividuals,upondonningtheproperattire,couldfulfill
otherworldlyrolesandleadtheothercongregants.AllofthesescenesaresurelydepictingritessimilartosomeofthoseheldatCahuachi.
IncontrasttoearlyNascaart,lateNascaceramiciconographyshowsadramaticallyincreasedportrayalofwarriorsandtrophyheads(Roark1965).Therearevividly
interactivecombatscenes.Concomitantly,thefrequencyofmythicalthemesdeclineddrasticallyinNasca6,andthesethemeslosttheirassociationwithwarfareand
agriculture.Roark(1965:56)concludesthatthe"realitywhichwasimportanttotheNasca6pottersinvolvedwarfare"andthat"militarismwasontheincrease
and...religionhadbecomemoreremote,moreisolatedfromthedominantconcernsofsociety."ThemanylateNascadepictionsoffinelydressedhumanindividuals
inpositionsofpowerandprestigemayindicatetheincreasedroleof"secular"leadershipinNascasocietyascomparedtotheearlierpresumeddominantroleof
priests/shamans.
NascaSettlementPatterns
EversinceWilley's(1953)pioneeringsurveyoftheVirvalley,archaeologistshaverecognizedthatthepatterningofhumansettlementsacrossalandscapeisamirror
ofthekindofsocialandpoliticalorganizationintegratingaregionandthatchangesinsettlementpatternsareaparticularlysensitiveindicatorofchangesinthesocio
politicalmilieu.LetusnowexamineNascasettlementpatternsintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageandinthevalleystothenorthandsouthoftheheartlandtosee
whatinformationtheyyieldontheorganizationofancientNascasociety.
IntheNascaHeartland
By1986IhaddeterminedCahuachitobeanonurbancenter,yetonlyafewNascahabitationsiteswereknownintheentireRoGrandedeNazcadrainage,the
presumedheartlandofNascaculture.Ispokeofthe"problematicpreludetoearlyNascastatehood"(Silverman1986:493497)becauseoftheverylimiteddata
availableonpopulationandsocietyintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagepriortotheflorescentNasca3socialformationclearly,identificationofNascadomestic
settlementswascrucialforimprovingourunderstandingofCahuachiandthesocietytowhichitcorresponded.Asaresultofmy19881989surveyintheIngenioand
middleGrandevalleysandDavidBrowne'ssurveyinPalpa,Viscas,andtheupperGrandebetween1987and1989,thelamentablesituationjustdescribedhas
changeddramatically.Thefollowingcommentsareabriefandpreliminarysynthesisofthesedatafulldetailsofthesurveywillbepresentedwhenanalysisofthedatais
completed.
Morethan500siteswerediscoveredintheIngeniomiddleGrandesurveyarea,rangingindatefromtheEarlyHorizonthroughColonialPeriod(Silverman1989a,
1990c,d).AmongthesearescoresofNascadomesticsitescontemporarywithCahuachi.Mostofthesearewellunder4hectaresinsizeandareinternallyand
comparativelyfunctionallyundifferentiated(i.e.,thereislittleevidenceofintrasiteandintersitestratification)theyarehabitationsitesinproximitytoagriculturalland.
Fewhabitationsitesexceed4hectaresmostarestillundifferentiated,withtwoexceptions(thusfar):aNasca1site(henceforthtobeknownasEstudiante)onthe
northsideofthemiddleIngeniovalleywhichexhibitsintrasitestratificationandasitewhich,onthebasisofsurfacepottery,appearstobeamulticomponentmajor
Nascapopulationcenter(Site165inSilverman1990bhenceforthtobeknownasVentilla).
VentillaislocatedonthesouthsideofthemiddleIngeniovalley,directlybeneaththepampa,andisconnectedtothepampabyseveralroutesofdirectaccess
includingthelongquebradathroughwhichthePanAmericanHighwayrunstoday.VentillaisoppositeCahuachiandisphysicallylinkedtothegreatceremonialcenter
byamajortranspampalinealgeoglyph,anancienthighwaythatwasconvertedintotheNazcasegmentofPeru'soriginalPanAmericanHighwayroutebyPresident
AugustoLeguaearlierthiscentury(fig.23.1).
Inthe1944and1947aerialphotographs(fig.23.2),Ventillaappearstobeagreatagglutinatedsettlementwithhundredsofcontiguoushabitationterraces,walled
compounds,andseveralartificialmounds.Thesitecoveredaminimumof200hectares,makingitthelargestknownNascasite,evenlargerthanCahuachi.Bythetime
ofthemostrecentaerialphotographin1970(Proyecto175oftheServicioAerofotogrficoNacional),thesitehadbeencompletelycoveredbyhuarangotreeswhich
wereplantedasafirststepinagriculturalexpansion(notethebeginningofagriculturalencroachmentmarkedinSilverman1990b:fig.5).Bypickingourwaythrough
thenowdessicatedhuarangoforestwewereabletolocatetracesofthefieldstonehabitationterraces,enclosingwalls,andsmallceremonialmounds.
Althoughsurfacepotteryisveryscarce,virtuallyallofthesherdsrecoveredatVentillacorrespondtoNasca1,

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23.1.
MapshowinglocationofCahuachi(Nazcavalley)andVentilla(Site165inIngeniovalley).Thetwositesare
connectedacrossthepampabytheCaminodeLegua,ageoglyphconvertedintooneofthesegmentsofthe
originalPanAmericanHighwayearlierthiscentury.

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23.2.
AerialphotographofVentilla(ServicioAerofotogrficoNacional,1947),adenselyagglutinatedhabitationsiteatthe
baseofthepampainthemiddleIngeniovalley.Someofitsstructuresextendupthequebradastothepampa.Onthe
basisofitssurfacepotteryadmittedlyscarcethesiteistentativelyidentifiedasNasca1through5in
dateandculturalaffiliation.

2,3,and5.Subjecttoextensivetestingbyfutureexcavations,ItentativelyproposethatthisisaNascasite,theurbancenterthatCahuachiwasnot.
DiscoveryofVentillanecessitatesrevisionofsomeoftheinterpretationssetoutinmyearlierpublications.IpreviouslyarguedthattheNasca3socialformationwas
ledfromCahuachiandthatthecontinuedlackofurban/economicdevelopmentattheprimateNascasitewasaprimecauseandreflectionofCahuachi'sinabilityto
consolidateitscontrolintoacentralizedstatesuchasthatachievedbyWari,Chim,andIncaIarguedthatpoliticshadremainedtooclothedinritualandthe
theocracytooinflexiblytheocratic(Silverman1986).
IpositedtwomajorreasonstoexplainCahuachi'sdecline.ThesewerecongruentwiththedataonCahuachiandtheotherevidencethenavailablefortherestofthe
RoGrandedeNazcadrainage.ThefirstreasoncorrespondedtochangesIsaw,andstillsee,inthesurroundingsociopoliticalmilieu,changesthatmadeCahuachi
obsoleteandacontradictionwithsocialreality.Thatrealitywasanincreasinglycompetitiveandfillinguplandscape(Silverman1990d).
ThesecondsuggestedreasonforCahuachi'sdeclinewasthatpopulationdidnotnucleatearoundtheceremonialfunctionsthesitefulfilled.Iarguedthattheceremonial
centerdidnotdevelopintoacity(e.g.,Wheatley1971),althoughtherewereprobablyalwayspeoplemillingaboutand,atcertaintimesoftheyear,thesitecould
assumeaBrigadoonlikequasiurbannaturethroughpilgrimageanditsassociatedmasscongregation.Butthisneverledtoalargescalepermanentpopulation
aggregationatCahuachiortothedevelopmentofeconomicandsocialspecialization.Dependingontheday,Cahuachicouldbeeithervirtuallyemptyorbustlingwith
peopleandactivity.Thisisascenarionotcontemplatedinthedichotomizingliteratureonurbanism.IarguedthatCahuachi,asaceremonialcenter,wasunableto
provideneededservices,regionallyintegrategrowingnumbersofpeople,andcopewiththeincreasingandincreasinglymorecomplexinformationflow.
Whiletheseargumentsmaystillbetrue,theymustbeviewedinthecontextoftheapparentpopulationnucleationmanifestedatVentilla.Inowhypothesizethat
CahuachiandVentilla,thetwoprincipalNascasiteswhicharedirectlyconnectedtoeachotheracrossthepampa,weredualcapitalsofearlyNascasociety.Cahuachi
actedasthe"religious"capitalandVentillaasthe"urban"capitaloftheearlyNascasocialformation.Wasthisastate?
VentillaandCahuachiexistedinthecontextofawell

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peopledhinterland.ThereisaflorescentNasca1settlementpattern.However,Nasca1habitationsitesarefunctionallyundifferentiatedexceptfortheEstudiantesite
mentionedabove.Theyvaryinsizebutnotinternalcomplexity.InadditiontotheceremonialfocusatCahuachi,therewereotherceremonialcenterswithNasca1
occupations,andgeoglyphswereelaboratedonthehillsidesofthevalleysinNasca1times.AmajorNasca1civiccenterappearstoexistinthemiddleGrandevalley.
VariousNasca1habitationsiteshaveNasca2occupations,andotherNasca2habitationsiteswerefoundedinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch2.Butnoneofthese
appearstobeinternallydifferentiated.InadditiontoCahuachi,thereisamajorNasca2ceremonialfocusattheboundarybetweentheupperandmiddleIngenio
valleys,andmanyoftheceremonialcentersidentifiedonsurveyhaveNasca2components.MoregeoglyphsweremadeinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch2.
TheNasca3settlementpatternlargelycontinuestheNasca2pattern.EarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3wastheapogeeofCahuachiandatimeofmajorgeoglyph
elaborationandceremonialconstructionelsewhereinthesurveyarea.Thusfar,noNasca3habitationsitemanifestsintrasitestratificationrather,thesitesare
distinguishedbyvariationinsizeonly.
InEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch4therewasasignificantreductioninthenumberofhabitationandceremonialsitesinthesurveyarea.CahuachiandVentillaclearly
sufferedadecline.Therealsowasadecreaseingeoglyphmanufacture/use.ThisisthekindofchangethatRowewouldinterpretasevidenceofthebreakdownofthe
allegedNasca3state.AnotherexplanationwouldbethatNasca4isnotadiscretechronologicalphasebut,rather,astylisticoneandthatthereissettlementand
culturalcontinuitybetweenNasca3and5,foritisotherwisedifficulttoexplainthesuddenflorescence/resurgenceinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5.
Nasca5oncemorecorrespondstoatimeofsignificanthabitationlevelsinthesurveyarea.ThisisnotmanifestedatCahuachi,ofcourse,butisnotedatVentilla.Itis
alsoatthistimethatthelargestnumberofgeoglyphsareinuseinthevalleys,whichperhapsreplacedCahuachiasthelocus/focusofNascareligiousactivity.Nasca5
ceremonialcentershavebeenidentifiedaswell.Othersitesaretentativelyidentifiedasciviccenters.
LifeappearstohavechangedgreatlyintheNascaheartlandduringEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5.Cahuachiceasedtofunctionastheparamountceremonialand
pilgrimagecenterandbecameamortuarylocusandrecipientofindividualofferings.ThelocusoflargescalereligiousactivityappearstohaveshiftedfromCahuachito
geoglyphsitesonthevalleyhillsidesandonthepampa(Silverman1990b).Thefiltrationgallerieswereestablishedinthesoutherndrainage(SchreiberandLancho
Rojas1988),possiblyasaresultofmajordroughtconditionsafflictingthesouthernAndes(Thompsonetal.1985).Thereappearstohavebeenlongdistancecontact
withotherAndeansocieties,mostnotablyLimaonthecentralcoastasevidencedbyinterlockingmotifsonNasca5pottery.Thisisalsowhenthebizarreinnovation
onNascapotteryoccurred(Roark1965Blagg1975),leadingintothedevelopmentoftheProliferousstyle.Therewasanincreaseinrealtrophyheadtaking(chap.
15)andgreaterdifferentiationofburials(chap.14).HumanchiefshadthemselvesnaturalisticallyportrayedonNascapottery.2 Ihavepreviouslysuggested(Silverman
1987,1988b,1990d)thatamongthenaturalandconcurrentchangesmentionedabovewasonemore:contactwiththelateHuarpa/incipientWaristateinAyacucho.3
ItispossiblethatpressurefromAyacuchowasresponsibleforcertainofthesocialchangesseeninNasca5society.4
InEarlyIntermediatePeriodepochs6and7,NascasettlementinthesurveyareadramaticallydecreasedandVentillawasapparentlyabandoned.Cahuachihadlong
sinceceasedtofunctionasaceremonialcenter.Roark(1965:56)hasarguedthatthedramaticincreaseinmilitaristicthemesonNasca6potterywasareflectionof
Nascasociopoliticalreality.Ifso,thenperhapsitiswarfare(perhapsasaresultofdeterioratingclimaticconditionsand/orpressurefromWari)thataccountsforthe
dramaticbreakupofapreviouslywellintegratedandflorescentNasca5settlementpattern.Nevertheless,theevidenceforlateNascawarfareappearsmore
iconographicthanreal,becauselateNascahabitationsitesinthenorthernRoGrandedeNazcadrainagesuchastheyarearenotlocatedstrategicallynorare
defensive/offensivearchitectureandartifactsfoundontheirsurfaces.
Nasca6and7potteryisfoundongeoglyphs,butfarlessthaninEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5.LateNascaceremonialcentershavenotbeenidentified.No
Nasca8habitationsites,cemeteries,ceremonialcenters,orgeoglyphshavebeenidentifiedinthesurveyarea.
TheNasca1through3andNasca5settlementpatternsdescribedabovecanbearrangedintofunctional,decisionmakingsitehierarchiesofthekindassociatedwith
states(seeWrightandJohnson1975IsbellandSchreiber1978seefigs.23.323.10forverypreliminarytriallayoutsoftheNascaphases),or,basedonCrumley's
(1987)discussionoftheprincipleofheterarchy,thesesettlementpatternscanbecollapsedintoaless

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23.3.
TriallayoutofNasca1settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.

23.4.
TriallayoutofNasca2settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochangewhen
analysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.

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23.5.
TriallayoutofNasca3settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochangewhen
analysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.

23.6.
TriallayoutofNasca4settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.Thereappearstobeamajordisruptioninthesettlementpattern.

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23.7.
TriallayoutofNasca5settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.ThesettlementpatternreviveswiththeexceptionofCahuachi.

23.8.
TriallayoutofNasca6settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.Thereappearstobeamajordisruptioninthesettlementpattern.

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23.9.
TriallayoutofNasca7settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.ThedisruptionnotedinNasca6timescontinues.

complexconfiguration(seefig.23.11foranexample)thatmorecloselycorrespondstothedataandinterpretationpresentedinthisandprecedingchapters.Idonot
seedefinitiveorclearevidenceofthebureaucraticdecisionmakinghierarchyevidentinstatesorof"administrativetechnology"(Spencer1987:372foranexampleof
administrativetechnologyseeJohnson1973onrationbowls,ceramicwallcones,majorsettlementcraftworkshops,etc.analogouscharacteristicsareunambiguously
manifestedbytheIncastate:seeMorrisandThompson1985).
BeyondtheNascaHeartland
FollowingWrightandJohnson(1975),Massey(1986)maintainsthattheNasca3upperIcavalleysettlementpatternindicatescentralizedcontrolandstateplanning,a
reorganizationofthelandscapethatwasdirectedfromCahuachi.SheconstructsamultitieredsettlementhierarchyinwhichCahuachiwastheprimarysiteandCerro
TortolitaasecondlevelsettlementcorrespondingtoanearlyNascaadministrativecenterinalandscapeoflowerlevelagriculturalsettlements.Asindicatedabove,
reconnaissanceoftheCerroTortolitaareadisputeshercontention.
Peters(1986:9,10)arguesforadramaticshiftinsettlementpatternsinthelowerPiscovalleyinEarlyIntermediatePeriod3thatcorrespondstoaNasca3expansion
intothatvalleyleadingto"thecollapseofawayoflifeitisthemonumental[Pachinga]siteand[Paracas]burialtraditionwhichisabandoned."PublicationofPeters's
dataisawaitedsothatPiscocanbebetterassessed.
Rowe(1963)describesTamboViejo,Chocavento,Amato,andHuaratoassinglecomponent,fortified,Nasca3habitationsitesintheAcarvalley.Asindicated
earlier,thereappearstobeevidenceofaNasca1and2occupationintheAcarvalley,makingtheseNasca3siteslessintrusivethanRowebelieved.Furthermore,as
notedabove,theCIPSteamiscurrentlycallingintodoubtthedefensivenatureofthewallsatTambo

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23.10.
TriallayoutofNasca8settlementpattern.Siteshavebeencategorizedandgroupedbysizeandfunction.Subjecttochange
whenanalysisofthe19881989surveydataiscompleted.NoNasca8(Loro)habitationsiteshavebeenidentifiedinthe
IngeniomiddleGranderegion.

Viejo,and,asdiscussedearlier,themajorwallsatCahuachidemarcatedspace(seechap.22)theywerenotdefensive.
MortuaryPatterns
ThetombsatSipnareanoutstandingexampleofeliteMocheburials(Alva1988,1990).NocomparablyrichNascaburialsfromCahuachiorelsewhereinthe
ancientNascaworldhaveeverbeenreported.NoNascaburialscomparetothoseoftheParacasPeninsulaburialgrounds(seeTello1959TelloandMejaXesspe
1979Paul1990).AlthoughherecognizesdifferencesinthedistributionoffineNascapotteryingraves,Lumbreras(1974b:219)concludes,speakingoftheEarly
IntermediatePeriodoverall,that"fromwhatisseeninthecemeteriesoftheepochandpartiallyinthestudyofthesettlements,thesocialdifferenceswerenotso
pronouncedandkinshiprelationsstillpersisted.Inallthetombsthusfarfound,theofferingsappeartobebasicallythesame"(mytranslation).WhileIwouldnotspeak
insuchglobalterms,neverthelessIagreethatNascaburialpatternsdonotmanifestevidenceofclearlydemarcatedsocialclasses(seechap.14).
IfIamrightinarguingthatmostofthemoundsatCahuachiareayllutemplesusedbydistinctNascasocialgroups(chap.22),thenitispossiblethattheUnit19and
UnitAburialsrepresenttheintermentofcertainmembersofthesesocialgroupsastheneedarose.Onemightexpectthatthosesocialgroupmembersburiedat
Cahuachiwere"special"peopleinearlyNascasociety.ItmustbepointedoutinthislightthattheUnit19andKroeber'sUnitAburialsarenotoverlyimpressivein
termsofgravewealthortombelaboration(seechap.14).Indeed,someofUhle'sNasca3gravelotsfromIca(seeProulx1970)areasrichorricherthan
contemporaryonesfromCahuachi.Furthermore,agreaterorlessernumberofceramicvesselsdoesnotnecessarilycorrelatewithabetterorlesspreparedtomb.
Also,

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23.11.
UsingtheNasca3settlementpatternasanexample,theapparentlymultilevelsitehierarchycanbecollapsedintoafarless
complexconfigurationinaccordancewiththeprincipleofhierarchy,whichstatesthattheremaybeorderwithouthierarchy.
Elementsmaybeeitherunrankedrelativetootherelementsorpossessthepotentialforbeingrankedinanumberofways
hierarchyandinequalitydonotalwaysimplyanorganizationalchainofcommand(seeCrumley1987).MostoftheNasca3
habitationsitesdifferinsizeonlytheydonotappeartobefunctionallydifferentiatedinternallyorcomparatively(little
evidenceofintrasiteandintersitestratification).Otherkindsofsites(geoglyphs,smallceremonialcenters,cemeteries)
shouldnotnecessarilybeconsideredtoexistinsubordinateorsuperordinaterelationshiptothese.Thiscollapsed
arrangementoftheNasca3settlementpatterncorrespondsfarbettertotheothercontemporaryarchaeologicalevidence
forthissocialformation.

nonceramicgravegoodsdonotnecessarilycorrelatepositivelywiththegreatestnumberofceramicvessels,andthequalityofthepotteryandothergravegoodsmust
alsobeconsidered.Archaeologistsfaceamethodologicalprobleminthedeterminationandanalysisofgravewealth.Howshouldweequateandevaluatediverse
artisticexpressions?DoesthemagnificentpyroengravedgourdfromthelootedtombinRoom2atUnit19(chap.19)equaladoublespoutandbridgepot,twopots,
nopots?Whataboutpanpipeswiththeirprecisetechnologyorpaintedtextilesandfineembroideries?Doceramicquality,quantity,andiconographiccomplexity
necessarilyanddirectlycorrelatewiththesociopoliticalandeconomicorganizationofsociety?Theseareproblemsstilltoberesolvedbeforeaproperunderstandingof
Nascasocietyisachieved.
Demonstrably,notallmembersofearlyNascasocietywereburiedwithfinesumptuaryitems,andsomeNascaindividualsclearlyhadaccesstomoredecoratedpots,
finetextiles,andotherluxuryobjectsthanothers.ButCarmichael's(1988:395398)studyrevealsthatgravegoodsvaried"moreindegreethaninkindandrestricted
distributionscouldnotbeidentified.Theonlyexceptionsweregoldornaments,verticaltimbersinburialchambers,andminiaturevessels.Thesewerefoundinafew
highstatusgraves,butnotallhighstatusintermentscontainedsuchitems....Thenumberandvarietyoftextilesingravesincreasedwithstatus,butrestricted
distributionswereabsent.Althoughmorecommoninmidtohighstatusburials,textilesalsooccurinlowstatusgraves."ThepatterndetectedbyCarmichaelindicates
anessentiallyunrestrictedcirculationofgravegoodsinNascasocietybutalsostatusdifferences.
Ascalculatedfromgravefurniture,fully30percentof

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theNascapopulacehadaccesstodoublespoutandbridgebottles,themostprestigiousvesselform.Bothadultsandsubadultswereburiedinlowandmiddlestatus
tombs(Carmichael1988:285286).ButCarmichael(1988:285286)pointsoutthatatleasttensubadultsreceivedbettermortuarytreatmentthanthethirtytwo
adultsfoundinhislowstatusburialcategory.Giventhateightofthetensubadultswereundertheageofsix,Carmichaelinterpretsthismortuarytreatmentasindicating
theascriptionofstatusatbirth,butbearinmindthatCarmichaelistalkingaboutlowstatusburials.Onlymaleadultsattainedthehigheststatusasevaluatedby
mortuarytreatment(Carmichael1988:286),5 andhigheststatusinNascasociety(earlyorlate)isnotcomparabletothatfoundinotherancientAndeansocieties.
IreallywonderwhetheritisworthwhiletocontinuepositingthedestructionofthereallyrichearlyNascagravesatthehandsofthelooters.Theevidencefromallthe
burialsdiscussedinthisbookisconsistentandsuggeststhattheknownburialsaretypicalandconstituteavalidreflectionofearlyNascasocialorganization.Ifnature
andquantityofgravegoodsaswellastombelaborationareasgoodanindicatorofsocialdifferentiationasarchaeologistshavetraditionallytakenthemtobe,6 thena
"simplycomplex"reconstructionofNascasociety(Model3)issupportedbythislineofarchaeologicalevidence.
TheEvidenceofTrophyHeadtaking
Nascaartemphasizedtheseveredhumanheadwithacarryingcordthroughthefrontalbone.Traditionallythesehavebeencalledtrophyheads,withtheimplication
thattheyweregainedinwarfare(seechap.15).Butvariousscholarshavequestionedthatcommonassumption.Dwyer(1979)contextualizesNascatrophy
headtakingwithinthereligiousworldandinterpretstrophyheadsymbolismasindicativeofaperceivedneedtotakeheadsforgroupsurvival.Sawyer(1966)
associatestrophyheadtakingwithritesofagriculturalfertility(versusProulx1983,1986).Coelho(1972)arguesthatthefactthatsometrophyheadsweremadefrom
thedecapitatedskullsofyoungindividualsandwomenandthatallappeartopertaintothesameculturalgroupisevidenceofritual,notwarfare.Inchapter15,
however,IindicatedthelimitationsofCoelho'sargument,emphasizingthepotentialroleplayedbysocialalliancesamongNascapeoplesinthedefinitionof"enemy."
Furthermore,whenageandsexcanbedetermined,thevastmajorityofNascatrophyheadspertaintoadultmalesofanageappropriatetoacombatantrolein
society.Nevertheless,Coelho(1972),Baraybar(1987),andI(Silverman1988c)havealldiscussedthestronglyritualisticnatureoftheseheads.Indeed,thetakingof
trophyheadsinearlyNascatimes,contemporarywithCahuachi,appearstobemoremetaphoricalthanrealinthesensethatdocumentedactualearlyNascatrophy
headsarefarlesscommoninthegroundthanonartwherewhennotshowninisolationtheyareusuallyportrayedinassociationwithmythicalbeings.
RealhumantrophyheadswerefrequentlytakeninpostapogeetimesasevidencedbyFeatures21and24atUnit19inCahuachi(chaps.12,15),aseriesofpost
Nasca3trophyheadsfoundbyFrancisRiddell(personalcommunication1986)atTamboViejoandbyCoelhoandNeiraatChavia(Coelho1972),sixNasca8
trophyheadsexcavatedbyPezzia(1969:145)inJumana(seealsoCoelho1972:143148),andacacheoffortyeightNasca5trophyheadsdiscoveredbyDavid
BrowneandmyselfonCerroCarapoinPalpain1989(seechap.15).TheselateNascatrophyheadsmaybetheresultofintergroupstrifeplayedoutonthefieldof
territorialaswellasritualbattle(seechap.15).RitualbattlesarewelldocumentedintheanthropologicalliteratureoftheAndes(seeGorbak,Lischetti,andMuoz
1962Platt1986:239240).
LateNascaartfrequentlydepictselegantlydressedhumanmalesholdingtrophyheadsintheirhandsand/orwearinggarmentsdecoratedwiththeseseveredheads.
Thedecapitatedheadscouldbeinterpretedasvanquishedindividualsortherepresentatives/symbolsofconqueredpeoples.Inthislight,Earle's(1987:299300)
formulationofideologicalsymbolsofwarriormightisprovocative.Trophyheadsbothrealandiconographiccouldwellbesuchasymbol,telling"ofamilitary
superioritythatneednotbeusedifitisacknowledged"(Earle1987:300seealsoPaynter1989:384385).Burialsaccompaniedbytrophyheads,aswellasofferings
oftrophyheadsmaynot"simplymirrorawarriorsociety[butrather]suchsymbolsintimidateandthussmoothsuccessiontopowerasacontinuityofthenaturalworld
orderofdominationbytheforceful"(Earle1987:300).Interestingly,allofthearchaeologicalevidencesupportstheidentificationoftrophyheadvictimsasNasca
peoples(seechap.15),soweappeartobewitnessingstrugglesamongwhatarchaeologicallyappearstobeasingleculturebutonewhich,Ihaveargued,is
composedofmanysocietiesthatpotentiallyformedandbrokealliancesamongthemselves.
Warfarebeitinternecineorritualisnotnecessarilyindicativeofstateconquest.Ourrecentlygatheredsurveydataprovidenootherevidenceofaconflictive
sociopoliticalmilieuintheEarlyIntermediatePeriod.No

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Nascasitesurveyedisfortified,norisanylocatedinastrikinglydefensiveposition.WeaponsarenotcharacteristicofsurfacematerialatanyNascasite.Although
iconographysuggeststhatlateNascasocietywasfragmentedintowarringgroupsledbythetrophyheadholdingwarriorchiefsdepictedonlateNascaceramic
vessels,thecontextoflateNascatrophyheadscorrespondstoofferingstreated,asCoelho(1972)observes,ritualisticallyandinaveryNascaway.LateNasca
warriorchiefsmayhavebeenestablishing/reaffirmingtheirsupernaturalpower/religioussanctionbyofferinghumanheads,anactthatwasimbuedwithsacredmeaning.
Atthesametime,theyweremanifestingtheirsocialpowerbybeingsuccessfulheadhunterssince,presumably,thosewholosetheirheadsaresociallyinferiortoand
politicallyweakerthanthosewhotakethem.
HeadtakingwasaperduringandimportantelementofancientNascasociety.Itssociopoliticalcontextappearstohavechangedoverthecenturies,yetitsnature
remainedremarkablyconservative.TrophyheadsorritualheadsarenotdirectevidenceofaNasca3orlateNascastate.
CraftSpecialization/EconomicSpecialization
Fulltimecraftandeconomicspecializationhavelongbeenregardedashallmarksofstatelevelsocieties.ThebeautyandtechnicalqualityofNascapotteryarenote
worthyandmustimplytheexistenceofarangeofartisansfromthosewhoobtainedandmixedtheslippaintstothosewhopaintedthevessels.Panpipemakerscan
alsobecountedamongtheNascaartisans.Inaddition,thereweregourdcarvers,artisansinstonework(e.g.,thecarvedstonevasereportedbyTello1940,though
thiscraftisrare),metallurgistswhomadethegoldmouthmaskandforeheadornaments,andtextileworkerswhocreatedthefinethreedimensionalfigures.Butthusfar
thereisnoevidence(suchasartisans'quartersandcraftworkshops)toindicatethattheseindividualswerefulltimespecialistsratherthanparttimeartists.Indeed,the
CanelosQuichuacaseofpotteryproductionforuseintemporallyrestrictedceremonies(Reeve1985seechap.22seealsoWhittenandWhitten1988)indicatesthat
technologicallyfineandiconographicallycomplexpotterycanbemadeintheabsenceoffulltimespecializationandwithinasimplesocietalcontext.Giventheintensity
ofexcavationsatCahuachiand,morerecently,thebroadarealsurveysconductedintheNascaregion,itisbecomingincreasinglylikelythatfulltimeNascaartisans'
quartersandworkshopsdidnotexistorthattheywereextremelyrare(e.g.,thesocalledresidentialtextilecraftareaonUnit7excavatedbyStrong'sproject),even
thoughArnold(1985:90)hasarguedthattheenvironmentandgeographicalsettingofNazcaawayfromthecoastalstripinanareawithconstantsunshineandlittle
rainfallprovidedtheidealconditionsforthedevelopmentoffulltime,yearroundceramicspecializationleadingtothecomplexNascaceramictradition.
NascapotterycameintoitsowninEarlyIntermediatePeriod3,aidedbytherapidtechnologicalimprovementsinslippaintingfromNasca1whenitwasstillrare,
toNasca2whenpaintcrackled,toNasca3whenamuchgreaterdegreeoftechnicalcontrolandsophisticationwasachieved.InNasca3timespotterywasusedfor
musicalinstruments(alsoknownforNasca1and2)andas"specialcontainersforritualeatinganddrinkingactivities,"justasArnold(1985:159)documentsfrom
caseselsewhere.Thesemiscellaneousfactstogetherformastrongcircumstantialcaseforthe"deviationamplifyingeffectthatritualusehasondemand"(Arnold1985:
159)and,consequently,onceramicproductionitself.BasedonArnold's(1985:158159)model,itcanbesuggestedthattheriseofCahuachiledtoanincreasein
ceramicproductioncorrespondingtoanaccelerateddemandforpotteryforuseinritualandceremony.Thelargeamountofdecoratedpotteryespeciallybowlsat
Cahuachihasbeennoted(chap.16).Itremainstobedeterminedwherethemosticonographicallycomplexpotterywasbeingmanufactured,bywhom,andwhowas
incontrolofproduction.
Atthesametime,eventhoughmuchpotterywasbeingmade,theritualuseofpotteryalsoservedtotakesomeoutofcirculation,whichprobablycreatedasustained
demandforceramicproduction(Arnold1985:162).Weseethisremovalfromcirculationintheabundanceofbrokenpotteryatthesite,someofwhichmayhave
beentheresultofpotterybeingdeliberatelybrokenatCahuachiduringritualsandtheintermentofburials(e.g.,Kroeber'sobservationthatarticulatingsherdslink
gravesseechap.14).Inaddition,somefinepotterymayhavebeenproducedspecificallyforinterment,althoughmuchgravepotteryshowsevidenceofhavingbeen
used.Thatdecoratedpotterywasanesteemedcommodityisunquestionablydemonstratedinthefrequentoccurrenceofpieceswithrepairholes,someexamplesof
whichwerefoundinthecourseofourexcavations(e.g.,fig.17.5).
Intermsofothereconomicspecializations,PatrickCarmichael's(personalcommunication1990)recentlycompletedsurveyalongthelittoralfromAcartotheBaha
delaIndependenciahasrevealednoevidenceofspecializedNascalittoralsettlements.Althoughmaritime

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motifsareabundantlyrepresentedinearlyNascaiconographyandalthoughmarineremainsarefoundatCahuachi(chap.21)andatmanyNascahabitationsites,these
productsmustbetheresultofshorttermvisitstotheseashoreratherthanpermanentspecializedlittoralsettlements.
MonumentalConstruction
Likecraftspecialization,monumentalconstructionisfrequentlyheraldedasahallmarkofstatelevelsocieties(e.g.,Haas1982:214216).Wheatley(1971:257258)
haswrittenthat"inseparablefromthereligiousauthorityexercisedbytheritualexpertswhomediatedbetweengodandmanwasthepoliticalandsocialpowerthat
theycontrolled.Thisisabundantlyevidentinthemassiveconstructionsundertakenattheceremonialcenters."Webster(1976:815)hascalledsuchsocietieswith
monumentalreligiousconstructionstheocracies,arguingthattheocraciesareaspecialkindofstatewhosepoliticalnatureismisunderstoodbecauseof"an
overemphasis...ontheceremonialfacadesofsocalled`theocracies'ratherthanonthebasicinstitutionsunderlyingthem.Templearchitecture,richtombs,and
sophisticatedsymbolismandiconographyhavearrestedourattention,and...wehavejumpedtounwarrantedconclusionsabouttheseveryinstitutionswhichwehave
neglectedinourresearch."Heaskstheallimportantquestion,"Whatlaybehindthefacade?"Whilerecognizingthatlegitimizationorthe"socialvalidization[sic]of
differentialpower,authority,orprivilegebythosewhopossessthem"(Webster1976:815)wasoneroleplayedbyceremonialism,hecontendsthatthisceremonialism
isnotthesourceofpoliticalandeconomicdifferentiation.Rather,Websterarguesthatthisdifferentiationalreadyexistedandthatceremonialismwasawayof
validating,consolidating,andaugmentingthispreexistingleadership.Inotherwords,behindthereligiousfacadewasapragmaticpoliticalreality(seeWittfogel1957:
8889).ThiswouldbetheoppositeofGeertz's(1980)modeloftheBalinesetheaterstateswhereinpowerisseenasservingpomp.Webster(1976:818)cautionsus
nottoimputealtruisticbehaviortotheelitejustbecauseofthemoralorcosmologicalnatureofelitesanctions.
ForWebster,theceremonialismoftheocraciesoccursinasociopoliticalcontextalreadyindicativeofastratifiedorstatesocietyinwhichthereiseconomicalienation
(themonopolizationofbasiccapitalresourcessuchaslandandwaterinthehandsofthefew).Yet,hemaintainsthathypertrophiedceremonialismexistedin
theocraciespreciselybecauseeffectivecoerciveforcewaslackingtheocraticorganizationcouldbeseenasa"strategicpoliticalployforeffective
centralization"(Webster1976:819).Websteremphasizesthatatheocracydoesnotmeanrulershipbypriestsbut,rather,religioussanctionofleadership.Oncethe
state(the"secular"state)wasconsolidated,heargues,theceremonialismmaskingtruesocialclassconflictandexploitationwastoagreaterorlesserdegree
dropped.Weshouldrecall,however,thateveninsocietiesascomplexastheIncaempire,greattime,effort,andexpensewerespentonthepracticeofideologyand
onritualizedbehaviorandstatehospitality(seeMurra1955MorrisandThompson1985Morris1982,1986).Furthermore,societiesmanifestlynotonastatelevel
oforganizationbuiltsomeoftheCentralAndes'sgreatestmonumentalarchitecture(seeDonnan1985BurgerandBurger1991).
AnexaminationoftheenergeticunderpinningsofCahuachi'sarchitectureismostrevealing.Cahuachiismonumentallyunmonumental(Silverman1985a,b).Itachieved
visuallyimpressiveendsbyenergeticallycheapmeans(seechap.5).Furthermore,Cahuachi'smonumentalarchitecture,whichdependedinlargepartonnaturalhills,is
notofsuchascaleandvolumeastohaverequiredacoercivecentralizedauthoritycontrollingthelaborthatbuiltthesite,althoughagroupofreligiousspecialists
conceivablycouldhavemotivatedanddirectedconstructionofthemoreimposingarchitectureatthesitesuchastheGreatTemple(Unit2).Thereisnoformalplanto
Cahuachiotherthanabasicmoundkanchaspatialorganization(seechap.6).AsseenonUnit19,constructionphasesgenerallyinvolvedsmallchangesinwallpattern,
modificationseasilyundertakeninamatterofdaysbyasmallgroupofpeople.
RatherthanNascasocietyunifyingitsefforttoconstructoneorseveralmajormounds,theeffortatCahuachiwasspreadoutoversomefortymoundsofvarying
shape,size,andvolume.Furthermore,manyofCahuachi'smoundsdonotappeartohavebeenbuiltinasingleconstructionepisodebutinsteadshowrepeated
remodelings.Ifthe"sizeandcomplexityofthemonumentsreflectedthegrowingorwaningoftheeconomyinrelationshiptothebalancebetweenecologicalpotential
andrateofdemographicgrowth"(Schaedel1980b:5seealsoDillehay1990),thenatCahuachiweseeavery,veryfluidcondition.Acomparisonoftheenergy
requirementsforconstructionofcontemporaryMoche'sHuacadelaLunaandHuacadelSoltotheGreatTempleatCahuachiwillillustratethispoint.
Strong'sGreatTemple(Unit2)isanaturalhillthathasbeenterracedandoutlinedwithlowadobewalls.Itsadobesareallhandmadeandarewidelyspacedinmud

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mortar.ConstructionbegannoearlierthantheendofNasca2andterminatedbytheendofNasca3.Itsconstructionsurelydidnotexceed250,000persondays
(calculationbasedonRavines1979).HuacadelSolisacompletelyartificialmoundmeasuringatleast342by159meters.Itwasbuiltwithmorethan143million
moldmadeadobes.ItisassociatedwithHuacadelaLuna,whichismadeofmorethan50millionadobes.Segmentationandmakers'marksontheMocheadobes
suggestamit'aorganizedlaborforceconstructionrequiredaminimumof14millionpersondaysdistributedoverelevenconstructionphases(Moseley1975Hastings
andMoseley1975).
EarlyNascasocietydoesnotlacktruemonumentalconstructionsbecauseachoicewasmadetomobilizehumanenergyforprojectsofamoreinfrastructuralnature
(suchasthefiltrationgallerieswhichpostdatetheapogeeofthesite:seechap.1).Rather,Cahuachi'smoundsareearlyNasca'smonumentalconstructions,anditis
thisrelative"unmonumentality"thatKroeber(1944:25)notedsolongago.
SeeninpanAndeancomparison,Cahuachi'slackoftruemonumentalitycanbeinterpretedasreflectinglesseffectivesocialpowerandalesserdemographicbase
thanfoundinothercontemporarycoastalsocietiessuchasMocheandLima.Isuggestthattheproliferationofarchitecturalfociatthesiteisanindicationbothof
Nascasocialorganization(i.e.,thatthemanymoundsareayllutemplesofthevarioussocialgroups)andofasocietalinabilityand/orlackofdesiretomarshallhuman
energytowardoneproject.MonumentconstructionatCahuachiisnotassociatedwiththehierarchicalgrowthoftheregulatorysector(Adams1975).Note,however,
thatthisistrueonlyifIamcorrectinseeingCahuachi'smanymoundsasbasicallymoreofthesameratherthanfunctionallydifferentiated(chaps.5,6,22).
TheChronologyofConquestandDecline
IthasbeenarguedthatthedramaticdeclineinconstructionactivityatCahuachiattheendofEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch3andtheabandonmentoftheAcar
valleyNasca3sitesindicatetherapidfalloftheallegedshortlivedNasca3state(Rowe1963Proulx1968).WiththeexcavationofUnit19atCahuachi,however,
thispreviouslypatscenariothatsawTamboViejoandCahuachibeingabandonedatthesametimeisnolongersosimple.IftheRoomofthePostswasbuiltinNasca
4times(asappearscertainfromexcavationseechap.13),thensomeconstructiondidcontinueatCahuachiinepoch4oftheEarlyIntermediatePeriodindeed,the
uppermostapisonadoofRoom1onUnit19waslaidinNasca5times,whichisalsowhenpanpipesandothermotifsweretracedonthewestandsouthwallsofthe
RoomofthePosts(seechap.13).Butwealsohaveseenthatimmediatelyfollowingtheseeventsallbuildingatthesiteceased.Furthermore,Nasca4isatimeof
constructiondecline,forwhiletheRoomofthePostswasbeingbuilt,otherareasofthatsameUnit19architecturalcomplexwerebeingtakenoutofcirculation.Use
ofCahuachiinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch5ismuchlessintensethanbeforeandcorrespondstomarkedlydifferentculturepatterns,sinceNasca5cemeteries
werecreatedinopenareasatthesiteincontrasttotheNasca3apogeepatternofburialsonmounds.
TheIngeniomiddleGrandesettlementpatterndataindicateasimilardisruptioninNasca4times(comparefigs.23.5and23.6).DavidBrowne(personal
communication1990)haspickedupthesamepatterninhisPalpaandViscasdata.AsIseeitnow,theissuereallyhingesonwhetherNasca4isalegitimate
chronologicalphase.ArethechangesinsettlementpatternsinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch4theresultofadramaticupheavalinNascasocietysuchaswouldbe
causedbythedeclineofCahuachiandthedisintegrationoftheallegedNasca3state,orarewewitnessingamiragecreatedbyanoverlyseriatedNascastyle?
ArguingagainsttherealityofsignificantreorganizationofsettlementinNasca4timesarethefollowingfacts.ThedeclineoftheallegedNasca3empiredidnotsever
theNazcaIcarelationship,nordidMassey(1986)documentanysignificantchangeintheupperIcavalleysettlementpatternsbetweenNasca3andNasca4times.
Manyofthehabitationsitesdiscoveredonsurveyin19881989intheIngenioandmiddleGrandevalleyshaveNasca3and5components(includingthegreatVentilla
site)butwithoutNasca4orwithcomparativelyfewsherdsofthatphase.IfweeliminateNasca4wewouldseegreatcontinuityinthesettlementpatternsexceptfor
theveryrealandwelldocumenteddeclineofCahuachi.Clearly,excavationisneededtoresolvethisissue.
TestingtheNasca3SocialFormationagainstaChiefdomModel
Thechiefdomhasrecentlyreceivednewattentioninthearchaeologicalliterature(e.g.,DrennanandUribe1987Earle1987).Allscholarsagreethatthisamorphous
termreferstointermediatelevelormiddlerangesocietiessocietiesthataremorecomplexthanacephalousgroups

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butnotasinternallydifferentiatedasbureaucraticstates,whatIamcalling"simplycomplex."Mostanthropologistsseechiefdomsasregionalpoliticalentitiesthat
organizepopulationsinthethousandsandtensofthousandsandthatarerunbyanelitethatissociallydifferentiatedfromtherestofsociety.Butbeyondthisvague
commongroundthereiswidespreaddisagreement.Anotherprobleminusingtheterm"chiefdom"isthatitisalwaysinthesingular("thechiefdom").Infact,whenwe
dealwithachiefdomlevelandformofsociopoliticalintegrationweareoftenreferringtoseveralinteractingchiefdomsthatcompriseoneculturalsystemthis
multichiefdomsystemmayormaynotimplyparamountcy.
HavingtestedtheNasca3socialformationagainstthecharacteristicsofstatelevelorganization,wecannowusethecriteriasetforthinPeeblesandKus's(1977)and
CreamerandHaas's(1985)classicarticlestotesttheNasca3socialformationagainstthechiefdomlevelofsociopoliticalintegration.Thisisnotintendedasa
checklist(seeKristiansen1984)butratherasameansofexaminingthestructureofancientNascasociety.
ExistenceofaStructurallyDistinctCentralPlace
ThecriterionofastructurallydistinctcentralplaceisderivedfromWrightandJohnson's(1975Wright1969Johnson1973seealsoIsbellandSchreiber1978)
discussionofmultilevelsettlementpatternhierarchiesasacharacteristicofstates.Mostarchaeologistsconsiderathreetiersettlementpatterntobeaminimal
requirementofstatelevelorganization.Atwotiersettlementpatternwouldcorrespondtoachiefdom.Anundifferentiatedsettlementpatternwouldcorrespondto
egalitariansocieties.
Cahuachiisastructurallydistinctcentralplace.Itisapproximately150hectaresinsizeandiscomposedofsomefortyartificialandsemiartificialmoundsofvaryingsize
andformlaidoutinassociationwithaseriesofkanchas(plazas,patios,andforecourts).NootherknownNascasiteresemblesitorrivalsitsceremonialprimacy.
Cahuachi,asastructurallydistinctcentralplace,alsowouldbealocusofdecisionmakingandcoordinationinNascasociety.ForSchaedel(1980a)andmanyother
archaeologists,theceremonialcenterdefinesachiefdomlevelofsociety.
ButnowwehavetoconsiderthenewlydiscoveredpopulationcenterofVentillainthemiddleIngeniovalley,oppositeCahuachiandconnectedtoitbyanancient
walkabletranspampageoglyph.ItremainstobeestablishedifandhowCahuachisharedand/ordividedauthority,decisionmaking,andcoordinationwithVentilla,a
sitewhichonthebasisofsurfaceevidenceappearstobecontemporarywithCahuachiandtobeurbanintermsofarealsize,architecturalcomplexity,primacy,
andpresumedpopulationsizeandresidentialdensity.
ButhowmanytiersarethereintheearlyNascasettlementpattern?CahuachiappearstobethecomplementtoVentilla.CahuachiandVentillawouldbetheuppertier
ofaminimallytwotieredsettlementhierarchywhoselowertierwasconstitutedbyNascafarmingvillagesofvaryingsize(seefig.23.11).AttimesNascasettlement
patternsmayhaveexhibitedmorethanthesetwotiers.
DifferentiationinSizeandQualityofResidentialArchitectureReflectingStatusDifferences
Variousarchaeologistshavearguedthattheenergyinvestedinresidentialhousingcanserveasacomparativemeasureofsocialdifferentiationandconcomitant
inequalityofwealth(McGuire1983PlogandUpham1983Earle1987).Estudiante,aNasca1siteinthemiddleIngeniovalley,hasasectorofseeminglyelite
architecturethatisconstitutedbyaformallyplanned,bilaterallysymmetricalseriesofwellbuiltrectangularterracesmadeoflargeangularfieldstonethatdescendthe
hillside.Tothenortheastoftheplannedunittherearesimplerandmoredispersedresidentialterraces.But,thusfar,analysisofthesurveydatahasfailedtorevealother
Nascahabitationsitesexhibitingthisdegreeofdifferentiationeitherwithinasiteoramongsitesexcept,possibly,atVentilla.ExcavationatEstudianteandVentillaand
otherNascahabitationsitesisnecessarybeforethisstatementisacceptedasfinal.
CommunalLaborProject
Cahuachimeetstheexpectationofacommunallaborproject("monumentalconstruction")carriedoutattheregionallevelbutwhoseconstructiondidnotexceedthe
capabilitiesofthereferentpopulationworkingintheagriculturaldeadseason,asdovariousotherNascaceremonialcentersandgeoglyphsidentifiedonsurvey.These
constructionswerepartofaNascarituallandscapeorsacredgeography(Silverman1990bchap.22).
InstitutionalizedOfficesofLeadership
TheleadersofearlyNascasocietyappeartohavebeenpriests/shamanswhoprobably"actedasgodsonearthconnectedtocosmicforces"(Earle1987:299).
Possibly,thiswasanoccupationalspecializationthatpermanently

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existedinNascasociety,withthecomplexbodyofNascaritualknowledgeandproperceremonialbehaviorpassedfromgenerationtogeneration.
InlateNascatimestheleadersofNascasocietyappeartohavebeenchiefs,adultmenofmilitaryprowess.Presumably,upontheirdeathsothersofequalstatus/rank
wouldhavetakentheirplaceorcompetedtodoso.Theseleaderscouldhavehadgeneralizedauthority(seeSpencer1987:372)basedonreligioussanction(see
Earle1987:286287).
TheapparentchangeinthelocusofeffectivesocialpowerinNascasocietyfrompriests/shamansinearlyNascatimestowarriorchiefsinthelateNascaperiodis
congruentwithSpencer's(1987:378)argumentthat"chiefdomscanmanifestconsiderablebehavioralvariability...includingcyclesofpoliticalgrowthanddecline."
Nevertheless,whetherpriest/shamanorwarriorchief,itappearsthattheleadersofNascasocietywerereligiouslysanctionedandplacedthemselvesinthepositionof
"sacredintermediariesbetweentheordered(`civilized,moral')humansocietyundertheirchargeandtheequallyorderedcosmos"(Helms1980:727).
SuprahouseholdSpecializedProduction
Chiefdomsexhibitsomesuprahouseholdspecializedproductionofsumptuarygoods,andspecializedcraftproductionsitesandstoragefacilitiesareassociatedwiththe
centralplace.CahuachihasamuchgreaterquantityoffancypotterythananyotherearlyNascasitecurrentlyknown(althoughtheproductionfacilitiesofthiscraft
havenotbeenidentified).Thisincludesfancyritualparaphernaliasuchasdrumsandpanpipes.Therearealsobastons,raregoldornaments,andfinetextiles,someof
whichwereprobablywornbypriests/shamansduringceremoniessometextileswerefuneraryshrouds.Storagefacilitiesforsumptuarygoodshavebeenidentifiedat
Cahuachi.TheFeature80vesselatUnit19wasalocalizedfacilitythatstoredfinetextilepieces.PerhapsseveralofthesmallroomsatopUnit19storedfancypottery.
SomeoftheagglutinatedroomsofStrong'sGreatTemple(Unit2)containedcachesofpanpipes.
Exoticsumptuarygoods(itemssuchasSpondylusandlapislazuli)arerareinearlyNascasocietybutexist.Idonotseeevidence,however,thattheNascapeople
engagedinasignificantimportationofvaluablesfromoutsidetheNascaareaorthatthesegoodswerecompletelyrestrictedtothehigherstatuslevelsofsociety.There
arenocachesorgraveswithlargescaleofferingsrepresentingvaluablesremovedfromcirculationasisthecasewithOlmecjades(seeGrove1992:figs.12,13)or
northAndeancoppermoneyaxes(e.g.,Pedersen1976),althoughritualbreakageofpotteryandinclusionofpotteryamonggravegoodscouldindicatethispractice.
Regardless,Earle(1987:290291)correctlycautionsthat"noisomorphicrelationshipexistsbetweeninterredwealthandsocioeconomicstatus."
AscribedRankingofPersons
StatusdifferencesarevisibleinNascamortuarypatterns,buttruesocialstratification(asevidencedbyexclusiveandabsolutedifferencesintypesofburialtreatment,
tombforms,bodypreparation,gravegoods,andspatialdivisionsincemeterypatterning)arenot(seechap.14).
PossibleExtensiveExchangeofSubsistenceandSumptuaryGoods
ThepresenceofmarineshellatCahuachi(seechap.21)andatNascahabitationsiteslocatedasfarupthevalleysas1,400meters(Silverman1989a)maybe
evidencefortheexchangeofsubsistencegoods.Inaddition,obsidianisfoundwidelythoughnotuniformlyonthesurfaceofNascahabitationsitesthroughoutthe
IngeniomiddleGrandesurveyarea(Silverman1989a,1990c).ThepresenceoffineearlyNascapotteryandpanpipesthroughouttheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage
(Silverman1989a,1990c),atplacesfarremovedfromCahuachi,arguesforawidecirculationofNascafineware.
Warfare
Inchiefdoms,warfaremaybeevenmoreintensethanamongtribes,possiblyasaresultofenvironmentalstress.Ihavearguedthatthereisnoevidenceintheearly
EarlyIntermediatePeriodofsevereenvironmentaldegradation(versusPetersen1980).IfmyrealignmentofsouthcoastrelativechronologyiscorrectandNasca5
andMiddleHorizonepoch1WariarecontemporaryataroundA.D.550(seeSilverman1987,1988b,1990bchap.3seeabove),thenenvironmentalstressmaybe
onefactorinWari'sinterestinthesouthcoast,sinceThompsonetal.(1985)havedocumentedconditionsofclimaticdessicationbeginningatthistime.Suchashiftin
climatecouldhavepromptedtheWaripeopletolookdowncovetouslyattheNazcaregion,whereNasca5peoplesopenedfiltrationgalleriesinthesouthern
drainage.Waripresenceonthesouthcoast,documentedonsurvey(Silverman1989a,1990c,d),mayhaveexacerbatedexistingtensionsinNascasociety.Thiscould
haveledtoanincreaseinheadtakingactivityaswellastothemilitaristicthemesdocumentedbyRoark(1965)onlate

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Nascapottery.Ifmyrealignmentiscorrect,pressurefromAyacuchoalsomayhavebeenpartlyresponsibleforthedeclineofCahuachiandtheupheavalofNazca
settlementpatternsinEarlyIntermediatePeriodepoch4(iftheNasca4ceramicphasehasadiscretetemporalreality).
However,itisimportanttobearinmindthatthereisabsolutelynoevidenceofNascastandingarmies,garrisons,supplyroutes,orfortifiedsites(savetheoriginal
interpretationoftheNasca3sitesinAcarwhichisnowbeingquestioned).Nascawarfareessentiallymusthavebeenskirmishesbetweenayllus/communitiesover
waterandlandrights(thesedisputesareabundantlydocumentedinColonialPerioddocumentswhereintheadversariesfrequentlyciteIncaandpreIncaantecedents
totheircases)and,assuggestedearlier,ritualincharacter(chap.15seePlatt1986).Theoutcomeofbothkindsofaggressiveencounterscouldhaveproducedthe
realandiconographictrophyheadsfoundintheNascaarchaeologicalrecord.
EfficientFoodProduction
InfulfillmentofoneofPeeblesandKus's(1977:432)archaeologicalcorrelatesofrankedsocieties,Nascasettlementsare"locatedinareaswhichassureahighdegree
oflocalsubsistencesufficiency."Indeed,agriculturewasbeingpracticedintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagelongbeforeCahuachi'sapogee.However,Idonotsee
evidenceintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageofaNasca3(theallegedperiodofstateformation)intensificationoffoodproduction(versusMassey1986forthe
upperIcavalley).TheopeningupofthefiltrationgalleriesinNasca5times(SchreiberandLanchoRojas1988)afterthedemiseofCahuachicould,however,conform
tothiscorrelate.Furthermore,followingMoseleyandDeeds(1982:5051)andNetherly(1984),itcanbearguedthatmultiplecanalssuchasthoseformingNazca's
filtrationgallerysystemareassociatedwithmultipleunitsofeconomicproductionandthisassociation,inturn,supportsthenotionofmultipleindependentpolities(in
thiscase,duringthelaterNascaperiod).
CentralizedFoodStorageFacilities
SomestoragefacilitiesatCahuachiwereusedforstoringexotica,ritualparaphernalia,andspecialobjects(e.g.,panpipes,textiles)ratherthanfood.Foodstorage
facilitiesatCahuachiappeartobesmallscale(consistingofceramicvesselsplacedalongsidewallsorsealedinfloors)anddispersedacrossthesitetheyareneither
largenorformalinanyonelocus(i.e.,therearenoplannedarchitecturalfoodstorehouses).SuchfeastingaswasoccurringatCahuachiappearstohavebeen
supportedmostlybythesocialgroupthatconsumedandsponsoredtheactivity.UppervalleyNascahabitationsitesfrequentlyexhibitapatternofsmallstoragepits
adjacenttohousestructures(Silverman1989a).
EcologicalDiversity
Ecologicaldiversityreferstotheplacementofachiefdom'ssettlementsoverthelandscapesoastoachievelocalsubsistencesufficiency.IntheCentralAndesthe
classicmanifestationofthisisthe"verticalarchipelago"("ecologicalcomplementarity")particularlycharacteristicofthehighlandsocietiesdocumentedbyMurra(1972,
1985a,bseealsoMasuda,Shimada,andMorris1985).Shimada(1985)hasstatedthatthisdesireforselfsufficiencyalsowasimportantonthecoast(seealso
Patterson1971).
Itcanbearguedthat,inthecaseofthehighlandsocieties,theenactmentandadministrationof"verticality"or"ecologicalcomplementarity"wasacausalfactorinthe
emergenceofcomplexsociety(seeLorandi1986)andthatthelargertheterritorialscopeofthissubsistencesystem,themorehierarchicalanddifferentiatedthe
society.Particularlyinthecasesoffarflung"islands"orcolonies,actualconquestratherthanfreepassagethroughforeignterritoriesmayhavebeeninvolved.Butinthe
caseofNasca,wedonotseesuchecologicaldiversity.Ontheotherhand,Nascasettlementisfoundfromsmallagriculturaloasesalmostattheseashore(e.g.,Maijo
Chico,MaijoGrande,andMonteGrandeinthelowerGrandeRivervalley)allthewayuptoatleast1,400metersabovesealevelintheIngeniovalley(wheremy
surveywasforcedtoceaseduetopoliticalconditions).
Furthermore,inchapter1wesawthatthevalleysoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagevarygreatlyinthenatureoftheirwaterregime(i.e.,anorthernregimeof
"normal"surfacewaterandasouthernregimeofsurfacewaterlosscompensatedforbythedevelopmentofthefiltrationgalleries),intheamountofwatertheyhave,
andinthefactthateachcomponentriverhasaseparateheadwater,meaningthereisnohydraulicuniformityintheregion.ItcanbesuggestedthattheRoGrandede
Nazcadrainageneverlentitselftostatecentralizationbecauseoftherelativescarcityofagriculturalland,concomitantrelativelylowpopulationsizeanddensity,andthe
difficultyofeffectivelyexploitingandcontrollingthescarce,diverse,uneven,unpredictable,andsometimessubsurfacewaterresources(seeKosok1965:5859see
chap.1).Butthissituationmayhavebeenidealforpromotingallianceandcoordination

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amongthehypothesizedindependentsocialgroupsthatconstitutedtheNascanation.Indeed,Upham(1987:362)isemphaticthatthemanagementofenvironmental
riskanduncertaintyinsituationswhereregionalpopulationsexceeded10,500(suchasmusthavebeenthecaseintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageintheEarly
IntermediatePeriodseechap.1)necessitatedtheformalintegrationofdistinctpopulationunitsintomiddlerangesocieties,i.e.,chiefdoms.Hearguesthatthiskindof
integrationsystemgaverise"totheelaborationofexchangesystems,moreintensifiedproduction,theaccumulationofsurplusesandproductivespecialization"andthat
itconferred"specialadvantagestoleadersandallow[ed]themtoconsolidatetheircontroloverkeyaspectsoftheproductivebase."Hisdescriptioncharacterizesthe
earlyNascasocialformation.
ScaleofIntegration
TheNascaartstyleisfoundoveralargeareaofsouthcoastalPeru.VariousarchaeologistsregardthedistributionofsiteswithNascapotteryasthearealdelimitation
ofNascasocietyandpolity(e.g.,Rowe1963).
Nasca'sheartlandisconsideredtobetheRoGrandedeNazcadrainage(chap.2).TheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageconsistsofaseriesofvalleyswhosetotal
amountofarablelandin1970waslessthan13,000hectares.In1970thetotalpopulationwasabout55,000,ofwhichsome40percentresidedinthe"urban"centers
ofNazcaandPalpa,with2,000moreinothersmalltownsandsome20,500inthecountryside(seechap.1seeONERN1971).Thepopulationdensityofthe
drainagewasfourinhabitantsperhectare.Ifwecalculatejusttheruralpopulationdensitythefigureislessthantwoinhabitantsperhectare.Thesefiguressuggestthatin
Nascatimesthepopulationlevelanddensitywerewellwithintherangeofchiefdoms(seeDrennan1987).Kroeber(1944:25seechap.1)recognizestheecological
limitationsoftheNazcadrainageandmaintainsthattheprehispanicpopulationneverwasverylarge.Inchapter1IestimatedtheEarlyIntermediatePeriodpopulation
ofthedrainagetobebetween15,000and22,000individuals.BecauseIamarguingthatNascasocietywasnotonechiefdombutaconfederacyofchiefdomsor
independentsocietiesparticipatingintheNascaculturaltraditionthatwasmanifestedbytheNascastyleandsharedreverenceforandparticipationinthecultat
Cahuachi,eachoftheconstituentsocialunitscomprisingNascasocietywouldhavebeensignificantlysmallerinsizethanthe15,000to22,000ruralpopulationfigure
suggestedfortheentiredrainage.ThepopulationsizeanddensityofearlyNascaVentillaremaintobedeterminedthroughexcavation.Cahuachi,asarguedthroughout
thisbook,didnothavealarge,dense,permanentpopulationbutwasanessentiallyemptyceremonialcentertowhichvalleypopulationscameinfrequentpilgrimage
episodes,therebycreatinganephemeralurbancenter(seechap.22).
EarlyNascaasanAndeanSociety
CahuachiandearlyNascasocietyconformbettertotheexpectationsofchiefdomorganizationthantoastate.TheverynatureofCahuachiwithitsmultiple
"unmonumental"mounds,lackofdensedomesticpopulation,limitedsocioeconomicdifferentiationandspecialization,pilgrimagefunction,rankedburials,hypertrophied
ceremonialbehavior,overalllackofformalstoragefacilities,andlongtermsacrednessarguesagainstitbeingthecapitalofabureaucraticstate.
Butthedebateoverthestatenonstatedichotomyis,inmyopinion,futileanduninteresting(seeSilverman1986,1990bversusMassey1986andCarmichael1988).
AsAdams(1975:276)haswritten,"achievementofstatehoodwasneitherthefirstnorthelastprocessofcentralization."Furthermoreandregrettably,ourconception
ofthestate"oftenrestsonanoccidentalvisionofgovernmentalpowerappliedtoaterritorialpoliticalunit"thatfailstotakeintoaccountthe"culturaldimension,in
termsoftheentirehistoryofhumanitybothinspaceandintime"(Gledhill1988:4).LikeGledhill,Paynter(1989)hascogentlyarguedthatourdiscourseshouldcenter
aroundtheunderstandingofinequalityratherthantheclassificationofcomplexity.Iagree.
Service's(1962)oftuseddevelopmentalschemeofculturalevolutiondoesnotallowforthevariationsanddynamicfluctuationsoroscillationsinsocialorganization
thatthearchaeologicalrecorddemonstrates.Theevolutionofcomplexsocietycanbeseenasatrajectoryoffluctuatingequilibriawhereoccasionally,throughrandom
mutation,stochasticbifurcationpointswerereachedandrespondedtowithaconcomitantkickuptoahigherlevelofenergyflowor,attimes,inappropriateor
unavoidableorganizationalresponsesleadingtoadisaggregationofpopulation.Seendiachronicallyoveralongtimeandfromadistance,thecontoursofthese
fluctuationsevenoutandmightappeartosupportaFriedian(Fried1967)orServician(Service1962)unilinealscheme.Butviewedinsmallersegmentsoftimethe
situationismuchmoredynamicandnotunlikethepatternofDowJonesaveragesoverthepastfewyearswiththemarket'sdailyfluctuationsandflirtationswithcertain
thresholdvalueswhichareoccasionallybroached

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sometimesrepetitivelybutwhichonlyrootatahigherlevelafterrepeatedfluctuation.Indeed,Paynter(1989:387)hascorrectlyobservedthat"ordersofinequality
arenotoriouslyunstable."
Seenintermsofanenergyparadigm(e.g.,Adams1975),theearlyNascasocialformationbecomesreadilyrevealedasasystemridingbutnotharnessingavery
fluctuatingwave.WhichsideofthesocalledthresholdtostatehoodearlyNascasocietywasondependsonthetemporallengthandarealscopeofone'sperspective
aswellasunderlyingdefinitions.Iusetheneoevolutionaryvocabularyonlyforwantofanotherandasalinguafrancasoastobeabletocommunicatewithcolleagues,
butIcontendthatitserveslittlepurposetolabeltheNasca3polityinaccordancewithabstractdefinitionsofstatesorchiefdomsdevelopedfromotherareas.As
DrennanandUribe(1987:xii)indicate,"thechiefdomconceptisusefulforroughdescriptionandorganizationofinformation.Itisnot,howeverakeenanalyticaltool
withwhichtopursuetheunderstandingofsocietiessodescribed."Thesameistrueofthestateconcept.
NascawasanAndeansocialformation,anditismuchmoreprofitabletoanalyzeandinterpretitinthesetermsratherthanthoseofawesternclassificatoryscheme.
Ultimately,wemustseektounderstandearlyNascasocietyand,indeed,allCentralAndeanpolitiesintheirownhistoricalcontext.Wemustdevelopadequate
theoriesofCentralAndeansocialorganizationandculturalevolution(seeMurra1955,1967,1968,1975a,b,c,1985a,bZuidema1964,1977,1983,1989,1990
interalia).
ATrialReconstructionofAncientNascaSociety
Usingethnohistoricdocuments,Urton(1990)hasidentifiedtheexistenceoftwomoietiesintheRoGrandedeNazcadrainageinthelateprehispanicperiod,a
northernoneintheIngeniovalleyandasouthernoneintheNazcaandPoroma(LasTrancas)valleys.Eachmoietywasformedofnumerousayllusorsocialgroups,
thebasicinstitutionofsociallifeintheprehispanicAndes.
Inadditiontothemoieties,thedrainagewasdividedintofourparcialidadesorsuyus:Nasca(thelowerportionofthedrainage),Cantad(Cantalloc,aplacejust
upstreamfromNazcaintheNazcavalley),Poromas(PoromaorLasTrancasvalley),andCollao(Ingeniovalley).CantadandPoromaswereinthesouthernmoiety
andCollaointhenorthern.Eachparcialidadorsuyuwascomposedofanumberofayllus.UrtonhypothesizesthatthePampadeSanJoswastheplaceofdivision
betweenthesuyusandayllusofthedualmoietiesintheNazcadrainage.Thepampawouldhavebeenthezoneofconfrontationandcooperationbetweenthesesocial
groups.Assuch,thepampacorrespondsverywelltotheQuechuaconceptoftinkuy(FonsecaMartel1981Poole1984Platt1986).Tinkuyliterallymeansthe
branchoftheriverwheretheforkfromtherightandtheforkfromtheleftmeettoformthemainriver.Italsoreferstoaconfrontationbetweentwoopposinggroups
oraplacewhereritualbattlestakeplace.Theseritualbattlesthemselvesaretinkuyinthattheyexpressthecomplicatedactofachievingbalancebetweenopposing
forcestinkuyisritualbalance.
IsuggestthathundredsofyearsearlierintheEarlyIntermediatePeriodthelateprehispanicdualityandmoietyorganizationrecognizedbyUrtonwasmanifestedby
thecomplementaryoppositionofCahuachi,theprimatesiteoftheNazcavalley,andVentilla,theprimatesiteoftheIngeniovalley.Ihypothesizethatthetwosites
couldhavefunctionedasthedualcapitalsoftheNascapeoplewithCahuachifulfillingaprimordiallyceremonialrole(perhapsnotunlikeCoricanchawhichwasthe
principalreligiousshrineofIncasocietyalthoughitwaslocatedinHurinCuzco)andVentillaamoresecularone,withthepampamediatingbetweenthetwo.Thus,itis
notfortuitiousthatCahuachiandVentillaarealmostdirectlyoppositeeachotheracrossthepampa.Inthishypothesizedduality,Nascasocietywasmanifestinga
fundamentalprincipleofAndeanorganizationlongrecognizedbyscholars(seeZuidema1964,1989Murra1967,1968Duviols1973,1979Rostworowski1975
Netherly1984,1990Platt1986interalia).
Atthesametime,Ihypothesizethatthesemoieties,bydefinition,werehierarchicalinthesenseofcreatinganupperlower(hananhurin)divisionofNascasociety.But
Platt(1986)andSchaedel(1988)wouldarguethatitwasahierarchizedequality,whatIearliertermed"simplycomplex."Schaedel(1988)isemphaticthatthe
AndeanworldviewportraysprinciplesofregulationandreciprocityratherthanhierarchyandcontrolsaveintherareinstancesoftruestateformationintheAndes
(e.g.,Wari,Chimu,Inca).HearguesthatduringmostofAndeansedentaryprehistory,especiallyinthehighlands,aregulatorysystemprevailedthatwascharacterized
bya"control"restingimplicitlyuponsacredpropositionsandsanctionsratherthanuponanauthoritystructurebackedbycoerciveforce.ManyAndeanistsmaintain
thatmuchoftheAndeanhighlandbasedmodelcanbesuccessfullyappliedtotheprehispaniccoastalsocieties(Rostworowski1990Netherly1990Shimada1985
interalia)IbelievethisistruewithNasca.
Thepampamusthaveplayedanintegralandintegrat

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ingroleasarouteofcommunicationandpilgrimagebetweenthegreatNascaceremonialcenterofCahuachi,southerndrainagesites,andcontemporarysitesinthe
valleysonthenorthsideofthepampa,includingVentillainIngenio,andasa"flatareaofground"towhich"all[membersoftheayllusgroupedintotwomoieties]had
equalaccessitisthelandofthecommunity[read:Nascanation]"(Platt1986:250).Urton(1990)recognizesthatthisdualdivisionofNazcasocietyacrossthe
pampawouldalsohavepermittedeasyexpansionofthesystemtoincorporateadditionalrivervalleystothenorthofIngenioandtothesouthofPoromas.Thus,Urton
arguesthatallofthetributariesoftheRoGrandedeNazcadrainagecouldhavebeenintegratedintoaunifiedsociopoliticalsystembuiltuponthedualdivision
centeringonthepampaofNazca.ThesystemcouldpotentiallyintegratevalleysbeyondtheNazcadrainageitselfwithouttheneedtocallintoplaystateledconquest,
somethingUrton'smodeldoesnotimply.Urton'smodelpreciselyfitstheNascaarchaeologicalevidencefortheEarlyIntermediatePeriod.UrtonandIareboth
referringtoanexpansivesocialsysteminwhichmanyindependentsocialgroupscouldparticipate.ThesearetheayllusthatbuiltandworshippedatCahuachi.
UsingUrton'sresearchandotherAndeananthropologicalliterature,Ihavepresentedamodeltobetestedinthefield,notanewarchaeologicaldogma.Nascahas
beenreconstructedasanAndeansocietyratherthananabstractwesterncategoryofsocialandpoliticalorganization.Thisopensthedoorfor"puttingpeopleback
intomodelsofculture"(Paynter1989:377).SurelythisshouldbethegoalofananthropologicalandAndeanarchaeology.
Notes
1.ThismaybethematerialthatRowe(1963:11)referstowhenhementionspotteryinanoldlocaltradition.
2.Roark(1965:5657)statesthattrueportraiturewasmissinginNascaart,thatparticularpersonsarenotrepresented.Iamnotsosure.Whileitistruethatmanyof
thoseIhaveinterpretedaschiefshaveconventionalizedNascafaces(compareEisleb1977:196202),Iseeasubtleattempttorepresenttheindividualinsuch
attributesasmustachesandgoatees(BancodeCrdito1986:136top),insignia(BancodeCrdito1986:141top),headdresses(BancodeCrdito1986:141
bottom),scarification(BancodeCrdito1986:142),anddress.
3.Theabsolutedateof143090(A.D.52690)fromStrong's(1957:fig.14BsampleL334E)Nasca5Burial4iscontemporarywithaseriesofconsistent
datesforthebeginningoftheMiddleHorizonthatplacethebeginningofthisperiodatC.A.D.550(RoweandMenzel1967:chronologicaltableMenzel1977:
chronologicaltableIsbell1983:table1).
4.Irecognizethatsomeofmycolleaguesfindthissuggestionextremelydifficulttoaccept.Iofferitonlyasahypothesistobetestedbystratigraphicexcavationsand
newradiocarbonmeasurements,notasanewdogma.
5.AcautionarynoteontheascriptionofdirectequivalencebetweenmortuarywealthandstatusoftheinterredindividualissoundedbyDillehay(1990)using
ethnographicdatafromtheMapuche.SpeakingofburialmonumentsDillehay(1990:233)observesthat"thereseemstobelittle,ifany,correlationbetweenthesizeof
amoundandthepoliticalpowerofitsinterredchief.Instead,moundsizeandgrowthseemtoberelatedtothedurationofofficeofadeadchief'ssuccessorandtothe
numberofrelativesparticipatingincappingepisodesduringthisperiod...alengthyperiodofchieflyrulewouldresultinmorelayeringritesandingreatervertical
accretionofadeadchief'smoundand,viceversa,ashortertermwouldbuildasmallerstructure."Thesameprobablycouldbesaidofgravegoods.
6.Thereisasignificantandgrowingliteraturethatprovideswelldocumentedreasonsforexercisingcautioninthetypicalonetoonecorrelationarchaeologistsare
pronetomakebetweengravewealth,statusinlife,andlevelofcomplexityofthesurroundingsociopoliticalmilieu.TheseworksincludeDillehay(1990),Linares
(1977),andEarle(1987).

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Index
A
AcarRiver,9
Acarvalley:
burialsin,217n.3
Nascasites/potteryin,xi,27,29n.3,41n.1,111,112,320,321,323,337
trophyheadsin,218,222
Access,93
blockeddeliberately,150,169,171,177,318
toLowerEasternRooms,150
toRoomofthePosts,170,177
Achiote,293
"Acropolis"inCahuachi,310,312
Adams,RichardN.,345
Adobe:
inburials,79,153,203,207
colored,91,95
conical,45,46,49,50,68,9495,96,118,143,147,153,167,203
dated,95
asfill,88
inGreatTemple,95
linescylindricalshafts,79,9394,166
manufactureof,95,96
mortar,94,147,148,153,155
ovoid,147,148
asplug,150,153,159,171,203
staircase,85,86,122
walls,45,46,4849,50,53,61,64,65,66,67,69,71,72,7475,80,85,88,89,90,91,92,94,96,97,118,120,143,147,148,153,155,161,174
wedgeshaped,120
Agriculture,3,12,222
AjaRiver,1,3,8,9
valleyof,217n.4
Ajpeppers,159,181,283,290,293
Akapana,59
Algodndelpas,271
Algorrobino,194n.4
Alpaca,264
Amato,321,337
Ancestorworship,191193
inEstaquera,193
inRoomofthePosts,193,301,310
trophyheadsaspartof,224225
AnthropomorphicMythicalBeing,36,40,156,243,244,258259,275,305,323
ongourds,282283
holdsknifeortrophyhead,221,282
Apisonado,92,122,126,131,152,153,154,171
constructionof,9899
depressionsin,93,118119,155,160,162
fillseparates,156
fillunder,148,150
inLowerEasternRooms,157,159,162,166
inRoomofthePosts,174
Arce,Susana,321
Architecture:
agglutinated,61
Cahuachi's,17,26,52,57,61,99
monumental,57
perishable,99
surface,onmounds,89,106,143,309
trophyheadsassociatedwith,222.
SeealsoAdobe,walls
Arnold,DeanE.,302,339
Asaro,Frank,285
Astronomy,307308
Asua,303
Aulacomyaater,150,295,297
Aveni,AnthonyF.,307
Awls,bone,279,281
Ayacucho,218,327,344
moderndepartmentof,1
Ayapana,49,131,133
Ayllus,308,322,347
ascognaticdescentgroups,307,309310
collectionof,346
leadersof,309
lifeof,311
operateparalleltoeachother,310
pilgrimagetoCahuachiof,310,311,312,319,337,341
templesfor,310,311,312,337,341
warfarebetween,344
B
Backstraploomelements,181
BajadadeSanJos,28
BancodeCrditodelPeru,273,282
Baraybar,JosPablo,76,77,137,197,220,224,225
onguineapigremains,168
ontrophyheads,221,338
Barnacles,296
Barreto,Andrs,74,100
Baskets,301
Basketvessels,pottery,240,254255
Beads,261
gourd,284
shell,205,275,295
stone,284
Beans,290
Begler,Elsie,289,290
Bellinger,Louisa,266
Bird,Junius,30,266
Birds:
asdesignmotif,40,199,221,230,239,243,259
asoffering,168,275
Birrell,Verla,270,271,272,273
BizarreInnovation,36
Blackware,37,52,231235,250251
designson,233
fromEstaquera,79
Ocucaje,233
Blagg,MaryMargaret,36,242243,323
BlascoBosqued,Concepcin,229,240,242
Bloodletting,221
BocadelRo,321
Bolaos,Cesar,28,241,242
Boneartifacts,187,279,281282
Bottles.SeeDoublespoutandbridgebottles
Bowls,235237,250253
inburials,197,199,202,263
cup,239
designson,197,199,202
flaring,168,235
grater,41n.2
pyroengraved,197
Brown,JamesA.,215

Page362

Browne,David,xi,11,28,29n.4,217n.4,219,222,225226n.3,324,338,341
BuenoMendoza,Alberto,311
Burger,RichardL.,38,4142n.4,159,193194n.3,279,285
Burials,14,15,19,26,27,67,75,106,124,142,195217,319,327
Acartrueextended,217n.3
adobeplugs/wallsin,79,153,203,207
animalremainsleftin,28,153,209,210,213
of"baddeaths",215,217n.3
braceletleftin,205
inceremonialcomplex(Unit19),89,107,108,146,153,172,173,193,195,197202,215,230,237,254,263,265,267,271,301,304,318,337
ChanChanplatform,216
ofchildren,131,132,196,199,203,205,206,207,210,212,213
cists,195,196,197,198,199,215
cloths/shrouds,198199,202,203,206,207,208,209,211,212,213214,216,274
Copara,241
copperleftin,212,213
cornleftin,204,205,206
dated,68,74,78,108109,111,196,197,198,199,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,210,211,212,213,214,215,258,318
fireassociatedwith,209,210
goldleftin,216
gourdsleftin,206,208,216,282,283
gravemarkersfor,197,198,199,203
ofllamas,199,202,304
looted,38,78,100,101,105,108109,111,126,133,143,146,197,198
Mapuche,347n.5
Moche,216,337
onmounds/terraces,73,74,89,109,137,143,146,153,172,197203,210212,213214,258
multiple,74,215,217n.3
Nasca,inotherareas,87,215,217n.4,337
Nasca8,38,109,213214,215
inopenareas,195197,199,203210,213
orientationofbodyin,195,196,197,198,199,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,213,215
pacaeleavesleftin,153,198
panpipefragmentsin,84,210,241
Paracas,73,216
positionofbodyin,50,195,196197,198,199,202203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,213,215
postNasca,7879,81,84,129,209210,309
potteryleftin,16,17,81,108,109,173,197,199,202,211,212,216,230,237,254,263,340
preservationof,110
reentered,214,305
roofsofgravesin,150,197,198,199,203,204,205,206,207,209,211,212,213,214
ofsacrifice,28,50,203
secondary,210,212
inshafts,79,214,305
status/socialdifferentiationmarked/notmarkedby,215,216217,337338,343
textilesleftin,81,196,205,206,207,214,216,265,267,271
trophyheadsleftin/associatedwith,199,206,210,211,213,214,218,219221,222,338339
inurns,143,173,198,199,202,203204,207208,212,213,215.
SeealsoGarrafas
C
Cache:
ofcorn/maize,46,51,162,172,289,290
ofguineapigremains,168
ofhuarangoseeds/pods,187,190
oforganicremains,160
ofpanpipes,302
ofpetrifiedwood,167,281
pits,50,51,53,93
ofshells,159
oftrophyheads,219,222,225226n.3,238
Cahuachi:
aerialphotosof,55,56,57,58,59,60,64,65,68
apogeeof,37,257,300,301,317,318,327
asceremonialcenter,xii,17,26,28,37,46,48,51,52,5354,113,222,300319,322,337,340343
comparedtoDelphi,322
comparedtoPachacamac,311312,319,321,322
ascraft/textileproducingcenter,28,274,302303,317,339340
decline/demiseof,54,125,224,257,318,326,327,344
delimited,57,5972,7987,112
as/notashabitationsite,xi,xii,28,45,48,7374,110,111113,125,142,257,300301,317
locationof,11,305
meaningof,305
populationof,345
PreceramicPeriodoccupationof,73
Ventillalinkedto,324,325,342,346
watercomestosurfaceat,305,309
"CahuachiBroadLine"pottery,122
"CahuachiBroadLineRed,White,Black"pottery,116,117,118,174,178,190
"CahuachiNegative"pottery,43
"CahuachiPolishedBlackIncised"pottery,37,52,231233,234,251
"CahuachiPolychromeIncised"pottery,37,45,46,50,116,119,238,240,257
"CahuachiPolychrome"pottery,50,52,68,228,243
"CahuachiRedandWhiteDecorated"pottery,43
"CahuachiStylusDecorated"pottery,37,50,52,233235,251
Calendar,ritual(ceque),305,307308,310
CaliforniaInstituteofPeruvianStudies(CIPS),28,29n.3
Calyptraeatrochiformis,296
Camelid,28,71,86.
SeealsoLlama
Canals,9,135,344
Cane,13,61,86,148
artifacts,124,181,264265,277,278,280
gravemarker,203
mathouses,128
painted,155,280
roofsof,92
shaft,155
astombroof,150,197,209,211,212
walls,68,75,76,91,96,9798,111,126128
CanelosQuichua,277,303304,339
Cnepa,Domingo,217n.5
Caete,41n.1,233,251
Cantad,346
Cantalloc,222
Caracolesoasis,3
Carbajal,Usebia,205
Carmenpotterystyle,41n.1
Carmichael,Patrick,15,28,211,212,225,258,340
onburials,214,217,337338
onpottery,230
ontrophyheads,219,225n.1
Carricillo,291
Carrizalpottery,26,38
Carrizo,13,96,97,98.
SeealsoCane
Cavernaspottery,43,50
Cemetery.SeeBurials
Census,11
Cequesystem,305,307308,310
Ceramics.SeePottery
Ceremonialcenters,88.
SeealsoCahuachi,asceremonialcenter

Page363

Ceremonialcomplex(Unit19),12,28,113,143194
abandoned,318
accessto,93,318
adobeshapesin,95
apisonadosof,92
burialsat,89,107,108,146,153,171,172,173,193,195,197202,215,230,237,254,263,265,267,271,301,304,318,337
constructionof,88
datingof,168171
looted,106108,147,148,150,151,154,173
asnondomestic,171,173
offeringsleftin,157,159,160,162,166,167,168,172,173,258,259,260,276277,281,297
ritualfoodsin,172
ritualoccupationof,310
roomsof,9192
storagein,164165,302,343
terracesin,143,145151
testpitsat,129132
textilesfoundat,159,167,265,266
trophyheadsin,156,158,172,219,220221,222.
SeealsoLowerEasternRoomsRoomofthePosts
CerroBlanco,11,60,70
CerroCarapo,225226n.3,338
CerroColorado,1
CerrodelOro,41n.1
CerroSanJos,70
CerroSechin,218
CerroTortolita,321,337
CerroTunga,11,70
Chakipampa,36
Chala(desertzone),2
Chalavalley,41n.1
Chala(vegetalmatter),4546
asfill,50,5152,61,68,71,72,74,86,88,153
ChanChanburialplatforms,216
"Chanka",17
Chapman,Robert,215
Chaquira,275
Chavez,Sergio,285
Chavn:
stonesculpture,218
stylepottery,38,4142n.4
Chavia:
cisttombat,215
trophyheadat,222,338
ChavndeHuantar,279
Chichadehuarango,190,194n.4
Chiefdoms,309
asintegrationsystems,345
leadersof,343
Nascasocietyasconfederationof,xi,224,320,321322,342345
specializedproductionin,343
v.state,345346
warfarein,343344.
SeealsoAyllus
Chilco,61,96.
SeealsoCane
Chinchavalley,38,41n.1,233
Chiquerillo,1
Chitons,296
Chocavento,321,337
Chongospottery,233,234,235,251,257
Chonta,167,281
Choromytiluschorus,275,295,297,298,299
Chronology,3042
absolute,3840,4142n.4
relative,27,3038,227.
SeealsoDating
CiezadeLeon,Pedro,316
Clarkson,PersisB.,11
Clastres,Pierre,223
Cleaning,ritual,308,313,316
Climate,shiftin,3,89,133,343344
"ClosingDecadent"pottery,36
Cloth.SeeBurials,cloths/shroudsCottonTextilesWool
Cochineal,265
Coelho,Vera,221,222,224,225,338,339
Collao,346
Collier,Donald,17,210,212,213
Colonialperiodpottery,138
Comb,wooden,279
Concholepasconcholepas,296
Conklin,WilliamJ.,322
ConservativeLateMonumental(Nascastyle),36
Cook,Anita,28
Cooking:
evidenceof,119,155,157,160
pots,168,245,246,247
Coparaburials,241
Copper,71,74,75,284
inburials,212,213
CorderoAlto,322,323
Corn/maize,288,293
asoffering,46,48,51,162,172,204,205,206,289,290
Cornpopper,159,172,255
Corridor/passageway,93,150,166,168170
Cosmology,190191,302
Cotton,81,109,158,273,290,291
plainweave,75,78.
SeealsoTextiles
Coyungo,27
Crabs,296
Craftproduction,28,274,302303,317,339340
Creamer,Winifred,342
Crepipatella,296
Cressey,GeorgeB.,9
Cross,ofcaneandtextile,124,264265
Crumley,CaroleL.,327
Crumrine,N.Ross,316
Cupbowls,239
D
Dalton,George,310
Dance,roleof,317
Dating(phasing),40,43,147,148,150,153,317319
ofburials,68,74,108109,196,197,198,199,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,210,211,212,213,214,215,258,318
ofCahuachi'sdecline,257
ofceremonialcomplex,168171
offiltrationgalleries,9,11
ofgeoglyphs,318,327
ofgourds,283
onGreatTemple,341
ofknife,286
oflooting,100
ofpottery,3038,4142n.4,43,156,168,227,228,230,235,237,238239,240,241,243,245,250252,254,255,257,258,259,260,301
radiocarbon,11,3840,73,79,176,179,187,193
ofRoomofthePosts,155,179,180,187,190,193,202,301,318,341
oftextiles,265,273
oftrophyheads,218,219,222,318
ofwalls,92,95,120,180,187
Daub.SeeWalls,wattleanddaub
DavenportMuseum,40
Dawson,LawrenceE.,27,3738,53,231,233,235,250,251,257
onpanpipes,241
potteryseriationof,26,3135,4142n.4
Deeds,Eric,E.,344
Deformation,cranial,50,76,77,132,195,196,202,203,209,210,211,212,213,220
oftrophyheads,219,220,221
Delphi,322
Demarest,Arthur,224
DemonCat,40
Depressions,65,66,81,86,120,133

Page364

inapisonados/truefloors,93,118119,155,160,162,164165,172
cylindrical,67,77,80,305
inLowerEasternRooms,93,172
innaturalhill(UnitF),7576,93
offeringsleftin,159,172,190,305
inRoomofthePosts,93,174,176177,178,190
square,94
inwall,150,162.
SeealsoGarrafas
Descentgroup:
cognatic,307,309310
corporate,309,310
Desertification,3,89,11,125,133,343344
Designmotifs,3,235
birdsas,199,230,239,259
onburialcloth,199,202
fishas,238
fruitas,158159,197,199,202,239
geometric,230,239,243,244
killerwhaleas,40,197,202,221,231,233,243
mythical,40,221,242243,244
realisticornatural,242243,244
onwalls,179181,301.
SeealsoAnthropomorphicMythicalBeingIconography
D'Harcourt,Raoul,271
Differentiation,340
inburials,215,216217,337338,343
headtakingfor,221
inNascasites,342
Diffusion,v.
independentinvention,9
Dillehay,TomD.,319nn.1,2,347n.5
Dishes,237239
Disks,ceramic,260
Doering,Heinrich,19,193,221
onburials,38,213214,222,318
onlooting,100
ontrophyheads,218,219
DogontribeofWestAfrica,224
Dogs,302
Doll,textile,265
Dorn,RonaldI.,11
DosPalmaspottery,41n.1
Doublespoutandbridgebottles,229231,232,259,338
inburials,197,199,202,211,212,216,230
designson,230,231
Drennan,RobertD.,346
Dress,significanceof,316
Drought,3,8,327
Drums,240
Dunnell,RobertC.,35
Dwyer,JaneP.,338
Dyes,265
E
Earle,Timothy,338,343
EarlyHorizon:
occupation,41n.3
pottery,38,40,43,235,245
textiles,265
trophyheadiconography,218
EarlyIntermediatePeriod,29n.4,257
Cahuachi'sapogeein,37,300,317
panpipes,241
pottery,30,233
settlementpatterns,110
trophyheads,218,222
Earthquakes,8889
Echophenomenon,70,313
Economicspecialization,339,340
Ecuador,headhuntingin,218,223
Eisleb,Dieter,133
Elias,Ramn,12,142
ElNio,3
Elsarsite,321
Embroidery,196,216,264,265,270,274
Engel,Frederic,2,73
Engoroypottery,235
Entombment,ritual,193n.2
ofRoomofthePosts,172,177,181,187,190,202,301,304,318
Epigonaltypetapestry,219
Esparza,Jorge,53
Espinotree,13,9697
Estaquera,26,76
dated,79
potteryof,79
woodencolonnadeof,72,87,190,193
Estrellapottery,41n.1
Estudiante,324,327,342
Eurhomalearufa,295296
F
Face,rayed,180181
Fairchild,Ann,89
Farabee,WilliamC.,15,214,215,258
Farfn,Carlos,79
Feathers,275277
inrituals,301
ontextiles,272273
Fertility,222,323324
FieldExpedition,1516
Figurines,260
Fill,53,65,8485,152
adobe,88
asantiseismic,8889
forapisonados,148,150,156
chalaas,50,5152,61,68,71,72,74,86,88,153
chambered,45,46,67,72,74,81,88
inlooters'holes,64
moundsmadeof,88
Ocucaje,88
offeringsfoundin,5051,300
totora,52
wallsbuilton,45,46,162
Filtrationgalleries,911,327,344
Fineware,173,227,228,229245,300,301
Fire:
burialsassociatedwith,209,210
evidenceof,45,119,126,155,157,160,165
Fish,238,296
Fisurella,275
Floods,3,8,12,112,131
Floor,true,150,159,161,165,171.
SeealsoApisonado
Flutes,187,193
Foodproduction,344
Fox,210,213
Fried,MortonH.,346
Fruit,290
asdesignmotif,158159,197,199,202,239
G
Garbage,84,134,153
Garca,Rubeacuten,225226n.3
Garrafas,67,68,94,214,305
Garza,259
GatewayoftheSunatTiwanaku,181
Gayton,Anna,14,16,35,228,229
onpottery,3031,40,257
ontextiles,265
Geertz,Clifford,340
Geoglyphs,78,81,319n.3
Cahuachiorientedtoward,305,306,307308
ascalendar/cequesystem,307308,310
dated,318,327
linkCahuachitodomesticsite,324,325,342
potteryfoundnear,327
rituallycleaned,308
assacredroad,307,308309
waterassociatedwith,307
Gillespie,SusanD.,222
Gledhill,John,345
Gold,284
mouthmasks,216,323
GonzlezGarca,M.Francisco,9
Gourd,155,291
anthropomorphicdesignson,282283
bead,284
asburialoffering,206,208,216,282,283
inceremonialcomplex,181,186,282,283,284
dated,283
headinterchangeablewith,222
pyroen

Page365

graved,172,282,283,301
rattles,181,186,283
shellcache,159
spoon,284
Grama,61,72
GrandeRiver,1,2,3,9.
SeealsoRoGrandedeNazcadrainagesystem
GrandeValley,xi,3,8,45,246,324327,341
Graterbowl,41n.2
Grave.SeeBurials
GreatClothDeposit,53,135,137
GreatTemple,26,28,5253,54,57,61,318,340
adobein,95
cachepitsat,93
dated,341
feathersat,275
functionof,310
llamaremainsat,304
panpipesstoredin,241,300,301,302,343
roomsof,92
GuamanPomadeAyala,Felipe,8,305
Guayaba,70
Guilln,Sonia,196,224225
Guineapig,153,168,304
Guzmn,Cenen,141,142
H
Haas,Jonathan,342
Habitationsites,3,26,27,29nn.3,4,53,110,301
Cahuachias/asnot,xi,xii,28,45,48,7374,110,111113,125,142,257,300301,317
differentiationin,342
inothervalleys,45,246,324327,341
unlooted,111
HaciendaCahuachi,8,13,15,105,203
Haeberli,Joerg,32,241
Handles,onpottery,245,247,255257
HarpyBird,221,243
Hastorf,Christine,172
Hayashida,Frances,286,287
Head:
inancestorcult,224225
andgourdasinterchangeable,222
powerof,218,224
symbolismof,223224.
SeealsoTrophyheads
Headjar,168,226n.6,239,240,259
Headtaking/headhunting,221224,327,338339
inEcuador,218,223
increasein,222,224,344
asintraethnic,221
inPhilippines,223
duringpilgrimage,316
ritualistic,221,223,225,316
assecular/militaristic,222,223
status/socialdifferentiationassociatedwith,221,224,225
tribalismassociatedwith,223,224.
SeealsoTrophyheads
HeadTaster,243
Heterarchy,327,336
Hill,modified.SeeMounds
Hill,natural(UnitF),126128
burialat,126
canewallon,111,126
circulardepressionsin,7576,93
cylindricalshaftsin,93
looted,126
potteryat,228
shellremainsat,297
Holdridge,L.R.,1
HorribleBird,40,221,243
HuacadelaLuna,341
HuacadelLoro,26,31,72
HuacadelSol,341
Huacas,26,31,72,100,305,307,308,309,341
Huancavelica,departmentof,1
HuapayaManco,Cirilo,5051,88
Huaquero,100,101.
SeealsoLooters/looting
Huarango,13,60
artifacts,280281
drinkmadefrom,190,194n.4
fruit/pods/seedsofasoffering,159,176,187,190,290,305
posts,65,66,68,71,72,76,77,78,79,80,82,86,88,91,93,94,96,143,174,176,191192,193,301,310
significanceof,190,291
tombroofsmadeof,203,204,205,206,207,211,213,214
Huaraspottery,38
Huarato,321,337
Huarpa,327
Huchke'ssyndrome,195
I
Ica,departmentof,1
IcaRiver,3
Icavalley,3,27
Catholicpilgrimageto,112113,312316
Nascaburialsin,215,217n.4,337
Nascapotteryin,14,41n.1,230,322323
Nascasettlementin,337
Nazcavalleyrelationship,3,341
Ocucajein,41n.3,43,44,241,242,317
potteryof,38,40,41n.3,4142n.4,235,257,258259
trophyheadsin,218,259
Iconography,30,4041,257
oncarvedhuarangoposts,191192,193
cosmologyrevealedin,302
fertilityasthemeof,222,323324
ofpanpipes,241
onrituals,323
oftrophyheads,199,218,221223,259,324,338,339
onwalls,179181.
SeealsoDesignmotifs
Ilongot,223
Incas,172,305,307
Incisions:
inpottery,37,45,46,50,52,116,119,231233,238,251,257
ontrophyheads,221
IngenioRiver,1,8
Ingeniovalley,xi,3,342
burialsin,217n.4
habitationsitesin,45,246,324327,341
Tajoceramicsin,245
InitialPeriod,88,218
InstitutoNacionaldeCultura,27
Irrigation,12
Isbell,BillieJean,89,309
Isla,Johny,7374,251,317
J
Jars,239
head,168,226n.6,239,240,259
plainware,253254
JimenezBorja,Arturo,311
Jista,303
Jivaro,218,223
Johnson,GregoryA.,337,342
Joyce,Thomas,14
K
Kajitani,Nobuko,264,265
Kanchas,111,113,120,124125,139
asgatheringplaces,300,315
looted,90
moundsassociatedwith,8990,311,312,340
orientationof,90
shellremainson,296297
threesided,89,90
wallsdefine,89,90
Keatinge,RichardW.,289,290
Kero,281
KillerWhale,40,197,202,231,233,243
carriestrophyhead,221
Kines,Ian,215
Kinshipsystem,192,309.
SeealsoAyllus
Kitchen,119
middens,84,300.
SeealsoCookingFire,evidenceof
Knife,obsidian,157,158,172,282,285286
Knobloch,Patricia,40
Konigsberg,Lyle,211,219,225
Kosok,Paul,2,3,89,308

Page366

Kowta,Makoto,321
KrannertArtMuseum,193
Kroeber,AlfredLouis,2,3,14,35,38,59,61,65,225,271,272,273,284
onadobe,94,95
onburials,74,106,109,129,197198,210213,214,216,230,258,318,337
Cahuachidescribedby,15,16,17,72,75,79,143
atEstaquera,79
iconographyof,40
onpottery,3031,41n.1,228229,238,239,254,257
ontextiles,270
ontrophyheads,218,219
onunmonumentality,341
Kus,SusanM.,342,344
Kvietok,Peter,241
L
LanchoRojas,Josu,9,11,100
Lapiner,AlanC.,199,305
LarcoHerrera,Victor,2829n.1
LasTrancasRiver,1,3,9
valleyof,26,241
LateHorizon,319
LateIntermediatePeriod,77,129,138,318319
burials,78,81,109,111
pottery,38,73,79,135
LateParacas,43,50,133,257,317
"LateParacasCahuachiRedandWhiteDecorated"pottery,133
Lathrap,DonaldW.,36,37,229,308
Legua,Augusto,324
Lilien,Rose,44,203
Lithics,68,70,7374,284288,301
Llama:
burialof,199,202,304
inritual/asoffering,199,202,209,301,304,305
Loom,181.
SeealsoWeaving
Looters/looting,19,27,57,65,66,67,68,71,72,73,74,75,77,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,89,100109,137,195
aerialphotosshow,105
archaeologyaffectedby,106,129,143,258
archaeologyprovokes,100
areasof,101,102104
ofburials,38,78,100,101,105,108109,111,126,133,143,146,197,198
ofceremonialcomplex,106108,147,148,150,151,154,168,173
bycolonials,100
destroyssurfacearchitecture,106
holesleftby,64,94,101,106108,109,121,126,129,162,187
ofhuacas,100
ofkanchas,90
ofmounds,141,143,147,148,150
ofnaturalhill,126
ofopenareas,109,111
ofplatformmound,106,109
ofterraces,151,154
Lothrop,Mrs.E.B.,19
Lothrop,S.K.,222
LowerEasternRooms,92,143,157168
accessto,150
apisonadoin,157,159,161,162,166
burialsin,263
circulardepressionsin,93,172
cordsfoundin,273
corncachefoundin,289,290
cornpopperfoundin,172
dated,171
feathersfoundin,275,277
figurinesfoundin,260
functionof,172
gourdsfoundin,282
humanhairfoundin,273
looted,168
nichesinwallsof,150
asnonhabitationarea,172
obsidianknifefoundin,285
panpipesfoundin,241
RoomofthePostsconnectedto,157
textilesfoundin,270
trophyheadfoundin,219,220221,222
LowieMuseum,14,238
Lumbreras,Luis,59,218,257,337
M
Madder,265
Madrid,Alfonso,196
Mahler,Joy,222
MaijoChicooasis,3
MaijoGrandeoasis,3
Maize.SeeCorn/maize
MajoroChico,222
Mapuche,319nn.1,2,347n.5
MarianoAstocndor,MauroGilber,296
Martnez,Gregorio,105
Massey,Sarah,27,217n.4,321,337,341
MatosMendieta,Ramiro,26
MejaXesspe,Toribio,53,187,262,279,282,307
Menzel,Dorothy,27,29n.3,41n.1,4142n.4,53,231,233,235,250,251,257
Mesodesmadonacium,296,297
Middens,84,300
MiddleHorizon:
burials,78,81,109,111,202
Cahuachiduring,318319
pottery,40,76,79,129,135
Wariart,218,286
MiddleNazcaperiod,43,46,48,54
Miller,MaryEllen,312,316
Miniatures,217n.1,263,265,266
Moche,216,218,337
MontegrandeAlto,29n.3,321
MonteGrandeoasis,3
Monumentalstrainpottery,31,35,36,40
Morales,Felipe,100
Morgan,Alexandra,260
Morinis,Alan,316
Morroburials,213214,318.
SeealsoNasca8
Mortar,77,78
adobe,94,147,148,153,155
Mortars,68,286,301
Moseley,MichaelE.,322,344
Mounds,26,48,57,64,65,69,77,82,84,110111,113
accessto,93,122,150
architectureatop,89,106,143,309
burialson,73,74,89,109,137,143,146,153,171,172,197203,210212,213214,258
dated,168171
fillfor,88
kanchasassociatedwith,8990,311,312,340
lootingnear/on,141,143,147,148,150
orientationof,89,311
roomsatop,9192,143,145150,155173
astemples,301,310,311,312,337,341
terraced,5152,59,61,71,72,88
trenchatop,5960
typesof,89
ushaped,88
viewfrom,70
wallson,72,88,93.
SeealsoPlatformmound(Unit12)
Mouthmasks,216,323
Muliniaedulis,296
Murra,JohnV.,172,344
Murro,JuanAntonio,83
Murua,307
MuseoArqueolgicodeMadrid,222
MuseodeArqueologaPeruana,17
MuseoNacionaldeAntropologayArqueologa,2829n.1
MuseumfrVlkerkunde,Berlin,14
Musicalinstruments,229,240242,339.
SeealsoFlutesPanpipes
N
"NascaClsico"pottery,17
Nasca8,19,41n.1
basketvessels,240
burials,38,109,213214,215
asnonNasca,36,40,217n.3
pottery,

Page367

31,38,72,77,109,161,168,181186,187,190,228,284,304
ritualentombmentby,202,301,318
inRoomofthePosts,38,137,140,168,181186,187,190,202,228,240,284,301,304,318
sites,29n.3,190
trophyheads,222
NascaEpigonalpottery,26,38,109
Nascasociety/culture,1429
contactswithotherpeoplesof,4344,327
demiseof,11
disrupted,341
dualityof,347
organizationof,xi,307,308,346
postCahuachi,224
asreligiousinteractionsphere,320,321
reorderedviapilgrimageandritual,310,317
selfsufficient,344345
asstate,xixii,89,27,110,222,320321.
SeealsoAyllusChiefdomsSettlementpatterns
"NascaTardo"pottery,41n.1
Navarro,Candelario,100,105,109
Navasfamily,13.
SeealsoVerneNavas,Hugo
NazcaRiver,1,3,8,9,1213,87.
SeealsoRoGrandedeNazcadrainagesystem
Nazca(town),12,8,11,345
Needles,279
Negativepottery,43,45,46
NeiraAvedao,Mximo,222,225,338
Netherly,Patricia,344
O
Oases,3,27
Obsidian,7374,343
knife,157,158,172,282,285286
points,160,286,287
Ocucaje(Icavalley),41nn.2,3,4142n.4,43,44,77,78,233,235,241,242,317
influencedNascapottery,237,250,257,332
textiles,265
OficinaNacionaldeEvaluacindeRecursosNaturales(ONERN),1,3,8,11
Ojeda,Bernardino,96,285,289,290,291,305
Ollas,46,48,51,70,245249
O'Neale,Lila,211,212,216
ontextiles,267,270,271,272,274
Openareas,9091,129
burialsin,195197,199,203210,213
looted,109,111.
SeealsoKanchas
Orefici,Giuseppe,12,27,28,38,52,53,67,71,108,135,168,216,302,318
onadobe,91
onburials,214,215
ritualremainsfoundby,61,301302,304
stepmotiftempleof,37,99n.3,300,317
Orientation:
ofbodyinburials,195,196,197,198,199,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,213,215
ofkanchas,90
ofmounds,89,311
ofrooms,91
Ortega,Nicols,313
Otoca,3
P
Pacaeleaves,126,153,158,198
Pacatnamu,322
Pachacamac,311312,319,321,322
Painting,91,172
ofcane,155,280
ofshells,295,298
slip,235,257,339
oftextiles,273
ofwalls,91,179,180
Palillo,293
PalpaRiver,1,9
Palpa(town),11,345
Palpavalley,xi,3,8
burialsin,217n.4
habitationsitesin,45
trophyheadcachein,219,222,225226n.3,238
Pampa:
geoglyphson,11,305,306,307308,319n.3
roleof,308309,346,347
PampadeAtarco,11,305,306,307308
PampadeSanJos,11,70,305,308,346
Panpipes,28,32,52,61,65,68,135,148,155,166,167,171,341
inburials,84,210,241
drawingsof,180
EarlyIntermediatePeriod,241
garzaon,259
Ocucaje,241,242
Paracas,241
inrituals,190,241,300,301,302,343
slipcasted,241
Paqla,321
Paracas:
burials,73,216
influenceof,40,4344,267268,322
Necropolis,216,217n.1,222,265,267268
panpipes,241
pottery,35,37,38,40,41n.3,4142n.4,4344,45,53,133,218,235,245,322
textiles,124,196,216,217n.5,267268,273274
trophyheads,218,221,222
Paraca(wind),11
Parcialidades,346
Paredones,15
Parsons,Lee,231
Paul,Anne,264,265,273
Paulsen,Allison,235
Paynter,Robert,345,346
PazosRivera,Miguel,27,68,119120,168,169,304,321
excavationsof,145,151,195,197,198,217n.1
headjarfoundby,240,259
Peanuts,290
Peebles,ChristopherS.,342,344
Pepinofruit,158159
Perumytiluspurpuratus,159,277,295,297
Pestles,68,301
Peters,AnnH.,233,321,337
onpottery,234,235,251
Petersen,Georg,108,111,125
ondesertification,11,133
Pezzia,Alejandro,38,281,284,338
Philippines,223
Phipps,Elena,53,193n.1,217n.5,260,271
ontextiles,267268,273,274
Pickering,Robert,211
Pilgrimage:
attirein,316
toCahuachi,300,302,303,308309,311317,319,322
Catholic,toVirginofYauca,112113,312316
cleaningbefore,313
dancein,317
geoglyphsusedin,307,308309
headtakingat,316
kanchasusedin,300,315
aspoliticalact,316
QoyllurR'iti,317,319n.3
societalhierarchyaffirmedin,316317
waystationsfor,313
Pisco,8
Piscovalley,41n.1,337
Plainware,46,48,65,70,76,135,138139,167168,227,228,245257
basketvessels,254255
inburialurns,143
jars,253254
vases,254
Plainweave,133,264,270271
Plantremains,289293
Plaster,onwalls,150,178179
Platform,174,190,216,301.
SeealsoPlatformmoundUshnu
Platformmound(Unit12),69,310

Page368

accessto,93
burialson,109
conduitsforofferingsin,68,89,305
looted,106,109
wallsof,92
Platt,Tristan,346
"PolishedBlackware",45,46
Poole,DeborahA.,308,316,317
Population,11,345
Poromas,346
Poromastylepottery,38
Portraiture,onpottery,327,347n.2
Pottery,227259
basketvessels,240,254255
blackware,37,45,46,52,79,231235,250251
burial,16,17,81,108,109,173,197,199,202,211,212,216,230,237,254,263,340
Carmenstyle,41n.1
Carrizal,26,38
Cavernas,43,50
Chavn,38,4142n.4
Chongos,233,234,235,251,257
colonial,138
dated/phased,3040,4142n.4,156,168,227,228,229,230,235,237,238239,240,241,243,245,250252,254,255,257,258,259,260,301
dishes,237239
disks,260
DosPalmasstyle,41n.1
EarlyHorizon,38,40,43,235,245
EarlyIntermediatePeriod,30,233
Engoroy,235
Estrellastyle,41n.1
fineware,173,227,228,229245,300,301
geographicaldistributionof,xi,14,27,29n.3,41n.1,111,112,230,258,320,321,322323,327,345
handles,245,247,255257
ashomogeneous,xi,320
Huaras,38
ofIcavalley,38,40,41n.3,4142n.4,235,257,258259
incised,37,45,46,50,52,116,119,231233,238,251,257
LateIntermediatePeriod,38,73,79,135
manufactureof,28
MiddleHorizon,40,76,79,129,135
Monumentalstrain,31,35,36,40
musicalinstruments,229,240242,339
"NascaClsico",17
Nasca8,31,38,72,77,109,161,168,181186,187,190,228,284,304
NascaEpigonal,26,38,109
"NascaTardo",41n.1
negativedecorated,43,45,46,235
Ocucajeinfluenceon,237,250,257,332
Paracas,35,37,38,40,41n.3,4142n.4,4344,45,53,133,218,235,245,322
patternburnished,235,257
plainware,46,48,70,76,135,138139,143,167168,227,228,245257
polychrome,14,37,45,46,50,52,68,95,116,119,135,155,228,235,238,240,243,257
Poroma,38
portraitson,327,347n.2
postNasca,38,80
prefireslip,43
Proliferous,31,35,36,40,77,327
"ProtoNazca",36,43,238,257
repaired,260261
representationalv.abstract,30,31
rituallyconsumed,302,303304,339340
shapecategories,228229
slippainted,235,257,339
Strongcategorized,36,37,43,45,46,52,116,117,118,122,174,178,190,231235,238,251,257
stylusdecorated,37,50,51,233235,251
Tajo,245
Topar,41n.1,233,235,251,257,323
trophyheadson,221,259
unbaked,262263
vases,239,254
Wari,35,40
weavingassociatedwith,19.
SeealsoBowlsDesignmotifs
Prisogasterniger,296
Proliferouspottery,31,35,36,40,77,327
"ProtoNazca"stylepottery,36,43,238,257
Protothacathaca,296,297
Proulx,Donald,15,41n.1,108,174
onAnthropomorphicMythicalBeing,282283
datesCahuachi'sdemise,257
onheadjars,259
onheadtaking,221
potteryclassifiedby,40,228,229,230,235,238,239,242,243,245,253,254,255,258,322
Pucaraart,218
PuebloViejo,28
Pukio,305
PulgarVidal,Javier,2
Puquio,3
Putnam,EdwardK.,40
"Pyramidofthethirteensteps",85,86
Q
Qanats,9
QoyllurR'itipilgrimage,317,319n.3
Quebradasite,251
Quena,193
Quichua,277,303304,339
QuijandraAlvarez,Cornelio,100
R
Radiocarbondating,11,3840,73,79,176,179,187,193
Rainfall,3
RamosGmez,LuisJavier,229,240,242
Randsborg,Klavs,215
Rattles,181,186,283
Reeve,MaryElizabeth,303304
Reinhard,John,308
Reservoirs,9,11
Riddell,Francis,27,29n.3,304,321,338
RoGrandedeNazcadrainagesystem,xii,111
agriculturein,3
droughtsin,3,8,9
EarlyHorizonoccupationin,41n.3
ecologyof,13
moietiesin,346347
Nasca8sitesin,190
populationof,11,345
riversof,1,3,8,9
soilof,3
subsurfacewaterin,911
Ritual:
artifacts,285
battles,221,311,338
birdsin,168
bloodletting,221
calendar,305,307308,310
cleaning,308,313,316
consumptionofpottery,302,303304,339340
entombment,172,177,181,187,190,193n.2,202,301,304,318
foods,172
guineapigin,153,168,304
iconographyon,323
llamain,199,202,301,304,305
pampa'srolein,308309
panpipesassociatedwith,190,241,300,301,302,343
performer,323
aspoliticalact,316
forprediction,307
shellsin,294295,297,299
textilesin,301
trophyhead,221,223,225,316,338
forwater,307.
SeealsoCahuachi,asceremonialcenterCeremonialcomplexPilgrimage
Rivers,1,3
dry,8,9
terraces,11,12
underground,9,10.
SeealsoRoGrandedeNazcadrainagesystem
Roark,RichardPaul,229,344,347n.2
onmilitarism,324,327
Robinson,David,2627

Page369

RodrguezdeSandweiss,MaradelCarmen,294
RoomofthePosts,12,92,143,151,174194
accessto,170,177
ajpeppercachein,181,186,283
ancestorworshipin,193,301,310
basketvesselin,240
circulardepressionsin,93,174,176177,178,190
dated,155,179,180,187,190,193,202,301,318,341
floorof,170,171,174
gourdartifactsin,181,186,283,284
huarangopods/seedscachein,187,190,290
huarangopostsin,174,190,193,301,310
looters'holein,187
LowerEasternRoomsconnectedto,157
mudplatformin,174,190,301
Nasca8potteryin,38,137,140,168,181186,187,190,202,228,240,284,301,304,318
panpipesin,241,301
rituallyentombed,172,177,181,187,190,202,301,304,318
shellsin,178,190
storagevesselin,262
astemple/sacredplace,190,193,301,318
wallgraffitiin,179181,190,301
wallnichesin,166,172,177178,179,187,190,191
wallsof,94,174,187
waterdamageto,178179
Rosaldo,Michelle,223
Rosaldo,Renato,223
Rowe,Ann,271
Rowe,JohnH.,26,27,53,231,233,235,250,251,257,321,323,327
onCahuachiasgreatcity,110
onNascasites,337
onNascastate,320321
potteryclassifiedby,31,3536,38,40,4142n.4,190,193
S
Sacrifice,52
burialof,28,50,203
SalazarBurger,Lucy,193194n.3
SalgueroJara,Eduardo,187
Sallnow,MichaelJ.,316
SanNicolsBay,2
SantaCruzRiver,1,3,9
SantoDomingodeParacasburials,73
Sawyer,AlanR.,38,40,273,307
ontrophyheads,221,338
Saxe,Arthur,215
Scales/weights,261262
Schaedel,RichardP.,302,342,346,347
Schele,Linda,312,316
Schreiber,Katharina,9,11,28,318
Scutalus,296
Seaurchin,296
Seler,Eduard,30,40,283
Semimytilusalgosus,295
Seriation,26,3037,44,227
typefrequency,19,35,36
typevariety,35
SerpentineCreature,243
Service,ElmanR.,345,346
ServicioAerofotogrficoNacional,59,64
Settlementpatterns,9,324327,344
inAcarvalley,xi,27,29n.3,41n.1,111,112,321,323,337
inEarlyIntermediatePeriod,110
inIcavalley,337
inPiscovalley,337
Shafts,cylindrical,79,9394,164,166
adobelined,79,9394,166
cane,155.
SeealsoGarrafas
Shamans,216,307,323,343
Shells/shellremains,3,150,277,294299
beads,205,275,295
cheof,159
asevidenceoftrade,343
painted,295,298
onplatformmound,297
inritual,294295,297,298,299
Spondylus,80,172,178,190,275,294295,298
Sherbondy,JeannetteE.,192193
Shillacotomound,218
Shimada,Izumi,193n.2,193194n.4,304,315,322,344
Shimada,Melody,304
Shrine,amphictyonic,322
Silverman,Helaine,27
Cahuachidelineatedby,55,5786
seriationof,36
onshells,294,295
Sipn,Mocheburialsat,216,337
Skulls,76,77,162.
SeealsoTrophyheads
Snails,296
Sonin,Robert,48,50,52,135,203,208,235
Soul,arutam,223
Space,organizationof,90,92,308.
SeealsoKanchasOpenareasWalls
Spanishcolonials,100
Spencer,CharlesS.,343
Spindlewhorls,148,260,261
Spondylus,80,172,178,190,275,294295,298
SpottedCat,40,157,243
Staircase,85,86,93,122,124
State:
comparedtochiefdom,345346
conquest,321,339
markof,322342
Nascasocietyas,xixi,89,27,110,222,320321
Stepfret,61
Stepmotiftemple,37,99n.3,300,317
Stigler,Robert,50,51,53,203,219
Stone:
beads,284
mortars,286,301
pestles,301
sculpture,218
vases,284285
Strong,WilliamDuncan,xi,2,19,27,4354,63,64,65,66,125,143,147,202,260,272,303
onadobe,94,95
aerialphotosof,89,120
onarchitecture,57
basketsfoundby,301
onburials,38,68,101,105,108109,195,203210,215216,258,318
onceremonialfunctions,48,49,52
datingby,54,193
onEstaquera,26,79
GreatClothDepositof,53,135,137
onhabitationsites,45,48,53,110
atHuacadelLoro,26
onllamaremains,304
onlooting,101,105
mapsofCahuachiof,16,17,55,62,68,70,71,72
onoccupationphases,4546,48
onParacasinfluence,37,43,317
plantremainsfoundby,293
potteryclassifiedby,31,36,37,43,45,46,52,95,116,117,118,122,174,178,190,228,231235,237,238,240,251,257,301
stratigraphicmethodsof,43
ontextiles,53,135,137,167,270,271,273,274
ontrophyheads,218,219,222.
SeealsoGreatTemple
Suyus,346
T
Tainter,JosephA.,215
Tajoceramics,245
TamboViejo,27,29n.3,111,112,116,304,321,337,338
Tapestry,199,219.
SeealsoTextiles
Tarajeo,148
TarugaRiver,1,3

Page370

Tegulaatra,296
Tello,JulioC.,1415,17,30,100,216,217n.5,218,225,262,265,279,282,302
Temple,28
mounds,301,310,311,312,337,341
RoomofthePostsas,190,193,301,318.
SeealsoEntombment,ritualGreatTemple
Terraces,5152,59,61,66,71,72,86,88
adobewallsform,143
burial,74,137,210,258
onceremonialcomplex,143,145151
looted,151,154
river,11,12
Textiles,51,219,264274
inburials,81,196,198199,202,203,205,206,207,208,209,212,213214,216,221,265,267,271,274
inceremonialcomplex,159,167,265,266,270
crocheted,266,270
crossof,124,264265
dated,265,273
designson,264265
dyed,265
EarlyHorizon,265
embellished,196,216,264,265,270,271,272273,274
manufactureof,28,148,260,261,274,279280
netted,150,272
Ocucaje,265
Paracas,124,196,216,217n.5,265,267268,273274
plainweave,133,264,270271
inritual,301
Strong's,53,135,137,167,270,271,273,274
threedimensional,266270
trophyheadwrappedin,158.
SeealsoCottonWool
Thaischocolata,296
Theocracy,340
Thompson,Mrs.A.McK.,19
Tierrabarrial,95,96,97,99,150
TierrasBlancasRiver,1,3,8,9
Tinkuy,346
Tiwanaku,89,181
Tomb.SeeBurials
Toparpottery,41n.1,233,235,251,257,323
Topic,Theresa,116
Tosi,Joseph,1
Totora,52
Towle,MargaretA.,291,293
Townsend,RichardF.,221
Trephination.SeeDeformation,cranial
TresPalosI,193
Tribalism,headhuntingassociatedwith,223,224
Trinchera.SeeWalls,wattleanddaub
Trophyheads,191,218226,327
inAcarvalley,218,222,338
ancestorcultassociatedwith,224225
architectureand,222
inburials/asofferings,172,199,206,210,211,213,214,218,219221,222,224,338339
inceremonialcomplex,156,158,172,219,220221,222
dated,218,219,222,318
deformed,219,220,221
fertilitycycleassociatedwith,222
inIcavalley,218,259
iconography,199,218,221223,259,324,338,339
mythicalbeingsassociatedwith,221,282
Nasca8,222
atPalpa,219,222,225226n.3,238
preservationof,224225
ritualisticsignificanceof,221,223,225,316,338
statusenhancedby,224,225
atTamboViejo,338
takeninbattle,222223
invessels,219
victims,221,222,223,338,339
wrapped,158
TruelCollection,235
Trumpets,241
TupaYupanqui,305
Turner,VictorandEdith,313
U
Uhle,Max,xi,14,35,38,40,74,228,318
onburials,216,337
onlooting,100
onpottery,30,31,230
ontrophyheads,218
UnitF.SeeHill,natural
Unit19.SeeCeremonialcomplex
Unit12.SeePlatformmound
UniversityofCaliforniaArchaeologicalExpedition,26,27
UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,14,238
potteryseriation,26,3135,37,44,227
Upham,Steadman,345
Uribe,CarlosA.,346
Urnburial,143,173,198,199,202,203204,207208,212,213,215
Urton,Gary,xii,1011,308,310,346,347
Ushnu,190,301,305,308
V
ValdezCardenas,Lidio,29n.3,41n.1,202,304,321
Valdivia,Armando,70,101,105
Vases,239,254
stone,284285
Ventilla,326,327,347
linkedtoCahuachi,324,325,342,346
populationof,345
Verano,John,225226n.3
VerneNavas,Hugo,100,112,138
Vicua,285
Vineyards,8
VirginoftheRosaryofYauca,112113,312316
VirValleyProject,14
ViscasRiver,1,3,8,9
W
Wallace,Dwight,27,40,41n.1,4142n.4,217n.1,232,234,251,257
Walls,116120
adobe,45,46,4849,50,53,61,64,65,66,67,69,71,72,7475,80,85,88,89,90,91,92,94,96,97,118,120,143,147,148,153,155,161,174
cane,68,75,76,91,96,9798,111,126128
ceremonialpurposeof,46
constructionof,45,46,65,77,78,9699,148,162
dated,92,95,120,180,187
delineatespace,6163,71,89,90,9293,116,120,308
graffition,91,179181,190,301
heightof,74,9192,99,147,148,150,152,155,156,162,171,174
on/tomounds,72,88,93
nichesin,150,153,162,166,172,177178,179,187,190,191
painted,91,179,180
plastered,150,155,178179
inRoomofthePosts,94,174,179181,187,190,301
wattleanddaub,45,46,4950,52,85,91,9699,161
whitewashed,150,159
Wari:
burials,202
asenemy,343344
knife,286
Nasca9as,40
pottery,35,40
roomblockpattern,88
staffdeity,181
state,327
tapestry,199
trophyheads,218
Water:
attemptstochannel/harvest,911,327,344
comestosurface,305,309
erosion,12
ritualsfor,307
sources/resources,11,344345

Page371

Weaving,19,181,267,279280.
SeealsoTextiles
Webster,David,340
Wheatley,Paul,319,340
Wichqanatemple,218
Willey,GordonR.,324
WilliamsLen,Carlos,27,92
Witchcraft,275
Wood:
artifacts,167,277281
colonnadeatEstaquera,72,87,190,193
petrified,167,281
Wool,80,264,271,273
Wright,HenryT.,337,342
Y
Yacovleff,Eugenio,30,35,40
Yaucavalley,41n.1
Yunga,2,3
Z
Zuidema,R.Tom,305
oncequesystem,307,308
oncosmology,190191
onkinship,192,309