Chapter 13

The Laplace Transform in Circuit

Analysis
13.1
13.2-3
13.4-5
13.6
13.7
13.8

Circuit Elements in the s Domain

Circuit Analysis in the s Domain
The Transfer Function and Natural Response
The Transfer Function and the Convolution
Integral
The Transfer Function and the SteadyState Sinusoidal Response
The Impulse Function in Circuit Analysis
1

Key points

How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the

s-domain?

Why the functional forms of natural and steadystate responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?

Why the output of an LTI circuit is the

convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
2

Section 13.1
Circuit Elements in the s
Domain
1.

Equivalent elements of R, L, C

A resistor in the s domain

iv-relation in the time domain:

v (t ) R i (t ).

By operational Laplace transform:

Lv(t ) LR i (t ) R Li (t ) ,
V ( s ) R I ( s ).

Physical units: V(s) in volt-seconds, I(s) in

ampere-seconds.
4

An inductor in the s domain

iv-relation in the time domain:

d
v (t ) L i (t ).
dt

By operational Laplace transform:

Lv (t ) LL i(t ) L Li(t ) ,
V ( s ) L sI ( s ) I 0 sL I ( s ) LI 0 .
initial current

Equivalent circuit of an inductor

Series equivalent:

Parallel equivalent:

Thvenin
Norton

A capacitor in the s domain

iv-relation in the time domain:

d
i (t ) C v (t ).
dt

By operational Laplace transform:

Li (t ) LC v(t ) C Lv(t ) ,
I ( s ) C sV ( s ) V0 sC V ( s ) CV0 .
initial voltage

Equivalent circuit of a capacitor

Parallel equivalent:

Series equivalent:

Norton
Thvenin

Section 13.2, 13.3

Circuit Analysis in the s
Domain
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Procedures
Nature response of RC circuit
Step response of RLC circuit
Sinusoidal source
MCM
Superposition

How to analyze a circuit in the s-domain?

1.

Replacing each circuit element with its s-domain

equivalent. The initial energy in L or C is taken
into account by adding independent source in
series or parallel with the element impedance.

2.

Writing & solving algebraic equations by the

same circuit analysis techniques developed for
resistive networks.

3.

Obtaining the t-domain solutions by inverse

Laplace transform.
10

Why to operate in the s-domain?

It is convenient in solving transient responses of

linear, lumped parameter circuits, for the initial
conditions have been incorporated into the
equivalent circuit.

It is also useful for circuits with multiple essential

nodes and meshes, for the simultaneous ODEs
have been reduced to simultaneous algebraic
equations.

It can correctly predict the impulsive response,

which is more difficult in the t-domain (Sec. 13.8).
11

Nature response of an RC circuit (1)

Q: i(t), v(t) = ?

Replacing the charged capacitor by a Thvenin

equivalent circuit in the s-domain.

KVL, algebraic equation & solution of I(s):

V0
I
CV0
V0 R

IR, I ( s )

.
1
s sC
1 RCs s ( RC )
12

Nature response of an RC circuit (2)

The t-domain solution is obtained by inverse

Laplace transform:

V0 R V0 t ( RC ) 1 1
i (t ) L
L
e
1
s
s ( RC ) R
V0 t ( RC )
e
u(t ).
R
1

i(0+) = V0/R, which is true for vC(0+) = vC(0-) = V0.

i() = 0, which is true for capacitor becomes

open (no loop current) in steady state.
13

Nature response of an RC circuit (3)

To directly solve v(t), replacing the charged

capacitor by a Norton equivalent in the s-domain.

Solve V(s), perform inverse Laplace transform:

V0
V
.
CV0 sCV , V ( s )
1
s ( RC )
R

v (t ) L1V0 s ( RC ) 1 V0e t ( RC )u(t ) Ri (t ).

14

Step response of a parallel RLC (1)

Q: iL(t) = ?
iL(0-) = 0
vC (0-) = 0

15

Step response of a parallel RLC (2)

KCL, algebraic equation & solution of V(s):

I dc
V V
I dc C
sCV , V ( s ) 2
.
1
1
s
R sL
s ( RC ) s ( LC )

Solve IL(s):
V ( s)
I dc ( LC ) 1
2
I L ( s)
sL
s s ( RC ) 1 s ( LC ) 1

3.84 107

s s (6.4 10 ) s (1.6 10 )
2

16

Step response of a parallel RLC (3)

Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse

Laplace transform:

24
20127
20 127
I L ( s)

(mA s).
s s ( 32k j 24k ) s ( 32k j 24k )

iL (t ) 24u(t ) 20e

j127 ( 32 k) t

e j ( 24 k ) t u(t ) c.c.

24 40e ( 32 k)t cos ( 24k)t 127 u(t ) (mA)

24 e ( 32 k)t 24cos(24k )t 32sin(24k )t u(t ) (mA).

17

Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (1)

For a parallel RLC circuit, replace the current

source by a sinusoidal one: ig (t ) I mcost u(t ).
The algebraic equation changes:
V V
sI m
sCV
Ig 2
,
2
R sL
s

I m C s 2
V ( s) 2
,
2
2
1
1
s s ( RC ) s ( LC )

V
I m ( LC ) 1 s
I L ( s)
2
.
2
2
1
1

sL s s ( RC ) s ( LC )

18

Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (2)

Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse

Laplace transform:
K1
K1*
K2
K 2*
.
I L ( s)

s j s j s ( j ) s ( j )
Driving
frequency

Neper
frequency

Damped
frequency

iL (t ) 2 K1 cost K1 2 K 2 e t cost K 2 u(t ).

Steady-state
response (source)

Natural response (RLC

parameters)

19

Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (1)

Q: i1(t), i2(t) = ?

i1 (0-) = 0

i2(0-)
=0

20

Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (2)

MCM, 2 algebraic equations & solutions:

336

(1)
8.4 sI1 42( I1 I 2 )
s

42( I 2 I1 ) (10s 48) I 2 0 ( 2)

42 I1 336
42 8.4 s

90 10s I 2 0
42

s
.

1
15 14
42
I1 42 8.4 s
336 s s s 2 s 12

I 42

90 10s
0 7 8.4 1.4
2
s s 2 s 12
1

21

Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (3)

Perform inverse Laplace transform:

i1 (t ) 15 14e

i2 (t ) 7 8.4e

2 t

2 t

1.4e

12 t

12 t

336
u(t ) (42 // 48) 15 A.

42
u(t ) 15 42 48 7 A.
22

Use of superposition (1)

Given 2 independent sources vg, ig and initially

charged C, L, v2(t) = ?

23

Use of superposition: Vg acts alone (2)

1

1
Vg

1
V1 Vg V1 V1 V2

R sL ( sC ) 1 0, R sL sC V1 sCV2 R ,
1
1

sCV 1 sC V 0.
V2 V1 V2 0.
1
2
R
( sC ) 1 R2

24

Use of superposition (3)

For convenience, define admittance matrix:

1
1

sC

sC
R sL
V1
1

1

V
2

sC
sC
R2

Y11 Y12 V1 Vg R1

Y12 Y22 V2 0
Y12 R1
V2
V.
2 g
Y11Y22 Y12
25

Use of superposition: Ig acts alone (4)

1

Y11 Y12 V1 0
Y11
Y Y V I , V2 Y Y Y 2 I g .
12 22 2 g
11 22
12
Same matrix

Same denominator
26

Use of superposition: Energized L acts alone (5)

1

Y11 Y12 V1
Y Y V 0
12 22 2
Same matrix

s
Y12 s
, V2 Y Y Y 2 .

11 22
12
Same denominator
27

Use of superposition: Energized C acts alone (6)

""
Y
Y
11 12 V1 C
Y Y "" C ,

12 22 V2
(Y11 Y12 )C
""
.
V2
2
Y11Y22 Y12

The total voltage is: V2 V2 V2 V2 V2"" .

28

Section 13.4, 13.5

The Transfer Function and
Natural Response

29

What is the transfer function of a circuit?

The ratio of a circuits output to its input in the

s-domain:

Y ( s)
H ( s)
X (s)

A single circuit may have many transfer

functions, each corresponds to some specific
choices of input and output.

30

Poles and zeros of transfer function

For linear and lumped-parameter circuits, H(s)

is always a rational function of s.

Poles and zeros always appear in complex

conjugate pairs.

The poles must lie in the left half of the s-plane

if bounded input leads to bounded output.

Im
Re
31

Example: Series RLC circuit

input

If the output is the loop current I:

I
sC
1

2
H ( s)
.
1
Vg R sL ( sC )
s LC sRC 1

If the output is the capacitor voltage V:

( sC ) 1
1
V
.
H ( s)

2
1
Vg R sL ( sC )
s LC sRC 1
32

How do poles, zeros influence the solution?

Since Y(s) = H(s) X(s), the partial fraction

expansion of the output Y(s) yields a term K/(s-a)
for each pole s = a of H(s) or X(s).

The functional forms of the transient (natural)

and steady-state responses ytr(t) and yss(t) are
determined by the poles of H(s) and X(s),
respectively.

The partial fraction coefficients of Ytr(s) and Yss(s)

are determined by both H(s) and X(s).
33

Example 13.2: Linear ramp excitation (1)

Q: vo(t) = ?

50tu(t)

50/s2

34

Example 13.2 (2)

Only one essential node, use NVM:

Vo Vg

Vo
Vo

6 0,
1000 250 0.05s 10 s

Vo
1000( s 5000)
H ( s)
2
.
7
Vg s 6000s 2.5 10

H(s) has 2 complex conjugate poles:

s 3000 j 4000.

Vg(s) = 50/s2 has 1 repeated real pole: s = 0(2).

35

Example 13.2 (3)

The total response in the s-domain is:

Vo ( s ) H ( s )Vg ( s )

5 104 ( s 5000)

s 2 s 2 6000s 2.5 107

Ytr Yss

expansion coefficients depend on H(s) & Vg(s)

5 5 104 80 5 5 104 80 10 4 104

.

2
s 3000 j 4000 s 3000 j 4000 s
s
poles of H(s): -3k j4k

pole of Vg(s): 0(2)

The total response in the t-domain:

vo (t ) ytr yss

5 10

3 3, 000 t

cos(4,000t 80 ) u (t )

10t 4 10 4 u (t ).
36

Example 13.2 (4)

Steady state
component yss(t)

Total response

= 0.33 ms, impact of ytr(t)

37

Section 13.6
The Transfer Function and
the Convolution Integral
1.
2.
3.
4.

Impulse response
Time invariant
Convolution integral
Memory of circuit
38

Impulse response

If the input to a linear, lumped-parameter circuit

is an impulse (t), the output function h(t) is
called impulse response, which happens to be
the natural response of the circuit:

X ( s ) L (t ) 1, Y ( s ) H ( s ) 1 H ( s ),
y (t ) L1Y ( s ) L1H ( s ) h(t ).

The application of an impulse source is

equivalent to suddenly storing energy in the
circuit. The subsequent release of this energy
gives rise to the natural response.

39

Time invariant

For a linear, lumped-parameter circuit, delaying

the input x(t) by simply delays the response y(t)
by as well (time invariant):

X ( s, ) Lx (t )u(t ) e s X ( s ),
Y ( s, ) H ( s ) X ( s, ) e s H ( s ) X ( s ) e sY ( s ),
y (t , ) L1Y ( s, ) L1Y ( s )

t t

y (t )u(t ).

40

Motivation of working in the time domain

The properties of impulse response and timeinvariance allow one to calculate the output
function y(t) of a linear and time invariant (LTI)
circuit in the t-domain only.

This is beneficial when x(t), h(t) are known only

through experimental data.

41

Decompose the input source x(t)

We can approximate x(t) by a series of

rectangular pulses rec(t-i) of uniform width :
sq (t )

sq (t i )

By having , rec(t-i)/ (t-i), x(t)

converges to a train of impulses:

x(t ) x(i ) lim rec (t i )

i 0

x(i ) (t i ).
i 0

42

Synthesize the output y(t) (1)

Since the circuit is LTI:

(t ) h(t ),

(t i ) h(t i ),
a x (t ) a y (t );
i i
i i

x (i ) (t i )
i 0

x (i ) h(t i ).
i 0

43

Synthesize the output y(t) (2)

As , summation integration:
if x(t) extends (-, )

y (t ) x ( )h(t )d x ( )h(t )d .

By change of variable u = t-,

y (t ) x (t u )h(u )du.

The output of an LTI circuit is the convolution of

input and the impulse response of the circuit:

y (t ) x (t ) h (t )

x ( )h(t )d x (t )h( )d .

44

Convolution of a causal circuit

For physically realizable

circuit, no response can
occur prior to the input
excitation (causal), {h(t)
= 0 for t < 0}.

Excitation is turned on at t
= 0, {x(t) = 0 for t < 0}.

y (t ) x (t ) h (t )
t

x (t )h( )d .
0

45

Effect of x(t) is weighted by h(t)

The convolution integral

t

y (t ) x (t )h( )d
0

shows that the value of y(t)

is the weighted average of
x(t) from t = 0 to t = t [from
= t to = 0 for x(t-)].

If h(t) is monotonically decreasing, the highest

weight is given to the present x(t).
46

Memory of the circuit

If h(t) only lasts from t

= 0 to t = T, the
convolution integral

y (t ) x (t )h( )d .
0

implies that the circuit

has a memory over a
finite interval t = [t-T,t].

If h(t) = (t), no memory, output at t only depends

on x(t), y(t) = x(t)*(t) = x(t), no distortion.
47

Example 13.3: RL driven by a trapezoidal source (1)

Q: vo(t) = ?

1
Vo
1
Vo
Vi , H ( s )
.
s 1
Vi s 1
1 t
h (t ) L
e u(t ).
s 1
1

48

Example 13.3 (2)

t

vo (t ) vi (t )h( )d .

Separate into 3 intervals:

49

Example 13.3 (3)

Since the circuit has certain memory, vo(t) has

some distortion with respect to vi(t).

50

Section 13.7
The Transfer Function and
the Steady-State Sinusoidal
Response

51

How to get sinusoidal steady-state response by H(s)?

In Chapters 9-11, we used phasor analysis to

get steady-state response yss(t) due to a
sinusoidal input x (t ) A cost .

If we know H(s), yss(t) must be:

yss (t ) H ( j ) A cost ( ),
where H ( j ) H ( s ) s j H ( j ) e j ( ) .

The changes of amplitude and phase depend

on the sampling of H(s) along the imaginary axis.
52

Proof
x (t ) A cost A cos cos t A sin sin t.
X ( s ) A cos

s cos sin
s

A
sin

A
.
2
2
2
2
2
2
s
s
s

s cos sin
Y ( s) H ( s) X ( s) H ( s) A
Ytr ( s ) Yss ( s ),
2
2
s

K1
K1*

where Yss ( s)
, K1 Y ( s )( s j ) s j
s j s j
s cos sin
H ( s) A
s j

s j

j cos sin H ( j ) Ae j
H ( j ) A

.
2 j
2

j ( )
j

H
(
j

)
e
Ae
1
yss (t ) L
c.c. A H ( j ) cost ( ).
2( s j )

53

Obtain H(s) from H( j)

We can reverse the process: determine H( j)

experimentally, then construct H(s) from the
data (not always possible).

Once we know H(s), we can find the response to

other excitation sources.

54

Section 13.8
The Impulse Function
in Circuit Analysis

55

E.g. Impulsive inductor voltage (1)

Q: vo(t) = ?

i1(0-)=10 A

i2(0-)=0

The opening of the switch forces the two

inductor currents i1, i2 change immediately by
inducing an impulsive inductor voltage [v = Li'(t)].
56

E.g. Equivalent circuit & solution in the s-domain (2)

initial current

V0 (100 s 30)
V0

0,
10 3s
15 2s

improper rational

2(6s 2 65s 150)

60 10
V0 ( s )
.
12
s ( s 5)
s s5
57

E.g. Solutions in the t-domain (3)

60 10

5 t
v0 (t ) L 12

12

(
t
)

(
60

10
e
)u(t ).

s s 5

To verify whether this solution vo(t) is correct, we

need to solve i(t) as well.
100 s 30
4
2
I (s)

, i (t ) (4 2e 5t )u (t ).
10 3s 15 2s s s 5

jump
jump
58

Impulsive inductor voltage (4)

The jump of i2(t) from 0 to 6 A causes i2 (t ) 6 (t ) ,

contributing to a voltage impulse L2i2 (t ) 12 (t ).

After t > 0+,

vo (t ) (15)i2 (t ) ( 2 H )i2 (t )
15( 4 2e 5t ) 2( 10e 5t ) 60 10e 5t ,

consistent with that solved by Laplace transform.

59

Key points

How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the

s-domain?

Why the functional forms of natural and steadystate responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?

Why the output of an LTI circuit is the

convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
60

Practical Perspective
Voltage Surges

61

Why can a voltage surge occur?

Q: Why a voltage surge is created when a load

is switched off?

Model: A sinusoidal voltage source drives three

loads, where Rb is switched off at t = 0.

Since i2(t) cannot change abruptly, i1(t) will jump

by the amount of i3(0-), voltage surge occurs.
62

Example

Let Vo = 1200 (rms), f = 60 Hz, Ra = 12 , Rb = 8

, Xa = 41.1 (i.e. La = Xa/ = 109 mH), Xl = 1 (i.e.
Ll = 2.65 mH). Solve vo(t) for t > 0-.

To draw the s-domain circuit, we need to

calculate the initial inductor currents i2(0-), i0(0-).
63

Steady-state before the switching

The three branch currents (rms phasors) are:

I1 = Vo/Ra = (1200)/(12 ) = 100 A,
I2 = Vo/(jXa) = (1200)/(j41.1 ) = 2.92-90 A,
I3 = Vo/Rb = (1200)/(8 ) = 150 A,

The line current is: I0 = I1 + I2 + I3 = 25.2-6.65 A.

Source voltage: Vg = Vo + I0(jXl) = 125-11.5 V.

The two initial inductor currents at t = 0- are:

i2(t) = 2.92(2)cos(120t-90),

i2(0-) = 0;

i0(t) = 25.2(2)cos(120t-6.65),

i0(0-) = 35.4 A.

64

S-domain analysis

The s-domain circuit is:

(I0 = 35.4 A)

Vg =
12511.5
V (rms)

By NVM:

(Ll = 2.65 mH)

(12 )

Vo Ll I 0 Vg
sLl

(La = 109
mH)

Vo Vo

0,
Ra sLa

Ra Ll Vg ( s) I 0 Ra
253
Vo

s Ra ( La Ll ) La Ll s 1475

866.85 86 6.85

s j120
s j120
65

Inverse Laplace transform

253
866.85 86 6.85

,
Given Vo ( s )
s 1475 s j120
s j120

vo (t ) 253e 1475t 173 cos(120t 6.85 ) u (t ).

66