91582-00 DigitalCommunications2 SW ED4 PR3

Digital Communications 2
Student Workbook
91582-00
Edition 4
>{Z4\3G
3091582000603
FOURTH EDITION
Third Printing, March 2006
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Table of Contents
Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization........................................................................................1
Exercise 1 Introduction to the Circuit Board ...........................................................................7
Exercise 2 Communications System Model ............................................................................8
Unit 2 Line Coding....................................................................................................................11
Exercise 1 Encoding...............................................................................................................15
Exercise 2 Decoding ..............................................................................................................17
Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying ................................................................................................19
Exercise 1 FSK Signal Generation.........................................................................................24
Exercise 2 FSK Asynchronous Detection ..............................................................................26
Exercise 3 FSK Synchronous Detection ................................................................................28
Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying.........................................................................................................31
Exercise 1 PSK Signal Generation.........................................................................................34
Exercise 2 Synchronous Detection.........................................................................................36
Unit 5 Amplitude Shift Keying ................................................................................................39
Exercise 1 ASK Signal Generation ........................................................................................42
Exercise 2 ASK Signal Detection ..........................................................................................44
Unit 6 Effects of Noise...............................................................................................................47
Exercise 1 Channel Simulator................................................................................................54
Exercise 2 The Effects of Noise on ASK/PSK ......................................................................56
Exercise 3 The Effects of Noise on FSK ...............................................................................58
Unit 7 Modem............................................................................................................................61
Exercise 1 FSK Modem .........................................................................................................68
Exercise 2 DPSK Modem ......................................................................................................70
Appendix A Safety ............................................................................................................... A-73
THIS
ii
Introduction
This Student Workbook provides a unit-by-unit outline of the Fault Assisted Circuits for
Electronics Training (F.A.C.E.T.) curriculum.
The following information is included together with space to take notes as you move through the
curriculum.
The unit objective

Unit fundamentals
A list of new terms and words for the unit
Equipment required for the unit
The exercise objectives
Exercise discussion
Exercise notes
The Appendix includes safety information.
iii
THIS
iv
Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization
UNIT 1 CIRCUIT BOARD FAMILIARIZATION
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of
digital modulation and demodulation and the circuit blocks on your DIGITAL
COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
In today's fast-paced technological market, new electronic devices appear almost every day for
consumer entertainment, business management, industrial control, and data processing
applications. To expand and enhance the operation, versatility, and usefulness of these devices,
they can be linked together through digital communications.
Generally, communications involves an exchange of information between two persons or two

devices. This exchange can take on many forms, from face-to-face conversation between two
people to a remote transfer of scientific data between a ground station and a space satellite.
Digital communication is the electronic transmission of encoded information or data from one
point to another. Understanding digital communication involves the understanding of its
elements, including encoding, decoding, modulation, demodulation, and transmission media.
This figure shows generally how a digital input signal is processed for transmission and
reception. At the transmitter end the input signal drives an encoder, which changes the data into a
form that is suitable for transmission. The encoded signal is then processed by a modulator,
which prepares the information for transmission. The modulated signal is transmitted over a
transmission medium, or channel. Typical transmission media include the airwaves, wires, and
optical fibers.
The demodulator output signal is identical to the encoded signal before it is modulated in the
transmitter section. The recovered digital signal is identical to the original input signal.
There are several methods of transforming, or encoding, the transferred information into a binary
format as shown here. The three most common coding techniques are NRZ (non return to zero),
RZ (return to zero), and MAN (Manchester). The method chosen depends on several
transmission criteria, which will be explained in the following units.
This figure shows several different types of digital modulation used in transmission, and their
relationship to an NRZ coded signal. The modulation types are FSK (frequency shift keying),
PSK (phase shift keying), and ASK (amplitude shift keying). Notice that the modulated signals
change for some of the bit times (the intervals labeled 1-5). You will examine the three
modulation types in detail in later units.
The three basic types of communication are simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex, as shown
here. Simplex involves a one-way communication from one device to another. Half-duplex is
bidirectional communication over a single channel. Since one channel is used, the two devices
must time-share it. In other words, each computer can transmit to the other, but not
simultaneously. Full-duplex makes use of two separate channels to allow simultaneous
transmission and reception by both devices.
This figure shows a typical digital communication system between two computers. Each
computer is connected to a modem (modulator-demodulator). The modem modulates outgoing
signals for transmission and demodulates in-coming signals for reception. In this example, the
information is transferred over telephone lines. The signal carried via the channel is an analog
signal modulated with the encoded digital data. Transmission that uses modulation techniques,
such as in the example shown, is called broadband transmission.
It is also possible for two devices with a direct interconnection to communicate without
modulation. This is called baseband transmission. A signal transmitted directly without being
modulated is called a baseband signal. Baseband transmission limits both the bandwidth of the
transmission and the distance between the transmitting and receiving devices.
Depending on the modulation technique and the transmission medium, errors can occur in the
transmission of data. To minimize such errors, the transmitting and receiving devices must
conform to certain communication rules and procedures, known as protocols. Errors in digital
communication are changes in the bit pattern of the data, which can be caused by interference,
noise, or equipment malfunctions. Protocols are employed to detect and correct transmission
errors.
One function of protocols is to ensure that data transmission occurs in an orderly fashion. This
can be accomplished with either synchronous or asynchronous communication. Asynchronous
communication usually uses a start bit at the beginning of each word and one or more stop bits
at the end of each word. When no information is being transmitted, the channel is normally in the
logic high state.
The start bit is a low-going pulse that signals the beginning of the word to be transmitted. The
start bit is followed by eight bits of serial data. After the last data bit, the stop bit(s) signals the
end of transmission for that word.
In high-speed or high-volume data transmission, the extra bits associated with each word can be
a disadvantage due to the additional transmission time required. This disadvantage is eliminated
by using synchronous communication.
In synchronous communication, special control characters are sent at the beginning and end of a
large data block. In the example shown, transmission begins with two 8-bit synchronization
characters (SYN). The data is then transmitted in a block, which could consist of up to several
hundred or several thousand continuous bytes. After the last byte, the end-of-transmission
character (ETX) terminates the transfer.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS
modem - a signal conversion device that contains both a modulator and demodulator.
broadband - relating to the transmission of signals over a frequency range that is produced by a
modulated-carrier system.
baseband - the band of frequencies associated with an original signal from a modulated source;
an encoded but unmodulated message signal.
protocols - rules of communication system operation that must be followed.
synchronous - relating to events that occur at the same time or that depend on the occurrence of
common timing signal; operating at the same frequency or at a frequency derived from the
system.
asynchronous - relating to events that occur without a regular or predictable time relationship to
a specified event; operating at independent frequencies.
start bit - a bit that precedes data bits in a transmission and signals the beginning of the
transmission.
stop bits - a bit that follows data bits in a transmission and signals the end of the transmission. It
also provides space between transmission.
data block - a group of data bits transmitted as a unit.
BER (bit error rate) - the amount of incorrect data bits received in a digital transmission in a
specified period of time.
on-off keying (OOK) - a form of ASK modulation in which the smaller amplitude is OV.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
F.A.C.E.T. base unit
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace
NOTES
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Exercise 1 Introduction to the Circuit Board

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the
functions of the circuit blocks on the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board.
DISCUSSION
The individual circuit blocks contain test points and schematic block diagrams of the
appropriate circuit.
The circuitry itself is contained in the component area in the center of the circuit board.
Always use the ground jack closest to your measuring point for best noise immunity.
Pairs of jacks with dashed lines between them indicate the option of using a two-post
connector.
Some commonly-used signals appear at more than one point on the circuit board.
The ENCODER block encodes the data byte into three formats RZ (return to zero), NRZ
(non-return to zero), and MAN (Manchester).
The CLK signal generated by the circuit board pulses once for each bit time.
The SYNC signal is generated each time a complete byte is generated.
XOR, D-FLIP FLOP, and Synchronous decode circuits are provided.
The circuit board can generate FSK, PSK and ASK modulated signals.
Synchronous and asynchronous detectors are provided to recover data from FSK, PSK and
ASK modulated signals.
The CHANNEL SIMULATOR circuit block allows simulation of noise conditions.
The BER (bit error rate) counter displays the number of incorrectly received bits during its
test period.
Exercise 2 Communications System Model

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
In this exercise, you will use the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board to demonstrate
the operation of a communication system stage by stage.
DISCUSSION
The DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board has circuit blocks that perform
function of all the elements of the communications model.
The ENCODER block generates signals that are encoded with digital data.
In the MODULATORS circuit block the encoded signals modulate a carrier signal.
The CHANNEL SIMULATOR circuit block simulates the transmission medium over which
the modulated signal is carried.
Demodulation is accomplished using the detectors.
The MAN SYNC DECODER block recovers the NRZ and clock signals.
NOTES
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10
Unit 2 Line Coding
UNIT 2 LINE CODING
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to describe encoding and decoding methods for
common data codes. You will use the ENCODING circuit block on the DIGITAL
COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
In baseband data transmission, the message signal containing the data is transmitted directly
through the transmission channel.
Binary data is often encoded into a series of pulses. The digital circuitry inside a computer often
uses +5V for a 1 state (mark) and 0V (space) for a 0 state. When data communications concerns
the transmission of data from one location to another, the data is commonly encoded.
There are many types of line codes in use such as AMI, RZ, NRZ, and Manchester. Choice of a
line code is judged by trade-offs between frequency response, bandwidth, clocking content, and
dc drift.
11
Unit 2 Line Coding
A line code that is used in the T1-Digital Transmission System is called the alternate mark
inversion, or AMI. A mark, or 1, is represented by either a positive or negative pulse
symmetrical around 0V. Notice that alternate marks are inverted and have a typical value of +3V
or -3V.
The encoded signal cannot be transferred from one location to another without signal
synchronization between the two locations. In a synchronous system, the transmitter and receiver
clocks must be synchronous. When practical, the transmitter's clock can be sent using a separate
clock line.
Many types of transmitted encoded signals contain partial or full clocking information. This
allows the receiver to extract the clock timing information from the transmitted signals.
When clocking information is extracted from some types of encoded signals, it is often
dependent on the message information being transmitted.
12
Unit 2 Line Coding
Special line coding schemes are used with AMI signals to provide proper clock recovery when
long strings of 0's are transmitted.
In a Binary 8-Zero Substitution scheme (B8ZS), strings of 8 zeros are detected at the transmitter
and substituted with code patterns containing 1's. At the receiver, these substituted code patterns
are used for clock recovery and then changed back to the correct code of 8 zeroes.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS
baseband data transmission - when a signal is transmitted without modification, no carrier
signal.
line coding - encoding techniques used in data transmissions.
frequency spectrum - the distribution of the amplitude (energy) of a signal as a function of
frequency.
unipolar signals - signals that have one polarity (+ or -) with respect to circuit common (zero).
polar signal - signals possessing positive or negative polarity with respect to circuit common
(zero).
baud - a unit of signaling speed equal to the reciprocal of the shortest element duration in
seconds.
encoded - to express information in terms of a code.
decode - to produce clear information from previous encoded data.
bps - the rate at which bits or binary digits are transmitted.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Multimeter
Generator, sine wave
13
Unit 2 Line Coding
NOTES
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14
Unit 2 Line Coding
Exercise 1 Encoding
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe three common data
encoding techniques used in digital communications, and explain the benefits of each. You will
verify your results by using timing diagrams and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
When transmitting data, message signal characteristics must be matched to the transmission
channel.
Different signal encoding techniques offer trade-offs between bandwidth, clocking content,
and dc drift.
The binary levels of NRZ data remain fixed for the duration of the bit time.
In RZ encoding, the binary levels are represented during the first half of the bit time, and the
second half-bit is always zero.
0s and 1s in Manchester data encoding are sent in the first half bit time and the complement
is sent for the second half bit.
RZ and Manchester codes combine clocking information with the data.
When Manchester is used, clocking information can be recovered regardless of the data
pattern.
Unipolar signals typically switch between 0 and +5V.
Polar signals switch between a negative and a positive voltage (-5 to +5V).
Many communications channels are ac-coupled and, therefore, act like a bandpass filter.
Manchester encoding can provide a bandwidth which matches the capacity of an ac-coupled
channel.
15
Unit 2 Line Coding
NOTES
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16
Unit 2 Line Coding
Exercise 2 Decoding
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe three common methods
used to decode RZ and Manchester signals into NRZ signals. You will verify your results by
using timing diagrams and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Sometimes data and clock signals are sent over seprare lines.
RZ and Manchester coded data can be decoded using a D-type flip-flop.
An XOR gate can be used to decode Manchester coded data.
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Unit 2 Line Coding
NOTES
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18
Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying
UNIT 3 FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to describe frequency-shift keying and use the
circuits on the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board to generate and detect FSK
signals.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Most analog channels have a bandwidth that is unsuitable for the conveyance of baseband
digital signals. The received signal no longer contains the transmitted data.
The channel's bandwidth limitations distort signals that contain frequencies outside the channel's
passband. Note that most of the frequency components are below the channel's passband.
19
With the addition of a modulator and demodulator, a carrier signalcan be used that is
compatible with the channel's passband. The frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulator transmits a
carrier signal that represents the baseband signal.
The modulated carrier signal stays within the passband of the channel and is not attenuated. The
demodulator receives the carrier signal from the channel and recovers the baseband digital
signal.
FSK is a type of frequency modulation (FM). The FSK modulator generates a carrier signal
that changes in frequency. The modulating signal controls the output frequency. Unlike analog
FM, FSK uses a digital modulating signal. The FSK carrier signal is switched between two
specific frequencies by the digital modulating signal.
The carrier frequencies used to represent the digital states are selected to be compatible with the
intended channel's passband. Satellite transmissions typically use microwave carrier signals at
frequencies above 1 gigahertz. Phone transmission uses audio carrier signals at frequencies
between 300 Hz and 3 kHz.
20
If the channel's passband is wide enough, two carrier signals can be used to provide full-duplex
operation. The BELL 103 standard defines a full-duplex 300 baud FSK modem using two audio
carrier signals. The station originating the call transmits 1070 Hz for a logic low and 1270 Hz for
a logic high. The station answering the phone transmits a 2025 Hz for a logic low and 2225 Hz
for a logic high. Each change in the baseband signal generates one change in the 300 baud BELL
103 FSK carrier frequency.
FSK demodulators fall into two basic categories, synchronous and asynchronous.
Asynchronous demodulators filter the carrier signal before using an envelope detectorto recover
the baseband signal. Synchronous demodulators synchronize a reference signal with the carrier
signal to detect changes in carrier frequency and recover the baseband signal.
21
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

analog channels - communication pathways intended for analog message signals. These
channels are characterized by limited bandwidth and poor low frequency response.
bandwidth - the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a circuit.
baseband - the band of frequencies associated with an original signal from a modulated source.
An encoded but un-modulated message signal.
passband - the range of frequencies that pass through a circuit.
modulator - a circuit that uses a message to vary some characteristic of a carrier signal.
demodulator - a circuit that recovers a message signal by detecting some varying characteristic
of the carrier signal.
carrier signal - a signal that can be modulated by a message signal.
attenuated - reduced in amplitude.
frequency modulation (FM) - the process of combining the message signal with the carrier
signal that causes the message signal to vary the frequency of the carrier signal.
synchronous - relating to events that occur at the same time or that depend on the occurrence of
a common timing signal. Operating at the same frequency or at a frequency derived from the
system.
asynchronous - relating to events that occur without a regular or predictable time relationship.
Operating at independent frequencies.
envelope detector - a circuit that detects changes in a signal's amplitude. A circuit containing a
rectifier and filter used to perform demodulation.
phase-locked loop (PLL) - a circuit that compares its output to an input signal to produce a phase
aligned output.
direct-coupled - an electronic circuit or component is used to deliver the carrier signal to the
channel.
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) - an oscillator that uses an input voltage to control its output
frequency.
analog multiplexer (MUX) - a circuit that will pass one of several analog signals selected by the
control signal(s).
analog switches - electronically controlled switches intended for use with analog signals.
discontinuities - portion of the waveform that are not continuous. Abrupt changes in a signal's
voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
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NOTES
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23
Exercise 1 FSK Signal Generation

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the relationship between
FSK and the baseband digital modulating signal. Describe how an analog multiplexer can be
used as an FSK modulator and the frequency spectrum of an FSK signal.
DISCUSSION
FSK is a simple low cost modulation technique.
The FSK modulator can be acoustically or direct coupled.
A VCO can be used as an FSK modulator.
The circuit board uses an analog MUX as an FSK modulator.
24
NOTES
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25
Exercise 2 FSK Asynchronous Detection

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to recover the baseband NRZ signal
from the circuit board's signal, demonstrate how a filter can convert an FSK signal into
amplitude changes that represent the baseband signal, and the operation of an asynchronous
envelope detector.
DISCUSSION
The FSK demodulator recovers the baseband digital signal be detecting the frequency
changes in the FSK carrier signal.
An FSK signal consists of two on-off keying (OOK) signals.
A bandpass filter can be used to pass one of the OOK carrier signals while attenuating the
other.
The filter output will change in amplitude as the FSK changes frequency.
The amplitude changes are detected by an asynchronous detector.
26
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27
Exercise 3 FSK Synchronous Detection

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this exercise you will be able to recover a digital signal from an FSK signal
using a synchronous detector, demonstrate how a phase-locked loop can be used to detect the
baseband digital signal in an FSK carrier signal, and describe the operation of a phase-locked
loop configured as a frequency to voltage converter.
DISCUSSION
The FSK demodulator recovers the baseband digital signal be detecting the frequency
changes in the FSK carrier signal.
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30
Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying
UNIT 4 PHASE SHIFT KEYING
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this Unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of PSK
signal generation, carrier synchronization, and synchronous detection.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Phase shift keying (PSK) is a form of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal shifts
each time the digital intelligence signal changes state. The figure shows just after the NRZ signal
switches from high to low, the PSK signal at 0 and in phase with the carrier signal.
With reference to the carrier signal, the PSK signal phase shift is 0 for low NRZ states, and
180 for high NRZ states.
This figure shows how the intelligence signal is PSK-modulated on your circuit board. The
digital input signal has logic levels of 0V and +5V. A level shifter changes the logic levels to 5V and +5V. The dc-offset signal is then multiplied with the carrier signal in a balanced
modulator to produce the PSK signal.
31
PSK signals must be detected synchronously because asynchronous detection does not recognize
phase shifts. In demodulating a PSK signal, it is necessary to regenerate the carrier signal at the
receiver end. This is accomplished by deriving the carrier signal from the received PSK signal
with a carrier synchronizer consisting of frequency doubler, PLL, 2, and 90 phase shift
circuitry.
The regenerated carrier signal is then combined with the PSK signal in a product detector. The
product detector output is low-pass filtered, and the resulting pulses are shaped by a voltage
comparator to recover the original digital intelligence signal from the received signal.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS
None
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
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Exercise 1 PSK Signal Generation

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how PSK
signal generation is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
The original signal is shifted from 0 +5V logic levels to -5V and +5V polar logic levels.
The polar digital signal is then multiplied with a carrier signal in a balanced modulator.
Multiplying by a positive voltage produces a 0 phase shift.
Multiplying by a negative voltage produces a 180 phase shift.
PSK can be used with any type of encoding.
34
NOTES
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Exercise 2 Synchronous Detection

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate
synchronous detection of a PSK signal. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
The carrier synchronizer regenerates a carrier from the received PSK signal.
The PLL VCO OUT frequency will also be twice the PSK signal frequency.
The doubler is a full wave rectifier and bandpass filter which removes the intelligence from
the PSK and doubles its frequency.
The final stage divides the VCO OUT frequency by 2 and shifts it by 90 to produce the
regenerated carrier.
The regenerated carrier is mixed with the PSK to demodulate the signal.
The low pass filter and voltage comparator perform the final shaping of the pulses.
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NOTES
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38
Unit 5 Amplitude Shift Keying
UNIT 5 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
UNIT OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of
ASK signal generation and detection.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Most analog channels have a limited bandwidth that is unfit for the transmission of baseband
digital signals. To transmit baseband digital signals over analog channels, it is first necessary to
use some form of modulation.
Modulation mixes the baseband digital signals with a carrier signal that is compatible with the
channel's passband. The amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulator produces amplitude changes in
the modulated signal to represent the baseband signal. The demodulator receives the ASK carrier
from the channel.
39
An electronic SPDT switch, controlled by the digital modulating signal, can be used to illustrate
ASK modulation. The large carrier is connected (switch up) to the output for a binary 1. The
small carrier is connected (switch down) to the output for a binary 0.
An electronic SPST switch can be used to illustrate a simpler type of ASK modulation. The
carrier is connected (switch closed) to the output for a binary 1.
The carrier is disconnected (switch open) from the output for a binary 0. This special technique
of amplitude modulation is called on-off keying (OOK). The abrupt on and off changes between
signaling elements requires an increased channel bandwidth over standard ASK.
ASK demodulators (detectors) can be either asynchronous or synchronous. An asynchronous

detector does not use a reference carrier to recover the ASK amplitude changes. A synchronous
detector recovers the ASK amplitude changes using a reference carrier that agrees in frequency
and phase with the original ASK carrier signal.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS
on-off keying (OOK) - a form of ASK in which the carrier is turned on to transmit a binary 1 and
off to transmit a binary 0.
the scaling summer - an inverting operational amplifier that allows scaling of each input before
addition.
switched-capacitor low-pass filter - an active filter whose resistive element is a switchedcapacitor allowing a clock-tunable cutoff frequency.
40
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Multimeter
NOTES
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41
Exercise 1 ASK Signal Generation

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how ASK
generation is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
In Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK), the amplitude of a carrier is changed between two levels
in response to a modulating binary signal.
The first step performed by the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board is a shifting
or offsetting of the NRZ signal.
The summer adds a positive dc voltage to the NRZ signal.
At the output of the summer, the logic low of the NRZ signal is above the 0V level.
The balanced modulator functions as an amplitude-shift keying modulator.
The balanced modulator's output signal shifts the carrier signal between two levels in
response to the NRZ logic levels.
When the NRZ signal is a logic 1, the gain of the balanced modulator is fixed.
As observed, a logic 1 appears as the larger amplitude portion of the ASK signal.
When the NRZ signal is a logic 0, the gain of the balanced modulator is a function of the
amplitudes of the carrier signal and NRZ signal.
As a result, a logic 0 appears as the smaller amplitude portion of the ASK output signal.
As the offset voltage is reduced, a logic 0 appears in the ASK signal as a smaller carrier
amplitude.
When the offset is adjusted to 0 Vdc, the full-amplitude carrier level from the balanced
modulator represents a logic 1; carrier absence represents logic 0.
This special case of amplitude modulation is called on-off keying (OOK).
ASK modulation can be used with other types of encoding such as RZ and Manchester.
42
NOTES
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43
Exercise 2 ASK Signal Detection

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how ASK
detection is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
Detection, or demodulation, is the process of recovering the transmitted digital intelligence
from a modulated signal.
The amplitude changes in the ASK input signal are detected to recover the original NRZ
signal.
ASK signals can be demodulated asynchronously or synchronously.
Asynchronous demodulation does not recover the original un-modulated carrier.
An asynchronous detector circuit uses a full-wave rectifier to rectify the ASK signal, a lowpass filter to smooth the output of the rectifier, and a voltage comparator to restore the lowpass filter's NRZ output signal to proper logic levels.
A synchronous detector recovers the transmitted digital intelligence using a reference carrier
that agrees in frequency and phase with the original ASK carrier signal.
A synchronous detector recreates a copy of the original un-modulated carrier signal.
The regenerated carrier signal and the ASK modulated signal are input to the mixer.
The output of the MIXER has varying positive peaks, at twice the carrier frequency, that
follow the amplitude variations of the ASK signal.
The last two circuit blocks, LP FILTER and VOLT COMP, are the same as in the
asynchronous detector circuit.
The low-pass filter smoothes the output of the mixer.
The voltage comparator restores the low-pass filter's NRZ output signal to proper logic
levels.
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46
Unit 6 Effects of Noise
UNIT 6 EFFECTS OF NOISE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects of noise on
the reception of a digital signal.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Noise is random, undesirable electrical energy that can interfere with the transmitted message in
a communications system.
External noise (from outside the system) can be man-made or occur naturally and can enter the
system via the channel.
Internal noise (from inside a circuit or component) can be produced in the transmitter or
receiver.
There are many possible sources of external noise. Atmospheric disturbances such as lightning
can cause static. Various types of radiation emitted by the sun and other stars can also interfere
with communications.
47
Sources of troublesome man-made noise include; power lines, automotive ignition systems,
electric motors, and fluorescent lights
Many electronic components generate internal noise due to thermal agitation of the atoms.
Because the noise level is temperature-related, it is termed thermal noise. Thermal noise is a
form of white noise, which has the same amount of energy over a wide range of frequencies.
Another type of noise is shot noise which is random noise produced by current through a
semiconductor junction. The level of shot noise is proportional to the junction's bias current.
48
Low-pass noise ranges from dc to a certain cutoff frequency. In this example, the cutoff
frequency is about 300 kHz.
Bandpass noise occurs over a band of specific frequencies, but not outside those frequencies.
In analog communications, where the intelligence signal may be voice or music, you can detect
the effects of noise as static or audio distortion.
49
In digital communications, excessive noise can change the value of individual data bits, resulting
in the reception of invalid or erroneous data.
Most signals also include some noise. Excessive noise can cause some or all of the signal
information to be lost. To minimize the effects of noise, its level should be kept small relative to
the actual signal.
The top signal in this figure shows a typical digital pulse. The bottom signal is the same pulse
with the addition of noise. The noise almost obscures the original signal.
For this reason, it is important to maintain a favorable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The SNR is
the ratio of valid signal amplitude to noise signal amplitude, usually using rms values.
Vrms (signal)
SNR =
Vrms (noise)
The SNR is often expressed in decibels as follows:
SNR (dB) = 20 x log[Vrms(signal)/Vrms(noise)]
50
Ideally, the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio should be maintained to ensure error-free signal
detection in a receiver.
Noise can affect either the amplitude or phase of a signal. Phase noise is due to inherent delays in
circuits and components.
Amplitude noise can be measured by determining the bit error rate (BER).
There are several ways to measure the BER. This block diagram shows the method used by the
BER COUNTER block on your circuit board.
The transmitted and received data are compared bit by bit.
If the bits do not match, an error pulse is generated.
The errors are totalized in a counter over a fixed time period generated by a one-shot.
A display indicates how many errors occurred within the time interval.
51
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

noise - random, undesirable electrical energy that can interfere with the transmitted message in a
communications system.
external noise - noise originating outside a communications system that can enter the system via
the channel.
internal noise - noise originating inside a circuit or component in a transmitter or reciever.
thermal noise - internal noise generated by thermal agitation of atoms.
white noise - a type of noise that has the same amount of energy over a wide range of
frequencies.
shot noise - random noise introduced by current flow in a semiconductor junction.
low-pass noise - noise that ranges from dc to a certain cutoff frequency.
bandpass noise - noise that occurs over a band of frequencies, but not outside those frequencies.
signal-to-noise ratio - the ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude.
bit error rate (BER) - the number of incorrect bits received in reference to the total number of
bits transmitted.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS II circuit board
52
NOTES
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53
Exercise 1 Channel Simulator

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to demonstrate the effects of external
noise on a digital communications channel. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope and
with the CHANNEL SIMULATOR circuit block on your board.
DISCUSSION
The CHANNEL block on your circuit board simulates the transmission medium over which a
digital communication takes place.
A noise generator circuit within this block allows you to inject a variable amount of noise
into the input signal and observe the results at the receiver end.
The amount of injected noise is controlled by the NOISE pot.
The amplitude of CHANNEL circuit block pulses is controlled by the NOISE pot.
Summing amplifier U16A adds the noise signal to the input signal. The resulting output
drives U16B, which is configured as a low-pass filter.
The filter output is amplified by U17A before driving one of the demodulator circuits.
Three op amp circuits function together as a bandpass filter with a frequency range from
about 160 Hz to 70 kHz.
Noise signals within the passband can result in reception errors.
Noise signals outside the channel's passband do not present a problem.
The noise generator on your circuit board has frequencies in the range 75 Hz to 600 Hz,
which can cause data errors in your communication system.
In the BER COUNTER circuit block transmitted and received signals are XOR-gated
together.
The output of the XOR gate switches high only when the transmitted and received data are
different.
An XOR gate is used because an error can be defined as a condition where the received data
is not the same as the transmitted data.
Each time you press and release the RESET pushbutton, the control circuit simultaneously
resets the counter and triggers a 106 ms one-shot. In your circuit, 106 ms is the time required
for 128 data bits.
Error pulses from the XOR gate are totalized by the counter only during the 106 ms window.
If you press and release RESET a second time, only the number of error pulses in the second
interval is displayed.
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NOTES
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55
Exercise 2 The Effects of Noise on ASK/PSK

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects
of noise on ASK- and PSK-modulated signals.
DISCUSSION
Noise can cause errors in digital transmission by causing logic levels to be read incorrectly.
Zero volts is much smaller than the amplitude of a normal ASK signal, so noise is often not
sufficient to affect the recovered digital signal.
A low zero-state amplitude condition results in better noise immunity.
Because the PSK signal has a constant amplitude, it is not as sensitive to amplitude noise.
Intelligence in a PSK signal is a function of phase, which is affected minimally by amplitude
noise. The recovered digital signal, therefore, has fewer errors than that recovered from an
ASK signal.
Some noise can be filtered out of a communications system, depending on the noise
frequencies and the type of detection circuitry used.
On the circuit board, the noise frequencies range from 75-600 Hz.
The ASYNC DETECTOR is often preceded by a bandpass filter for ASK and PSK
modulation. The filter on the circuit board has a passband of 1.2 kHz to 4.6 kHz.
The bandpass filter is designed to attenuate noise and pass the carrier.
Inputs to the mixer of the SYNC DETECTOR circuit block are the original carrier and a
regenerated carrier of the same frequency. The mixer outputs the sum (twice the carrier
frequency) and the difference (zero) of the two frequencies.
If 75600 Hz noise frequencies are present at the input, 1501200 Hz noise frequencies are
output from the mixer.
If a 600 Hz noise signal is present, the mixer also outputs the sum and difference of the 2400
Hz carrier and the noise frequencies.
The frequency range of the signal at the mixer output is 18003000 Hz.
56
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57
Exercise 3 The Effects of Noise on FSK

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects
of noise on FSK-modulated signals.
DISCUSSION
Noise can change the amplitude of an FSK signal, which also affects the amplitude at the
output of the bandpass filter.
Amplitude changes are passed on to the envelope detector which results in errors in the
recovered digital signal.
FSK signals can be detected either synchronously or asynchronously.
Synchronous detection provides better amplitude noise response because the phase
comparator senses phase changes independent of the signal amplitude.
In the case of asynchronous detection, noise response is improved by the bandpass filter. Any
noise frequencies outside the passband are attenuated by the filter.
Noise frequencies above the high cutoff frequency and below the low cutoff frequency will
be rejected by the channel.
Telephone circuits are designed to pass a bandwidth limited to about 300 to 3000 Hz, which
includes the high and low FSK carrier frequencies. Any noise frequencies outside the
passband are attenuated.
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60
Unit 7 Modem
UNIT 7 MODEM
UNIT OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the operation of
a modem.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
The vast network of telephone lines throughout the world has become the most convenient and
economical medium for mass communications. Although voice is the primary signal carried by
the telephone system, this network is now widely used to carry digital information as well.
When it is necessary for two computers to communicate, voice-grade telephone lines can serve
as the communications medium. At each end of the communication link, modems are used to
convert between the baseband digital signals and the analog signals required for phone
transmission.
The modem is a device that acts as both a receiver and a transmitter; it contains both modulation
and demodulation circuitry. Modems can be set to operate in the originate mode or answer
mode, depending on whether they initiate or receive the call, respectively.
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Unit 7 Modem
In communications terminology, modems are called DCEs (data communication equipment).

Devices with which the modems communicate, such as computers, are called DTEs (data
terminal equipment).
Communication between DCEs and DTEs is often governed by an Electronic Industries
Association (EIA) standard called RS232.
This figure shows the basic signals in an RS232 interface. There can also be more signals,
depending on the application. The DTE sends data via its TXD (transmit data) output, and
receives data via its RXD (receive data) input. The next five lines are digital control signals that
allow the efficient transfer of data. The DTE outputs a DTR (data terminal ready) signal when it
is powered up and ready to operate.
Similarly, the DTE receives a DSR (data set ready) signal when the DCE is powered up and
ready to operate. The DTE outputs an RTS (request to send) signal when it is ready to exchange
data. When a CTS (clear to send) reply is received from the DCE, the DTE begins to transmit its
data. The DCD (data carrier detect) signal is used by the DCE to inform the DTE when a carrier
signal is present.
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Unit 7 Modem
These figures show the logiclevel voltages specified by the RS232 standard for both output
(upper figure) and input (lower figure) signals. A logic 0 (space) output requires a voltage in the
+5 to +15V range. A logic 1 (mark) output requires a voltage in the -5 to -15V range. The range
from -5 to +5V is a transition region for which a logic level is not defined.
The modem must be capable of transferring data at efficient rates within the limitations of the
telephone bandwidth, which is about 300 to 3000 Hz. This figure illustrates an FSK technique
using four separate frequencies for full duplex operation (simultaneous transmission in both
directions).
There are two sub-bands assigned within the telephone passband: the originate channel and the
answer channel. The originate modem sends a frequency of 1070 Hz to represent a logic 0 and
1270 Hz to represent a logic 1.
The originate frequencies are far enough apart from the answer frequencies to be selected by
filtering.
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Unit 7 Modem
This block diagram shows how the four frequencies are man-aged by the two modems. Modem
A transmits the 1070 and 1270 Hz tones through the channel to modem B. A bandpass filter
passes these frequencies through to the modem B demodulator. When modem B transmits, its
2025 and 2225 Hz tones are filtered by an-other bandpass filter in modem A. To simplify the
diagram, only one bandpass filter is shown for each modem.
Depending on the answer/originate status each modem selects 1 of the 2 bandpass filters. If
MODEM B has originated the call to MODEM A, then MODEM A would select the 1000 1350 Hz BPF and MODEM B would select the 1950 - 2300 Hz BPF.
PSK is another modulation type used with modems. In Unit 4, you demonstrated the two-phase
PSK method shown here. This is an absolute form of PSK because the state of each data bit
determines whether the phase shift is 0 (bit = 1) or 180 (bit = 0).
In DPSK (differential phase shift keying) the phase change for any given bit depends on the
phase of the previous bit. The type of DPSK used by the modem on your circuit board at the
higher bit rate is called dibit DPSK.
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Unit 7 Modem
In dibit DPSK, two bits of data (one dibit) are used to specify one of four phase changes as
shown in the table. By encoding more than one bit per phase change, dibit DPSK allows you to
increase the binary data rate without increasing the bandwidth.
A modem's operation must conform to one of several industry standards to ensure compatibility
with other devices. The TS7515 modem IC on your circuit board can operate according to the
Bell 103 or 212A standards, as well as "recommendation" V.22 of an international
telecommunications committee known as CCITT (Comit Consultatif International de
Tlgraphie et Telephonie).
This table shows a basic comparison between the two standards you will observe in the
following Exercises. Each standard has both a high and a low data-transfer rate. The high speed
for both standards is 1200 bps, and both standards use dibit DPSK modulation at this speed. The
low speed for V.22 is 600 bps, and two-phase DPSK modulation is employed. The 212A
standard has a low speed of 300 bps, with FSK as the modulation type.
This figure shows how a modem communicates between a DTE and the telephone network. The
modem has three basic sections, all with their own set of input and output signals. The transmit
section receives commands and data from the DTE and outputs an ATO (analog transmit output)
signal to the telephone network.
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Unit 7 Modem
The receive section inputs an RAI (receive analog input) signal from the telephone network and
sends data and commands to the DTE. The control section allows you to configure the modem
for various operating modes and parameters as required for different applications.
The input and output signals will be explained in the following exercises as they apply to FSK
(Exercise 1) and dibit DPSK (Exercise 2) operation.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS
originate mode - operation mode assigned to a modem that initiates a connection request (dials
the phone).
answer mode - operation mode assigned to a modem that responds to a connection request
(answers the phone).
DTEs (data terminal equipment) - a device, such as a computer or terminal, that exchanges
baseband data with a modem.
RS232 - an industrial standard that governs the connections, signals, and timing for one type of
serial communication system.
DPSK (differential phase shift keying) - a form of PSK by which data is recovered by
measuring the phase difference from one logic state to the next.
dibit DPSK - a form of DPSK in which one of four phases is represented by a two-bit binary
value (one dibit).
dibit - a circuit in the receiver section of a modem that reverses the scrambler's conversion
process to recover the original data. A group of two bits.
CCITT (Comit Consultatif International de Tlgraphie et Telephonie) - an international
committee established by the United Nations to recommend international telecommunications
standards of transmission with the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) - a form of modulation in which both the amplitude
and the phase of the carrier signal can vary with the baseband data.
constellation diagram - a graphic representation of the relationship between baseband data and
the phase and/or amplitude of the modulated signal.
scrambler - a circuit in the transmitter section of a modem that converts continuous strings of
identical bits into an alternating bit pattern.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Multimeter
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Unit 7 Modem
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67
Unit 7 Modem
Exercise 1 FSK Modem

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to describe and demonstrate the
operation of an FSK modem.
DISCUSSION
For the transmit section of the modem IC configured for FSK operation:
The TXD input accepts digital information from the DTE.
The data is modulated and filtered for transmission and then output from ATO.
The control and mode selection circuitry has several external inputs used to configure the
modem.
Four inputs are connected to CM switches for external control. These inputs are pulled high
by external resistors, and can be grounded by the CMs. CM4 is a normally closed switch,
while the others are normally open.
CM17 allows you to select answer or originate mode (A#/O).
With CM19, you can select the CCITT or Bell operating mode (C#/B).
The TL# (test loop) input allows you to select one of several test loop modes for checking
modem operation.
The test loop selected also depends on the modulation type (FSK or DPSK), the standard
(CCITT or Bell), and the BRS and A#/O input states.
BRS (binary rate selection) sets the modem for a high speed of 1200 bps (BRS = 1) or a low
speed of either 300 or 600 bps (BRS = 0).
A bit clock signal from the DTE is applied to a PLL via the TCLK input; this synchronizes
the chip's internal transmit clock.
An internal clock circuit, in conjunction with an external crystal, provides all the required
synchronization of both internal and external circuitry.
For the receive section of the modem IC when it is configured for FSK operation:
The modulated analog signal is input to RAI.
The signal is internally filtered and then output from RFO.
An external connection ties the filtered signal to RDI.
After amplification and demodulation, the resulting signal is output from the RXD pin.
A Carrier Detection circuit outputs a digital signal at DCD# that indicates whether or not a
valid carrier signal is present at RAI.
The Control and Mode Selection signals are the same as for the transmit section.
A Clock Recovery circuit derives the RCLK signal from RDI.
In synchronous mode, the RCLK frequency equals the bit rate.
In asynchronous mode, the RCLK frequency equals 16 times the bit rate. [NOTE: FSK
operation is asynchronous only.
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Unit 7 Modem
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Unit 7 Modem
Exercise 2 DPSK Modem

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to describe and demonstrate the
operation of a two-phase DPSK and a dibit DPSK modem.
DISCUSSION
The two-phase PSK method you demonstrated in Unit 4 is an absolute form of PSK because
each bit describes a specific phase shift.
When a bit is 1, the corresponding phase shift is always 0.
When a bit is 0, the phase shift is always 180.
In two-phase differential PSK (two-phase DPSK), phase is measured in two successive bit
times in order to determine the differential phase, or phase change, from one bit time to the
next.
The phase change, which is always either 90 or 270, then determines the bit value.
Assume that a modulated signal has a certain phase at some reference point. If the phase at
the following bit time changes by 90, then the data bit is 0. If the phase at the following bit
time changes by 270, then the bit is 1.
In the case of dibit DPSK, four phase changes are used. An extra bit is added to define the
four possible logic states.
In two-phase DPSK, the baud rate equals the bit rate. In dibit DPSK, twice as many bits are
transmitted in the same time period. Therefore, in dibit DPSK, the baud rate equals twice the
bit rate.
By adding a third bit to the dibit DPSK binary code, the number of states is doubled again to
eight. This method is called QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation).
In QAM, both the phase and amplitude of the signal are modulated.
The first two bits (one dibit) represents one of four phases, and the third bit represents one of
two amplitudes.
The dibit/phase relationship can be shown graphically in a constellation diagram, in which
the phases are assigned to the horizontal and vertical axes, and the amplitudes are represented
by a distance along an axis.
The number of possible states can be increased by adding either more phases or more
amplitudes.
In the transmit section of the modem, when it is configured for dibit DPSK operation, data
from the DTE enters at the TXD input and drives an asynchronous-to-synchronous converter.
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Unit 7 Modem
The converter's output drives a scrambler circuit that ensures the transmission of a
continuously changing bit pattern if continuous strings of ones or zeroes are input.
The SEI# control signal can be used to enable or disable the scrambler. When disabled, the
scrambler circuit is bypassed.
The next stage modulates the signal in a dibit DPSK format.
The modulated signal is filtered before being output from ATO to the channel.
In the receive section of the modem, when it is configured for dibit DPSK operation, the
modulated signal from the channel enters at RAI.
The signal is filtered and output from RFO.
The filtered signal re-enters the modem at RDI via an external connection.
The modulated signal is amplified, and the carrier and data are recovered.
A clock signal is recovered and output at RCLK.
When SEI# is enabled, the receive decoder output is descrambled, fed to a synchronous-toasynchronous converter, and output to the RXD pin.
When SEI# is disabled, the data from the receive decoder is output directly to the TEST pin
for diagnostic purposes. In this case, the RXD data is not descrambled and, therefore, is not
valid.
As with the FSK configuration, a carrier detection circuit outputs a DCD# signal to indicate
the presence or absence of a valid carrier signal.
The modem on your circuit board uses a cosine wave as the carrier.
The cosine wave is a sine wave shifted by 90.
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Unit 7 Modem
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Appendix A Safety
APPENDIX A SAFETY
Safety is everyones responsibility. All must cooperate to create the safest possible working
environment. Students must be reminded of the potential for harm, given common sense safety
rules, and instructed to follow the electrical safety rules.
Any environment can be hazardous when it is unfamiliar. The F.A.C.E.T. computer-based
laboratory may be a new environment to some students. Instruct students in the proper use of the
F.A.C.E.T. equipment and explain what behavior is expected of them in this laboratory. It is up
to the instructor to provide the necessary introduction to the learning environment and the
equipment. This task will prevent injury to both student and equipment.
The voltage and current used in the F.A.C.E.T. Computer-Based Laboratory are, in themselves,
harmless to the normal, healthy person. However, an electrical shock coming as a surprise will
be uncomfortable and may cause a reaction that could create injury. The students should be made
aware of the following electrical safety rules.
1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.
2. Always confirm that the circuit is wired correctly before turning on the power. If required,
have your instructor check your circuit wiring.
3. Perform the experiments as you are instructed: do not deviate from the documentation.
4. Never touch live wires with your bare hands or with tools.
5. Always hold test leads by their insulated areas.
6. Be aware that some components can become very hot during operation. (However, this is not
a normal condition for your F.A.C.E.T. course equipment.) Always allow time for the
components to cool before proceeding to touch or remove them from the circuit.
7. Do not work without supervision. Be sure someone is nearby to shut off the power and
provide first aid in case of an accident.
8. Remove power cords by the plug, not by pulling on the cord. Check for cracked or broken
insulation on the cord.
73
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Digital Communications 2

Third Printing, March 2006

Copyright September, 2003 Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Lab-Volt and F.A.C.E.T. logos are trademarks of Lab-Volt Systems, Inc.

Lab-Volt License Agreement

6. Registration. Lab-Volt may from time to time update the

Limited Warranty and Disclaimer

Questions concerning this agreement and warranty and all

THIS PAGE IS SUPPOSE TO BE BLANK

The unit objective

The Appendix includes safety information.

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

UNIT 1 CIRCUIT BOARD FAMILIARIZATION

Generally, communications involves an exchange of information between two persons or two

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Exercise 1 Introduction to the Circuit Board

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Exercise 2 Communications System Model

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 1 Circuit Board Familiarization

Unit 2 Line Coding

UNIT 2 LINE CODING

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 2 Line Coding

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

UNIT 3 FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Exercise 1 FSK Signal Generation

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Exercise 2 FSK Asynchronous Detection

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Exercise 3 FSK Synchronous Detection

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 3 Frequency-Shift Keying

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

UNIT 4 PHASE SHIFT KEYING

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Exercise 1 PSK Signal Generation

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Exercise 2 Synchronous Detection

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Unit 4 Phase Shift Keying

Unit 5 Amplitude Shift Keying

UNIT 5 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING