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Prasolov
Elements of
Homology Theo ry
v. V. Prasolov
Graduate Studies
in Mathematics
Volume 81
_._,i&.
N. V. Ivanov
Steven G. Krantz
B. B. IIpaconoB
8JIEMEHThI TEOPI1I1 rOMOJIOrl1H
MIIHMO, MocKBa, 2005
This work was originally published in Russian by MIIHMO under the title "8neMeHTLI
TeOpH:" rOMOnOr""
2005. The present translation was created under license for the
2000
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2007
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2006047074
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Contents
Preface
vii
Notation
Chapter 1.
ix
Simplicial Homology
1.
2.
Invariance of Homology
3.
Relative Homology
12
4.
21
5.
Calculations
35
6.
51
Cohomology Rings
59
1.
Multiplication in Cohomology
59
2.
69
3.
95
Chapter 2.
1.
111
111
2.
Characteristic Classes
131
3.
Group Actions
173
4.
Steenrod Squares
184
Chapter 3.
Chapter 4.
1.
Singular Homology
195
195
Contents
vi
2.
3.
227
252
Chapter 5.
1.
2.
3.
263
Sheaf Cohomology
263
De Rham Cohomology
275
289
Chapter 6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Miscellany
301
301
317
325
Complex Manifolds
339
344
365
Bibliography
403
Index
411
Preface
vii
viii
Preface
Notation
--+
Bj
ix
Chapter 1
Simplicial Homology
where [0, ... , i, ... , n] = [0, ... , i-I, i + 1, ... , n]. At this point, we begin to
consider formal sums of simplices. To be more precise, we declare simplices
with the same vertices and orientations to be equivalent and consider the
1 Most of the spaces that arise in topology from geometry are sufficiently good, as opposed
to those arising from functional analysis.
1. Simplicial Homology
simplex~, OO~
= o.
Proof. Let i > j. The simplex [... ,], ... , i, ... J occurs in the expression
for 00[0, . .. , nJ two times: in (-I)i o [... , i, ... J with the sign (_I)i+i and
in (-I)io[ ... ,J, ... J with the opposite sign (_I)i+i-l.
0
We could consider not only linear combinations of simplices with integer
coefficients but also finite 2 sums of the form E ai~~' where each ai is an
element of some Abelian group G and each ~~ is a simplex of dimension k.
The expression E ai~~ is called an n-chain (with coefficients in the group
G). Chains can be added to each other; therefore, they form an Abelian
group. The group of k-chains is denoted by Ck(K; G). For brevity, we often
denote this group by Ck(K) or simply C k .
We have defined the map 0 for simplices. Extending it by linearity, we
obtain a map Ok: C k --+ Ck-l, which we call the boundary homomorphism.
For the O-simplex ~o, we set 8o~o = o.
A chain c E Ck is called a cycle if OkC = 0, i.e., c E Ker Ok. The group
of k-dimensional cycles is denoted by Zk. A chain C E Ck is said to be a
boundary if c = Ok+Ic' for some chain c' E CH1, i.e., C E Imok+I. The group
of k-dimensional boundaries is denoted by Bk. It follows from 00 = a that
Bk c Zk; therefore, we can consider the quotient group Hk(K) = Zk/ B k .
its elements are equivalence classes of cycles: cycles are equivalent if their
2For infinite sums, we could not define the homomorphism
is a face for infinitely many simplices.
a in the case wn
re one simplex
Ho(K; G)
= ~
and
Hk(K; G)
for k ~ 1.
E Cl ,
oc = (al - a2)[a]
+ (a2 -
+ (ao - al)[2].
a[l, 2] + a[2, 0] + ala, 1], where
ao)[l]
The equalities o(a[l, 2] + a[2, 0]) = a[a] - a[l] and o(a[2, 1] + a[l, 0]) =
a[a]- a[2] show that any a-chain has the form a[a] (up to a boundary). On
the other hand, if
a[a] = oc = (al - a2)[a]
+ (a2 -
ao)[l]
+ (ao -
at}[2],
Thus, the group
0
The argument which we used to calculate HO(Sl) applies to any connected simplicial complex.
1. Simplicial Homology
= G.
Proof. Arbitrary vertices [m] and [n] can be joined by I-simplices [m, ill,
[iI, i2], ... , [ik' n]; therefore,
a[n] - arm]
This means that, up to a boundary, any O-chain has the form arm], where
[m] is a fixed vertex. It remains to verify that if the chain arm] is a boundary,
then a = O.
Suppose that
arm]
O.
[]
If the dimension of the simplex with vertices !(ao), ... , !(ak) is equal to k
8~A
= A-18k,
IS
chain (in
the latter case, both sides of this equality vanish). Suppose that I(ao) =
I(at) and the points I(at), . .. , I(ak) are different. In this case, we have
!k([ao, ... , ak]) = 0, and
= 0,
8kH D k + Dk-1 8 k = gk -
A,
-+
L are
gk(Zk) - Ik(Zk)
= o.
Proof. Note that 6,n = [b, aI, . .. , an] is a cone (over /:l.n-l = [al, ... , an]).
To each simplex [ail' ... ,ai",] we assign the simplex [b, ail' ... ,ai",]. Extending this map by linearity, we get a homomorphism Ck_l(/:l.n-l) -+ Ck(6,n);
we denote the image of Ck-l by [b, Ck-l]. It is easy to verify that 8[b, Ck] =
Ck - [b, 8ck] for k ~ 1 and 8[b, eo] = eo - E(eo)b, where E(E npaip) = E np.
Any chain Zk E Ck(6,n) has a unique representation in the form Zk =
Ck + [b,dk-l], where Ck E Ck (6,n-l) and dk- 1 E Ck_l(/:l.n-l). Suppose that
1. Simplicial Homology
= Ck -
[b,8ck]
=0
a E G.
2. Invariance of Homology
First, we prove a theorem about acyclic supports, which allows us to prove
the chain homotopy of two chain maps in many cases. Then, we twice
apply this theorem in different situations to prove the topological invariance
of homology. Finally, using the same theorem, we prove the homotopy
invariance of homology.
We can define homology with coefficients in any Abelian group G. But
the case most important for applications is the one in which G is the additive
group of some commutative ring with identity (e.g., G = Z, Q, or Zp);
on the other hand, some important facts about homology (and especially
cohomology) groups can be proved only for such groups of coefficients. For
this reason, in what follows, we usually assume the group of coefficients to
be the additive group of some commutative ring with identity.
2.1. Acyclic Supports. A simplicial complex is said to be acyclic if its
homology coincides with that of the singleton. For example, the cone over
any simplicial complex is acyclic; this is proved in precisely the same way
as the acyclicity of simplices (see Theorem 1.4 on p. 5; the proof of this
theorem uses only the representation of a simplex as a cone).
Suppose we have a chain Ck = l:ak.6.f E Ck(L). We refer to any
sub complex L' c L containing all the simplices .6.~ as a support of Ck.
We say that a chain map cP is augmentation-preserving3 if CPO (2: ai.6.?) =
l: bj.6.~, where l: ai = 2: bj .
2. Invariance of Homology
Theorem 1.5 (on acyclic supports). Let 'Pk, 1/;k: Ck(K) -+ Ck(L) be augmentation-preserving chain maps. Suppose that to any simplex ~ C K
there corresponds a complex L(~) c L so that the following conditions are
satisfied:
(1) if~'
~,
then L(~')
L(~)
L(~)j
is acyclicj
(3) the complex L(~k) is a support for both chains 'Pk(~k) and 1/;k(~k).
Suppose also that the coefficient group G is the additive group of a ring with
identity. Then the maps 'Pk and 1/;k are chain homotopicj in particular,
'P. = 1/;.
Proof. We construct a chain homotopy Dk by induction on k. First, suppose that k = O. Let ~o be a vertex of K. The complex L(~O) is a
support for the chains 'Po(~O) and 1/;0(~0). Since the maps 'PO and 1/;0 are
augmentation-preserving, it follows that ('Po -1/;o)(a~O) = Ebi~?' where
E bi = O. In the acyclic complex L(~O), the chain E bi~?' where E bi = 0,
is the boundary of some chainj therefore, ('Po - 1/;o)(a~O) = 81Do(a~0),
where Do(a~O) is a I-chain for which L(~O) is a support. The equality
Do(a~O) + Do(b~O) = Do(a + b)~O) may be false. To make it true, we
choose an identity element 1 in the ring G, fix a I-chain Do(1 ~O), and set
Do(a~O) = aDo(I ~O). In what follows, we denote chains of the form 1 ~
simply by ~ (note that this notation makes no sense if G is an arbitrary
group of coefficients).
Suppose that the required homomorphisms Do, ... , Dk-l are already
constructed and each L(~i) is a support for the chain Di(~i). The only
requirement to the homomorphism Dk is that 8k+lDk(~) = Ck for any ksimplex ~ in K, where Ck = 'Pk(~) -1/;k(~) - Dk-18k(~)' All simplices
8k(~) are contained in ~j hence L(~) is a support for the chain 8k(~),
and therefore L(~) is a support for the chain Dk-18k(~)' Thus, L(~) is a
support for Ck, and
8k C k
= (8kk = (8kk -
8 k'Pk - 8kDk--18k)(~)
8 k 'Pk - (1/;k-18k - 'Pk-18k - Dk-28k-18k))(~)
= O.
1. Simplicial Homology
implies the isomorphism of the homology groups of homeomorphic simplicial complexes. To define f*, we use the simplicial approximation theorem
(see Part I, p. 105).
Theorem 1.6. Suppose that the coefficient group G is the additive group
of a ring with identity. Let K' be the barycentric subdivision of a simplicial
complex K. Then the homology groups Hk(K') and Hk(K) are isomorphic.
Proof. First, consider the simplicial map j: K' - K defined as follows. If
K = ~k = [0,1, ... , kJ, then any simplicial map K' - K can be defined by
assigning the vertices (labels) 0,1, ... , k to the vertices of the complex K'.
To each vertex of K' which is the barycenter of some simplex [io, ... , i p ] we
assign one of the vertices io, ... , i p An example of such an assignment is
given in Figure 2. It is easy to show that precisely one k-simplex of K' has
complete set of labels, and the orientation of this simplex coincides with that
of K. Indeed, take the barycenter of K and consider the face whose vertices
have labels different from those of the barycenter; take the barycenter of
this face, and so on.
For general simplicial complexes, the map j: K' - K is defined similarly. Note that it is a simplicial approximation of the identity map. The
map j induces a chain map jk: Ck(K') - Ck(K).
Now, let us define a chain map ik: Ck(K) - Ck(K'); it is not induced
by a simplicial map. We set io(v) = v and idvo, VI] = [b, VI]- [b, vol, where
b is the barycenter of the simplex [vo, VI]. Formally, the definition of i 1 can
be written as il(~I) = [b,ioo~I]. For k > 1, we set ik(~k) = [b,ik_IO~k],
where b is the barycenter of the complex ~k. It remains to verify that ik is
a chain map, i.e., Okik = ik-IOk. Clearly,
okik(~k)
and
Okik = ik-lOk
The map j takes exactly one k-simplex from the baryc{; tric subdivision
of ~k to ~k and preserves its orientation; the remaining k simplices are
2. Invariance of Homology
mapped to simplices of dimension less than k. This implies that ikik is the
identity map, and for a support of the chain ikik(fl.'), where fl.' is any simplex from K', we can take the barycentric subdivision of the simplex A from
K that contains A'. The barycentric subdivision of A is the cone over 8Aj
therefore, the barycentric subdivision of a simplex is an acyclic simplicial
complex. Thus, the maps ikik and idck(K') have a common acyclic support.
Clearly, the map ioio takes vertices to verticesj hence, it is augmentationpreserving. Therefore, ikik is chain homotopic to the identity.
Thus, the induced homomorphisms i*i* and i*i* are the identity maps,
and hence the groups Hk(K') and Hk(K) are isomorphic.
0
Remark 1. The map i*: Hk(K) - Hk(K') has a simple geometric meaning
at the level of chains; namely, to every simplex it assigns the sum of simplices
into which it decomposes under the barycentric subdivision. The inverse
map i*: Hk(K') - Hk(K) is canonical4 only at the level of homology.
Remark 2. It is easy to prove Theorem 1.6 without appealing to acyclic
supports. Indeed, it suffices to verify that i*i* is the identity map. But all
simplices of the barycentric subdivision of A must have the same coefficients
in any cyclej therefore, the restriction of ikik to Zk is the identity.
Proof. We use only the following property of the simplicial maps 'P and
tP Let ao, .. , ak be the vertices 01 some simplex in K. Then the points
4We say that a map is canonical if it is uniquely determined by construction or for some
other reasons. For example, any group isomorphism Z:I -+ Z2 is canonical. Any ring isomorphism
Z -+ Z is canonical also, but a group isomorphism Z -+ Z is canonical only if it is assumed to take
1 to 1 rather than to -l.
In linear algebra, the most important example of a noncanonical isomorphism is the isomorphism between a linear space V and its dual space V. This isomorphism depends on the choice
of a basis in V.
In topology, noncanonical isomorphisms often arise between bundles because the fibers of
bundles are homeomorphic but the homeomorphisms are not canonical; the canonicity of the
homeomorphisms between fibers means the triviality of the bundle. Therefore, the homotopy and
homology groups of different fibers are isomorphic, but the isomorphisms are not always canonical
because the products of the base and the fibers may be twisted.
1. Simplicial Homology
10
IKI
-+
ILl
and g:
ILl
-+
IMI
r r
IK'I ~ IL'I ~ IMI
jK
Since
.,pcP is
jL
2. Invariance of Homology
11
Proof. If f: IKI -+ ILl and g: ILl -+ IMI are mutually inverse continuous
maps, then f. and g. are mutually inverse homomorphisms of homology
groups.
0
As an application of the topological invariance of homology, we give
yet another proof of the nonexistence of a retraction of the ball onto its
boundary.
Theorem 1.9. There exists no continuous map r: nn
that rex) = x for all x E sn-l.
-+
i- m,
12
1. Simplicial Homology
3. Relative Homology
Let K be a simplicial complex and L c K a sub complex. Then Ck(L) c
Ck(K), and we can consider the quotient group Ck(K, L) = Ck(K)/Ck(L);
the elements of this group are called relative k-chains. The homomorphism 8k: Ck(K) -+ Ck-1(K) induces a homomorphism 8 k : Ck(K,L) -+
Ck-l(K, L) with the same property 88 = o. Therefore, we can again take
the groups Zk(K,L) = Ker8k and Bk(K,L) = Im8k+l and consider the
quotient group Hk(K, L) = Zk/ B k , which is called the k-dimensional relative homology group.
Example 3. If each path-connected component of a complex K contains
at least one point of a sub complex L, then Ho(K, L) = o.
Proof. Let us join a vertex x E K with some vertex y E L by a polygonal
line 0: formed by edges. Then 8 1 0: = [x] - [y] '" [x]; therefore, Bo ::J Zoo D
Exercise. Prove that Ho(K, L; G)
--------
-+
-+
13
3. Relative Homology
Ok(Zk
rv
OkZk'
= OkZk
= O.(Zk + Ck(L)).
= OkZk,
where Zk E
where C L is the cone over L. The first isomorphism is obvious even at the
level of relative chains. The second follows from the exact sequence
Example 4. If n
1, then
Hk(D n , sn-l; G)
= {oG
for k
for k
= n,
1= n.
14
1. Simplicial Homology
---+
and
---+
G EB G
---+
---+
O.
i.
---+
p.
---+
e".---+ 0
---+
Ck(Kj G)
---+
Ck(Kj Gil)
---+
O.
15
3. Relative Homology
Hk-I(KjZm).
The cokernel of a homomorphism a: A
A'/Ima.
-+
-+
la
Ip
l~
o -+ Ker a
-+
Ker {1
-+
Ker'Y
-+
Coker a
-+
Coker {1
-+
Coker'Y
-+
O.
This short exact sequence of chain complexes induces the required exact
sequence of homology groups.
In dealing with exact sequences, the following assertion is often useful.
Theorem 1.13 (Steenrod's five lemma). Suppose that
is a commutative diagram of Abelian groups with exact rows. If 'PI, 'P2, 'P4,
and 'P5 are isomorphisms, then 'Pa is an isomorphism.
16
1. Simplicial Homology
simpler diagram
02
03,
o ~ A2 ~ A3 ~ A4 ------+ 0
, fJ2
fJ3
0~B2~B3~
B'4~ 0 ,
+ Ker .B~.
Since
Ker.B~
it follows that B3
= 1m CP3,
C Imcp3,
Hk(L)
'l
'
1
~
isO
Hk(L')
iso
Hk(K')
'1?
'l
iSO
'liSO
The five lemma implies that the middle vertical arrow is an isomorphism.
03
0~A2~A3~A4~0
C(3
is a monomor-
17
3. Relative Homology
(b) Prove that if r.p2 and r.p4 are epimorphisms, then r.p3 is an epimorphism.
Problem 4. Given a commutative diagram
18
1. Simplicial Homology
where C_l(K)
Cl(K) ~ Co(K)
= Z.
Ho(K)
* --+ X,
ffi Z.
---+
---+
Ho(Ko U KI)
---+
O.
0 - Hk(Ko
n Kt)
---+
---+
Hk(Ko U kl)
---+
o.
19
3. Relative Homology
However, representing the circle S1 as the union of two arcs Ko and K1 with
two-point intersection, we see that no such exact sequence exists for k = 1.
In reality, the k-dimensional homology of a complex Ko U Kl depends not
only on the k-dimensional homology ofthe complexes Ko n K1, K o, and K1
but also on their (k - 1)-dimensional homology; the correct exact sequence
is as follows.
Hk(L)
--+
--+
Hk(K)
--+
Hk-l(L)
--+ .. , .
Proof. The Mayer Vietoris sequence arises from the exact sequence
(1)
0 --+ C.(L)
(jOl-jI),
--+
0,
which we describe below. The complex C.(Ko) ffi C.(Kd consists of the
groups Ck(Ko) ffi Ck(K1 ), and the boundary homomorphism in it is the
direct sum of the boundary homomorphisms; i.e., a( co, c 1) = (ac O, 1 ).
The maps jO/: L --+ KO/ and iO/: KO/ --+ K are the natural embeddings.
ac
Let us show that (1) is exact. The map (jo, -jl) is, obviously, a monomorphism. It follows from K = Ko U Kl that (io, i1) is an epimorphism.
Indeed, take c = L ai~~ E Ck(K) and let cO be the sum of all terms for
which ~f C Ko. Then Kl is a support of the chain c - co, and (io, i1)(CO,
c - cO) = cO + (c - cO) = c.
It remains to verify exactness in the middle term. The image of the map
(jo, -JI) consists of chains of the form (c, -c), where c is a chain in L. The
kernel of (io, iJ) consists of chains of the form (c, -c), where c is a chain in
KonKl =L.
Clearly, the homology of the chain complex C.(Ko) ffi C.(K1 ) is isomorphic to H.(Ko) ffi H.(K1 ).
0
Mayer Vietoris exact sequences exist also for reduced homology. Indeed,
setting (jo, -jl)(n) = (n, -n) and (io, iJ)(m, n) = m + n, we obtain the
commutative diagram
20
1. Simplicial Homology
Theorem 1.16 (the suspension isomorphism). Let K be a simplicial complex, and let EK be the suspension over K. Then, for any k ~ 1, there
exists a canonical isomorphism Hk(EK) ~ Hk-l(K).
Proof. We can represent EK in the form Ko U Kl, where Ko and Kl are
cones over K and Ko n Kl = K. Let us write the Mayer Vietoris sequence
for reduced homology:
--+
Hk(EK)
--+
Hk-l(K)
--+
The spaces Ko and Kl are contractible; therefore, the first and last terms
in this sequence are trivial, and the middle map is an isomorphism.
0
1.
--+
--+
--+ .
21
Proof. The relative Mayer Vietoris sequence arises from the short exact
sequence
(2)
(jo,-il)
- -__I
G.(Ko)
G.(Lo)
G.(KI)
G.(LI)
(io,h)
--
G.(Ko U KI)
G.(Lo U Ld
---+
monomorphism.
We show that (io, id is an epimorphism. Take c= E ai6.~ EG.(KoUKd
and let cO be the sum of all terms for which 6.~ C Ko. Then the chain c - cO
is contained in C.(Kl)' Therefore, the pair (cO, c - cO) can be associated
with an element of the middle group in (2). The image of this element under
the map (io, it) coincides with c (mod G.(Lo U Ll))'
It remains to verify the exactness in the middle term. The image of the
map (jo, -il) consists of relative chains (c (mod G.(Lo)), -c (mod G.(Lt))),
where c is a chain in KonKo. The kernel of (io, il) consists of relative chains
(cO (mod G.(Lo)), c1 (mod G.(Ll))), where cO + c 1 E G.(L o U Ll)' Clearly,
the image is contained in the kernel. Consider an element of the kernel. Let
ifJ be the sum of all terms in the chain cO + c 1 that are contained in G. (L o),
and let c1 = - (cO + & + c l ). Then cl E G. (L 1 ) j therefore, for c we can take
cO + & = _ (c 1 + ( 1 ).
0
22
1. Simplicial Homology
simplices with values in G. To each simplex ~~ any value can be assigned; infinitely
many values may be nonzero.
For the group of chains a direct sum rather than a Cartesian product is taken
because boundary homomorphisms cannot be defined for Cartesian products. The
reason for this is that the direct sums of free Abelian groups are free, while the
Cartesian products are not.
Suppose that G is the additive group of a ring with identity. Then to each
simplex ~~ we can assign the k-cochain (~~). which takes the value 1 at ~~ and
vanishes at all other k-simplices. Therefore, any k-cochain can be written as a
formal sum L:go~~)*, where go< E G. This sum can have infinitely many terms.
(c5c k ,Ck+1)
= (C k ,OCk+1)'
Remark. Sometimes, the operator c5: Ck(K; G) --+ CHI (K; G) is defined
by
=0
implies c5c5
and
HO(K; G)
= ZO(K; G)
are defined; here Zk and Bk+1 are the kernel ann. the image of the homomorphism c5: C k --+ C k+1, respectively. The elements of the groups Zk and
Bk are called cocycles and co boundaries.
Example 6. If K is a connected simplicial complex, then HO(K; G) = G.
23
1. Simplicial Homology
24
(3)
induces the dual sequence
(4)
0 - Ck(LjG)
Ck(KjG)
Ck(K,LjG) -
O.
This sequence is exact as well, but proving this requires some effort. Moreover, the proof of the exactness of the sequence (4) uses a special feature of the sequence (3), namely, its split property. An exact sequence
c -+ a be an exact sequence.
Then the
(5)
~C
-----+
0,
(b) the homomorphism cp has a left inverse, i.e., there exists a homomorphism 4>: B -+ A for which 4>cp = idA j
(c) the homomorphism,p has a right inverse, i.e., there exists a homomorphism \lI: C -+ B for which ,p\ll = ide.
Proof. Clearly, conditions (b) and (c) hold for any sequence of the form (5)j
to see this, it suffices to set 4>(a, e) = a and \lI(c) = (0, e). It remains to
verify that if (b) or (c) holds, then the sequence has the form (5).
Suppose that 4>cp = idA. Let us show that B = Imcp ffi Ker4>. Any
element b E B can be represented as b = cp4>(b) + (b-cp4>(b)), where cp4>(b) E
1m cp and b - cp4>(b) E Ker 4>. Moreover, if b E 1m cp n Ker 4>, then b = cp(a)
and a = 4>(b) = 4>cp(a) = aj hence b = O.
Suppose that ,pw = ide. Let us show that B = Ker.,p ffi 1m \lI. Any
element b E B can be represented as b = (b - \lI.,p{b)) + \lI,p{b), where
b - w1j;(b) E Ker,p and W,p(b) Elm \lI. Moreover, if bE Ker,p n 1m W, then
b = w(e) and a = ,pCb) = ,p\I!(e) = ej hence b = O.
0
7Formally, this means that there exists an isomorphism /: B
diagram is commutative:
--+
25
o --+ A ~ B !t C
(b) If a sequence 0
the dual sequence
--+
0.- Hom(A, G)
A ~ B
!t C
--+
Proof. (a) First, let us show that Kef'l,b = O. Suppose that C E Ker, i.e.,
0= ifi(c) = Co1/J. This means that c(1/J(b)) = 0 for all b E B. By assumption,
1/J is an epimorphism; therefore, c = O.
~ow, let us show that 1m = Ker rj;. The equality 1/J 0 cp = 0 implies
Ker rj;. Suppose that b E Ker rj;, i.e., 0 = rj;(b) =
b 0 cpo _This means that b(lm cp) = 0; therefore, b induces a homomorphism b/ : B / 1m cp --+ G. The homomorphism 1/J induces an isomorphism
1/J/: B / 1m cp --+ C. Consider the homomorphism b' (1/J') -1 E Hom( C, G).
Clearly,
26
1. Simplicial Homology
Yl~
G +-- B / 1m r.p ~ C
is commutative.
(b) Let cI>: B
composition
-+
Hom(A,G)
-+
Hom(B,G) ~ Hom(A,G)
-+
-+
Z is a homomorphism, then
(3) Hom(Zn, Zm) = Zd, where d = GCD(n, m). Indeed, any homomorphism r.p: Zn -+ Zm is completely determined by the element r.p(1), which
must satisfy the relation nr.p(l) == 0 (mod m), i.e., r.p(1) == 0 (mod mid).
Thus,
m 2m
(d-1)m}
r.p(1) E { 0, d' d"'"
d
.
= {ma I a E
A}. Prove
Problem 15. Prove that the group Hom(Q, Q/Z) is uncolUltable. (Here Q
is the group of rational numbers under addition.)
4.2. Tensor Product and Homology with Arbitrary Coefficients.
We have defined the cohomology groups Hk(Kj G) with arbitrary coefficients
using chain groups with coefficients in Z. Similarly, the homology groups
Hk(Kj G) can be defined using chain groups with codfi ients in Z. The
27
+ ... + ak bk
= o.
:!:... C
AG~BG~CG--O,
where 1
= idG.
(b) If a sequence 0 -- A ~ B
the sequence
:!:...
0---+ AG ~ BG ~ CG
---+
o.
1. Simplicial Homology
28
Proof. (a) First, let us show that 1jJ 1 is an epimorphism and its kernel
coincides with Ker1jJ G. The homomorphism 1jJ 1 induces a homomorphism
-----
-----
-+
C G.
-+
1 and ~
~:
-+
(~ 1)
(cp 1)
= iPcp 1 =
idA ide
= idA.
Then
= idAe;
-+
Q Z2 induced by the
4.3. The Groups Tor and Ext. The homology and cohomology groups
with arbitrary coefficients can be expressed in terms of integral homology groups. The expressions include operations Tor and Ext, which assign
Abelian groups Tor(A, B) and Ext(A, B) to pairs of Abelian groups A and
B. In cmputations, it is sufficient to know Tor(A, B) and Ext(A, B) for
A, B = Z, Zm, Q, and JR.
The groups Tor(A, B) and Ext(A, B) are defined as follows. The Abelian
group A can be specified by generators and defining relations. This means
that there exists an exact sequence
(6)
i
o -+ R -+
F
-+
-+
0,
where F and R are free Abelian groups (the group F is defined by generators
and R, by relations; the group R is free because it is a subgroup of a free
group). The exact sequence (6) is called a free resolution of the Abelian
group A. The exact sequence (6) induces exact sequences
RB ~ FB ~ AR
---+
and
Hom(R, B) ~ Hom(F, B)
J- Hom(A, B) ~ o.
29
il
B -
F B
pl
----+
A B --. 0
and
l ~l
l~o
l~
i'
p'
O~R'~F'~A'~O.
(b) If tPo and tPl are other homomorphisms completing the free resolutions to a commutative diagram, then there exists a homomorphism Do: F --+
R' for which i'Do = CPo - tPo and Doi = CPI - tPl .
Proof. (a) Take bases {Ta.} and {ft3} in the free Abelian groups Rand
F. The map p' is an epimorphism; therefore, F' contains elements f~ such
that P'(J~) = cPp(Jt3). For the basis elements, we set cpo(Jt3) = f~; then, we
extend CPo to a group homomorphism F --+ F'. We have p' CPo = cpp.
By assumption, pi = 0; hence p'cpoi(ra) = cppi(Ta) = O. It follows from
Ker p' = 1m i' that R' has an element T~ for which i'(T~) = CPOi(Ta). We set
CPI(Ta ) = r~. Then i'CPI = cpoi.
(b) Choose a basis {fa} in F. By assumption, p'(cpo-tPo)(fa) = cpp(Ja)cpp(Ja) = O. Therefore, R' has an element {T~} for which i'(T~) = (cpo Wo)(fa). We set Do(fa) = r~. Then i'Do = cpo - tPo, whence i'Doi =
(cpo - tPo)i = i'(CPl -WI)' The map i is a monomorphism; therefore, Doi =
CPI - tPl.
0
The awkward formulation of Lemma 1.2 has a very natural interpretation
in the language of homological algebra. Namely, consider the sequence of
homomorphisms
30
1. Simplicial Homology
o --+ R ~ F
--+
----+
0,
31
A' R
l'i
----t
A' F
At~AL
(7)
~O
32
1. Simplicial Homology
=0
T=O.
----+
Hom(G,C)
----+
Hom(F, C)
----+
is exact.
(b) Prove that, for any divisible group G, the sequence
o ----+ Hom(A, B)
----+
Hom(A, G)
----+
Hom(A, H)
----+
Ext(A, B)
----+
o.
33
Problem 22. Given an exact sequence of Abelian groups 0 - A _ B C - 0, prove that, for any Abelian group X, there are exact sequences
---+
Ext(X, C)
---+
and
o ---+ Hk(K)
---+
Hk(Kj G)
---+
Tor(Hk_l (K), G) -+ 0
and
= Hk(Kj Z).
and
Hk(Kj G) ~ Hom(Hk(K), G) ffi Ext (Hk- 1 (K), G)
(the isomorphisms are not canonical).
Proof. Consider the exact sequence of chain complexes
34
1. Simplicial Homology
Bk G
-----+
Zk G
-----+
Hk(C. G)
Bk
-----+
-----+
Zk-l G
-----+
-----+
Hk(C.G)
1811
-----+
Ker(Bk-lG ~ Zk-lG)
o -----+ B k-l
-----+
= Tor(Hk _ 1 (K), G)
Z k-l
-----+
H k-1
-----+
--+
O.
More-
= H k - 1 (Kj Z).
o -----+ Z k
i
-----+
Ck
-----+
B k-l
-----+
-----+
--+
Zk is a splitting
Hk G
to the cycles of the complex C. G, we obtain a map that induces a homomorphism ~: H k (K j G) --+ H k (K) G since I 1 takes boundaries to
boundaries. Clearly, if Eni~f is a cycle in Ck, then ~'P((Eni~n g) =
~(E nig~n = (E ni~~) g.
For cohomology, the fact that the exact sequpnce is split follows from
Theorem 1.19, (b).
0
ore,
35
5. Calculations
In calculating the groups Tor and Ext, the following fairly obvious isomorphisms are useful:
Ext(Al EB A 2, B)
Tor(A l EB A 2 , B)
Ext
Tor
Ext ( A,
II B) = II Ext(A, B
a ),
(~A.,B) = ~Tor(A.,B),
Problem 24. Suppose that Hi(KjZ) = zn, EB11 and Hi(KjZ) = zm, EBr,
where 11 and r are finite groups. Prove that mi = ni and r ~ 11-1'
Problem 25. Derive the assertion of Problem 24 directly from the definition
of homology and cohomology groups, without using the universal coefficient
theorem.
Problem 26. Let X and Y be finite simplicial complexes, and let f: X -- Y
be a continuous map. Prove that if the map f.: HI (X) -- HI (Y) is zero,
then so is f*: Hl(y) __ Hl(X).
5. Calculations
5.1. Fundamental Classes. Many homological properties of manifolds
are consequences of the fact that for an orient able closed manifold Mn,
the group Hn(Mnj Z) is nontrivial and generated by one homology classj a
similar assertion is true for the Z2-homology of an arbitrary closed manifold.
Pseudomanifolds 9 have the same homological properties.
Hn
(Mn'G)
,
{G
Ker( G
= O.
if Mn is orientable,
x2
--+
G)
if Mn is nonorientable.
9The definition of a pseudomanifold was given in Part I on p. 109. Recall that any smooth
manifold can be triangulated, and a triangulated manifold is a pseudomanifold. Therefore, all
theorems on pseudomanifolds presented below are also valid for smooth manifolds.
36
1. Simplicial Homology
Problem 27. Prove that if Mn is a closed orient able manifold, then the
assertion of Problem 10 on p. 20 remains valid for k = n - 1. Is it essential
that the manifold M n is closed? orientable?
For pseudomanifolds with boundary, the same argument proves that
if Mn is orient able,
if Mn is nonorientable.
Indeed, if a simplex ~n-l belongs to 8M n , then its contribution to the relative chain is zero. The definition of fundamental classes in relative homology
is the same as in absolute homology.
Let Mn and Nn be closed oriented pseudomanifolds. A map f: Mn -+
N n takes the fundamental class [Mn] to an element of the group HnCNn; Z),
and any element of this group has the form k[Nn], where k E Z. The integer
degf for which (degJ)[N n] = f*([Mnj) is called the degree of the map f. If
37
5. Calculations
the pseudomanifolds M n and N n are closed Cbut not necessarily orient able ),
then the degree of f modulo 2 can be defined.
-+
1. Simplicial Homology
38
+ 1.
The map 8k: Ck -+ Ck-l is the composition of the horizontal and vertical
arrows. The group Hk(Xk) can be regarded as a subgroup in Ck. Moreover,
we can identify Hk(Xk) with Ker 8k because if ep = hep' for a monomorphism
h, then Kercp = Kerep'. Identifying Hk_l(X k - 1 ) with Ker8k_ 1 in a similar
way, we obtain H k _ 1 (X k ) ~ Ker8k-I!Im8k.
The map 8 k : C k
-+
= 0 follows
from 88[e~1 = O.
39
5. Calculations
verify that these cycles are homologous to the sides of the 4n-gon from
the sphere with handles is obtained. First, consider a handle from
a disk is removed (see Figure 4). Clearly, to the cycles in Figure 3
spond those in Figure 5; the latter cycles are homologous to the sides
polygon.
Example 8. HI (mP2)
= zm-l ED Z2
which
which
correof the
= Zr.
Proof. The complex for calculating the cellular homology of mP2 has the
form
Z ~ zm ~ Z --. o.
We again have 81 = 0, but this time, (h(!) = (2, ... ,2) because each I-cell
occurs two times with the same orientation in the boundary of the 2-ce11. We
40
1. Simplicial Homology
must take the quotient group of zm modulo the subgroup generated by the
element (2, ... ,2). Consider el - (1,0, ... ,0), ... , em-l = (0, ... ,0,1,0),
and em = (1, ... ,1). We have
The condition (al, ... , am) E Imih is equivalent to al - am = 0, ... , am-lam = 0 and am == 0 (mod 2). Therefore, the quotient group zm / 1m ih is
isomorphic to zm-l EB Z2; the group zm-l is generated by el. ... , em-I. and
the group Z2 is generated by em. As before, for the coefficient group Z2, we
have ih = O.
0
Cycles Q and (3 generating the integral homology group for the Klein bottle are shown in Figure 6. At the level of homology, we have 2(3 = 0 because
the boundary of the Mobius band hatched in Figure 6a is homologous to 2(3.
Problem 29. Calculate the homology groups of closed two-dimensional
surfaces with coefficients in Zp for p f:. 2.
Problem 30. Calculate the cohomology groups of closed two-dimensional
surfaces with coefficients in Z.
41
5. Calculations
{Zo
Proof. The space cpn has the structure of a CW-complex with cells
Cpk \ Cpk-l (see Part I, pp. 118 119). We can construct a triangulation of the manifold cpn for which every skeleton X2k+l = X 2k = Cpk is
a simplicial sub complex in the same way as the triangulation of a manifold
with boundary was constructed in Part 1.
The chain complex for calculating the cellular homology of the space
cpn has the form
Z
---+
---+
---+
...
---+
---+
O.
The homology groups of this chain complex coincide with the chain groups.
n-l
Example 10. (a) For k > 0, H2k(JRpn) = 0, and for 0 ~ k < -2-'
H2k+l (lRpn) = Z2.
(b) For 0 ~ k :::; n, Hk(JRpn j Z2) = Z2.
Proof. Suppose that IR.pn is endowed with the structure of the CW-complex
with cells JRpk \ JR'pk - 1 (see Part I, pp. 118 119). Then Ck = Z for
o ~ k ~ n. The central symmetry of the sphere 8 k - 1 preserves orientation
for even k and reverses it for odd k. Therefore, the boundary homomorphism 8 k : Ck -+ Ck-l takes 1 to 1 + 1 = 2 for even k and to 1 - 1 = 0
1. Simplicial Homology
42
for odd k. The chain complex for calculating the cellular homology of the
complex lRpn for even n has the form
Z
x2
---+
Z -- Z
x2
---+
x2
---+
---+
---+
OJ
Z ~Z ~Z
---+
O.
Therefore,
H.(lRpn) = { ;
if k = a or k = nand n is oddj
is k is odd and a < k < nj
otherwise.
Problem 32. Calculate the integral homology groups of the n-torus Tn.
Problem 33. Calculate the integral cohomology groups of the complex
lRpn.
Problem 34. Give an example of a noncontractible acyclic two-dimensional
CW-complex with I-skeleton 8 1 V 8 1 .
5.3. The Intersection Number and the Poincare Duality Isomorphism. Suppose that a closed oriented manifold M n is decomposed into
cells in two different ways so that there is a one-to-one correspondence
between the open k-cells of one decomposition and the open (n - k)-cells of
the other decomposition. We denote the corresponding open cells by Ui and
ui, respectively. Suppose also that Ui n u; = 0 for i i= j and the cells Ui
and ui transversally intersect each other in one point for all i. We assume
that the cells Ui and ui are oriented so that if e1, .. , ek and 1, ... , n-k are
positively oriented bases lO for Ui and ui, then e1, ... , ek, 1, ... ,n-k is a
positively oriented basis for Mn. Finally, suppose that the coefficient group
is the additive group of an associative commutative ring R with identity. In
this case, we can consider the intersection number for the chains E aiUi and
E biUij it is defined as
Vo is oriented positively.
43
5. Calculations
-4
R.
Namely, we take the cell decompositions K and K*, choose the cycles
L: aiO'"i and L: bwi representing homology classes a E Hk(M n ; R) and /3 E
Hn_k(M n ; R), and define cp(a, (3) to be the intersection number of these
chains (cycles). We must verify that this intersection number does not
depend on the cycles representing a and /3.
[vb, V2, ... , Vk, Vk+l,"" vn] = (-l)k[vo, vb, V2, ... , vn].
It remains to note that [va, vb, V2," ., vn] is contained in [vo, Vb V2, . .. , Vn],
and the orientations of these simplices are compatible.
It follows from this lemma that the map cp(a, (3) is well defined because
if CI = 8d and 8C2 = 0, then {(Cl,C2)) = {(8d,c2)) = {(d,8c2)) = o.
44
1. Simplicial Homology
interesting from the point of view of homology because the chains (8u)'" and
8(u"') belong to different spaces (if dimu = k, then dim(8u)'" = n - k + 1,
whereas dim8(u"') = n - k - 1). It is more natural to associate each chain
r
.
Ck = "L..J aiUi Wlth a coch
aln Cn-k lor
w hlCh (n-k
C
'Ui"') = ai, I.e.,
(Cn k,
btU;)
=L
atbi
((Ck'
bW;)}.
(In other words, the value of the cochain cn - k at the given chain is equal
to the intersection number of cn k with ek; such a cochain exists and is
unique.) We havE'
(dcn k,d n HI}
(-I)k((8ck,d n_k+l});
i.e., associated with each chain of the form 8Ck is the cochain dcn k. This
means, in particular, that to cycles and boundaries correspond co cycles
and coboundaries, respectively. Therefore, this isomorphism between the
space of k-chains in K and the space of (n - k)-cochains in K'" induces an
isomorphism between the groups Hk(M n ; R) and Hn-k(Mn; R).
For the coefficient group Z2, we do not have to worry about orientations;
therefore, for closed but not necessarily orient able manifolds, we can consider intersection numbers modulo 2 and obtain isomorphism Hk(M n ; Z2) ~
Hn-k(Mn; Z2).
We have proved the following assertion.
Theorem 1.25 (the Poincare duality isomorphism). (a) If M n is a closed
orientable manifold and R is the additive group of a unital associative commutative ring, then Hk(M n ; R) ~ Hn-k(Mn; R).
(b) If M n is a closed manifold, then H k (M n ;Z2) ~ Hn-k(M n ;Z2).
Corollary. (a) If M n is a closed orientable manifold and F is the additive
group of a field, then Hk(Mn; F) ~ Hn_k(M n ; F).
(b) If Mn is a closed manifold, then H k (M n ;Z2) ~ H n _k(M n ;Z2).
The subgroup formed by the finite-order elements in a group is called
the torsion subgroup of this group.
Problem 35 (Poincare duality). Suppose that Mn is a closed orientable
manifold, Hk(M n ) ~ Zak EB Tk, and Hk(Mn) ~ Zbk EB Tk, where Tk and Tk
are the torsion subgroups. Prove that ak = an-k, bk = bn - k , Tk ~ Tn-k-l,
Tk ~ rn-k+l, and TI = o.
The Poincare duality isomorphism and the universal coefficient theorem
imply the following properties of the homology and coh mology groups of
manifolds.
45
5. Calculations
Hn(Mn. R)
,
~ {R
R/2R
if Mn is orientable,
if Mn is nonorientable.
1. Simplicial Homology
46
-0.
= cp(a, m(3) = 0;
47
5. Calculations
link formed by these curves. Look at the crosses where J passes under K.
There are two types of such crosses (see Figure 7). For each cross under
consideration, we set Ci = 1 or -1, depending on its type. The sum of all
numbers Ci thus obtained is called the linking number of the closed oriented
curves J and K.
IE
=1
IE
=-1
To show that the two definitions are equivalent, we arrange the curves
and C2 so that they leave the plane of the diagram only in small neighborhoods of the crosses. We can also assume that the surface dl is located above
the plane of the diagram, except in small neighborhoods of the crosses (see
Figure 8). We are interested only in the crosses where the curve C2 passes
Cl
over Cl. These are precisely the places where C2 intersects the surface d1 .
The signs do not cause any problem either. For example, in Figure 8, the
basis eI, e2, el is oriented positively (we use the same notation as in the
definition of the intersection number); this corresponds to a positive cross.
There are many other definitions of the linking number of curves J and
K. For example, consider the map f: J x K --+ 8 2 defined by
K(y) - J(x)
f(x, y) = IIK(y) - J(x) II
--+
48
1. Simplicial Homology
Problem 37. Prove that deg f = Ik(J, K). Define orientations on the
torus J x K and on the sphere S2 so that deg f = lk( J, K).
Cohomology with Compact Support and Homology with Closed
Support. The Poincare isomorphism theorem as stated above does not
apply to noncompact manifolds. It is false even for the manifold lRn. Nevertheless, for noncompact manifolds, we can construct dual decompositions
and try to establish a correspondence between chains Ck and co chains cn- k .
Of course, such an effort cannot succeed, but we can see where it fails and
we can try to remedy the situation.
Recall that, by definition, any chain Ck is a finite sum of simplicesj therefore, when we assign a co chain cn- k to a chain Ck in the case of a noncompact
manifold, we obtain only cochains that vanish on simplices outside some
compact set, rather than all cochains. Such cochains are called cochains
with compact supports. Clearly, applying the operator 5 to a cochflin with
compact support, we obtain a cochain with compact support. Hence we
can define cohomology groups H~(K) with compact supports for compactly
supported cochains. If K and K* are dual decompositions of an orientable
manifold, then we obtain an isomorphism Hk(Kj R) ~ H~-k(K*j R)j this
isomorphism holds even at the level of (co ) chains.
Now, let us try to assign a chain Ck to a cochain cn- k . When we assigned
co chains to chains, we obtained something less than the set of all cochains.
Now, on the contrary, we obtain something more than the set of all chains.
Namely, instead of finite sums of simplices E ai~~' we obtain arbitrary
sums of k-simplices, in which each simplex is contained with a certain coefficient but the number of simplices may be infinite. Such "chains" are called
chains with closed supports because the union of all simplices with nonzero
coefficients in such a chain is a closed set (possibly noncompact).
Note that in defining chains with closed supports for any simplicial complexes, we must additionally require that each point belong to only finitely
many simplices in the sum E ai~~. Otherwise, some simplex may be a face
for infinitely many simplices in the sum Eai~~' and the chain a(Eai~~)
is then not defined. But for triangulated manifolds, each simplex is a face
for only finitely many simplices, and the two conditions are equivalent.
Using chains with closed supports, we can construct homology groups
Hkl(K) with closed supports. If K and K* are dual decompositions of an
orient able manifold, we obtain an isomorphism Hkl(Kj R) ~ Hn-k(K*j R)j
this isomorphism holds even at the level of (co)chains.
Remark. Note that the groups H:(K) and H;I(K), in contrast to the
ordinary cohomology and homology groups, are not homotopy invariants of
the space K. For example, H~(lRnj Z) ~ Z and H~I(lRnj Z) ~ Z.
49
5. Calculations
0: E
Remark. The orient ability of the manifold was used to define the integer
((o:,~)). The generator of the group H1(JR'p 2 ) = Z2 is not primitive, but it
is realized by a closed self-avoiding curve.
Theorem 1.30 ([85]). Any primitive homology class of a closed orientable
manifold M2 can be realized by a closed sell-avoiding curve.
[)U
1. ::ilmpllclal 11OmolOgy
If a curve 0 transversally intersects 'Y in one point, then any Dehn twist
along 'Y takes the homology class of 0 to 0 'Y (thp. sign is determined by
the direction of rotation in the Dehn twist). It is easy to verify that the
homology class of 'Yk is (Ok - ok+d (see Figure 12). Thus the Dehn twists
51
13k
Ok
--+
/Jk o.k i
Let (aI, bl, ... I ay, by) be an element of the group HI (M 2 ). By using
Euclid's algorithm and employing twists along 0.1 and 131, we can transform
this element into (dl' 0, a2, b2, ... , ay, by), where d l = GCD(al, bt}. The
element thus obtained can be transformed into (d1 , 0, d 2 , 0, ... , d g , 0), where
dk = GCD(ak, bk), by similar procedures.
Using the operations (0, dk) ~ (d k , dk) ~ (dk,O) and (d k , 0, 0, dk+!)
~(dk' dk , 0, dk+! dk), we can apply Euclid's algorithm to the numbers
dk and dk + 1 . As a result, we successively obtain the elements
(0,0, GCD(dl , d2 ), 0, d3, ... ), ... , (0,0, ... ,0, GCD(dI. ... , dy), 0).
If the initial element (aI, b1 , , ag, bg) is primitive, then
X(K)
where
ai
= ao -
al
+ a2 _
...
+ (-l)na n ,
52
1. Simplicial Homology
Theorem 1.31. If bk
field, then
-+
Bk-l(Kj F)
-+
= L(-l)kdimHk(KjF)
= 1.
~ 1 + (-1)" ~ {~
o
for odd n,
for even n.
={
= n + 1.
for odd n,
for even n.
X(K)=LX(Kd-LX(KinKj)+ L x.(KinKjnKk)-
i<j<k
i<j
Problem 38. Given finite simplicial complexes K and L and an n-fold
covering p: K - L, prove that X(K) = nx(L).
Problem 39. Given finite simplicial complexes K and L, prove that
X(K x L)
= X(K)X(L).
53
X(K)
to
------n
"
\
A
'I
. . . ..
~/'
, "
II
--------~
= o.
Proof. One proof of this theorem has already been given in Part I. Another
proof can be obtained by using the isomorphism
H k (M 2n+lj Z2) ~ H 2n+l_k(M 2n +lj Z2).
54
1. Simplicial Homology
Indeed, let bk
X(M 2n+l)
Then bk
= b2n+1-
k , whence
L (-l)kbk
k-O
= L( -l)k(bk -
b2n+ 1-k)
= o.
k=O
Theorem 1.34. If M 2n is a closed manifold, then we hove X(M 2n ) _
dimHn (M 2n ;Z2) (mod 2).
Proof. Let bk
X(M 2n )
2n
L(-llbk
k-O
Then bk
= b2n -k;
therefore,
n-l
n-l
= bn + L(-l)k(bk
+ b2n -k) == bn
(mod 2).
k 0
I"V
(u(x), 0).
The involution u has no fixed points; therefore, any point (x, 0) in Wn+l
has a neighborhood homeomorphic to the ball obtainpd by gluing together
two half-disks D~+l and u D~+l. Hence Wn+l is a manif ld with boundary
Mn x {I}.
0
55
prove that
1.+1
T7
Tr
Vi+l - - Vi
E( _l)i dim ~ =
I.
Tr
Vi-l
... ,
O.
Problem 42. Prove that the Euler characteristic of the complement of any
link in 8 3 is zero.
where the Hi(A, B) are the homology groups with coefficients in some field.
Problem 43. Prove that X(A, B)
= X(A) - X(B).
IKI
where each O!ij is the number of ordered pairs of disjoint (closed) faces of
dimensions i and j in the complex K. (Note that D:ij = D:ji and Qii is
twice the number of unordered pairs of disjoint i-faces.) Prove that w(K) =
X2(Mn) - X(Mn), where X(Mn) is the Euler characteristic of the manifold
Mn.
Remark. The number W(K) defined in Problem 44* can be interpreted as
the Euler characteristic of the deleted product of the manifold Mn. (The
definition of deleted product is given in Part I on p. 161.)
56
1. Simplicial Homology
Geometric conditions often impose various constraints on the Euler characteristic. As an example, consider transnormal embeddings (see [110]). An
embedding of a manifold Mk into JRn is said to be transnormal if for any
points x, y E Jv[k such that x belongs to the normal subspace at y, the
normal subspaces at the points x and y coincide. Examples of transnormal
embeddings are the standard embeddings of JRk and Sk into JRn.
Problem 45. Prove that the number of intersection points of trans normally
embedded (connected) manifolds with a normal subspace does not depend
on the normal subspace. (If this number is equal to r, then the embedding
is said to be r-transnormal.)
Problem 46. Prove that if a closed manifold admits an r-transnormal
embedding, then the number r is even.
Problem 47. Prove that if a closed manifold Mk admits an r-ttansnormal
embedding, then X(M k ) = 0 or r.
Problem 48. Let Mk be a closed manifold admitting a transnormal embedding. Prove that if X(Mk) 0/= 0, then Hi(Mk j G) = 0 for all odd i.
6.2. The Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem. Let K be a finite simplicial
complex, and let f: IKI ---+ IKI be a continuous map. The induced map
(J*)k: Hk(IKljJR) ---+ Hk(IKljJR) is a linear operator on a finite-dimensional
space; therefore, we can consider its trace tr(J*)k. The Lefschetz number of
the map f is defined by A(J) = Lk~O(-l)ktr(J*)k'
If the complex K is path-connected, then (J*)o: JR ---+ JR is the identity
map, and hence tr(J*)o = 1.
Example 15. If the complex K is acyclic with respect to the coefficient
group JR, then A(J) = 1 for any continuous map f: IKI ---+ IKI.
Example 16. The equality A(idK) = X(K) holds.
Theorem 1.38 (Lefschetz fixed point theorem, [77]). Lf..t K be a finite
simplicial complex. If A(J) 0/= 0, then the map f: K ---+ K has a fixed point.
Proof. Suppose that the map f has no fixed points. Since the complex K
is compact, one of its subdivisions K' of K has the following property: for
any point x E IKI, the distance between x and f(x) is much larger than the
maximum diameter of a simplex from K'. In turn, this property implies that
if K" is a subdivision of K' and cp: K" ---+ K' is a simplicial approximation
of f, then, for any simplex t:.." c K", the sets t:.." and cp(t:..") are disjoint.
Thus, to prove the Lefschetz theorem, it suffices to interpret the number
A(cp) so that if t:.." n cp(t:..") = 0 for all simplices t:.." c K", then A(cp) = O.
57
Lemma. (a) (Hopf [57]) If K is a finite simplicial complex and CPk: Ck(K, R)
--+
k~O
A(cp) = L(-l)kcI>k,
k~O
where cI>k is the number of k-simplices ~k C K' for which ~k C cp(~k) with
signs taken into account.ll
Proof. (a) It suffices to show that
+ tr(CPk-lIBk_l)'
Let Ck = Zk ffi Ck. The linear operator CPk maps Zk to Zk; hence it
induces an operator 'Pk: C k --+ Ck , and tr CPk = tr( CPklzk) + tr 'Pk.
Let Zk = Bk ffi Zk. Then Zk ~ Hk(K; R), and the operator induced by
CPk on Hk(Kj lR) coincides with (cp.)k Therefore, tr(CPklzk) = tr(CPkIBk) +
tr(cp.)k.
The map a: Ck --+ B k- 1 induces an isomorphism Ck --+ Bk-l' The
equality aCPk = CPk-lO shows that the operator corresponding to 'Pk under
this isomorphism is CPk-l.
(b) The simplicial map cP: K' --+ K induces a chain map CPk: Ck(K'; JR)
--+ Ck(K; JR). Consider also the chain map ik: Ck(Kj lR) --+ Ck(K'; lR) that
takes each simplex ~ C K cut into simplices ~l,"" ~B to the sum ~1 +
" .+ ~IJ (the orientations of these simplices are compatible with that of the
simplex ~; a formal definition of the map ik for the barycentric subdivision
was given on p. 8). The composition CPkik: Ck(K;R) --+ Ck(K;lR) takes
each simplex ~ to the sum of simplices cp(~d + ... + CP(~8)' Therefore,
cI>k = tr(cpkik)' According to (a), we have
~)-l)ktr(cpkik) = L(-l)ktr(cp.)k;
k~O
k~O
this follows from the fact that, under the identification of Hk(K'; lR) with
Hk(K; JR) by means of the isomorphism i., the map in homology induced
by the chain map CPkik is identified with (cp.)k'
0
~'
The Lefschetz theorem follows from part (b) of the lemma because if
0 for all simplices ~' C K', then cI>k = 0 for all k.
0
n cp(~') =
.
11 If the simplices ~k and 'P(~k) have the same orientation, then the plus sign is taken, and
If their orientations are opposite, then they are taken with the minus sign.
58
1. Simplicial Homology
+ (-l)ndegf;
Remark. Recall that, in Part I (pp. 203 204), the nonexistence of a continuous vector field without singular points on the sphere s2n was proved
by more elementary methods.
Example 18. For the coefficient group JR, the space JRp2n is acyclic; therefore, any map f: JRp2n -- JRp2n has a fixed point.
Problem 49 ([100]). Given a finite simplicial complex K, a continuous
map f: K -- K, and a prime p, prove that A(fP) == A(f) (mod p) (here
fP=~.
P
Chapter 2
Cohomology Rings
1. Multiplication in Cohomology
The set H*(K) = EB Hk(K) has not only a group structure but also a ring
structure; it is this structure that is largely used in the applications of cohomology. The ring structure is determined by the K olmogorov Alexander
multiplication, which is now known as the cup product. This operation was
first introduced by Kolmogorov [72, 73J and Alexander [6J. Later, the definition was improved by Cech [21J and Whitney [151].
Before Kolmogorov and Alexander, there was a multiplication operation
on the homology of manifolds (intersection of cycles); the Poincare duality isomorphism transforms it into Kolmogorov-Alexander multiplication.
Certainly, for many applications of multiplication in cohomology, this longknown multiplication is sufficient, but there are also applications not related
to manifolds.
To define the cup product for a simplicial complex, we must order the
vertices of this complex. Such a definition is not invariant at the level
of cochains, but it is invariant at the cohomology level. The proof of its
invariance uses an auxiliary object, a total chain complex.
1.1. Homology of Total Chain Complexes. In some cases, it is con-
venient to assume that the vertices of simplices are ordered. The most
important instances of such situations are those of defining multiplication in
cohomology and proving the isomorphism between singular and simplicial
homology. Let us try to define the homology of a simplicial complex by
considering, instead of oriented simplices, ordered sets (vo, ... , Vk), where
Vo, ., Vk are pairwise distinct vertices of some simplex. A simple example shows that this attempt will be unsuccessfuLIndeed, for K = [vo, VI],
59
60
2. Cohomology Rings
Vo
+ (VI,VO),
whereas
The reason for the failure is fairly clear: in fact, we try to calculate
the homology of a CW -com plex homeomorphic to the circle (see Figure 1).
Surprisingly, this situation is easy to remedy; it suffices to dispenfle with the
seemingly natural condition that the vertices Vo, .. . , Vk are pairwise distinct.
This is indeed an unexpected phenomenon, because now the calculation of
the homology of the complex K = [vo, VI] involves an infinite chain complex
with 2k+l generators of dimension k for each k = 0, 1,2, .... But in return,
at least the one-dimensional homology group is as required. Indeed, the
group Ker 8 1 is generated by the elements (vo, VI) + (VI, vo), (vo, vo), and
(VI,Vl); allofthem are contained in Im{h: (vo,vo) =8(vo,vo,vo), (Vl,Vl) =
8(VI, VI. VI)' and (vo, VI) + (VI, Vo) = 8(Vo, VI, Vo) + 8( Vo, Vo, vo).
The chain complex C.(K) generated by the ordered sets (vo, ... , Vk),
where Vo, ... , Vk are vertices of the same simplex in K (some of them may
coincide), is called a total, or ordered, chain complex. The boundary homomorphism for C.(K) is defined in precisely the same way as for C.(K).
61
1. Multiplication in Cohomology
The map cpl!>: C. (K) -+ C. (K) is the identity. The map I!>cp is not the
identity, but it is chain homotopic to the identity. To prove this, we use the
same argument as in the proof of the acyclic support theorem (Theorem 1.5
on p. 7) with the only difference that instead of assigning the acyclic subcomplex L(~) to each simplex ~ c K, we associate with the ordered set
of vertices v = (vo, ... , Vk) of each simplex ~"IJ C K a chain sub complex
C.(~"IJ) c C.(K) so that the following conditions hold:
(1) if ~'
~, then C.(~')
C.(~);
(2) the chain complex C.(~"IJ) is a support for the chains I!>cp(v) and
v = id(v).
If Vo is a vertex, then I!>cp(vo) = Vo = id(vo). Thus, it remains to verify
that if z is a cycle in Ck(~"IJ) for k ~ 1, then z = 8d, where d E Ck+1(~"IJ).
We associate with every chain c E 6k(~v) the chain (vo, c) E Ck+1(~"IJ).
For k ~ 1, we have 8(vo, c) = c - (vo, 8c). If z is a cycle, then z = 8(vo, z)
because 8z = o.
0
Any simplicial map /: K
Ck(L) defined by
-+
-+
It is easy to verify that ik is a chain map (it does not matter whether the
62
2. Cohomology Rings
= cpk
+ Da)C2) =
- k. If C2 is a cycle, then
here (cP, (vo, ... , vp)) and (c q, (vp, vp+l, ... , vp+q)) are multiplied as ring elements.
Under the multiplication of co chains thus defined, the identity element
is the cochain cO taking the value 1 E R at each vertex v. This is a cocycle.
Indeed, if Cl = E advil, V,2], then
= E aiVil - E aiVi2; therefore,
act
o.
Remark. The cup product can also be defined in a somewhat more general
situation. Namely, the product of cP E CP(K; G) and cq E Cq(K; G') is the
co chain cP '-" cq E Cp+q(K; G G') defined by
(cP '-" cq, (vo, . .. , VP+q)) = (cP, (vo, . .. , vp)) (cq, (vp, Vp+l, . .. , vp+q)).
If G = G' = R is the additive group of a unital commutative ring, then
ring multiplication is a map R R - R, and we arrive at the preceding
definition.
Clearly, the cup product is bilinear and associative. It turns out that it
can be carried over to cohomology due to the following property.
Proof. The values of the cochains (dcP) '-" & and (-l)PcP '-" (d&) at
(vo, . .. , Vp+q+l) are equal to
O:O:;i:O:;p+1
and
(-l)P
respectively. The last term in the first sum is canceled by the first term in
the second sum, and the sum of the remaining terms in these sums equals
the value of the cochain d(cP '-" cq) at (vo, . .. , vp+q+d.
0
1. Multiplication in Cohomology
63
The expression for d"(cP '-" cq) shows that if zP and zq are cocycles, then
so is d"(zP '-" zq). Moreover, the cohomology class of the cup product of two
co cycles depends only on the cohomology classes of these co cycles because
(zP
and
(8)
(d' '-"
c q , [Vio, . , Vi p+q ])
= (d',
2. Cohomology Rings
64
(zq '--' zP, [vp+q, ... , va]) = (zq, [vp+q, ... , vp]) . (zP, [vp, ... , vo]).
It is clear that [vr, ... , va] = (-It(r+1)/2[vo, ... , vr ] and (p + q)(p + q + 1) p(p + 1) - q(q + 1) = 2pq.
0
The definition of cup product in relative cohomology is precisely the
same as in absolute cohomology. If a E HP(K, LI) and (3 E Hq(K, L 2), then
a"""'" (3 E HP+q(K, L1 U L2)' Indeed, take cocycles zP and zq representing a
and (3 and consider the simplex [va, .. . , vp+q] in L1 U L 2. This simplex, as
well as any other simplex in L1 U L 2, is contained entirely either in L1 or
in L 2. In the former case, [va, ... , vp] is contained in Ll, and in the latter,
[vp, ... , vp+q] is contained in L 2. Therefore,
H*(K).
Problem 51. (a) Given K = U~=l Li, where the Li are contractible subcomplexes, prove that the product a1 '--' ... '-" an vanishes for any n elements ai E HP'(K), where Pi > O.
(b) Prove that cohomology multiplication in EK is trivial, i.e., the cup
product of any two cohomology classes of positive dimension vanishes.
Problem 52. Given a manifold Mk embedded in sn, prove that the product
of any two classes of positive dimension in the ring H*(sn, Mk) vanishes.
Problem 53. Let a sub complex A
c X be a retract.
(a) Prove that H*(X) = Imi* ffi Kerr* and H*(X) = Keri* ffi Imr*,
where i: A --+ X is the natural embedding and r: X --+ A is a retraction.
(b) Prove that for cohomology, Ker i* is an ideal and 1m r* is a subring.
Problem 54. Given multiplications in the rings H*(X) and H*(Y), describe
the multiplication in the ring H*(X V Y).
Problem 55. Given p, q 2 1, prove that SP V sq
is not a retract of SP x sq.
1. Multiplication in Cohomology
65
~'pm
1.3. Cohomology Rings of Two-Dimensional Surfaces. In this section, we calculate the cohomology rings of closed two-dimensional surfaces
directly from the definition of cup multiplication. Note that the required
result is easy to obtain by using the Poincare isomorphism and interpreting the multiplication of cocydes in the cohomology of a two-dimensional
surface as the intersection of the dual cycles (see Section 2.2).
For two-dimensional surfaces, we must calculate only the cup products
of elements of HI, because the product of an element of HI and an element
of H2 is contained in H3 = o. Before proceeding further, let us discuss the
geometric meaning of cocydes and coboundaries.
Each (oriented) k-simplex in a simplicial complex determines the dual
k-cochain, which takes the value 1 at this simplex and vanishes at all of
the other k-simplices. We consider only co chains that are sums of cochains
dual to various simplices. We identify such cochains with sets of oriented
simplices.
The formula (dc I , C2) = (c I , 8C2) shows that a one-dimensional cochain
c i of this form is a cocyde if and only if, for any 2-simplex, either none of the
three I-simplices constituting its boundary is contained in c1 or c 1 contains
precisely two of the three boundary simplices; moreover, in the latter case,
if the coefficient group is Z, then the orientations of the two boundary cycles
in c1 must be opposite to that of the boundary of the 2-simplex. An example
of a cocyde on the torus is shown in Figure 2a; another cocyde, together
with a cycle dual to it at the homology level, is shown in Figure 2b. The
cycles dual to these two cocydes form a basis in the homology of the torus;
66
2. Cohomology Rings
MIV\
Figure 3. Basis co cycles on a handle
Figure 4. Calculation of
Cl! '-"
therefore, they form a basis in its cohomology (for both coefficient groups Z
and Z2).
A basis for the cohomology of a sphere with any number of handles is
constructed similarly. In Figure 3, basis co cycles for a separate handle are
presented; on the right, the orientations of the links of the polygonal line
are shown.
Any co chain dual to a 2-simplex generates the two-dimensional cohomology group of a sphere with handles. If simplices ~~, ... ,~; have the
same orientation, then the cochain E ai(~n" is a generator if and only if
E ai = 1, because cochains dual to 2-simplices with the same orientation
are cohomologous. For example, the difference of two co chains dual to 2simplices with the same orientation sharing a 1-simplex ~ 1 is the coboundary
of the cochain dual to ~ 1 .
The formula (0 ~ (3, [ijk]) = (0, [ij]) . ((3, [jk]) shows that in calculating
o ~ (3, it suffices to consider only the 2-simplices adjacent to both 0 and
(3. For the chosen basis co cycles in the one-dimensional cohomology group
of the torus, there are two such 2-simplices (they are hatched in Figure 4).
We have
=1
and
=0
because ((3, [23]) = O. Thus, a ~ (3 generates the two-dime 11Sional cohomology group of the torus.
1. Multiplication in Cohomology
67
For the coefficient group Z, the antisymmetry of the cup product implies
a ........ a = 0 for any cohomology class of odd dimension. But for the coefficient group Z2, there are one-dimensional cohomology classes for which
'Y ........ 'Y 1= o. For this reason, below we give a proof of the equalities
a ........ a = 0 and 13 . . . . 13 = 0 for the chosen basis co cycles a and 13 in
the one-dimensional cohomology group of the torus that applies to both
coefficient groups Z and Z2.
In Figure 5, the co cycle a is cohomologous to the co cycle a ' . To prove
this, we investigate the coboundary of a cochain that is dual to a point. The
relations
2. Cohomology Rings
68
~
-----_
....
Now, consider the cohomology of nonorientable two-dimensional surfaces. Unlike the homology groups of a closed nonorientable surface with
coefficients in Z, the two-dimensional cohomology group with coefficients in
Z2 is nontrivial. Its generator is as follows. On the polygon from which
the nonorientable two-dimensional surface is built by gluing, all simplices
Ll~, ... ,Ll; can be endowed with compatible orientations. The cochains
(Ll;)* and (LlJ)* are then cohomologous, as in the orient able case. But in
the nonorientable case, there exist two simplices, say Ll~ and LlJ. which
have opposite orientations on the surface itself. Hence, at the cohomology
level, we have (Ll~)* = (Ll;)* and (Ll;)* = -(Ll;)*; therefore, 2(Ll~)* = O.
Thus, a cochain E ai(Ll;)* generates the cohomology group if and only if
the number E ai is odd; if E ai is even, then this cochain represents the
zero cohomology class.
Let us calculate the cohomology ring of the surface mP2 with coefficients
in Z2. Each Mobius band attached to 8 2 corresponds to one direct summand
Z2 in the one-dimensional homology and cohomology groups. For a Mobius
band attached to the sphere, a basis cycle is represented by the diagonal of
a rectangle (see Figure 6). In Figure 7, the basis cycle is shown by a dashed
line and the dual co cycle a, by a polygonal line.
The prod uet a '-' a can be calculated in the same way as in the case of
a handle, i.e., by replacing a with a cocycle a' obtained from a by adding
some coboundaries of cochains dual to points. However, in the nonorientable
case, it is impossible to completely separate the cocycles, because A and B in
Figure 8a represent the same point. Supplementing a with t e coboundaries
of the co chains dual to the points AI, A 2 , . , A k , we obtain the co cycle a'
69
Az ... At.
0.'
shown in Figure 8b. The cocycles a and a' share their boundaries with three
2-simplices (they are hatched in Figure 8b). Let us number the vertices of
these simplices. For the numbering shown in Figure 8b, we obtain
= 0,
= o.
2. Cohomology Rings
70
--+
Hq(K;R),
where R is the additive group of an associative commutative ring with identity. We could define cap product for total chain complexes and then carry
the definition over to simplicial homology and cohomology, but we shall
not repeat this procedure; instead of checking that we have the well-defined
notions (at the level of homology and cohomology), we order the vertices of
our complex and consider simplicial chains and cochains.
We assume that the simplicial complex K is path-connected. For cP E
Co(K; R).
--+
Cq(Kj R).
Proof. It is sufficient to check the required equality for Cp+q = [va, . .. , vp+q].
By definition, we have
q<i:O;p+q
and
q-l:O;i:O;p+q
When we add the second sum in the first expression to the &e ond expression,
all terms except for the one with i = q cancel out. It if:, o.lso clear that
71
adding the term with i = q to the first sum (in the first expression), we
obtain 8(d? r-.. [vo, ... ,vp+q]).
0
The formula for 8( d?
for (co ) homology.
r-..
Proof. The required equality holds even at the level of (co )chains:
I. (reP
r-..
Theorem 2.6. The cap product is dual to the cup product in the sense that
(o:q, (3P
r-..
'Yp+q)
= (o:q
(3P, 'Yp+q) .
(c q, eP
r-..
aP
r-..
(3q
r-..
'Yp+q+r) = (aP
Proof. The required equality holds even at the level of (co) chains.
If
2. Cohomology Rings
7'2
1--+
Proof. Consider a triangulation K of the manifold M n and its barycentric subdivision K'. Let us number the vertices of K' so that the least
numbers are assigned to the vertices of K, next follow the barycenters
of the I-simplices in K, then the barycenters of the 2-simplices are numbered, etc. For a representative of the homology class [MnJ we take the
sum E [vo, ... , vnJ, where the summation is over all simplices K' whose
vertices are writt~n in the order of increasing numbersj the signs indicate
whether the orientations of the simplex and manifold are compatible.
The vertices of the complex K' are numbered in such a way that a
simplex [vo, ... , VkJ is contained in one of the k-simplices Ui in K. Each
vertex Vk uniquely determines a k-simplex Ui, and each (n - k)-cell ui is
represented as E [Vk, .. . , vnJj here the vertices are again written in the
order of increasing numbers.
At the level of (co )chains, the Poincare isomorphism associates to each
chain Ck = E a,Ui a cochain cn- k for which (c n- k ,
= ai. Therefore,
un
as required.
((ak,{3n-k})
Then
(a n- k '--' (3k) ,..... [MnJ = a n- k ,..... ({3k ..-... [MnJ) = a n- k ,..... (3n-k
= Lbiai.
73
(10)
Relation (9) and anticommutativity of the cup product imply
(11)
To see that (11) holds at the level of chains, it suffices to take chains
representing the classes ak and J3n-k in the chain complexes Ck(K) and
Cn-k(K*). Therefore, equality (11) follows directly from the invariance of
the definition of intersection number.
The relation dim(V + W) = dim V + dim W - dim(V n W), well-known
in linear algebra, shows that if dim V = k, dim W = I, and the spaces V
and Ware subspaces of an n-space, then dim(V n W) ~ k + I - n. If
dim(V n W) = k + I - n, then the subspaces V and Ware said to be
transversal.
In agreement with this terminology, we say that a k- and an I-dimensional
cycles in an n-manifold are transversal if the intersection of any two simplices contained in different cycles is either empty or of dimension k + I - n.
In particular, cycles of complementary dimensions are transversal if and only
if they intersect in finitely many points.
Relation (9) has the following geometric interpretation: if Ok and J3n-k
are two transversal cycles of complementary dimensions, then the cohomology class dual to their intersection is the cup product of the classes on-k
and {3k dual to Ok and {3n-k. This statement is true not only for cycles of
complementary dimensions but also for any transversal cycles. Let us prove
this. Take cycles Ok and J3, j their dual co cycles are on-k and {3n-l. We have
[
(a n-k ......... /J(.In-I ,Vo,
. . , V2n-k-1 ])
= (on-k, [vo, ... , Vn-k]) . (J3 n - l , [Vn-k, ... , V2n-k-d).
74
2. Cohomology Rings
--+
sn X sm
(12)
substantially facilitate calculating cohomology rings for manifolds (here A E
Hn(Mnj JR) is the element for which A ........ [Mnj = 1, i.e., (A, [Mn]) = 1). For
example, the calculation performed above for closed two-dimensional surfaces becomes almost obvious, because it suffices to determine the arrangement of the dual cycles.
Figure 9a shows basis cycles o:}, . , O:n and f31, ... ,f3n for a sphere with
n handles. Two cycles intersect only if they have equal subscripts. However,
it is seen from Figure 9b that each cycle 0: is homologous to a cycle 0:' disjoint
from it.
For the Mobius band attached to the sphere, the basis cycle 0: is represented by the diagonal (see Figure 10). It is homologous to a cycle 0:' which
transversally intersects 0: in precisely one point. For the projective plane, 0:
and 0:' correspond to two projective lines.
75
Using Theorems 2.9 and 2.10, we can calculate the cohomology rings
H*(lRpn; Z2) and H*(cpn; Z).
Theorem 2.11. For 0 ~ k ~ n, the group Hk(lRpn; Z2) contains only one
nonzero element ok, and
if k
if k
+ l ~ n,
+ l > n.
2. Cohomology Rings
nj
r:
JRpn
~ 1.
--+
Problem 61. Prove that if m > n ~ 1, then there exists no continuous map
--+ 8 n such that g( -x) = -g(x) for all x E 8 n (this fact is known as
the Borsuk Ulam theorem).
g: 8 m
Problem 62. (a) Prove that lRpn and cpn cannot be represented as the
union of n contractible subcomplexes.
(b) Represent JRpn and cpn as the union of n + 1 contractible subcomplexes.
Problem 63. Given a continuous map f: cpn
1 + >, + >,2 + ... + >,n, where>, E Z.
--+
Problem 64. Prove that if n is even, then any continuous map f: cpn
cpn has a fixed point.
Problem 65. Prove that the degree of any map f: cpn
form >,n, where>, E Z.
--+
=
--+
Problem 66. (a) Prove that for even n, there exists no orientation-reversing
diffeomorphism f: cpn --+ cpn.
(b) Construct an orientation-reversing diffeomorphism cp2n+1
cp2n+l.
--+
Problem 67. Prove that the spaces CP2 and 8 2 V 8 4 are not homotopy
equivalentj using this fact, show that the Hopf fibration 8 3 --+ 8 2 is not
homotopic to a constant map.
2.3. Two Examples. In this section, we give two examples showing that
cohomology rings are not determined by data that completely determine
homology groups. First, CW-complexes with isomorphic cellular chain complexes may have nonisomorphic ring cohomologies. Thus, to define multiplication in cohomology, it is necessary to consider the simplicial structurej the
77
cell structure alone 1 is not sufficient for this purpose. Second, the cohomology ring with coefficients in Z does not determine cohomology rings with
other coefficients; spaces with isomorphic integral cohomology rings may
have nonisomorphic Z2-cohomology rings.
We use the fact that for any coefficient ring and any i > 0, we have
Hi(X V Y) = Hi(X) ffi Hi(y), and, moreover, (x + y) ........ (x' + y') = x .........
x' + y ......... y' for cohomology classes of positive dimension (see Problem 54).
Example 19. The cellular chain complexes for the torus T2 and the space
Sl V Sl V S2 are isomorphic, but the cohomology rings of these spaces are
not.
Proof. The cellular chain complexes for both spaces have the form
Z
--+
Z ffi Z
--+
--+
0;
2. Cohomology Rings
78
1M
[MnJ E Hn(M n , aM n ) is the fundamental class. The point is that the cap
multiplication
....... : Hn-k(K,Ll) x Hn(K,Ll U L2)
--+
Hk(K,L 2),
79
In this sequence, Hk(M, L n L') ~ Hk(M) because L n L' = 0. To transform the remaining homology groups, we use the isomorphism H.(A, B) ~
H.(AUG, BUG), where AUG is a simplicial complex, A and G are subcomplexes in An G, and B is a sub complex in A. This isomorphism is obvious
even at the level of relative chains.
Clearly, the pairs (1, M') and (1, L') are homotopy equivalent and
(I,M') = (MUM',8MUM'); therefore, Hk(M,L') ~ Hk(M, 8M). Moreover, (1, L U L') = (N U (L U L'), 8N U (L U L')), whence Hk(M, L U L') ~
Hk(N,8N). Let us show that Hk(N, 8N) ~ Hk-l (8M) for k > 1. Attaching
two copies of the cone over 8M to N, we obtain a simplicial complex homeomorphic to E(8M). Hence Hk(N, 8N) ~ Hk(E(8M), G U G'), where G';;:::
G = G(8M). The exact sequence of the pair (E(8M), G U G') shows that
Hk(N, 8N) ~ Hk(E(8M)) for k > 1. Moreover, Hk(E(8M)) ~ Hk-l(8M).
In the new exact sequence
---+
Hk(M)
---+
--+
H k- 1 (8M)
---+
Hk-l(M)
---+,
2. Cohomology Rings
~u
This exact sequence can be mapped to the one considered above as follows:
1~[M1E9[M'1
1~[Ml
-4
Hk(M)
-4
Hn-k(aM)
1~[BMl
-----+ Hk_1(aM)
Hn-k+l(M)
1~[Ml
Hk-l(M) ~ .
shows that the chains (_1)k+16c n- k '""' [M] and cn- k ,-.. [8M] differ by a
boundary, i.e., belong to the same homology class. Thus, the right square
is commutative up to sign.
We have constructed a diagram commutative up to sign. The maps
,-.. [U] and '""' [8M] in this diagram are isomorphisms by the Poincare
........ [MJ
duality theorem. Therefore, by the five lemma, the map Hn-k(M) - - H k (M,8M) is an isomorphism as well.
81
----+ Hn
k+l (aM)
1~[M1EB[M'1
l~[aMl
--~)
----+ Hn-k(M)
l~[Ml
-~)Hk(M)
),
~[Ml
---+
. .
Theorem 2.15 (Alexander duality [4, 5]). If M S;; sn is a closed submanifold, then Hk(M) ~ H n _k_I(sn \ M) and iIk(M) ~ iI n- k- 1 (sn \ M) for
O~k~n-1.
2. Cohomology KIngs
fIk(sn) _
fIk(M) ~ Hk+l(sn, M) _
fIk+l(sn).
=n-
Hn(sn, M) ~ Hn(sn)
l~
l~
Ho(sn \ M) ~ Ho(sn),
in which the vertical arrows are the Lefschetz and Poincare isomorphisms.
This diagram is commutative up to sign; hence Ker i* ~ Ker j*. The homomorphism p*: Ho(S" \ M) --. H o(*), where * is a point from sn \ M, can be
represented as the composition Ho(sn \ M) ~ Ho(sn) ~ Ho(*), whence
fIo(sn \ M) = Kerp* = Kerj . Thus, fIn-I(M) ~ ImtS = Keri ~
Ker j. = fIo(sn \ M).
The second isomorphism is established in a similar way.
o
Corollary 1. If L is the image, under an embedding into S3, of a disconnected manifold that consists of n circles, then H 1 (S3 \ L) ~ HI(L) ~
and H2(S3 \ L) ~ fIO(L) ~ zn-l.
zn
83
Remark. The Alexander duality holds not only for submanifolds but also
for any sub complex K ~ sn (see Theorem 5.7).
Problem 71. Suppose that m pairwise disjoint copies of the sphere sn-2 are
embedded in sn, where n ~ 3. Let X be the complement of the embedded
spheres. Calculate the homology of the space X.
Problem 72. Given the sphere SP arbitrarily embedded in sn+!, prove
that the space X = sn+! \ SP has the same homology as sn-p.
Problem 73. Given the spheres SP and sq arbitrarily embedded in sn+!,
prove that the space X = sn+! \ (SP u sq) has the same homology as
sn-p V sn-q V sn.
The Linking Number and Multiplication in Cohomology. The linking number can be defined not only for circles embedded in S3 but also for
any closed connected oriented manifolds Mi and Mi embedded in sn, where
n = p + q + 1. The definition repeats almost word for word the one given
on p. 46. Namely, consider fundamental cycles [Mf] and [Mil as cycles in
sn. Since the p-dimensional homology group of sn is trivial, it follows that
there exists a chain Wi+! for which oWi+! = [Mil. The linking number
lk( Mi, Mi) is defined to be equal to the intersection number ((Wi+ 1 , [Mil}).
This number does not depend on the choice of Wi+!; the proof repeats that
for circles embedded in S3. Taking a chain Wi+! for which oWi+! = [Mil
and considering the intersection number (([MiL Wi+!}) , we obtain the same
number (up to sign); this follows from the lemma on p. 43.
The Alexander duality makes it possible to interpret linking number in
terms of multiplication in cohomology. This can be performed as follows. Let
X = Mi U Mi. The Alexander duality implies iIk(sn \ X) ~ iIp+q_k(X)
(recall that n = p + q + 1). Therefore, there is a class in Hq(sn \ X)
that corresponds to the fundamental class [Mil, and there is a class in
HP(sn \ X) that corresponds to the fundamental class [Mil. The product
of these cohomology classes belongs to HP+q(sn \ X) ~ Ho(X) ~ Z, i.e., it
is an integer. This integer is equal to the linking number (up to sign). To
prove this, note that the Alexander duality isomorphism is the composition
of isomorphisms
84
2. Cohomology Rings
,r
Theorem 2.16. The triple Massey product of cohomology classes laP], [,eq],
and [rr] is an element of the quotient group of HP+q+r-l(x) modulo laP] '-"'
Hq+r-l(x)
+ HP+q-l(X)
'-"' [rr].
Proof. Choose cochains q+q-l and ~+q-l so that a P '-' ,eq = dq+q-l =
d~+q-l. Let Zl and Z2 be the co cycles constructed by using tht'se cochains.
Then Zl - Z2 = (q+q-l - ~+q-l) '-"'
Here q+q-l _ ~+q-l is a cocycle;
therefore, [Zl] - [Z2] E HP+q-l(X) '-"' [rr]. Similarly, for different cochains
d~+r-l and c4+r - 1 , we have [Zl]- [Z2] E laP] '-' Hq+r-l(x).
,r.
85
Zl
=
=
l ),
whence [Z2J = [ZlJ. The case where the co cycle 'Y r changes is handled similarly.
Finally, suppose that {3~ = {3i + 6bq - l . In this case, we have ~+q-l =
cr+ q- l + (-l)P a P '-' bq- l and r4+ r - 1 = di+ r - l + bq- l ......... 'Yr. Therefore,
Z2 - Zl = 2(-1)P a P ......... bq - l '-' 'Yr.
0
The triple Massey product can be used to prove that the Borromean
rings are linked (see Figure 12). It should be mentioned that for usual Borromean rings, there is a quite elementary proof, which is based on colorings
of the link diagram (see [105], p. 31). However, for the multidimensional
generalization of the Borromean rings, the triple product Massey must be
applied.
For calculations, it is convenient to specify the Borromean rings by the
equations
Z2
X= 0, y2+ _ = 1 (circle 8I);
y=O,
Z=
0,
4
x2
z2+ 4
x2+
=1
(circle 82);
~ = 1 (circle 83).
4
Figure 13 shows that these equations do indeed determine the Borromean
rings.
Instead of the space ]R3 in which the given circles are embedded, it
is more convenient to consid~r its one-point compactification S3. By the
Alexander duality theorem, Hk(S3 \ (81 U S2 U S3 ~ H2-k(S1 U 8 2 U 8 3 ).
86
2. Cohomology Rings
The circles 81, 8 2, and 83 are not pairwise linked; therefore, the pairwise
products of the cohomology classes aI, (31, and 7 1 corresponding to the
fundamental classes of 81, 82, and 8 3 under the Alexander duality are zero.
Thus, the triple product (aI, (31,71) is defined.
Let us show that for the coefficient group Z2, this triple Massey product
is nonzero. First, note that it belongs to H2(8 3 \ (81 U 8 2 U 8 3)) ~ Ho(81 U
82 U 83) because the group a 1 ....... HI (X) + HI (X) ....... 7 1, where X =
8 3 \ (81 U 82 U 83), is trivial. Indeed, not only the pairwise products of the
classes aI, (31, and 7 1 but also the products a 1 ....... aI, (31 ....... (31, and 7 1 ....... 7 1
vanish because the circles 8 1, 8 2, and 83 are unknotted and, therefore, 8 i
can be transformed into 8~ by a small deformation so that the disks Di and
D~ spanned by 8 i and 8! are disjoint.
Let WI, w2, and W3 be the chains (relative cycles) corresponding to
the disks spanned by 81, 82, and 8 3. Under the isomorphism H2(8 3 ,81 U
82 U 83) ~ HI (83 \ (81 U 8 2 U 83)), the homology classes of these relative
cycles correspond to aI, (31, and 7 1. Let c and d be the half-disks such
that WI n W2 = ac and W2 n W3 = ad in the group of relative chains (see
Figure 14). Then the triple Massey product (al,(31.7 1) corresponds to the
relative cycle en W3 + WI n d in HI (83,81 U 8 2 U 8 3); this cycle is shown by
the heavy line in Figure 14. The isomorphism
87
takes the homology class of this cycle to a nonzero element because the cycle
endpoints belong to different connected components: one of them belongs
to 81 and the other to 8 3.
On the other hand, if the link 81 U 8 2 U 83 C 8 3 is trivial (in particular,
8}, 8 2, and 83 are contained in three pairwise disjoint balls), then the disks
WI. W2, and W3 can be chosen to be pairwise disjoint, so that the triple
Massey product (0 1, {31, 'YI} vanishes. Thus, the Borromean rings form a
nontrivial link.
A similar argument proves the nontriviality of the following multidimensional generalization of the Borromean rings. Suppose that n = p + q + r,
x = (Xl, ... , X p), Y = (YI,"" Yq), and Z = (Zl,"" zr). Consider the three
spheres in ]Rn determined by the equations
X=o,
lIyI12
+ IIzII2 = 1
(sphere 8i+r - I );
y=O,
IIzII2
+ IIxI12 = 1
(sphere ~+r-l);
IIxII2
+ lIyI1 2 = 1
4
4
(sphere 8K+ q - I ).
4
Any two of these spheres are separated by an (n - I)-sphere. For example,
8i+r - 1 lies outside the sphere
z=O,
IIxI1 2 ~
32 + {I/2)2
~-I
+ (3/2)2
while 8K+ q - 1 lies inside it. Thus, the spheres under consideration are not
pairwise linked. Therefore, the pairwise products of the cohomology classes
uP, {3q, and 'Y r corresponding to the fundamental classes of 8i+r - l , 8~+r- \
q - 1 under the Alexander duality vanish. The products aP ........ uP,
and
{3q ........ {3q, and 'Y r ......... 'Yr vanish as well. Let us show that for the coefficient
group Z2, the triple product (uP, {3q, 'Yr} E H n - I (8n \81 U82U83) ~ Ho(81 U
8 2 U 83) does not vanish. Consider the disks WI, W2, and W3 spanned by 81,
8 2, and 8 3, that is,
SK+
WI
{(x,y,z) I X
= 0, lIyII 2 +
11~12 ~ I},
W2
{(x, y, z) I Y
= 0, IIzll2 +
11~12 ~ I},
W3
{(x,y,z)
I z = 0, IIxI1 2 + 1I~12 ~
I}.
Clearly,
WI
n W2
{(x,y,z)
IX
O,y = 0,
IIzll
~ I}
88
2. Cohomology Rings
and
W2
I}.
We set
e = {(x, Y, z)
and
{(x,y,
z) I YI
~ 0,Y2 -
= Yq = 0, z = 0, IIxII 2 + ~ I}.
n W2 = ae and W2 n W3 = ad. Therefore,
...
enW3
= {(x,y,z) I 0 ~ Xl
~ l,x2
and
WI
n d = {(X, y, z) I 0 ~
YI ~
1, Y2
= ... = Yq = 0, X = 0, z = O}.
Hence the relative cycle under consideration is a path joining different connected components: one of its endpoints belongs to Sj+r-l and the other to
S~+q I. Such a cycle is a representative of a nonzero homology class.
2.7. Intersection Forms and the Signature of a Manifold. Let M 2n
be a closed oriented manifold of even dimension, and let F be any field. On
the space Hn(M2n; F), we define the bilinear form
f(a n , (3n)
where [M2n] is the fundamental class of the manifold M2n. For the opposite
orientation, the fundamental class changes sign; therefore, the bilinear form
f changes sign as well, Le., f = - f, where f is the form for the manifold
with the opposite orientation.
On dual space Hn(M2n; F), there is the dual form
89
The elements of finite order do not affect the intersection number, and it is
seen directly from the definition of the intersection number that if an, f3n E
Cn (M 2n ) and ran, sf3n E Cn (M 2n j lR), then
Therefore, the intersection forms over lR and Z have the same matrix. This
implies, in particular, that H n (M 2n j lR) has a basis in which the intersection
form has integer coefficients.
Since the cup product is anticommutative, it follows that the intersection
form is symmetric for even nand antisymmetric for odd n.
Let Q be the matrix of the intersection form over Z, and let m =
dimHn (M 2n jlR). Theorem 2.10 can be reformulated as follows: there exist
m x m matrices A and B over Z for which ATQB = 1m is the identity
matrix. Therefore, det Q = 1.
The following theorem collects the properties of the intersection form
proved above.
Theorem 2.17. (a) The intersection form is determined by a nonsingular
integer matrix.
90
2. Cohomology Rings
Then the
Proof. The matrix of the intersection form of the manifold M4k+2 is antisymmetric; therefore, it has even rank (see [104], p. 102). Since this matrix is
nondegenerate, it follows that its rank is equal to dim H2k+l (l\14k+2; JR). 0
Corollary. If M4k+2 is a closed orientable manifold, then its Euler characteristic X(M 4k +2) is even.
Proof. For a closed orient able manifold, we have
X(M 2n )
== dimHn(M2n;JR)
(mod 2).
The proof of this relation is similar to that of Theorem 1.34 (for orient able
manifolds, the argument applies not only to the coefficient group Z2 but also
to JR).
0
The signature of a manifold M4k is defined to be equal to the signature
of its intersection form. Recall that the signature of a symmetric bilinear
form over JR is defined as follows. Using symmetry, we choose a basis for
which f(E Xiei, E y~ei) = E AixiYi. The signature is equal to the difference
between the numbers of positive and negative coefficients Ai. The signature
of a form does not depend on the choice of a basis; therefore, the signature
of the oriented manifold M4k, which we denote by 0'(M4k), is an invariant
of this manifold. Moreover, 0'( _M4k) = _0'(M4k), where _M4k is the
manifold M4k with the opposite orientation. We have proved the following
theorem.
91
H2k(W4k+1)
1. .
[W 4 11:+ 1 j
1. .
1. .
[M4kj
H2k+1(W4k+1,M4k) ~ H2k(M4k)
[W4k+lj
i.
H2k(W4k+1).
=0
because 5"i" = O.
The next step of the proof is performed most conveniently in the absence
of torsion, i.e., for (co)homology with coefficients in R. In this case,
H2k(M4k) and H2k(W4k+l) are linear spaces, and they are dual to H2k(M4k)
and H 2k (W 4k +1). Moreover, the maps i .. and i* are dual to each other.
Lemma. If a map /*: W"
W"/Ker/*.
-+
V" is dual to f: V
-+
92
2. Cohomology Rings
Theorem 2.21. For any closed orientable manifold Mn, the Bockstein
homomorphism commutes with the Poincare isomorphism up to sign; i.e.,
if a k E Hk(Mn; Gil), then
where [Mnj E Hn(Mn; G') is a fundamental class. (It is assumed that G',
G, and Gil are the additive groups of unital commutative rings.)
Proof. At the level of (co )cycles, the homology and cohomology Bockstein
homomorphisms can be described as follows. In the case of homology, for
a cycle z~ with coefficients in Gil = G/G', a chain Zk with coefficients in
G which represents this cycle is chosen, and to this chain 8Zk (which is a
cycle with coefficients in G' c G) is assigned. In the case of cohomology,
for a co cycle (Zk)" with values in Gil, a cochain zk with values in G which
represents this cycle is chosen and sent to the co cycle &zk with values in
G'cG.
At the level of (co) chains, the Poincare isomorphism acts as follows.
Let K and K* be dual decompositions of Mn. The Poincare isomorphism
associates each chain Ck E Ck(K) to the cochain cn - k E cn-k(K*), and
associated with the chain 8q is the co chain &cn - k (to be more precise, the
cochain (_l)k&c n - k ). Calculating the homology Bockstein homomorphism
from the decomposition K and the cohomology Bockstein homomorphism
from K*, we easily obtain the required result.
0
Problem 75. Given a P E HP(K; Gil) and bq E Hq(K; Gil), prove that
93
2.9. Lens Spaces. Suppose that p and q are coprime positive integers and
p ~ 3. Consider the fixed-point-free action of the group Zp with generator
u on the unit sphere 8 3 C ((:2 defined by
u(z, w)
= (/;' z, e 7
w).
C3
where Ci
C2
Xp
Cl
Co
0,
= Z,
H2
= 0,
HI
= Zp,
Ho
= Z.
For L(p, q), the homology and cohomology with coefficients in Zp can easily be calculated without applying the universal coefficient theorem. Indeed,
the chain complex with coefficients in Zp has a very simple form, namely,
000
C3 ~ C 2
Cl
Co
0,
where C i ~ Zp. Hence Hk(L(p, q)j Zp) ~ Hk(L(P, q); Zp) ~ Zp for k
2, 3.
= 0, 1,
O ~Zp
Xp
~Zp2 ~Zp ~o.
Theorem 2.22. The group H2(L(p, q)j Zp) has an element a such that
= 1 E Zp.
qa,(3,.(a)))
Proof. Let c be the 2-cell of the CW-complex L(p, q) described above, and
let d be its 1-cell. For a we take the homology class represented by the
cycle 1 c (modulo p), where 1 E Zp. The clement (3*(a) E HI (L(p, q)j Zp) is
2. Cohomology Rings
94
((c,qd))
((c,NS))
= 1
Corollary. The group Hl(L(P, q); Zp) has an element a such that qa '--"
{3(a) = Ap, where Ap E H 3 (L(P, q); Zp) is the element for which Ap "
[L(P, q)]p = 1.
Proof. The manifold L(p, q) is orient able because H 3 (L(P, q)) = Z. Therefore, the homology and cohomology Bockstein homomorr hisms commute
with the Poincare isomorphism up to sign.
0
91
Theorem 2.22 and its corollary readily imply the following assertion.
Theorem 2.23. If lens spaces L(P, qt} and L(p, q2) are homotopy equivalent,
then ql == a2q2 (mod pl.
Proof. Choose elements 01 and 02 in Hl(L(p, qt}j Zp) and Hl(L(p, q2)j Zp),
respectively, so that
= Ap,l
and
= Ap,2.
1*p.
'-"
P'" j*,
P"'(odj
which we use, is
0
2. Cohomology Rings
96
+ (q -
1)
k - 2;
First, we need an agreement on how the orientation of a cell or, more generally, of a manifold induces the orientation of its boundary. For a simplex
[vo, ... , vnl, the orientation of the boundary is determined by 8[vo, ... , vnl =
L?=o( _l)i[vO,"" Vi, ... , vnl. We assume that each simplex [Vo, ... , vnl is
oriented so that the basis el = VI - Vo, ... , en = Vn - Vo has positive orientation. Moreover, the simplex [v!, ... , vnl, which is contained in the boundary
of [vo, ... ,vnl, is oriented so that the basis e2 - el = V2 - VI, ... , en - el =
Vn - VI has positive orientation (Le., the basis e2, .. . ,en has positive orientation). This convention on induced orientation is easy to transfer to
any oriented manifold M n with boundary 8Mn. Namely, suppose that the
orientation of a manifold Mn is determined by a basis el, . .. , en of the tangent space TzMn at some point x E 8M n , the vector el is directed inside
the manifold, and the vectors e2, ... ,en belong to the tangent space to the
boundary. Then the orientation of the boundary is determined by the basis
e2,"" en
Suppose that the positive orientations of cells uP and r q are determined
by bases el, .. " ep and Cl, ... , Cq. We endow the cell uP x r q with the
orientation determined by the basis eI, ... , ep , CI, ... , Cq. The orientation
of 8uP is determined by the basis e2 - el,"" ep - el (see Figure 16); the
orientation of 8uP x r q is determined by the basis
(13)
(this orientation coincides with that of 8(uP x r q ; and the orientation of
8rq is determined by the basis
uP x
(14)
9~
Let us move Cl - el in the basis (13) to the first position. The transitior
matrix from the basis thus obtained to (14) is
-1
0
0
-1
1
0
-1
0
1
-1
0
0
.......................
0
Therefore, the sign of the orientation of the basis (14) with respect to the
basis (13) is (-l)P.
As a result, we obtain
= O.
o ----+ Z p'
This sequence splits because the group B~_l is free. Therefore, tensor multiplication by
preserves exactness. The direct sum of two exact sequences
is an exact sequence; hence the sequence
(15)
C;
0----+
EB (z; C;) ~ ED
p+q-k
is exact.
p+q=k
(C; C;)
E9
p+q=k-l
98
2. Cohomology Rings
C:
... --+
--+
Hk(C~ C:)
--+ ....
Let us show that Hk(Z~ C:) ~ (Z~ H.(C:))k. The group Z~ is free;
therefore, the exact sequences
"~
O --+ Z q~
a"
c"q---+
q
B"q
1--+ 0
and
0--+ B:-l
yield the exact sequences
--+
Z:-1
--+
H;_I(C:)
--+ 0
11818"
(17)
and
(18)
0 --+
Z'P to.
'OJ B"
q-l
--+
Z'P to.
'OJ z"
q-l
--+
Z'P to.
(G")
'OJ H"
q-l.
--+ 0 .
a::)
Im(l
= Im(l
=
Hence the exact sequence (18) has the form
0--+
Im(l
a;)
--+
Ker(l
where j: B~
--+ Z~
o --+ B~ --+ Z~
~ (Z~ H.(C:))k
--+
(H.(C~) H.(C:))k
--+ 0,
99
H (C'
G")
--+
Z~ Z~
~ H (G') H (G")
Z" + Z'.\01.
B" .
.'01.
B'
/0\
/0\
= Z(~)
holds.
(~)
+ (k~l)'
The proof of the algebraic Kiinneth theorem remains valid for homology
with coefficients in the additive group of the field F; moreover, the argument
becomes simpler, because we deal with linear maps of vector spaces. For
vector spaces V and W over F, the tensor product V F W is defined
as the group obtained from V W by introducing the additional relation
100
2. Cohomology Rings
-- 0
o -- (B~ F) F tIq(C: F)
~ (Z~ F) F Hq(C: F)
- - Hp(C~ F) F Hq(C: F) - - 0;
i.e., Ker Ok = 0 and the group Tor disappears. As a result, instead of a short
exact sequence, we obtain a canonical isomorphism
E9
Hp(C~ F) F Hq(C: F)
-+
Hk(C~ C: F).
p+q k
EB
p+q=k
Problem 76. Prove that the product of two closed manifolds is orient able
if and only if both manifolds are orient able.
Problem 77. Prove that the sphere sn is not a product of two manifolds
of positive dimension.
Problem 78. Given n > m > 1, prove that all homotopy groups of the
spaces sn x lRpm and sm x lRpn are isomorphic, while the homology groups
are different.
Problem 79. Prove that all homotopy groups of the spaces S2 x lRPOO and
lRP2 isomorphic, while the homology groups are different.
Problem 80 ( [86]). Given finite connected simplicial complexes A and B,
prove that
Hr+1 (A
* B) =
E9 (H,(A) Hj(B)) E9 E9
Tor(Hi(A), Hj(B)).
i+j=r-l
101
- - (Tor(H.(C'), H.(C")))k+I - - O.
Note that the number k - 1 is replaced by k + 1 because of the change of
numbering: if (-p) + (-q) = (-k) - 1, then p + q = k + 1.
Unfortunately, this exact sequence is not quite what we want. In this
sequence, Hp(C') = HP(K; Z) and Hq(C") = Hq(L; Z), as required, but
the cohomology of the product K x L is calculated using the cochain complex
Hom(C~ C:, Z) rather than C' C" = Hom(C~, Z) Hom(C:, Z).
Consider the homomorphism
0: Hom(C~,Z) Hom(C:,Z) - Hom(C~ C:,Z)
defined by
= Od.
Proof. By definition,
d(c'P c',q)
Therefore,
and
The second terms in these expressions may have different signs, but if p
then (c'P,
= o.
c;.)
f.
r,
0
2. Cohomology Rings
102
zn,
zn,
C;.
C;,
C:' Z).
(J,
Hk(C'* C"*)
induced by
-+
Hk(K x L; Z)
(J.
EB
HP(K; F) F Hq(L; F)
-+
Hk(K x L; F).
p+q=k
3.5. Multiplication in Cohomology and the Kiinneth Theorem.
The diagonal map d: IKI -+ IK x KI defined by d(x) = (x, x) induces homomorphisms H*(K)~H.(K x K) and H*(K x K) ~ H*(K) in homology
and cohomology, respectively. For cohomology, we can consider the composition of d and the canonical monomorphism H* (K) H* (K) -+ H* (K x K)
from the Kiinneth theorem. As a result, we obtain a canonical homomorphism H*(K) H*(K) -+ H*(K). The image of an element a (3 under
this homomorphism coincides with a '-"' (3, but the proof of this assertion is
complicated because the map d is not simplicial. In this section, we give a
proof based on acyclic models.
This approach does not apply to homology because the homomorphism
d* acts in the opposite direction:
103
g) 0 f = h 0 (g 0 f) and
(2) hom (X, X) has an element id x such that f 0 idx = f and idx og = 9
for all f E hom (X, Y) and 9 E homeY, X).
A covariant functor T from a category C to a category 'D takes each
object X of the category C to an object T(X) of the category 'D and each
morphism f E hom(X, Y) to a morphism T(f) E hom(T(X), T(Y)). It must
satisfy the conditions T(idx) = idT(x) and T(f 0 g) = T(f) 0 T(g).
A contravariant functor differs from a covariant functor in that T(f) E
hom(T(Y) , T(X and T(f 0 g) = T(g) 0 T(f).
Let Tl and T2 be covariant functors from a category C to a category 'D.
A natural transforrnationr: Tl ~ T2 assigns a morphism r(X): T1(X) ~
T2(X) to each object X of the category C in such a way that for any morphism f: X ~ Y (i.e., f E hom (X, V~, the following diagram is commutative:
T 1 (X)
~ T1(Y)
IT(X)
T 2 (X)
IT(Y)
~ T2(Y).
2. Cohomology Rings
104
with respect to the models from M, then it is also acyclic with respect to
the models from any M' eM.
Example 22. Consider the category of simplicial complexes with ordered
vertices and simplicial maps preserving the order of vertices. The functor
that takes each simplicial complex to its chain complex is free and acyclic
with respect to the models from M = {[O, 1, ... , k]}, where k = 0,1, ....
Theorem 2.26 (on acyclic models). 1fT is a free functor andT' i.s a functor
acyclic with respect to the models from M, then any natural transformation
cp: Ho(T) - Ho(T') is induced by some natural chain map T: T - T'.
Moreover, any two natural chain maps T, T: T - T' inducing cp are joined
by a natural chain homotopy.
Proof. The group Ho is a quotient of the zero-dimensional chains; hence
there exist epimorphisms p: To(Ma,) - Ho(T(Ma)) and p': T6(MD ) Ho(T'(Ma)). For each element e~ E To(Ma), there exists a To(e~) E To(Ma)
such that p'To(e~) = cpp(e~).
The elements T(f)(e~), where f E hom(Ma, X), form a basis of the
group To(X). The formula To(T(f)(e~)) = T'(f)(To(e~)) uniquely determines a homomorphism TO: To(X) - To(X). Since the transformation cp is
natural and T(f) and T'(f) are chain maps, the homomorphism TO induces
the initial map cp: Ho(To(X)) - Ho(To(X)) in the zero-dimensional homology group.
We construct homomorphisms Tk: Tk(X) - Tk(X) for which aTk =
Tk la by induction on k. For each element e~ E Tk(Ma ), consider Tk-l(ae~)
E Tk-l (Ma). There exists a chain ~ E Hk(Ma) with a~ = 7l:-1 (ae~).
Indeed, for k = 1 it exists because TO induces a map of zero-dimensional
homology groups, and for k > 1, because aTk-l(ae~) = Tk-2(aae~) = 0
and, by assumption, Hk-1(T'(Ma )) = O. We set 7l:(e~) = ~ and define
a homomorphism 7l:: Tk(X) - Tk(X) by using the construction described
above.
For chain maps T, T: T - T' that induce the same natural transformation cp: Ho(T) - Ho(T'), the chain homotopy D k : Tk(X) - Tk+1 (X)
is constructed in a similar way. For the equalities aDo = TO - TO and
aDk = 7l: - Tk - Dk-1a to hold for k > 1, it is sufficient for the chain
7l:(e~) - Tk(e~) - Dk-lae~ (the chain To(e~) - To(e~) for k = 0) to be the
boundary for any element e~. This condition holds for k = 0 because TO
and TO induce the same map in homology; for k > 1, this follows from the
equality
aTk - aTk - aDk-la
= Tk-la -
Tk-1a - aDk-la
DA-2aa
=0
105
d.: H.(K)
-+
H.(K x K)
IKI
-+
H.(C.(K) C.(K))
be the induced map of homology groups. At the level of chains, do takes each
vertex v to the chain v v. We refer to any natural chain map T: C.(K) -+
C.(K) C.(K) that takes v to v vasa diagonal approximation.
The functor C.(K) is free with respect to the models from M = {~k}
(see Example 22), and the functor C.(K) C.(K) is acyclic with respect
to these models. Therefore, according to the acyclic model theorem, any
diagonal approximation induces a map d. in homology.
In calculations, it is convenient to use the Alexander Whitney diagonal
approximation, which is defined by
n
[Vi, ... , Vn ].
i=O
We must verify only that this is a chain map, i.e., Ta = aT. Clearly,
and
i:$.j,jofO
i?j,jofn
2. Cohomology Rings
106
The second expression differs from the first by the additional sum
-+
L 0, ... ,i] [i, ... ,n]1-+ L[O, ... ,i] x [i, ... ,n]
H*(K) H*(K)
---+
H*(K x K)
.!... H*(K)
is a cup product. Indeed, at the level of cochains, the co chain cfJ+q corresponding to cP c q has the property
(c'P+ q, [va, Vb ... , Vp+q]) = (O(c'P cq), L[vo, ... , Vi] [Vi, ... , Vp+q])
3.6. Cohomology Cross Product. Suppose that K and L are finite simplicial complexes, C*(K) and C*(L) are simplicial co chain complexes, and
C*(K x L) is the cellular cochain complex. Two cochains r!' E CP(K) and
& E Cq(L) determine the cochain r!' x cq E Cp+q(K x L) by the rule
(cfJ x cq, t!!"P' x tl" q') = ~P'P'~qq' (c'P, tl,,'P')(cq, tl" q').
The equality 8(tl"p x tl"q) = 8tl"p x tl"q + (-l)Ptl"p x 8tl"q implies ~(r!' x cq) =
~cfJx&+( -l)Pr!'x~&. We obtain a group homomorphism HP(K) xHq(L) -+
H'P+q(K x L), which is called the cohomology cross product, or external cup
product.
It is easy to show that cohomology cross product has the following properties:
(1) (0 x (3) x -y
=0
x ({3 x -y);
-+
107
~q
X [Vi, ,Vp +q ]
X {3~2)
({3'r '-"
{3~2).
Proof. We have
(afl
X {3~2)
= di< x ( (afl
= di<x(af l
X
X
{3il )
{3fl
X (~2 X {3~2))
~2
{3~2)
and
(afl '-" ~2)
Clearly, dKx
(idK xT x id)
= di< (afl
x ~2)
dL({3i l
X {3~2).
X {3~2)
x~) X
d({3i l
X {3~2)
{3~2).
= 0: x {3.
Proof. We have Pi<o: = 0: x 1 and P'L{3 = 1K x {3. Taking into account the
fact that ql = P2 = 0 in the case under consideration, we obtain (0: x 1) .......,
(lK x {3) = (0: '-" 1) X (lK '-' {3) = 0: X {3.
0
Problem 81. (a) Calculate the cohomology ring of Rpnl x x Rpnk with
coefficients in Z2
(b) Calculate the cohomology ring cpnl X . X cpnk with coefficients
in Z.
108
2. Cohomology Rings
Problem 82. Prove that if at least one of the groups H*(K) and H*(L)
is torsion-free, then multiplication in the ring H*(K x L) is completely
determined by multiplications in H*(K) and H*(L).
Problem 83. Given K = lRP2, Ll = lR'p 2 V S3, and L2 = lRp 3, prove that
the rings H*(Ll) and H*(L2) are isomorphic, whereas the rings H*(K xLI)
and H*(K x L2) are not.
The Signature of Cartesian Products. Cohomology cross product can
also be used to pr~ve the following theorem concerning the signature of the
Cartesian product of two manifolds. We assume that u(Mn) = 0 if n is not
divisible by 4.
Theorem 2.28. The equality u(MP x Nq) = u(MP)u(Nq) holds.
Proof. If p + q is not divisible by 4, then one of the numbers p and !l is not
divisible by 4 either; hence u(MP x Nq) = 0 and u(MP)u(Nq) z= O. In what
follows, we assume that p + q = 4k. For cohomology with coefficients in lR,
the Kiinneth theorem implies
2k
H 2k (MP x Nq) ~ E9(H i (MP) IR H 2k - i (Nq.
i=O
a1
(19)
where i < p, and the space HP/2(MP) IR Hq/2(Nq) (if p and q are even).
These spaces are mutually orthogonal with respect to the intersection form.
We prove that the intersection form has zero signature on each subspace
of the form (19), i.e., the signature of u(MP x Nq) equals that of the restriction of the intersection form to the subspace HP/2(MP) IR Hq/2(Nq). Let
i < p/2. Choose a basis {as} in Hi (MP) and let {a:} be the dual basis in the
space HP i(MP); then (as '--' a;, [MP]) = 6rs . Similarly, choose a basis {f3t}
in H 2k -'(Nq) and the dual basis {f3;} in H2k+'-P(Nq). For a basis in the
space (19) we can take the vectors a sf3t and a;f3:. The intersection form
vanishes at all pairs of basis vectors except at the pairs (as f3t, a: f3;).
According to Theorem 2.27, at such pairs of basis vectors the intersection
form takes the value (_l)dim,BedimQ: = (_1)(2k-i)(p-i). Clearly, this form
is symmetric. Therefore, in the chosen basis, the restriction of the intersection form to the space (19) is determined by the direct sum of matrices
( _l)d ( ~ fi), where d = (2k - i) (p - i). Each of these matr es has signature
zero.
109
If the numbers p and q are odd, then the space HP/2(MP) li Hq/2(Nq)
is undefined, and u(MP x Nq) = o.
If each of the numbers p and q is congruent to 2 modulo 4, then the
intersection forms on the spaces HP/2(MP) and Hq/2(Nq) are antisymmetric. Therefore, these spaces have bases in which the intersection form is
determined by the direct sum of matrices (J 5). The restriction of the
intersection form to the tensor product of two two-dimensional spaces with
such intersection matrices is given by
01
01
(
-(-1 0)(-1 0)=
0 0 0 -1)
0010
010
0;
-1 0 0
0
the minus sign appears because the number ~ . ~ is odd. It is easy to verify
that this matrix has signature zero. Therefore, u(MP x Nq) = o.
Finally, suppose that both numbers p and q are divisible by 4. Choose
bases in the spaces HP/2(MP) and Hq/2(Nq) so that the intersection matrices
in these bases are diagonal. Take the tensor product of these bases and
consider the matrix A of the restriction of the intersection form to the space
HP/2(MP) Hq/2(Nq). Let rand s be the numbers of positive diagonal
elements for the intersection forms on HP/2(MP) and Hq/2(NQ), respectively.
The matrix A is diagonal; its diagonal has rs+(~-r) (~-s) positive elements
and r(~ - s) + s(~ - r) negative elements. The signature of this matrix
equals (r - (~ - r)) (s - (~- s)) = u(MP)u(Nq).
0
110
2. Cohomology Rings
Chapter 3
Applications of
Simplicial Homology
111
112
~a rp(~ra.) and ~t3 rp(~2t3)' where the ~ra and ~2t3 are simplices of the
triangulations of the first and second ball and the homology class h(rp + 1/J)
is represented by the cycle ~a rp(~ra.) + ~t3 rp(~2t3) Therefore, h is a group
homomorphism. It is called the Hurewicz homomorphism.
The equality
Va is a
free generator of the group CoCK). Thus, we have constructed an element
of the fundamental group which is mapped to E ai~! .
The image of the homomorphism h is an Abelian group; therefore, its
kernel is contained in the commutator subgroup of 71"1 (K). Let w be a loop
in K based at Xo for which hew) = a(E al~n. Any loop in K based at
a vertex is homotopic to a loop along edges. Therefore, we can assume
that w = IT 'Y,O"I. where 'Y,O"l is an oriented edge of the complex K. For
I-chains, we have
(20)
1',0,,1 = L
a,(1',o,il
+ 1'il,i2 + 1'i2,iO) ,
113
group. Equality (20) holds for the generators 'Ya,fj of the free group; hence
a similar equality holds for the elements 'Ya'Ya,fj'Yj/. Let us write it in the
multiplicative form:
Moreover,
-1
-1
because the loop II0,il'Yil,,21i2,iO is contractible (see Figure 1). Thus, iii = 1,
as required.
0
'rIO
7r1(K) =
h: 7rn (K)
[E ai6.i] .
114
Proof. Suppose that at the level of chains, cp.([sn]) = 8(E ~~+l) (some
of the simplices ~~+l C K may coincide). For the first approximation to
Ln+l we take the disjoint union of the sphere sn and the simplices Li~+!,
each identified with the corresponding simplex ~~+l C K; the map cp can
be extended over Li~+! to the identity map. In the simplidal complex thus
obtained, the cycle Zn = [sn]- E 8Li~+l is homologous to [sn], and cp.(zn) =
O.
The next approximation to Ln+l is constructed so that the- cycle Zn
becomes homologous to a cycle Wn = E S'J, where cp(S'J) C Kn-l. Suppose
that Zn = E~:! and cp(~:!J rt. Kn 1, i.e., cp maps ~:!l homeomorphically
to a simplex from K. The equality cp.(zn) = 0 implies that some other
simplex ~:!2 is mapped homeomorphically onto the same simplex as ~:!l'
but the orientations of ~:!l and ~:!2 are opposite. To ~:!l and ~:!2 we attach
the triangulated prism ~n x I oriented so that the orientations induced on
~n X{O} = ~:!l and ~n x {I} = ~:!2 are as required. Consider an extension
of cp to ~n X I with constant value on {x} x I. We have 8(~n x I) =
~:!l + ~:!2 + en, where the chain Cn contains only simplices satisfying the
condition cp(~n) C K n 1. Let us replace the chain ~:!l + ~:!2 in the cycle
Zn by the homologous chain -Cn. After several such operations, we obtain
the desired cycle W n .
Finally, to the simplicial complex obtained at the preceding step, we
add the cones over all simplices ~; in the cycle W n . Let V be the union
of all such simplices, and let CV be the cone over V. This cone is acyclic;
therefore, the cycle Wn is now homologous to zero. It remains to extend cp
over CV. A map cp: V -+ K can be extended over CV if and only if cp is
null-homotopic (that is, homotopic to a constant map). By assumption, we
have cp(V) C K n - 1. The equalities 7l"o(K) = 7l"l(K) = ... = 7l"77-1(K) = 0
imply that the identity map K -+ K is homotopic to a map f: K -+ K
taking the skeleton Kn-l to xo. Therefore, the map cp: V -+ K n - 1 c K is
homotopic to a constant map to K.
0
Suppose that cp: Ln+l -+ K is a continuous map, sn c Ln+l, and
[sn] = 8en+l for some chain Cn+! E Cn+!(K). Replacing cp by a homotopic
map, we can assume that cp(Ln-l) = xo. Then each simpl('x ~n c Ln+l
115
corresponds to a map (an, aan) !!.... (K, xo), and we obtain a homomorphism
cI>.: Cn(Ln+l)
-+
7I"n(K).
Sn!!....K. Let
Proof. The fundamental group 71"1 (K) has one generator a, and this generator satisfies the relation a 2 a- 1 = 1, i.e., a = 1. Thus, the complex K is
simply connected.
The chain complex for calculating the cell homology of the complex K
has the form .. -+ 0 -+ 0 -+ C 2 .!!..... C 1 -+ 0, where C 2 ~ Z, Cl ~ Z, and
a is an isomorphism. Therefore, Hi(K) = 0 for i ~ 1. It follows from the
Hurewicz theorem that 7I"i(K) = 0 for all i ~ 1. Therefore, according to the
Whitehead theorem (see Part I, p. 179), K is contractible.
0
Problem 86. (a) Prove that the suspension over any acyclic CW-complex
is contractible.
(b) Give an example of a noncontractible space whose suspension is
contractible.
116
1.2. Obstruction Theory. Suppose that X is a path-connected topological space, K is a simplicial complex, L is a subcomplex of K, and Kn is
the n-skeleton of K. Let f: kn --+ X be a map defined on kn = K n U L.
We want to determine whether this map can be extended to kn+1. For
n = 0, the construction of an extension of a map to a path-connected space
is obvious; thus, we assume that n ~ l.
We will need to add elements of groups 1I"n(X, x) with different base
points x E X; for this reason, we assume that the space X is n-simple. 2 For
n = 1, this means that the group 11"1 (X, x) is commutative.
We associate with a cochain en+1(J) E C n+1(K;1I"n(X)) the map f: kn
--+ X as follows. The consideration of chains and co chains for K assumes
that all simplices in K are oriented. An orientation of a simplex ~ n+1 C K
induces an orientation of the boundary a~n+1 ~ sn; hence the restriction
of f to a~n+1 determines an element of the group 1I"n(X). We assume that
the value of the co chain en +1 (J) at the simplex ~ n+1 is equal to this element
of 1I"n(X).
It follows directly from the definition that the map f can be extended
to a simplex ~n+1 C K if and only if en+1(J)(~n+1) = O. In particular, if
~n+1 C L, then en+1(J)(~n+1) = 0 because f is defined on L. Therefore,
en+1(J) E C n+1(K, L; 1I"n(X C Cn+l(K; 1I"n(X. In what follows, we treat
the co chain en + 1 (J) as a relative cochain. It is called an obstruction to
extending f over kn+1.
Problem 87. Prove that SP x sq = (SP V sq) Uj Dp+q, where the map
f: Sp+q-l --+ SP V sq is not null-homotopic.
Theorem 3.3. We have the equality 8en+1(J)
cn+1(J) E zn+1(K,L;1I"n(X)) is a relative cocycle.
~n(X)
Lx.
117
sn
----+
a class in Hn(Bn)
h- 1
----+
0i
--+
to
Trn(Bn) ~ Trn(X),
118
Proof. For each simplex D.. n c k n , there exists a map 9 such that the map
sn -+ X which coincides with / on the upper hemisphere and with 9 on the
lower hemisphere represents a given element of 7l"n(X)j such a map for the
simplex D.. n c L represents the zero element of 7l"n(X), so that 9 = /. The
desired map 9 can always be constructed because 7l"n(X) is a group.
0
Lemma 2. M:'(f,g)
= cn+l(g) -
cn+l(f).
by the sum of the homotopy classes of the three curves shown in Figure 3b.
These elements are equal because, by assumption, the sum of the homotopy
classes of two curves does not depend on the base point. For an arbitrary
n, the homotopy classes coincide as well.
0
Now we can proceed to the proof of the theorem. Suppose Cn+l(f) = 0,
i.e., cn+l(f) = ~d!' for some cochain an. According to Lemma 1, there exists
a map g: kn -+ X such that it coincides with / on k n- 1 and d!'(f, g) =
_dn . By Lemma 2, we have
cn+l(g)
= ~cr(f,g) + cn+l(f) =
-~cr
+ ~cr = OJ
119
Proof. Consider the set of maps of pairs (K, K n - 1 ) -+ (X, xo). We declare
two such maps to be equivalent if they are joined by a homotopy fixed on
Kn-2. We denote the set of equivalence classes by [K, Xn. Let us show that
the natural map (): [K, Xn -+ [K, X] is one-to-one.
I:
-+
120
k: [K, X~
--+
rOo
rOo
Theorem 3.6. II K is an n-dimensional simplicial complex, then any element 01 the group Hn(K; Z) can be represented in the lorm
where a is
the generator 01 Hn(sn; Z) and I: K --+ sn is a map determined uniquely
up to homotopy.
rOo,
1.4. Algebraically Trivial Maps. A map I: X --+ Y is said to be algeHi(y) --+ Hi(X)
braically trivial if the maps I.: H I (X) --+ H,(Y) and
are trivial for all i ~ l.
r:
121
I:
-+
8t:J.. k ~ p-l(Uu ) ~ Uu x 8 1 ~ 8 1 .
Here Uu is the set from the cover that contains the image of t:J.. k , hu is
the homeomorphism from the definition of a locally trivial fibration, and
7ru is the projection onto the second factor. We have constructed a map
8 k - 1 -+ 8 1 , where k - 1 ~ 2. Any such map is null-homotopic; therefore, it
122
Fk(X) =
--+
D
(x)
I'k-l
h;l(fk(X),90"(x))
l'f X
E Xk 1
if x E /:l.k C Xk.
Finally, the map F: X --+ 8 3 is defined by the condition that its restriction
to Xk coincides with Fk for any k ~ 2.
Step 2. If maps F, G: X
--+
= F
and cI>1
= G,
1.5. The Eilenberg MacLane Spaces. Suppose that n is a positive integer and 7r is a group; for n ~ 2, we assume that 7r is Abelian. A CW -complex
X is called a K(7r, n) space, or an Eilenberg MacLane space, if
1I'k(X) = {11'
for k
for k
= n,
i- n.
M2
R'p 2
is a
123
Proof. Consider the map Xn --+ Xn 1 forgetting the last coordinate. This
map is a locally trivial fibration. Ifs fiber F is ([; with n - 1 points deleted.
Thus, it is homotopy equivalent to the wedge of n - 1 circles. In particular,
7rk(F) = 0 for k ~ 2. The exact sequence 7rk(F) --+ 7rk(Xn) --+ 7rk(Xn-t}
shows that if k ~ 2 and 7rk(Xn-1) = 0, then 1fk(Xn) = O. If remains to note
that the space Xl = ([; is contractible.
0
Example 29. Let Y n be the quotient of Xn by the action of the group Sn
(of permutations of coordinates). Then Y n is a K(Bn, l) space for some
group Bn. (This group Bn is called the braid group on n strands.)
Proof. The map Xn
7rk(Yn) for k ~ 2.
-+
bibi+lb, = b'+lbib'+l
for
1~i ~ n- 1
and
for Ii - il ~ 2
(the latter relations are called the far commutativity relations).
bibj = bjb,
We regard Soo as the subset of ([;00 consisting of the points (Zl' Z2, ... )
for which E Iz,1 2 = 1. On Soo, we introduce the equivalence relation defined
by (ZI. Z2,"') '" (EZI, EZ2, . .. ), where E = exp(27ri/m). The space L~ =
Soo / '" is called the infinite-dimensional lens space.
H.(L::;)
~ {~
for odd n,
for even n
> O.
124
and relations {ai liE I}; here {ai liE J} and {b j I j E J} are bases of
the groups Rand F. Consider the wedge Kn of triangulated n-spheres Sj,
where j E J. The group 7I"n(Kn) is canonically isomorphic to F. For each
basis relation ai ERe F = 7I"n(Kn), take a continuous map fi: Sf -+ K n
representing the homotopy class ai E 7I"n(Kn) and consider its simplicial
approximation 'Pi. The triangulation of Sf can be naturally extended to a
triangulation of D;+l ::J Sf (to each n-simplex we add one vertex at the
center of the ball). Let K n +1 be the simplicial complex obtained from K n
by attaching the balls D;+l via the maps 'Pi. If n = 1, then, according to
Theorem 6.1 in Part I, we have 7I"1(K 2) ~ 71". If n > 1, then the Hurewicz
theorem can be applied. Indeed, it follows from the cellular approximation
theorem that the space Kn+l is (n-l)-connected. Clearly, Hn(Kn+l) ~ 71".
Therefore, by the Hurewicz theorem, 7I"n(Kn+l) ~ 71".
Now, we choose a system of generators in 71"n+l (Kn+l ), consider the simplicial map 1/;: sn+l -+ Kn+l corresponding to each generator I and attach
Dn+2 to Kn+l via the map 1/;. As a result, we obtain a simplicial complex
Kn+2 whose homotopy groups up to dimension n + 1 are as required. This
is implied by the following lemma.
Lemma. Suppose that a CW -complex X' is obtained from a CW -complex X
by attaching an (n + 2) -cell via a map 1/;: sn+l -+ xn+l. Then the inclusion
i: X ....... X' induces an isomorphism i.: 7I"k(X) -+ 7I"k(X') for k ~ n; for
k - n + 1, it induces an epimorphism i.: 7I"k(X) -+ 7I"k(X') whose kernel
contains the subgroup generated by the homotopy class of 1/;.
Proof. According to the cellular approximation theorem, for k ~ n+ 1, any
map from the sphere Sk into a CW -complex Y is homotopic to a map into
the (n + I)-skeleton yn+l, and for k ~ n, any homotopy in Y between two
maps Sk -+ yn+l can be replaced by a homotopy in yn+l. This implies
that i. is an isomorphisms for Ir ~ n and an epimorphism for k = n + 1.
The composition sn+l J!.... X ~ X' is null-homotopic; the contraction is
performed along the cell Dn+2.
D
Then, we kill the group 7I"n+2(Kn+2) in the same way as the (n
dimensional homotopy group of Kn+l, and so on.
Theorem 3.9. Any two K(7I", n) spaces (with the same
topy equivalent.
71"
+ 1)D
125
--+
Hom(Hn(K), G)
--+
126
---+
We must only verify that this correspondence has the required form and is
determined by the n-skeleton Kn. Consider the diagram
(21)
In this diagram both horizontal arrows are induced by the natural embedding
i: K n ---+ K, and kO- 1 is the map from the Hopf-Whitney theorem. The map
i*: Hn(Kj 11") ---+ Hn(Knj 11") is injective because the co chains of dimension
at most n in K are identified with the co chains in K n and the equality zn =
8w n- 1 carries over from K n to K. The map i#: [K, L] ---+ [Kn, L] is injective
as well. Indeed, if maps f, g: K ---+ L have homotopic restrictions to K''',
then they are themselves homotopic because all obstructions to extending
the homotopies lie in cocycles with values in 1I"m(L) with m > n, whereas,
by assumption, 11"m (L) = 0 for m > n.
To prove that the diagram (21) defines a one-to-one map <p: [K, L] ---+
Hn(Kj 11"), it remains to show that kO- 1 maps the image of i# to the image
of i*. By the properties of 0, it suffices to consider maps f: (Kn, K n - 1 ) ---+
(L, xo) up to a homotopy fixed on Kn-2. The homotopy class of such a
map f belongs to 1m i# if and only if f can be extended to the entire
space K, and the latter condition holds if and only if f can be extended to
Kn+l because further obstructions to the extension lie in the trivial groups
(1I"m(L) = 0 for m > n). If such an extension exists, then cn+ 1 (f) = OJ
here en+l E C n+1(Kj 11") is the obstruction to extending the map f. The
equality cn+1(f) = 0 is equivalent to 8dn (f, *) = 0 because o~(f, *) =
cn+l(*) - cn+1(f) and cn+l(*) = O. By definition, k(f) is the cohomology
class of the co cycle dn(f, *) in Kn. The cochain dn(f, *) is al 0 a co cycle in
K; therefore, k(f) E 1m i#, as required.
127
The map cp is natural in the sense that for any h: K - K', the diagram
h#
[K',L]
1~
Hn(K'j7r)
h*
~
[K,L]
1~
H n (Kj7r)
is commutative. We can assume that L is the K (7r, n) simplicial complex that was constructed in the proof of Theorem 3.8. Then the skeleton
Ln-l consists of one point, and it follows directly from the definitions that
cp(idL) = F1r We set K' = Land h = f. Then cpU) = cpU#(idL)) =
!*(cp(id L )) = !*(F1r ), i.e., the map cp does have the required form.
0
The universal coefficient theorem implies the isomorphism Hn(K(7r, n)j 7r')
~ Hom(Hn(K(7r, n)), 7r'). Finally, from the Hurewicz theorem, it follows
that Hn(K(7r, n)) ~ 7r.
0
Theorem 3.10 allows us to describe all cohomology operations, which are
defined as follows. Take Abelian groups G and H and positive integers m
and n. A cohomology operation of type (m, n, G, H) is a family of maps (not
necessarily homomorphisms) 8 K: H m (K j G) - Hn( K; H) that are defined
for each simplicial complex K so that the diagram
Hm(Lj G) ~ Hn(Lj H)
11*
11*
Hm(Kj G) ~ Hn(Kj H)
is commutative for any continuous map f: K - L.
Example 31. A homomorphism of groups G _ H induces a homomorphism Hffl(Kj G) - Hm(K; H), which is a dimension-preserving cohomology operation.
Example 32. If R is the additive group of a unital ring, then for any k,
the map a t---+ a k is a cohomology operation of type (m, mk, R, R).
128
-+
H k+1(Kj G f )
o-+ G
-+
-+
G"
-+
Hom(Hn(K(G,n)),H)
Hom(G,H).
71'1 (X)
= o.
129
Let us show that, for any Abelian group G and any positive integer n,
there exists a Moore space M(G, n). For M(Z, n) we take the sphere sn,
and for M(Zm, n) we can take the sphere sn to which the (n+l)-cell D n+1 is
attached by a map 8Dn+1 ---+ sn of degree m. In this case, the chain complex
for calculating the cellular homology has the form Z ~ Z ---+ 0 ---+ If
the group G is finitely generated, then we can take the wedge of several
spaces M(Z, n) and M(Zm, n) for M(G, n).
For an arbitrary Abelian group G, the space M(G, n) can be constructed
as follows. There exists an epimorphism F ---+ G, where F is a free Abelian
group. Let H be its kernel. The group H, being a subgroup of the free
Abelian group F, is itself a free Abelian group. Let {fa,} be a basis of
the group F, and let {hp} be a basis of H. Then hp = ~a no.pfo.. We set
xn = VaS;:. To xn we attach cells {D3+1} via the maps Xp: 8D3+1 ---+ xn
defined as follows. First, 8D3+1 is mapped to the wedge of kp copies of the
n-sphere, where kp is the number of nonzero coefficients nap, by contracting
kp - 1 (n - I)-spheres in 8D3+l. Then each of the spheres in the wedge
is mapped to the corresponding sphere S;: by a map of degree naP' The
resulting CW-complex can easily be made into a simplicial complex Xj this
is the Moore space M(G, n). Indeed, the chain complex for calculating the
i
cellular homology of the complex X has the form H ---+ F ---+ 0 ---+ , where
i is the inclusion of the subgroup H into the group F.
If GI, G2, ... are any Abelian groups, then there exists a simplicial complex X for which Hi(X) = Gij for X we can take the wedge ViM(Gi,i).
Surprisingly, for cohomology, a similar assertion is false. An example
was constructed by Kan and Whitehead [67].
Theorem 3.12 (Kan Whitehead). For no positive integer n, there exists a
simplicial complex X for which Hn-1(Xj Z) = 0 and Hn(Xj Z) = Q, where
Q is the additive group of rational numbers.
Proof. Suppose there exists a simplicial complex X for which H n - 1 (X j Z)
Then the universal coefficient formulas yield
o and Hn(x j Z) = Q.
(22)
= Hn-l(X)
= Hn(x)
and
(23)
130
Lemma. For any Abelian group A such that Hom(A, Z) = 0, the following
assertions are valid.
(a) The group Ext(A, Z) is divisible if and only if A is torsion-free;
(b) The group Ext(A, Z) is torsion-free if and only if A is divisible.
Proof. First, we introduce the notation
rnA
= {b E A I b = rna, a E A},
rnA = {a
A I rna = O},
Am = A/rnA.
Note that if B is an Abelian group such that rnB = 0, then Hom(B, Z) =
Indeed, rp(b) = n implies 0 = rp(rnb) = rnn. Both groups rnA and Am have
this property; hence Hom(mA, Z) = 0 and Hom(Am, Z) - o. Taking into
account this observation and applying Problem 22 to the exact sequem;-es.
c
xm
o ---+ m A ---+ A ---+
rnA ---+ 0,
0---+ rnA ---+ A ---+ Am ---+ 0,
o.
---+
Ext(A, Z)
---+
Ext(mA, Z)
---+
and
o ---+ Hom(A, Z)
---+
Hom(rnA, Z)
---+
Ext(Am, Z)
---+
Ext(A, Z)
---+
Ext (rnA, Z)
---+
o.
o ---+ Ext(Am, Z)
---+
Ext(A, Z)
---+
Ext (rnA, Z)
---+
o.
o ---+ Ext(Am, Z)
---+
Ext(A, Z) ~ Ext(A, Z)
---+
Ext(mA, Z)
---+
0,
2. Characteristic Classes
131
o ----+ Hom(Q, Q)
----+
Hom(Q, Q/Z)
----+
Ext(Q, Z)
----+
O.
The group Hom(Q, Q) ~ Q is countable, whereas Hom(Q, Q/Z) is uncountable (see Problem 15). Therefore, the group Ext(Q, Z) is uncountable. 0
2. Characteristic Classes
2.1. Vector Bundles. A locally trivial fiber bundle p: E - B is called
an n-dimensional vector bundle if its fiber F is the linear space ]Rn, each
set p-l(b) (where b E B) is endowed with the structure of an n-dimensional
linear space, and the homeomorphisms h: UxF _ p-l(U) have the property
that for each point b E U, the map x ~ h(b,x) E p-l(b) is a linear space
isomorphism between F =]Rn and p-l(b).
A vector bundle is said to be smooth if E and B are smooth manifolds,
p is a smooth map, and the homeomorphisms hare diffeomorphisms.
Example 34. Let T M n be the tangent bundle3 of a closed manifold Mn.
Then the natural projection p: T M n _ M n is a smooth vector bundle. We
denote this bundle by TMn.
A map s: B - E is called a section of the bundle if ps
idB; the
sections of the tangent bundle are vector fields on the manifold. For any
3The definition of the tangent bundle is given in Part I on p. 202.
132
vector bundle, the zero section is defined, which takes each point b E B to
the zero vector of the space p I (b).
Vector bundles PI: EI --+ Band P2: E2 --+ B are isomorphic if there
exists a homeomorphism cp: EI --+ E2 which isomorphically maps pII(b)
onto p2"I(b) for all b E B. Isomorphic vector bundles are also called equivalent.
Note that, for isomorphic vector bundles, the images of the zero sections
have homeomorphic complements in the total spaces of the bundles.
Theorem 3.13. Suppose that PI: EI --+ Band P2: E2 --+ B are vector bundles and f: El --+ E2 is a continuous map which induces an isomorphism
of linear spaces PI I(b) and p2"I(b) for each b E B. Then f is a homeomorphism, i.e., the bundles PI and P2 are isomorphic.
Proof. For each point b E B, we choose neighborhoods Ui (i = 1,21 and
homeomorphisms hi: Ui x]Rn --+ p;I(U,). It is sufficient to verify that the
map
h2"1 fh I : (UI n U2) x ]Rn --+ (UI n U2) x ]Rn
is a homeomorphism. By assumption, this map takes (b, v) to (b, A(b)v),
where A(b) is a nondegenerate matrix whose elements continuously depend
on b. The inverse map has the form (b,w) 1-+ (b,A-I(b)w). The elements of
the matrix A-I(b) continuously depend on b as well; therefore, the inverse
map is continuous.
D
The natural projection Bx]Rn --+ B is an n-dimensional vector bundle. It
is called a trivial, or a product vector bundle. Any vector bundle isomorphic
to a trivial bundle is also said to be trivial.
Problem 91. Prove that an n-dimensional vector bundle p: E --+ B is trivial if and only if there exists a continuous map 7r: E --+ ]Rn whose restriction
to each fiber p I(b), bE B, is a linear space isomorphism.
We say that a closed manifold Mn is parallelizable if its tangent bundle
p: T M n --+ Mn is trivial.
Theorem 3.14. A manifold M n is parallelizable if and only if there exist n
continuous vector fields VI (x), ... , Vn (x) on M n that are linearly independent
at each point x E Mn.
133
2. Characteristic Classes
Example 35. The spheres SI, S3, and S7 are parallelizable manifolds.
The construction of linearly independent vector fields on these spheres
is discussed in detail in [104, Section 41].
Problem 92. Prove that the tangent bundle TS3 has infinitely many pairwise nonhomotopic 4 trivializations.
Problem 93. Prove that there exist infinitely many pairwise nonhomotopic 5 vector fields without singular points on S3.
Example 36. The torus
rn is a parallelizable manifold.
E'
= {(e, b')
E E
x B' I pee)
= feb')}
and p' (e, b') = b'. For the pullback, the diagram
E'~E
lp,
lp
B'~B,
where lee, b') = e, is commutative.
Let us show that the pullback is indeed a vector bundle. The linear
space structure on the fiber (p')-I(b) is determined by
Al(el. b')
here peed = p(e2) = feb'), i.e., el and e2 belong to the same linear space
p-l(J(b'.
To a neighborhood U C B and a homeomorphism h: U x]Rn _ p-I(U)
we assign the neighborhood U' = f-I(U) C B' and the homeomorphism
h': U' x ]Rn - (p')-I(U') defined by (b', v) ...... (e, b'), where e = h(J(b'), v).
The condition pee) = feb') does hold.
Exercise. Prove that a vector bundle is trivial if and only if it is a pullback
of a bundle over a point.
4Two trivializations of a bundle are homotopic if they can be joined by a continuous family
of trivializations.
5Two vector fields without singular points are said to be homotopic if they caD be joined by
a continuous family of vector fields without singular points.
134
BI
B2j
'"
nk
Remark. In [3], an assertion similar to Problem 94 for embeddings of products of 2-manifolds in the Euclidean space was proved.
Example 39. For any closed manifolds MI and M 2 , TMIXM'J ~
where the 7l'i: Ml x M2 - Mi are natural projection .
7r2TM2'
7riTM1 ffi
135
2. Characteristic Classes
Proof. The fiber of the bundle 7riTMl ffi 7r2TM2 over the point (x, y) E MI X
M2 is canonically isomorphic to TxMI ffi TyM2 ~ Tex,y)(MI x M2).
0
Problem 95*. Prove that the manifold snl X . X snlc, where k ~ 2, is
parallelizable if and only if at least one of the numbers nl, ... ,nk is odd.
The Bundle Hom(el, e2). Let 6 and 6 be two vector bundles over B.
They determine the bundle Hom(6, 6) whose fiber over each point bE B
consists of homomorphisms (linear maps) from the fiber of 6 over b to that
of 6. To construct this bundle, we must endow the total space with a
topology. Let U be an open set over which the bundles 6 and 6 are trivial,
and let hi: U x R n , - p;I(U) be the coordinate homeomorphisms. When
a point b E U is fixed, the map hI identifies R n , with the fiber of ~i over
b. Thus, we have a one-to-one map h: U x Hom(Rnl,Rn2) - p-I(U). It is
required that such maps be homeomorphisms for all U and that all the sets
p-I(U) be open. These conditions uniquely determine a topology on E. We
must verify only that it is consistent, i.e., that the map
(U n U') x R n ,
I.
loh'
(U n U') x Rni.
o.
136
2. Characteristic Classes
137
This definition makes sense because if fl.1 C ofl. c fl., then the group Gll'
is canonically isomorphic to Gll. The proof of the equality 00 = 0 is completely similar to that for usual simplicial chains. The homology group
Hk(K; 0) is defined to be the quotient group Kerok/ImOk+1'
The group C k (K; 0) of k-cochains consists of maps taking each simplex
fl.k to an element of the group Gllle. The coboundary homomorphism 6 is
given by
(6c k ) [vo, ... , Vk+1]
Vk+lJ).
Z
Hk(lRpn;ZT)= { Z2
if k = nand n is even,
ifk<n and k is even,
otherwise
and
if k = nand n even,
if k ::; nand k odd,
otherwise.
Proof. The boundary homomorphism 0: C k -+ Ck-l acts as multiplication by 1 + (_l)k(-l) = 1 + (_l)k+1. The coboundary homomorphism
6: C k - 1 -+ C k has the same form because it is dual to O.
0
Remark. The local system ZT is defined for any space with fundamental
group Z2'
Poincare Duality for Local Coefficients. Recall that the usual Poincare
duality for an oriented manifold Mn with two dual cell decompositions K
and K* is established by an isomorphism Ck(K; Z) -+ Cn-k(K*; Z), which
138
un
u;
u;
-u:.
u;.
u;.
-u;
u;.
u;
2. Characteristic Classes
139
140
Theorem 3.16. If i
Proof. First, let us show (by induction on k) that 11",(V(n, k)) = 0 for
i < n - k. For k = 1, the manifold V(n,l) is the sphere sn-l. Clearly,
11"i(sn-l) = 0 for i < n - 1. The induction step is as follows. Consider the
map V(n, k+l) --+ V(n, k) deleting the last vectors from each (k+l)-tuple of
orthonormal vectors. This map is a locally trivial bundle with fiber sn-k-l.
The exact homotopy sequence for this bundle is
11",(sn-k-l)
For i
<
---+
11"i(V(n, k
+ 1
---+
11"i(V(n, k
---+
11",_I(sn-k-l).
7l",(V(n, k + 1
--+
11"i+l(sn)
---+
7l",(V(n, k))
---+
11"i(V(n + 1, k + 1))
---+
11"i(sn).
a.
---+
11"i(V(n, 2))
---+
7l"n_2(sn-l)
= o.
The homomorphism
maps Z to Z; therefore, it suffices to calculate
a.(idsn 1). By definition, the element a.(ids n-1) E 7l"n_2(sn-2) is constructed as follows. On the sphere sn-l, consider the one-parameter family
of spheres S~-2, where t E (0,1), which pass through a fixed point eo E sn-l
and have a common tangent (n - 2)-plane at this point. We lift the point
eo to the total space V(n, 2) of the bundle and extend the lifting to S~-2
first for small t and then for all t < 1. Letting t tend to 1 we obtain a map
from the sphere S~-2 to the fiber. The homotopy class of this map is the
required element of 7l"n_2(sn-2).
2. Characteristic Classes
141
To lift the point eo E sn-l (treated as a unit vector) to V(n, 2), we have
to choose a unit vector el orthogonal to eo. The vector el can be regarded
as a vector tangent to sn-l at eo.
The lifting can be constructed using a vector field with one isolated
singular point. It is required that the vectors be parallel in a half of a
neighborhood of the singular point and all the rotation of the vectors take
place in the second half (the first half of the neighborhood corresponds to
2 with t < 1/2 and the second, to the spheres with t > 1/2).
the spheres
In Figure 4, the dashed line shows the circle sf with t > 1/2 for n - 3. As
Sr-
Sr-
2 -+ sn-2
142
The odd-dimensional Stiefel Whitney classes (and the class Wn for even
n) are defined by reducing the integer coefficients modulo 2. As a result, the
Stiefel Whitney classes W2j+l E H2j+l(B; Z2) are obtained. We emphasize
that they do not coincide with the obstructions
2 +1
02j+lEHJ
(B,{7I"2j(V(n,n-2j))}),
-----t
7I"2j_l(S2j -l)
~ 7I"2j-l(V(n, n - 2j + 1)) -
o.
2j - 1 < n - (n - 2j). Thus, we have an exact sequence Z ~ Z. ~ 'Z2 .0; therefore, 1m 8* = Ker i* = 2Z, and Ker 8. = O. Adding U - to the
exact sequence (24) on the left, we obtain a short exact sequence of groups.
Moreover, in fact, we obtain a short exact sequence of local systems of
Abelian groups (this is easy to check). As for ordinary cohomology groups,
this exact sequence induces the Bockstein homomorphism
(3*: H 2j (B, {7I"2j-l(V(n, n - 2j + I))}) - H2j+l(B, {7I"2j(V(n, n - 2j))}).
Problem 99. Prove that
02j+l
= (3*02j.
= 0,
then W2j+l
= Sq l W2j .
Problem 100. Prove that the obstructions Ok, where k < dim~, have order
2. Moreover, if the number n = dim~ is odd, then the class On has order 2
as well.
Problem 100 shows that almost all classes Wk(~) are true obstructions,
i.e., extensions of sections exist if and only if these classes vanish. The only
exception is the class wn(~) with even n = dim~. Only this class is obtained
by the reduction modulo 2 of a class which may be of order different from 2.
2.4. Properties of the Stiefel Whitney Classes. We have defined the
classes W2, .. . , Wn for n-dimensional vector bundles. We assume that Wo = 1
and Wi = 0 for i > n.
The Class WI' The class WI must be considered separately because it must
correspond to an obstruction to extending n linearly independent sections
from the O-skeleton to the I-skeleton. Applying the standard construction of
obstruction theory, we see that the corresponding co cycle rrllst take values
in 7I"o(V(n, n)), and 71"0 is not a group. We have defined V(n, k) only for
2. Characteristic Classes
143
The orientation of the fiber can be transferred along any path in the
base; thus, we indeed obtain a local system of coefficients.
We now construct obstructions to extending n linearly independent sections from the O-skeleton to the I-skeleton. The connected components of
the space V(n, n) are orientations. So, we are to specify orientations in the
fibers over the I-skeleton. Suppose that at each vertex Vi, an orientation
Ci is given. Consider the cochain c1 E C 1 (B;{Ho(V(n,n);Z)}) for which
(c l , [viVjD = Cj - Ci. This cochain is a co cycle because
(del,
[ViVjVkJ)
= (c l , [VjVkJ) - (c I , [ViVkJ)
+ (c l , [ViVjJ)
+ (Cj -
= O.
I-skeleton if and only if c l = O.
(ck - Cj) -
(ck - ci)
E."i)
144
2. Characteristic Classes
141
For the bundle with opposite orientation, e has the opposite signj i.e.
e( -e) = -e(e)
Theorem 3.19. If the dimension of the bundle
-e
Thus, for vector bundles of odd dimension, the classes wnCe) and e(e) do
not differ substantially, although they belong to different groups. Both of
them are true obstructions, i.e., sections extend to the n-skeleton if and only
if wn(e) = 0 or e(e) = 0 (these conditions are equivalent). But for evendimensional orient able bundles, only the class e(e) is a true obstruction,
while wn(e) is not: the equality wn(e) = 0 does not imply the existence of a
nowhere vanishing section over the n-skeleton. Such a section exists only if
eCe) = O. For example, W2(S2) = 0 but e(S2) = 2 i= OJ therefore, no vector
field on the sphere S2 is nowhere vanishing.
Let Mn be a closed oriented manifold, and let en be an oriented ndimensional bundle over Mn. Using the interpretation of the class e(e n ) E
Hn(Mnj Z) as an obstruction, we calculate it as follows. Locally, the total
space E of the bundle en is the product of the oriented manifold M n and
another oriented manifold, the fiber of enj hence this space can be oriented. (Note that for odd n, the order of factors in the product is essentialj
for transposed factors, the orientation is opposite.) Consider any section
s: M n -- E transversally intersecting the zero section MO' C E in isolated
points. We have (e(e n ), [Mn]) = ((MO', s(Mn)). Indeed, for a representative
of the cohomology class e(e) we can take the cocycle that is an obstruction
to extending the section s from the (n -1 )-skeleton to the n-skeletonj to each
n-simplex ~ n in the triangulation of the manifold M n this cocycle assigns
the sum of the indices of the singular points of s in ~ n. On the other hand,
this sum is equal to the intersection number of ~n with s(Mn) in MO'.
XCMn).
Note that under a change of orientation, both the Euler class e( TMn)
and the fundamental class [Mn] change sign.
sn is evenj therefore,
140
W2 -
11) - w n ((.) x
(11)
Proof. Take an n-cell u in the base of the bundle (.. Let us construct
a (nonvanishing) section of (. over au and extend it inside u so that all
zeros of the extension are nondegenerate. Let a(u) be the number of these
zeros. Then the cohomology class w n ((.) is represented by the co cycle which
assigns the element a(u) (mod 2) E Z2 to the cell u. Over each m-cell r
of the base of 11, we similarly construct a section with b(r) nondegenerate
zeros. The direct sum of these sections is a section of the bundle (. x 11
over the cell u x r. Let c( u X r) be the number of zeros of this section.
Clearly, c(u x r) = a(u)b(r) because the direct sum of two sections vanishes
precisely at the common zeros of these sections. Thus, to thG cell u x r
the co cycle representing the class w n +m ((. X 11) assigns the product of the
values of the co cycles representing w n ((.) and W m (11) for the cells u and r.
According to the definition of cohomology cross product, this means that
the representatives of the classes w n +m ((. X 11) and w n ((.) x W m (11) take equal
values at the cell u x r. It remains to verify that if dim u' + dim r' = m + n
but dim u' =/: n, then the representatives of both classes vanish at u' x r'. For
the class w n ((.) x W m (11), this follows directly from the definition. Suppose
that, say, dimu' < n. Then there exists a nowhere vanishing section over u'.
The direct sum of this section and any section over r' is nowhere vanishmg.
Therefore, the representative of the class w n +m ((. X 11) vanishes at the cell
u' x r'.
0
The following theorem is a refinement of Theorem 3.20.
Theorem 3.21. Ifdim(. - nand dim 11
e((.)
e(11).
Proof. The main argument is the same as in the proof of Theorem 3.20. We
must only trace the orientations. Namely, we need to prove that if vector
fields v and W on the spaces V and W have nondegenerate singular points
with indices (_I)k and (_I)l at the origin, then the vector field vffiw on the
space V ffi W has a singular point of index (-1 )k+l at the origin. It suffices
to prove this for the linear vector fields v(x) = Ax and w(y) = By. The
vector field v ffi W is determined by the matrix ( ~ ~), which has determinant
detAdetB.
0
Naturality Property of the Stiefel-Whitney Classes. The StiefelWhitney classes have the following naturality property: If (. is a bundle over
147
2. Characteristic Classes
r:
The naturality property is fairly obvious. Indeed, let E' and E be the
total spaces of the bundles r(~) and ~. By definition, we have
E' = {(b', v) Iv
E Ff(bl)}j
i.e., the fibers over b' E B' and f(b') E B are canonically isomorphic. Therefore, the map f induces a cochain map
f#: en k+l(Bj{7l'n k(V(n,k)})
-+
en k+l(B'j{7l'n k(V(n,k}).
(25)
2:
to that of
I+,-k
Instead of the Whitney formula, we shall prove the equivalent relation
(26)
Wk({ x TJ) =
2:
Wi({) x Wj(TJ),
i+j=k
where { and TJ are bundles over different bases. Relation (25) is derived
from (26) as follows. Suppose that { and TJ are bundles over the same base
B, Pl : B x B -+ Band P2: B x B --+ B are the projections to the first and
second fadors respectively, and d: B --+ B x B is the diagonal map. Then
P1d = P2 d = idB and ~ x TJ = (Pi~) ffi (P2TJ). Therefore,
= Wk({ x TJ) =
2:
Wi({) x Wj(TJ)
i+j=k
Applying the map d* to both parts in this equality and using naturality of
the characteristic classes, we obtain
d*(Wkpi{) ffi (P2TJ) = wk(d*pi{) ffi (d*p;TJ = Wk({ ffi TJ)
Moreover, d*(w,() x w,(TJ = Wi({) ........ Wj(TJ). Now, let us derive (26)
from (25). First, note that ( x TJ = (px{) ffi (PyTJ), where px and py are the
natural projections of X x Y to X and Y. Hence Wk( x TJ) = WkPx() ffi
(pyTJ = ~i+j k Wi (P'X() ........ Wj(pyTJ) = Ei+j=kPXwd{) ........ pyWj(TJ) (the
last equality follows from naturality of the characteristic classes). Finally,
the corollary of Theorem 2.27 on p. 107 implies P'XWi() ........ pyWj(TJ) =
w,() x Wj(TJ)
148
Vector bundles ~ and TJ over the same base are said to be stably equivalent
if ~ ffi Em ~ TJ ffi EP , where Em and EP are the trivial bundles of dimensions m
and p, respectively. We start by proving the following very special case of
the Whitney formula.
Lemma. Stably equivalent bundles have the same Stiefel Whitney characteristic classes.
= wl+j(~o
"10)
= Wi(~O)
= wi(ix~) x Wj(jyTJ)
x Wj(TJo)
= (ix
jY)*(Wi(O x Wj(TJ))
= wQ(~o)
2. Characteristic Classes
149
+j
= k is a homomorphism
EB
HO(X) H.B(y)
a+.8=k
-+
EB
HQ(xa) H.B(y.B).
Q+.B=k
(1
+ WI + W2 + ... r l
= 1 - (Wl + W2 + ... ) + (WI + W2 + ... )2 = 1-WI + (W~ -W2)
+ (-W~ +2WIW2 -
(WI
W3)
+ W2 + ... )3 + ...
+ ....
All elements of the ring H*(Bj Z2) have additive order 2j hence
The classes Wi({) are called the dual Stiefel- Whitney classes.
The dual Stiefel Whitney classes are important because of the following
Whitney duality theorem.
Theorem 3.22 (Whitney). Suppose that a manifold M n is immersed in
]RN and l/Mn is the normal bundle over Mn. Then Wi(l/Mn) = Wi(TMn). In
particular, Wi (VMn ) does not depend on the immersion.
Proof. The bundle l/Mn E9 TMn is isomorphic to the trivial bundle eN over
Mnj the isomorphism takes each pair of vectors in the fibers of these bundles
150
= 1.
W.
For a manifold M n , the class w( TMn) is called the Stiefel Whitney class
of the manifold M n and is denoted by w(Mn).
Problem 102. Calculate the classes WI and W2 for a sphere with 9 handles.
Problem 103. Calculate the classes WI and W2 for the sphere with m
Mobius bands attached and prove that w~ = W2.
Problem 104. Prove that if a manifold M
Wk for all k (here Wk = wk(Mn)).
wf
The Stiefel Whitney classes of all spheres are trivial. A more interesting
example is the Stiefpl Whitney classes of projective spaces IRpn. They are
calculated using the following assertion.
Theorem 3.23. If c 1 is the trivial one-dimensional bundle over IRpn, then
1"
,'Yn
1=
=1
71Rpn =
'17c
'17 '17'Yn
---------n+l
Proof. The total spaces of the bundles involved in the statement of the
theorem can be described as follows:
T(~'pn) consists of the pairs
= -A(X)j
= -vex).
The map 71Rpn ED c 1 _ h~)n+l takes pairs (x, v) and (x, A) to the pair
(x, v + AX). The inverse map acts as follows. Let us represent a vector v(x)
in the form vex) = Vr + Vv, where Vv = AX and vrl.x. The pair (x, vex))
is mapped to the pairs (x, v r ) and (x, cVv), where c = 1 ifthe directions
of the vectors x and Vv coincide, and c = -1 if they are oppo!!ite.
D
2. Characteristic Classes
Corollary. w(JRpn)
151
= (1 + O')n+1 = 1 +
WI
(JRpn)
= 0 if and only if n
=1
is odd.
= 2k -
for some k.
+1
where
0 2 '"
i= 0 and m ;! 0
i=
(mod 2).
= 2k -
1 for some k.
= 2k m,
Problem 105. Prove that if JRpn is immersed in JRn+1, then n has the form
2 r - 1 or 2 r - 2.
Theorem 3.26. If n
lR2n - 2 .
2. Characteristic Classes
153
Hn(wn+l) ~ Hn(Mn)
!:... Hn+l(wn+l,M n )
.
I.e.,
WIrl .,
- a
,wnrn [Mn] .
]Rn,
a vector v E Ilk);
154
the projection p: E(-y~) -+ G(n, k) assigns to every such pair the subspace
nk viewed as a point of the manifold G(n, k). The topology of the space
E(-y~) is induced from G(n, k) x jRn. The fiber over a point rrk E G(n, k) is
naturally identified with the k-space rrk j thus, is has a linear space structure.
It remains to verify that ,~ satisfies the local triviality condition.
We use the coordinate neighborhoods Uj constructed in the proof that
G(n, k) is a smooth manifold (see Part I, Chapter 5, Section 1.5). Here I
denotes a set of numbers {il, ... , id satisfying the inequalities 1 S. il <
... < ik S. nj the set Uj C G(n, k) consists of k-dimensional subspaces of
jRn transversal 6 to the orthogonal complement of the space jRj generated by
the vectors eil' ... , e tk . The orthogonal projection of any k-subspace rrk E
Uj to jRj is an isomorphism of linear spaces. There is a homeomorphism
hi: Uj x jRj -+ p-l(Uj)j it maps each pair (rrk,v) E Uj x jRj to the pair
(ilk, Vi) E E(-y~), where Vi E ilk is the vector with orthogonal projection
v E jR1.
Theorem 3.29. Any k-dimensional vector bundle ~ over a compact Hausdorff base B is a pullback of the canonical bundle ,~ for some n.
Proof. Choose open sets U}, ... , Um so that they cover B and the bundle ~
is trivial over each of them. Any compact Hausdorff space is paracompact
and, therefore, normal. Hence there exists a partition of unity iI, ., fm
subordinate to the cover U}, ... , Urn.
We use the homeomorphism h t : Ui X jRk -+ p-l(Ui) to define a map
'Pi: p-l (Ut ) -+ jRk as the composition
h
~ { ~.(x)'I"(X)
---t
-+
jRk
jRk as
if x E Ui,
if x Ui .
Finally, we set g(x) = (gl(X), ... ,gm(x. Each fiber of the map g: E(~) -+
jRmk is isomorphic to some k-dimensional subspace rrk C jRmk. Thus, we
have obtained a map g: B -+ G(mk, k).
It is easy to verify that g*'!.k ~~. Indeed, the total space of the bundle
g*'!.k consists of all triples (ilk, v E ilk, b), where g(b) = rrk. Therefore,
the fibers of the bundles ~ and g*'!.k over each point b E B are canonically
isomorphic.
6Two linear subspaces of dimensions k and n - k in IR n are called transve al If their inter_
section consists of the zero vector only.
2. Characteristic Classes
155
Si(X) = {Ai(X)Fi(X)
The sum
E Si (x)
~f x E Ui,
If x Ui.
156
Proof. We have just proved that homotopic maps induce isomorphic bundles. Thus, we must only show that if bundles fo'Y~ and fi'Y~ are isomorphic,
then the maps iafo and iah are homotopic for some a.
We identify the isomorphic bundles fo'Y~ and fi'Y~ and assume that the
commutative diagrams
E ~ E('Y~) C G(n, k) x;Rn
lp
lp'
B~G(n,k)
are given for i = 0,1. Instead of the map 'PI' we consider its composition
-+ lRn with the natural projection G(n, k) x]Rn -+ lRn. Note that h(b)
is a subspace of .,pi(P l(b)) E G(n, k), i.e., the map.,pi uniquely determines Ii-
.,pi: E
]RN,
where N ~
157
2. Characteristic Classes
V"a,
= 0
two parts of e(u) adjacent to e(u' ), the coefficient of the cell e(u /) in 8[e(u)]
is equal to 2 or 0, which means that 8[e(u)] = 0 for Z2-homology. Thus,
Hr(G(n, k); Z2) ~ Z~(r,n,k), where N(r, n, k) is the number of r-dimensional
Schubert cells in the manifold Gen, k),
158
f: !Rpn
1 X ...
1~'pn-1" _
G(nk, k)
'"k
that identifies every set of vectors VI, ... , Vk E lRn with the subspace of
JRn x xlRn spanned by (VI, 0, ... ,0), (0, V2, 0, ... ,0), ... , (0,0, ... , Vk). This
map induces a ring homomorphism
2. Characteristic Classes
159
variables over the field Z2. To this end, we must establish a one-to-one
correspondence between the partitions of r into at most k positive numbers
and the polynomials of the form
U~k, where r1 + 2r2 + ... + krk = r
(r1 ~ 0). Note that for such ri, the sum of the numbers rk ~ rk + rk-1 ~
... ~ rk + ... + r1 equals r. Conversely, given r = 81 + ... + 8k, where
81 ~ 82 ~ .. ~ Sk ~ 0, we set rk = Sk, rk-1 = Sk-1 - sk, ... , r1 = 81 - 82
urI ...
Theorem 3.33. Let U1, ... , Um and O"~, ,O"~ be elementary symmetric
functions of variables t1, ... ,tm and t~, ... ,t~ over the field Z2, and let Pm,n
be the (unique) polynomial in m + n variables for which
m
u~)
= II II (1 + ti + tj).
i=l j=l
Then w(~m ."n) = Pm,n(W!, ... , Wm , wi, ... , w~), where Wi = Wi(~m) and
wj = Wj(."n).
160
Proof. First, note that WI (~1 .,,1) = WI (e) + WI (.,,1) for one-dimensional
bundles. Indeed, for a one-dimensional bundle, the class WI is completely
determined by the restriction of this bundle to the I-skeleton; therefore, it is
sufficient to check the required equality for one-dimensional circle bundles.
For such bundles,
.,,1 is orientable if and only if the bundles
and .,,1
are both orientable or both nonorientable (if the orientations of the fibers
of
and .,,1 are multiplied by Cl and C2 when the circle is traversed, then
the orientation of the fiber of .,,1 is mUltiplied by clc2).
This equality can also be derived from the fact that, for any I-cell, the
value of any co cycle representing, say, the class WI (~ 1 ) is congrul'nt to the
number of nondegenerate zeros of a section of
over this cell modulo 2.
Choose sections of the bundles
and .,,1 over the I-skeleton so that they
have no common zeros and all of their zeros are nondegenerate. The tensor
product of these sections is a section of the bundle ~1 .,,1 whose zeros are
those of the sections of ~1 and .,,1.
"'n,
"'1
"'i
= WI (."d Then W =
= uj. Moreover,
TI(I
+ ti)
anti Wi -
Therefore,
n
w(~m ."n) =
i,i
By assumption,
n
II (1 + ti + tj) = Pm,n(Ul,""
i,i
2. Characteristic Classes
161
Thus,
w({mrt)
-+
+ ....
Theorem 3.34.
TG(n,k)
~ Homb~, I'~).
It is known from linear algebra (see, e.g., [104, p. 120]) that Hom(I'~, I'~)
~ b~)* I'~' where * denotes the passage to the dual space. Endowing the
It>;l
bundle 'Y~ with a Riemannian metric, we get the isomorphism ('Y~). ~ 'Y~.
Thus, TG(n,k) ~ 'Y~ 'Y~; therefore,
where WI
w(G(n, k))
Example 47. The Grassmann manifold G(n, k) is orient able if and only if
n is even.
Proof. Applying Example 46, we obtain wI(G(n, k)) = (n - k)WI('Y~) +
kWl('Y~) = nWI(-y~) because WI = WI. Moreover, WI(-y~) -=I- o.
0
2.8. The Chern Characteristic Classes. By analogy with real vector
bundles, we can define complex vector bundles, whose fibers are vector
spaces over C. Applying the constructions of obstruction theory to complex vector bundles, we obtain characteristic classes. For complex buool~,
the situation is simpler in many respects. One of the reasons for this is that
the realification of a complex space has a canonical orientation, and therefore the realification of any complex vector bundle is orientable. Below, we
explain this in more detail.
Let V be a vector space over C with basis el, ... ,en. It can be assigned
the vector space VIll over lR with basis el, ... , en, iel, ... ,ien . If the transition
matrix between the bases e and c has the form A + iB, where A and Bare
real matrices, then the transition matrix from e, ie to c, ic has the form
(~ .f). The determinant of this matrix is equal to 1det(A + iB) 12 > 0
because
/~
-B/ = /A+iB
A
B
-B+iA/ = /A+iB
0
/
A
B
A-iB
2. Characteristic Classes
16~
Theorem 3.35. If i
2( n - k), then
1T"t (Vc( n,
Proof. The proof of this theorem follows the same scheme as that of Theorem 3.16 (see p. 140). In the complex case, the argument becomes simpler
because we do not have to calculate the homomorphism 8*.
For k = 1, the manifold Vc(n,1) is homeomorphic to s2n 1; clearly,
1T"i(s2n 1) = 0 for i ~ 2(n - 1). The induction step uses the locally trivial
bundle Vc(n,k + 1) -+ Vc(n,k) with fiber s2(n k) 1; as a result, we obtain
1T"t(Vc(n, k + 1)) = 0 for i ~ 2(n - k - 1).
Using the locally trivial bundle Vc(n + 1, k + 1) -+ Vc(n + 1, 1) = S2 n+l
with fiber Vc(n, k), we can show that 1T"t(Vc(n, k)) '" 1T"t(Vc(n + 1, k + 1))
for i ~ 2n - 1. Therefore, for i ~ 2(n - k) + 1, we have 1T"t(Vc(n - k +
1, 1)) ~ 1T"i(Vc(n - k + 2, 2)) ::: .... Thus, we see that 1T"2(n-k)+1 (Vc(n, k)) ~
1T"2(n-k)+l(Vc(n - k + 1,1)) = 1T"2 n k)+l(S2(n k)+l) = Z.
0
The canonical orientation of C n determines a canonical isomorphism
1T"2(n-k)+1(Vc(n, k)) -+ Z. Thus, instead of a cohomology with local coefficients, we obtain the ordinary integral cohomology. The Chern characteristic class Ct+l (w) is defined as the obstruction to extending n - i linearly
independent sections of the bundle w over the (2i + 2)-dimensional skeleton;
this obstruction belongs to the group H2i+2(B; {1T"2i+I(Vc(n,n - i))}) =
H2i+2(B; Z).
Cl
(-y~) is a generator a
of the group
H2(cpn;z).
ern
104
the union of the sets Ul and U2 determined by the inequalities IZII ~ IZ21
and IZII ~ IZ21. On Ul and U2, we introduce the coordinates WI = Zl/Z2
and W2 = Z2/Zl. The fiber of the bundle 'Yi over a point (Zl : Z2) consists
of all vectors (AZI : AZ2), where A E C. The restrictions of 'Yi to Ul and
U2 are trivial; the trivializations have the forms (AWl, A) and (J.t, J.tW2). We
identify the fibers over WI and W2 = w i l by setting (AWl, A) = (J.t, J.tW2),
Le., J.t = AWl. The section determined by A = 1 over the circle IWll = 1 is
identified with that determined by J.t = WI over W2 = WI 1. We obtain a map
8 1 --+ 8 1 of degree -1. Therefore, extending this section inside U2, we obtain
a section with one nondegenerate zero. It follows that cl(Ti) = e((Ti)lR) is
a generator of the group H2(cpn; Z) ~ Z.
Let i: Cpl --+ cpn be the natural embedding. It is seen directly from
the definition that i*(T~) ~ 'Yf; therefore, i*CI(T~) = q(Ti). Clearly, i
induces an isomorphism i*: H2(cpn; Z) --+ H2(Cpl; Z). Hence cl(T~) is a
generator of the group H2(cpn; Z).
f]
Remark. Since the degree of the map 8 1 --+ 8 1 under consideration equals
-1, it follows that cl(T~) is the generator of H2(cpn; Z) that takes the value
-1 for Cpl with canonical orientation (rather than the generator taking the
value +1).
Theorem 3.37. Ifw and cp are complex vector bundles over simplicial complexes X and Y, then Ck(W x cp) = Li+i=k q(w) x ci(CP).
Proof. The proof of this theorem closely resembles that of the generalized Whitney formula (see (26) on p. 147), but there are substantial differences. Again, consider the embeddings ix and jy. The bundle wlx' has
dim w - [i/2] linearly independent sections; therefore, it is stably equivalent to a bundle Wo of dimension [i/2]. Applying Theorem 3.21 instead of
Theorem 3.20, we see that the element Ck(W x cp) - LO+.8=k co(w) x c.8(cp)
belongs to the kernel of the homomorphism (i x x jy) * for all i and j such
that [i/2] + [j/2] = k. We prove that this element vanishes. Note that if
i + j = 2k + 1, then [i /2] + [j /2] = k. Indeed, i = 2i' and j = 2/ + 1 (or vice
versa); therefore, [i/2] + [j/2] = i'+/ = (i+j-l)/2 = k. We show that the
direct sum of the maps (ix x jy)* over all i and j such that i + j = 2k + 1
is a monomorphism.
For the coefficient group Z, the Kiinneth theorem implies that the group
H2k(X x Y) is the direct sum ofthe groups
EB
o+.8=2k
HO(X) H.8(y)
and
EB
o+.8=2k+l
Tor(HO(X), Ii (Y.
2. Characteristic Classes
165
Similarly, the group H2k(Xi x yi) is the direct sum of the groups
EB
o+f3=2k
and
EB
Tor(HO(Xi), Hf3(yi))
o+f3=2k+1
r: H*(Gdoo, k)j Z)
-+
Z[Ol,"" Ok]
The only essential difference between the complex and real cases is that
for the complex Grassmann manifolds, all Schubert cells have even dimension, and therefore the boundary homomorphism for integer coefficients is
zero for obvious reasons.
The Chern characteristic classes, as well as the Stiefel Whitney classes,
can be defined axiomaticallYj the corresponding reformulation of the corollary to Theorem 3.32 is fairly obvious.
The expression for the Chern class c(~m "In) in terms of the classes
c(~m) and c(."n) is precisely the same as for the Stiefel Whitney classes
(Theorem 3.33). The only essential difference in the proof is that the following assertion is needed in the case of Chern classes.
166
show that the zeros of the section and those of the tensor product of sections
have the same sign over each singular point.
It is sufficient to consider the case where one of the sections is constant
and the other is determined by a linear map. Suppose that, in some basis,
the section of the bundle
is given by (~~) ......... (:~~ +:~~: its value at any
vector xel + ye2 is determined by linearity. The section of the bundle w~ is
constant; suppose that it takes all vectors to ~ + J.Li. Then the section of the
bundle
w~ is determined by
);
wI
wI
(all
( e1)
e2 ......... (a21
+ (~a12 + J.Lall)i)
+ (~a22 + J.L a2t)i .
equal to (~2 + J.L2)(alla22 J.La12
J.L a22
wI
wI
Similarly to real bundles, it can be proved that the complex k-dimensional vector bundles over any compact Hausdorff space B are in one-to-one
correspondence with the homotopy classes of the maps [B, Gc(oo, k)], where
Gc(oo, k) is the infinite complex Grassmann manifold (it is defined byanalogy with the real case). For one-dimensional bundles, these two classification theorems (real and complex) can be substantially improved by using
the fact that G(oo, 1) = Rpoo and Gc(oo, 1) = Cpoo are K(7I', n) spaces;
namely, Rpoo = K(Z2' 1) and Cpoo = K(Z,2). Therefore, according to
Theorem 3.10 (see p. 125), if X is a finite simplicial complex, then the elements of the sets [X, JRpOOj and [X, CPOOj are in one-to-one correspondence
with those of the groups Hl(X; Z2) and H2(X; Z). On the other hand, the
elements of the sets [X, JRpOOj and [X, CPOOj are in one-to-one correspondence with the one-dimensional real and complex bundlf's over X considered
up to isomorphism.
This correspondence can be described explicitly by using characteristic classes. Namely, suppose that a bundle ~ is determined by a map
f: X -+ JRpoo or f: X -+ Cpoo. Theorem 3.10 assigns to the map f
the element J*(F1r ) E Hn(x; 71'); here n = 1 and 71' = Z2 (in the real case)
or n = 2 and 71' = Z (in the complex case). Moreover, the cohomology
class F1r is a generator of the group HI (JRpoo; Z2) or H2(CpOO; Z), which is
seen from its description. Thus, the one-to-one correspondence between the
one-dimensional bundles and the elements of HI (JRpoo; Z2) or H2(CpOO; Z)
is defined by ~ ......... WI (~) or ~ ......... CI (~), respectively, and the addition of
cohomology classes corresponds to tensor multiplication of the bundles. As
a result, we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 3.39. Let X be a finite-dimensional simplicial cnmplex.
2. Characteristic Classes
167
Problem 110. Let E(P/~) - G(n, k) be the projectivization of the canonical bundle I~ over G(n, k), and let E(P/~-l) _ G(n, k - 1) be the projectivization of the orthogonal complement of the canonical bundle 1~-1 over
G(n, k - 1). Prove that E(P/~) ~ E(P'Y~-l).
Suppose that a bundle Pf. is determined by a map q: E(P~) - B.
Consider the induced vector bundle q*(f.) over E(P~). The points of the
space E(P~) are the lines 1 passing through zero. Therefore, q* (f.) has
a one-dimensional sub bundle A~ for which the total space consists of all
pairs (v, I), where vEL. If the base B is compact, then the bundle q*(f.)
168
(a) In the real case, the linear space (I, ae, ... ,ae'-l) generated by the
elements 1, ae, a~, . .. , ae'-l has dimension n, and
The space H*(B(e)j Z2) can be identified with the image of the homomorphism q*: H*(B(e)j Z2) ----. H*(E(pe)j Z2) so that each element {J a~ is
identified with (J '-' a~.
(b) In the complex case, the free A belian group (I, ae, ... , ae'-l) generated
by the elements 1, ae, a~, ... ,ae'-l in H*(E(pe); Z) has rank n, and
H*(E(pe)j Z) ~ H*(B(e)j Z) (1, ae,"" ae'-l).
This decomposition is also compatible with the homomorphism q* .
Proof. For each point b E B, consider the map ib: Rpn-l ----. E(pe) that
is the inclusion of the fiber in the total space of the bundle (in the complex
case, lRp n I is replaced by cpn-l). It follows directly from the definitions
that ib (>'d is the canonical bundle -Y~-l over Rpn-l or cpn-l. The bundle
ib(f*(-yl)) coincides with -Y~-lj therefore, the map fib is homotopic to the
natural embedding lRpn-l ----. lRPCO or Cpn-l ----. Cpco. This implies the
independence of the elements ib (1), ... , ib (ae'-l ).
The required isomorphisms are proved as follows. Let K be a subcomplex in B over which the bundle pe is trivial (for example, a simplex), and
let EK = q-l (K). Then there is a homeomorphism K x F ----. EK compatible
with the projection q. An isomorphism H*(EK) ~ H*(K)H*(F) compatible with q exists by the Kiinneth theorem. In the real case, H* (K) H* (F)
is understood as the tensor product of vector spaces over Z2. I the complex
n-l)
case, the proof uses the freeness of the group H*(F) = (1, at, ,ae
.
2. Characteristic Classes
169
Formally, an isomorphism between H*(EK) and H*(K) H*(F) compatible with the projection can be written as follows. Consider the homomorphism cpr; defined by E f3k t--+ E q*(f3k) '-"
where f3k E Hk(K) and
1 is such that k + 1 = m (in the real case) or k + 2l = m (in the complex
case). In the real case, the inequalities 0 ~ m - k ~ n - 1 must hold; in
the complex case, the inequalities 0 ~ m - k ~ 2n - 2 must hold and the
number m - k must be even. Consider the group ll m(K), which coincides
with EB~=l-n+m Hk(K) in the real case and with EBk=2-2n+m Hk(K) in the
ak'
k even
The group llm(L) and the homomorphism cpT can be defined for any
sub complex L c B. We must prove that cp'J] is an isomorphism for any
m. To do this, we use the Mayer Vietoris exact sequence and the five
lemma. The Mayer Vietoris exact sequence holds for the groups 1l* because
any direct sum of exact sequences is an exact sequence. The commutative
diagram
cpo;+l
Hm+1(EKnL)
CPKffiCP't
CPKUL
Hm(EK) E9 Hm(EL)
cpO;
CPKnL
Hm(EKnL)
Hm(EKUL)
IffiCPT- 1
Hm-l(EK) E9 Hm-1(EL)
shows that if CPK, CPL, and CPKnL are isomorphisms, then so is CPKUL. This
implies the required assertion.
0
The existence of splitting maps follows easily from Theorem 3.41.
Theorem 3.42. For any vector bundle { over a compact simplicial complex
B, there exists a splitting map f: B 1 -+ B.
Proof. We prove the theorem by induction on n = dim{. For n = 1,
the map idE is splitting. Suppose that for any vector bundle of dimension
less than n, a splitting map exists. According to Theorem 3.41, the map
q*: H*(B) -+ H*(E(P{)) is a monomorphism. Moreover, q*({) = A{ E9 u{,
where A{ is a one-dimensional bundle. By the induction hypothesis, for u{,
a splitting map g: Bl -+ E(P{) exists. We show that the map f = qg is
splitting as well. Indeed, f* = g*q* is a monomorphism because g* and q* are
170
g.((]"~)
ar
= Wi(~)
It is most convenient for us to prove Theorem 3.43 using singular cohomology, so we postpone the proof until p. 252.
Tl
TI.
8 2.
171
2. Characteristic Classes
(-I)kck(w).
1, then Cl(W)
= e(wJR). The
= -CI(W).
bundles
f is a
CI(Wn ))
= r(L(-I)kck(w)).
is a monomorphism.
o.
=
C2k+1(W)
The Chern classes of a complex manifold are defined as the Chern classes
of its tangent bundles.
The calculation of the Chern classes of complex projective spaces is
similar to that of the Stiefel Whitney classes of real projective spaces (see
the corollary to Theorem 3.23).
Example 49. We have c(cpn) = (1
generator of the group H2(cpn; Z).
+ a)n+1,
where a = -Cl(-y~) is a
J. fippllCatlOns
1.1.t;
ot :)lmpllClal nomolOgy
Proof. The fiber of the bundle 'Y~ over a point l E cpn is the line l in
C n+!. Let wn be the bundle over cpn whose fiber over the point l is the
orthogonal complement l1. of the line l in C n +! with respect to Hermitian
product. We claim that rep" ~ Homd'Y~,wn). Indeed, each tangent vector
to cpn is determined by a pair (x, v), where x E l \ {O} and v is a vector
orthogonal to x; the pairs (Ax, AV) with A E C \ {O} determine the same
tangent vector. Therefore, each tangent vector is uniquely determined by
the linear map l - l1. taking x to v.
The bundle Homd'Y~, 'Y~) is trivial because it has a zero section, which
corresponds to the identity map. Let k be a trivial k-dimensional bundle over CP. Then rep" ffi 1 ~ Homd'Y~,wn ffi 'Y~) ~ Homd'Y~,en+l);
therefore, the bundle rep" ffi 1 is isomorphic to the direct sum of n + 1
copies of the bundle Homd'Y~,l) ~ 'YA. According to Theorem 3.45,
we have Cl ('YA) = -Cl ('Y~). Therefore, Theorems 3.37 and 3.36 imply
c(cpn) = (1- Cl('Y~))n+! = (1 + a)n+!.
-- 0
To each vector space V over lR we can assign its complexification V Ill C.
As a space over JR, it is canonically isomorphic to the space consisting of the
vectors v+iw, where v,w E V. Multiplication by i is defined as i(v+iw) =
iv-w.
If ~ is a real bundle, then we can complexify each of its fibers. We denote
the bundle thus obtained by ~ C.
Lemma. The bundle
= O.
= 0 holds.
Ck((~ ffi",) C)
L
i+j=k
3. Group Actions
173
=2
i+j=k
kO
k-O
xt
+ ( 2)n+1,
where a is a generator
01 the
3. Group Actions
3.1. Simplicial Actions. A topological space X with an action of a group
G is called a G-space. A G-space map f: X - Y is said to be equivariant
if I(g(x)) = g(f(x)) for all 9 E G and all x E X.
Let G be a finite group acting on the space IKI, where K is a simplicial
complex. This action is said to be simplicial if the map g: IKI _ IKI is
simplicial for any 9 E G. A simplicial complex K with a fixed simplicial
action of a finite group G is called a simplicial G-complex.
lf4
Suppose that ho, ... , h n E Hand [vo, ... , vnl and [hovo, ... , hnvnl are two
simplices in K. Then there exists an element h E H such that hVi = hiVi
for i = 0,1, ... , n.
We say that a simplicial G-complex has property (A) if it satisfies any
of the two conditions specified in the following lemma.
Lemma. For a simplicial G-complex K, the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) For each element 9 E G and every simplex 6. from K, all points of
the set 6. n g6. are fixed under the action of g.
(ii) If v and gv are vertices of the same simplex, then v = gv.
Proof. Suppose that (i) holds. Let v and gv be vertices of the <lame simplex
6.. Then g-lv and v are vertices of the simplex g-l6.; therpfore, they are
3. Group Actions
175
Theorem 3.48. The second barycentric subdivision of any simplicial Gcomplex is a regular G-complex.
Proof. First, we prove that the barycentric subdivision K' of a simplicial
G-complex K has property (A).
Each vertex v of the complex K' determines a simplex A(v) in K for
which this point is interior. Moreover, vertices VI and V2 belong to the same
simplex of K' if and only if one of the simplices A(VI) and A(V2) is a face
of the other. We have A(gv) - gA(v)j in particular, the simplices A(v) and
A(gv) have the same dimension. Therefore, if vertices v and gv belong to
the same simplex of K', then one of the simplices A(v) and A(gv) is a face
of the other, and the dimensions of these simplices are equal. Therefore,
A(v) = A(gv), and v = gv.
Now we prove that if a simplicial G-complex K has property (A), then
its barycentric subdivision K' has property (R).
The proof is by induction on n. Suppose that [vo, ... , vnJ and [hovo, ... ,
hnvnJ are simplices of K' and all (n - 1)-simplices of K', where n ~ 1,
have property (R) (zero-dimensional simplices always have property (R)).
Renumbering the vertices if necessary, we can assume that A(vo) c A(VI) c
... C A(vn ), i.e., vo is a vertex of a simplex of K, VI is the midpoint of an
edge, and so on. By the induction hypothesis, there exists an element hE H
such that hVi = hiVi for i = 0,1, ... , n - 1. Let us show that hnVi = hiVi
for all i. This equality is obvious for i = nj it remains to verify it for
i = 0,1, ... ,n - 1. Under the action of h- l , the simplex [hovo, ... ,hnvnJ is
mapped to [vo, ... , Vn-l, h-1hnvnJ. Moreover,
110
IKI
IKI/G ~ IKIGI
g('I/J(v)) = 'I/J(v).
It remains to show that cp is a simplicial approximation of the map f,
i.e., f(st v) cst cp(v) for any vertex v E K(n). If v is the distinguished point
of its orbit, then cp(v) = 'I/J(v) and f(st v) cst cp(v) because'I/J is a simplicial
approximation of f. For any element 9 E G, the simplicial map 9 is oneto-one; hence stg(v) = g(stv), where v is a vertex of K(n) or L. Thus, if
f(stv) c stcp(v), then f(stg(v)) = f(g(stv)) = g(J(stv)) C g(stcp(v)) =
st(gcp(v)) = stcp(g(v)).
0
Remark. The map cp constructed in the proof of Theorem 3.49 is equivariantly homotopic to f; i.e., these maps are homotopic in the class of equivariant maps. The homotopy is constructed in a standard way (for any x,
the points cp(x) and f(x) belong to the same simplex and can therefore be
joined by a line segment).
3.3. Fixed Points and Fixed Simplices. For a G-space X, lpt XC be the
set of fixed points of the action of G, i.e., XC = {x E X I gx = x Vg E G}.
3. Group Actions
17;
178
the latter case, there are two fixed line segments joining v either to some
vertex Vj or to the midpoint of some edge VjVj+l' Property (A) eliminates
the second possibility.
Suppose that g. is the identity map. Then A(g) = X(M) = 2 - 2n < 0
because n > 1. On the other hand, according to Theorem 3.50, we have
A(g) = X(M z",) and X(MZm) ~ 0 because MZ'" consists of several isolated
points and pairwise disjoint circles.
D
3.4. Transfer Homomorphisms. Suppose that G is a finite group, K is
a regular simplicial G-complex, and C.(K) is a simplicial chain complex.
We define an action of the group G on C.(K) by setting g[vo, ... , vnl =
[gvo, ... ,gvnl. Consider the homomorphism u: C.(K) --+ C.(K) that takes
every chain e to LgEG ge.
If a subcomplex L C K is invariant with respect to the action of G , then
we can transfer this action to C.(K, L) = C.(K)/C.(L) and define a sim11ar
homomorphism u: C.(K, L) --+ C.(K, L).
Proof. First, we show that the regularity of the complex K implies property
(A). Suppose that vertices v and gv belong to the same simplex. Then [v, vl
and [v, gvl are simplices in K. By the regularity condition, v = g'v and
gv = g'v for some g' E G. Thus, v = g'v = gv, as required.
Consider a simplex f::..k in K/G. Let f::..~, ... , f::..~ be the simplices over
f::..k in K. Since K is regular, each of these simplices admits the orientation
compatible with that of f::..k, i.e., such that the projection Pi: f::..f --+ f::..k
is orientation-preserving. Indeed, the regularity condition implies property
(A). Therefore, if g[vo, .. . , vnl = [vo, ... , v n ], then all points of the simplex
[vo, ... , vnl are fixed under the action of the element gj in particular, 9
preserves the orientation of the simplex [vo, ... , vnl.
Let e
and
3. Group Actions
179
To calculate Ker (1' and Ker P#' we decompose every chain into summands
of the form L~ 1 a,~f; a chain belongs to the kernel of (1' or P# if and only
if so does each of the summands. The conditions for such a summand to
belong to the kernels of (1' and P# almost coincide: they are ~ (L~ 1 ai) =
o and L~=l ai = O. For integer coefficients ai, these conditions coincide
~~
Remark. Theorem 3.52 is valid not only for Z but also for an arbitrary
coefficient group A provided that A has no element a for which Gla - o.
Since P#: C.(K, L) --+ C.(K/G, L/G) is an epimorphism, it follows that
C .. (K/G,L/G) ~ C.(K,L)/Kerp# = C.(K,L)/Ker(1' ~ (1'C.(K,L); thus,
there is a canonical chain isomorphism J.L: C.(K/G, L/G) --+ (1'C.(K, L).
The composition of this homomorphism and the inclusion (1'C.(K, L) c
C .. (K, L) induces a homomorphism J.L.: H.(K/G, L/G) --+ H.(K, L), which
is called the transfer homomorphism. Clearly, the map p induces a homomorphism P.. : H .. (K, L) --+ H.(K/G, L/G). Consider the compositions P.J.L ..
and J.L.P ...
It follows directly from the definition that J.LP#c = (1'C; therefore, J.L.P .. =
LgEG g., where g.: H.(K, L) --+ H.(K, L) is the map induced by the action
of g. Moreover, any element c E C.(K/G, L/G) can be represented in the
form c = P#c, where c E C.(K, L). Hence J.LC = J.LP#c = (1'C, which means
that P#J.Lc = P#(1'C = IGlp#c = IGIC. Thus, p .. J.L. is multiplication by IGI
Any chain (1'C = L9EG gc is G-invariant. Hence, 1m J.L C C. (K, L)G and
ImJ.L. C H.(K, L)G. Clearly, the restriction of the map J.L ..P. to H.(K, L)G
is the sum of IGI identity maps; thus, this restriction is multiplication by
IGI as well. Using the remark after Theorem 3.52, we obtain the following
result.
--+
H.(K/G, L/G; F)
and
J.L .. : H .. (K/G, L/G; F)
--+
H*(K, L; F)G
180
We now show that in Theorem 3.53, the assumption that the characteristic of the coefficient field F is coprime to IGI cannot be removed. Consider
the lens space L(p, q). Let G = Zp. For K = 8 3 , we have L(p, q) = K/G,
and K is a regular G-complex. It is easy to derive from the universal coefficient theorem that if p' is a prime, then, for k = 1 and 2, we have
if p is divisible by p',
if p is not divisible by p'.
Thus, if p = GI is divisible by p', then the groups Hk(L(P,q)jZp') and
Hk(8 3 j Zp')G - 0 are not isomorphic.
Theorem 3.53 can be carried over to cohomology groups in a natural
way.
3.5. Smith Theory. In this section, we consider G = Zp for a pEime p.
(Note that, for applications, even the simplest case p = 2 is interesting.)
Moreover, we consider homology and cohomology only with coefficients in
Zp.
Let K be a regular G-complex, and let L be an invariant subcomplex
of K. The chains from C.(K, Lj Zp) can be multiplied by elements of the
group ring ZpG, which consists of the formal sums L aigi, where ai E Zp
and g, E G = Zp. Let 9 be a generator (that is, any nonzero element)
of the group G. We use mUltiplicative notation for the group G, that is,
assume that G consists of the elements I, g, ... , gP-l. Consider the elements
U = 1 + 9 + ... + gP 1 and T = 1 - 9 in the group ring ZpG. The equality
gP = 1 implies UT = o.
Let us show that T P- 1 = u, i.e., (_I)k(P k 1) == 1 (mod p). Indeed,
(1 p)(2 - p) ... (k p) = 1 2 k (mod p)j therefore,
12(p-k 1)(-I)k(p-k) ... (p-l) =1
1 . 2 .. (p - k - 1) . 1 2 .. k
-
(mod p).
---+
3. Group Actions
181
--+
C.(K, L) is well
px
O--pA --A--pA--O.
Clearly, i is a monomorphism, and px is an epimorphism. Thus, we have
to verify that dim(pA) + dim(pA) = dimA = p (the dimension is over the
field Zp). Recall that p = rk, where 1 ~ k ~ p - 1, and p = r P - k . We show
that dime rk A) = p - k. The kernel of r consists of the elements 2: aig i such
that 2: aig i = 2: aigi+l. This means that ai = ai+l = ... , i.e., the kernel
is generated by the element u = 1 + 9 + ... + gP-l. Therefore, dim(rA) =
p - 1. Moreover, u = r P - 1 = rkrP - k- 1 , whence Kerr = (u) erA. Thus,
dim(r k+1A) = dimr(rkA) = dim(rkA) -1.
0
The homology groups Hf(K,LjZp) = H.(pC.(K,Lj'Lp are known as
the Smith homology groups. The short exact sequence from Theorem 3.54
induces the exact sequence of homology groups
For the Smith homology groups, yet another set of exact sequences can
be constructed (for k = 1, ... ,p - 2). The argument at the end of the proof
of Theorem 3.54 shows that the sequence
(27)
is exact. It follows that u = r P - 1 and dim(rkA) = p - k. Note that, for
k = p-l, the sequence (27) degenerates: 0 --+ uA --+ uA --+ 0 --+ O. From the
short exact sequence (27) we obtain the exact sequence of homology groups
(28)
~ Ht+
(K, L)
oJ. J1.jJjJllGCLLlUIlS
.LO~
or
;:)lmpllClCLI
nUIllUlU~y
dimH~(K,L)
+ LdimHn(KG,LG) ~
LdimHn(K,L)j
Ci -
cn + an
Cn+!
Cn+2
Con+! + bn,
The number of inequalities is finite (that is, the inequalities with large numbers have the form 0 ~ 0) because the simplicial complex K is assumed to
be finite. Summing up these inequalities, we obtain the desired relation.
(b) Any exact sequence of spaces 0 - Va - VI - ... - Vn - 0 can be
represented as the direct sum of the short exact sequences 0 - . .. - 0 ~~l - ~Q - ~~l - 0 - ... - O. For each of these short exact sequences,
we have E( -I)' dim ~Q = OJ therefore, E( _I)i dim Vi = o. Thus, if spaces
AI! Bi, and C i are such that an exact sequence 0 - Ao - Bo - Co Al - BI - ... - Cn - 0 holds, then E(-I)idimAi + E(-I)idimCi =
E(-I)'dimB,. Hence the Smith exact sequence implies
(29)
x(p)
+ X(K G, L G) + X(p)
X(K, L),
1, ... ,p - 2.
x(O")
+ x(rk+!) = x(rk),
3. Group Actions
Setting p
=r
183
X(O')
Thus, X(K, L) = PX(O')
0'), we obtain
+ x(r) + X(K G, L G)
+ X(KG, LG)
X(K, L).
X(KG, L G) (mod p).
L
dimHi(KG) S L
dimH,(K)
i~n+l
i>n+l
If p
(_l)n
= O.
+1
== n
(mod 2).
(b) For homology disks, the proof is even simpler: it suffices to apply
the relations
LdimHz(KG,L G) S LdimHi(K,L) = 1,
1>0
L
'~n+l
gx
i~O
dimHt(KG,L G) S L
dimHi(K,L)
= O.
i~n+l
f:. x
Problem 111 (Smith). Prove that finite groups cannot act freely on ~n.
HS4
r---------------
The diagonal map d: KI- IKxKI is not cellular; therefore, TDo i- Do.
and we can consider the difference Do - T Do. It turns out that the maps Do
and T Do are chain homotopic, i.e., Do - T Do = BDI + DIB for some homomorphism D I : C.(K) - C.(K) C.(K) increasing the dimension of the
chain by 1. Moreover, extending this construction, we obtain a sequence of
homomorphisms D k : C.(K) - (C.(K) C.(K))iH' The Steenrod squares
are constructed using the homomorphisms Dk. Let us study these homomorphisms in more detail.
Consider the chain complex W corresponding to the CW-complex soo
having two cells of each dimension from 0 to 00 (the k-skelpton of the complex SOO is the sphere Sk). The chain transformation T Cdl1 be treated as
4. Steenrod Squares
185
soo
O(cp(Wk a
ODk(C)
Taking into account the fact that Dkoe = cp(Wk oe), we obtain
oDk(e)
+ (_1)k+1 Dkoe =
=
as required.
cp(OWk c)
Dk-le+ (-l)kTDk_l e,
186
Therefore,
e))
- (_1)2k cP
cq,cp(TWk-l c))
= (-1)k(5(cP cq), cp(Wk c)) - (-l)k(cP cq, cp(Wk-l e))
- (cP cq, Tcp(Wk 1 e))
4. Steenrod Squares
187
+ (_1)p2
cP - (_1) p2 cP
'-'k-l
cPo
- 1 1 - 0 (mod 2).
Thus, the formula Sqk cP = cP '-'k cP defines a map Sqk: ZP(Kj Z2) --+
Z2 p-k(Kj Z2). The natural projection Z2p k(Kj Z2) --+ H 2p k(Kj Z2) then
gives a map Sqk: ZP(KjZ2) --+ H2p k(KjZ2).
Theorem 3.59. For any k ~ 0, the map cP 1-+ Sqk cP induces a group
homomorphism Sqk: HP(Kj Z2) --+ H 2p k(Kj Z2).
Proof. First, we verify that if cP 5c (mod 2), then Sqk cP is a coboundary
modulo 2. Indeed, cP '-'k cP - 5(c '-'k 5c + c '-'k 1 c) (mod 2) because
5(e '-'k 5c + e
'-'k-l
e)
Sqk(cP
Moreover, if 5cP
--+
= (ec,'Pdwkf(e'))) = (ee,'PL(1f)(wke')),
(SQk(j*e), c') = (j*e j*e, 'PK(Wk c')) = (e e, (J f)'PK(Wk e')).
(j*(Sqkc),e')
The equivariant chain maps 'Pd1 f) and (J f)'PK have the common
support (Wk u) = C*(Ju x fu). This support is equivariant in the sense
that T(WkU) = (WkU). The cyclicity and equivariance ofthe support
allow us to apply a standard construction (see pp. 185 and 7) and obtain a
chain homotopy D between the maps 'Pd1 f) and (J f)'PK for which
DT = D (if D(1llk u) = c, then we set D(T1llk u) = e). Thus,
+ Da)(1llk c'))
(5(e e), D(1llk e')) + (e e, D(a1llk c' 1llk ae')).
== 0 (mod 2).
Therefore,
U Sqk -
S~ f*)c
== 6d (mod 2),
0/ the
equi-
Proof. For K = Land / = id K , there are two possible choices of 'P, 'PK
and 'PL. If S~ and Sqk are the operations constructed for cp K and 'P L, then
Sqk - Sqk = id S~ - S~ id = O.
0
For certain reasons, it is more convenient to use the notation Sqk =
Sqp k: HP(K; Z2) - HP+k(K; Z2). It is assumed that 0 ~ k ~ p. For
k > p, Sqk vanishes identically on HP(K; Z2).
It follows directly from the definition that for the k-dimensional cohomology group, Sqk = Sqo is the cohomology square map. For this reason,
the operations Sqk, which were introduced by Steenrod in [125, 128, 129J,
are called the Steenrod squares.
The Steenrod squares can also be defined for relative cohomology. Let
L c K be a simplicial subcomplex. Then we have the short exact sequence
0-- C(K,L)
~ C(K) ~ C(L) - - O.
By construction, 'PK(Wk u) E C.(u x u) c C.(L x L) for all u c L. Therefore, we can assume that 'PL = 'PKlwc.(L) For cochains c, c' E C(K), we
have i(c '--'k c') = ic '--"k ic'; in particular, i(pc '--"k p.c') = ipc '--"k
ipc' = 0 for any two cochains c, c' E C(K, L) because ip = O. Since the
sequence is exact, pc '--"k p.c' = pd for some cochain d E C(K, L); this
cochain d is determined uniquely because p. is a monomorphism. We set
c '--'k c' = d. By definition, pCc '--"k c') = pc '-'k p.c'. It easy to show that
the coboundary formula remains valid for the relative '--'k-product. Thus,
we can define a map Sqk: HP(K, L; Z2) - HP+kCK, L; Z2) similar to that in
the absolute case. It can be seen from the definition that p. Sqk = Sqk p .
4.2. Properties of the Steenrod Squares. We have already proved the
following properties of the Steenrod squares.
1. The Steenrod squares satisfy the naturaIity condition J*Sqk = Sqk
for any map f: (K, L) - (KI, Ld of simplicial pairs.
2. If k > p, then Sqka = 0 for all a E HP(K, L; Z2)'
189
4. Steenrod Squares
=a
......... a.
Other properties of the Steenrod squares are given in the following theorem. This section is devoted to proving it; for brevity, we omit the coefficient
group Z2 from the notation.
Theorem 3.61. (a) The operation Sqk commutes with the connecting homomorphism d: H*(L) ---+ H*(K,L).
(b) The operation Sqk commutes with the suspension isomorphism
E* : HP(K) --+ HP+l(EK).
= d(iQ ......... q+l-k dcq = d((iQ '-"q+l-k dcq + cq ......... q-k cq).
iCcq ......... q+1-k dc q + CQ ......... q-k cq) = cq ......... q-k cq because i(dCQ) =
Moreover,
a and iCCQ) = cq. Consider d' = Sqk dq+1, d = cq ......... q-k cq, and e' =
cq .........q+1-k dc q + cq .........q-k cq. We have pd' = de' and iC' = c'. This means
that d[d] = [d']. But d = cq ......... q-k cq ; this implies the required assertion.
HIU
the connecting homomorphism from the Mayer Vietoris sequence for K o and
Kl, where Ko and Kl are copies of the cone over K and K o U Kl = y:,K.
The Operations SqO and Sq1 Let {3: HP (K, L; Z) -+ HP+l (K, L; Z) be
the Bockstein homomorphism for the short exact sequence 0 -+ Z2 -+ Z4 -+
Z2 -+ O. To calculate SqO and Sql, we need the following auxiliary assertion.
Lemma. (3Sqk
{o
k+l
Sq
if k is odd,
if k is even.
Proof. Suppose that c E HP(K, L; Z2) and c is an integer cochain such that
reducing it modulo 2 yields a co cycle representing c. By definition, Sqkc
is the cohomology class of the cochain c '-"P k c reduced modulo 2. By
assumption, c - 2d for some integer cochain d; therefore, setting q = p k,
we obtain a(c '-"P k c) - (-1)q2d '-"q c + (-l)P c '-"q 2c' - (l)1fc
q I
c - ( l)P c '-'q I C. Thus, the cohomology class (3(Sq k c) is determined by
the co cycle
for even k.
'-"q
The lemma shows that (d) follows from (c), because if SqO = id, then
SqI _ {3SqO = (3. In turn, (c) can be proved by using the lemma. To be
more precise, the lemma is used to prove (c) for K = ~p2, from which (c)
is deduced for all simplicial pairs (K, L).
Thus, we show that (c) holds for ~p2. Let a be the generator of the
group HI(~p2; Z2)' According to the lemma, we have {3SqOa = Sq1 a =
a '-" a i= 0; hence SqOa i= O. Therefore, SqOa - a because HI (~p2; Z2)
has only one nonzero element.
The natural embedding f: ~pI -+ ~p2 induces the homomorphism
f*: Hl(~p2; Z2) -+ HI(~pl; Z2) that takes a to the generator a' of the
group HI (~pI; Z2). The naturality condition implies SqOa' = Sq(f*a) f*(SqOa) = f*a = a'. Thus, (c) holds also for ~pI ~ SI. Since the
operation SqO commutes with the suspension isomorphism, (c) holds for sn.
Let K be an n-dimensional simplicial complex. According to Theorem 3.6, any element of the group Hn(K; Z) can be realized by means of
a map K -+ sn. This is also true for the group Hn(K; Z2) because the
reduction of coefficients modulo 2 induces an epimorphism Hn(K; Z) -+
Hn(K; Z2)' Note that only the cohomology groups have th;:, property; it
4. Steenrod Squares
191
does not hold for homology. The map H2(~'p2; Z) -- H 2(Rp2; Z2), say, cannot be an epimorphism because H2(Rp2; Z) = a whereas H 2(Rp2; Z2) =IO. The surjectivity of Hn(K; Z) __ Hn(K; Z2) follows from the fact that
the group Hn(K) is torsion-free for each n-dimensional simplicial complex;
it is proved as follows. According to the universal coefficient theorem,
the group Hn(K; G) is the direct sum of the groups Hom(Hn(K), G) and
Ext(Hn l(K), G). The map Hom(Hn(K), Z) -- Hom(Hn(K), Z2) is an epimorphism because the group Hn(K) is torsion-free, and Ext(Hn l(K), Z) -Ext(Hn - 1 (K), Z2) is an epimorphism in any case (this follows from the calculation of Ext(A, B) for cyclic groups A and B). The naturality of the
operation SqO implies (c) for K.
If K is an infinite-dimensional simplicial complex, then the natural
embedding K n -- K induces a monomorphism Hn(K; Z2) __ Hn(Kn; Z2).
Therefore, the naturality of SqO implies (c) for an arbitrary K.
= r(wk-l + (_1)kTwk_d
= L( _1)i(k-l-i)Wi rWk-l-i
+ L ( _1)i(k
l-i)+kTwi rWk-l-i
and
8r(wk)
+ L(-1)i(k-i)+iTwi_l rWk-i
Now it is easy to see that 8r(wk) = r(8wk) (the first sum in the expression
for r(8wk) coincides with the third sum in the expression for 8r(wk), and the
coincidence of the second sums in these expressions is proved by replacing i
with i + 1).
We apply r to define the map 'PKxL as the composition
~ W C.(K) W C.(L)
'PK'PL,
4. Steenrod Squares
19~
Sqk Wm =
WkWm
(m-k)
1
Wk-l Wm+l
(m- 2k + 1)
Wk-2 W m+2
+ ... +
(m k- 1)
WOWm+k
Chapter
Singular Homology
= O.
Proof. First, note that if i < j, then Ej+1Ef = E7+1Ej_l. Indeed, both maps
Ej+1Ef and E7+1Ej_l take [a] to [a] (if a < i), to [a + 1] (if i ~ a < j - 1), or
to [a + 2] (if a 2: j - 1). Therefore,
2: (-l)i+j IEjEi
'J
i<j
195
196
4. Singular Homology
----------n
Theorem 4.3. If maps If', 1/;: X -+ Y are homotopic, then the homomorphisms If'., 1/;.: Hk(X) -+ Hk(Y) coincide.
Proof. As in the case of simplicial homology, we define a chain homotopy
as a family of homomorphisms D k : Ck(X) -+ Ck+I(Y) for which
(31)
Dk-1 8k + a:c+lDk = If'k -1/;k.
The proof of the equality If'. = 1/;. remains the same.
Let H: T x I -+ Y be a homotopy between If' and 1/;. From tius homotopy
we construct a chain homotopy Dk: Ck(X) -+ Ck+l(Y) as follows. Let
197
I:
-10 1121
-00 1121
+000 121
+00 1121
-002021
-001021
+00 1011
+00 1021
-00 0111
-00 1020'
Note that the simplices underlined likewise cancel each other. For an arbitrary k, the picture is similar: for i i- 0, k, the map ~+1 deletes the vertex
i + 2 from the simplices (-I)i[Oo, ... , io, i\ (i + 1)1, ... , k 1] and (_1)i+l[00,
... , io, (i + 1)0, (i + IF, ... , k 1], and the simplex [00,"" io, (i + 1)1, ... , k 1 ]
occurs twice with opposite signs.
The map fh takes the simplex [0,1,2] to [1,2] - [0,2] + [0,1]' and Dl
takes these simplices to
+10 1121
-000 121
+00 0111
In the sum 8':JD2 + D 1 eh, all simplices except +0 11121 and -01h21 are
canceled. The remaining simplices correspond to the maps cpI and 1/;/. It
is required to show that, for any k, each of the simplices [... 3... ioi 1 ... ]
(or [... ioi 1 .3 ... ]) is encountered precisely once in ~+1 Dk and in Dk-18k
with opposite signs. This is easy.
0
Example 50. Suppose X is a contractible space. Then Ho(Xj G)
Hk(XjG) = 0 for k > O.
= G and
4. Singular Homology
198
~k d2k I
G and
=X
\ U:::J
[vo,
1) X
199
i8 = 8i.
Lemma 2. For each positive integer m, there exists a family of homomorphisms D k : Gk(X) - Gk+l(X) such that
8k D k-Iik-l
+ Dk-28k
Iik
1 -
sdm ik
1 -
ik-l,
and Dk-28k-Iik-l
8kZk
because 8 k sd m
= sdm 8k .
follows from
adi
E ak8k+l(J 0 fi).
+ Dk-18k
=
0
We continue the proof of Theorem 4.4. According to Lemma 2, any relative cycle Zk E Gk(X, A) is homologous to the relative cycle sdm Zk because
Dk-18kZk E Ck(A). Any cycle contains only finitely many singular simplicesj
therefore, by Lemma 1, we can choose a number m for each cycle Zk so that
the support of any singular simplex included in sdm Zk is contained entirely
in Xl = A or X2 = X\U. Thus, the map H(X\U,A \U) - H.(X, A) is an
epimorphism. It remains to show that if Zk E C k (X \ U) and Zk - 8b E C k (A)
for some b E Ck+l(X), then Zk - 8b' E Ck(A \ U) for some b' E Ck(X \ U).
Let C!Xl,X2}(X) be the group of sums of chains from Ck(Xd and
Gk(X2). By assumption, 8b E C~Xl,X2} (X). Choose a number m so that
1 By the support of a chain we mean here the union of the images of all singular simplices in
this chain.
4. Singular Homology
200
sdmb E Cl~t,X2}(X). We have
b + 8Db
= b' + b",
Zk - 8b' - 8b"
= sdm b -
D8b E Cl~t,X2}(X).
= Zk -
8(b + 8Db)
= Zk -
8b E Ck(Xd
U)
= Ck(A \
U),
as required.
Now, consider the Mayer Vietoris exact sequence.
Xl, X 2 C X, we have the short exact sequence
0-+ C.(XlnX2)
(31,-32),
where C!X1,X2} (Xl UX2) = C.(Xd +C.(X2) is the group of sums of chains.
This short exact sequence induces the exact sequence
... - +
~ Hk(C!X1,X2} (Xl
U X2))
~ Hk-l(X l n X 2 )
- + ....
0
2
XI
201
{Zo
if k
if k
ab is
the boundary of
= n,
~
n.
Proof. Suppose that Xl and X2 are two different points on the sphere sn,
Xl = sn\{xI}, andX2 = sn\{X2}. The spaces Xl andX2 arecontractiblej
therefore, Hk(Xi ) = 0 for all k.
The pair {X I, X 2} satisfies the excision axiom because the sets X I and
X 2 are open in sn. The Mayer Vietoris exact sequence gives the isomorphism
Hk(sn) ~ Hk_l(sn \ {XI,X2}).
Moreover, sn \ {XI,X2} '" sn-l. Thus, Hk(sn) ~ Hk_l(sn-l). It remains
to note that the required assertion is obviously true for n = O.
o
Example 53. Hk(Dn, sn- I ) =
{Zo
if
. k
If k
= n,
~
n.
Proof. The exact sequence of the pair (Dn, sn-l) shows that
l.
~ Hk(XI
U X2, Al U A 2)
4. Singular Homology
202
C.(XI)
C.(AI)
+ C.(X2)
+ C.(A2)
_--':---'----'---'-
C.(XI
C.(AI
u X 2)
u A 2)
_-':--_--'-
O --. C.(XI
i.e., to prove that the quotient of a short exact sequence by an exact subsequence is an exact sequence (this is true for any, not necessarily short, exact
sequences). Consider the exact sequence as a chain complex C and the subsequence as a chain sub complex C'. The exactness of these sequences means
that H.(C) = 0 and H.(C') = O. Let us write the exact sequence induced
in homology by the short exact sequence 0 - C' - C - C/C' - 0:
Singular Cohomology. Singular cohomology groups are defined in a natural way. Let Ck(X) be the group of singular chains with coefficients in Z.
Then Ck(Xj G) = Hom(Ck(X), G) is the group of singular cochains with
coefficients in G. The coboundary operator d: Ck(XjG) _ Ck+I(XjG) is
the dual of the boundary operator 8: Ck+l(X) - Ck(X). The group Zk of
cocycles, the group Bk of coboundaries, and the cohomology group Zk / Bk
are defined in a standard way.
For singular cohomology, a theorem similar to the excision theorem for
singular homology is valid. Indeed, according to the universal coefficient theorem, any chain map inducing an isomorphism in integral homology induces
also an isomorphism in cohomology.
203
4 (the exactness axiom). If i: A - X and j: X embeddings, then the following sequence is exact:
4. :}mgUlar nomolOgy
/*;
2. (gf)* = /*g*;
3. c5* /* = (JIA)*c5*, i.e., the following diagram is commutative:
Hn(x, A) ~ Hn(y, B)
1
6
Hn-l(A) ~ Hn-l(B);
4 (the exactness axiom). If i: A - X and j: X embeddings, then the following sequence is exact:
20~
> 0 or x
! t < 0 or x
E JR.n \ A},
X_ = {(x, t) ERn x R
E JR.n \
A}.
The spaces X+ and X_ are contractiblei hence they have trivial reduced
homology groups, and therefore Hk+l(X+ u X_) ~ Hk(X+ n X_), i.e.,
Hk+1(Rn+1 \ A) ~ Hk(JR.n \ A) x JR.) ~ Hk(IR n \ A).
0
If A =I- IR n , then, according to the lemma, we have Hk(JR. n \ A) c:,;
Hk+n(JR. 2n \ A)i if A = IRn, then we obtain the isomorphism Hk(Rn+l \ A) ~
Hk+n_l(R 2n \ A). Thus, if A =I- JR.n and B =I- IRn, then Hk(JR.n \ A) ~
Hk(JR.n\B) and Hk(Rn\A) ~ Hk(JR.n\B). If A = ]Rn, then Hk(Rn+l \A) ~
H k (Rn+1 \ B). In particular, Ho(]Rn+1 \ A) ~ Ho(JR.n+1 \ B). Since the set
]Rn+1 \ A = ]Rn+1 \ ]Rn has precisely two connected components, it follows
that so does ]Rn+1 \ B. But this is possible only if B = JR.n .
0
Theorem 4.6 (invariance of domain). If U and V are homeomorphic subspaces of]Rn and U is open, then V is open as well.
Proof. Take a point Vo E V. We must prove that V has a subset that is open
in ]Rn and contains the point Vo. Consider a homeomorphism h: U ~ V and
let Uo = h- 1 (vo). Choose c > 0 so that Dn = {x E ]Rn ! IIx - uoll ~ c} C U.
According to Alexander's theorem, the set ]Rn \ h(Dn) is connected, while
4. Singular Homology
206
the set an \ h(sn-l), where sn-l = aDn, has two connected components.
The sets jRn \ h(Dn) and h(Dn) \ h(sn-l) = h(int Dn) are connected, and
their union is jRn\h(sn-l). Therefore, it is these sets that are the connected
components. In particular, they are open subsets of the space jRn \ h(sn-l),
which, in turn, is an open subset in IRn. Hence the set h(int Dn) 3 h( uo) = Vo
is open in IRn.
0
Corollary (invariance of boundary). A homeomorphism Dn _ Dn cannot
take a point x E aDn to an interior point.
Example 54. Suppose that X = (a x {O}) U ({O} x a) c 1R 2 , U = {(O, t) I
2 < t < 3}, and V = {(O, t) I -1 < t < I} (see Figure 2). Then the sets U
v
-1
20~
Proof. First, suppose that the simplicial complex K is finite. In this case
the theorem is proved by induction on the number n of all simplices of a1:
dimensions in K. If n = 1, then K consists of one point. For a one-point
space, the isomorphism is obvious even at the level of chains.
Now suppose that i", is an isomorphism for any simplicial complex containing fewer than n simplices. Let K be a simplicial complex containing
precisely n simplices, and let 6 be a simplex of maximal dimension in K.
The simplex 6 is not a face; therefore, KI = K \ 6 is a sub complex of K
containing fewer than n simplices.
To simplify notation, we set Hk(K) = Hk(C", (K)). For singular homology, we consider the Mayer Vietoris sequence for 6 and K{, where K{ =
KI U (int ll. \ {xo}) for Xo E int ll. because the pair ll., KI does not satisfy the
excision axiom. As a result, we obtain the following commutative diagram
with exact rows:
--~~ Hk+l(all.) ---+~ Hk(K) ~ Hk(ll.) ffi Hk(Kd ---+ ...
l~o
Hk+l(all.)
1~o
11
Hk(K)
l~o
l~o
Hk(ll.) ffi Hk(KI)
lisO
The upper vertical arrows coincide with i"" and the lower vertical arrows
are the isomorphisms induced by homotopy equivalences (or the identity
maps). It follows from the five lemma that the map i",: Hk(K) -+ Hk(K) is
an isomorphism (to apply this lemma, we must add two terms, on the left
and on the right, to the above fragment of the diagram).
Now suppose that the simplicial complex K is infinite. For any
0:
= a for
k ~ n.
4. Singular Homology
208
lh(K, L)
---+
Hk(L)
---+
Hk(K)
---+ ....
Remark. The analog of Theorem 4.8 for closed sets does not hold. In [10],
an example of a closed subset in ]R3 with nontrivial homology groups of
arbitrarily high dimensions was constructed.
Using the properties of nerves of covers described in Part I, we can easily
derive from Theorem 4.8 the following well-known theorem of ReIly.
Theorem 4.9 (ReIly [48]). If UI. ... , Un+! are open convex sets in lRn and
any n of them have a common point, then all these sets have a common
point.
Proof. We set X = U I U ... U Un+! and consider the cover U = {Ui }
(i = 1, ... , n + 1) of X. Let N be the nerve of the cover U. According
to Theorem 3.21 from Part I, the space X is homotopy equivalent to INI.
Suppose that UI n ... nUn+! = 0. Then N consists of the n-faces of the
simplex An+l. Therefore, INI row sn; in particular, Hn(X) ~ Hn(/N/) !:!:!.
Hn(sn) i- O. This contradicts Theorem 4.8.
0
Helly's theorem (and even a more general assertion, which was also
proved by ReIly) can be derived from Theorem 4.8 without using the properties of nerves of covers. For this purpose, the following lemma is needed.
Lemma 4.1. Let Xl. ... , Xm be acyclic open subsets of a topological space
X and anyr of them (1::::; r::::; m-1) have acyclic (in particular, nonempty)
intersection.
209
f. o.
If
Theorem 4.10 (ReIly [49]). Suppose that Xl! ... , Xm is a finite family of
open subsets of R n and the intersection of any r of these sets is nonempty
for r ~ n + 1 and acyclic for r ~ n. Then the space Xl n ... n Xm is acyclic
(in particular, it is nonempty).
Proof (see [29]). Suppose that the required assertion does not hold for sets
X I, ... , Xm and the number m is minimal. The minimality of m implies that
the intersection of any r ~ m - 1 of the sets Xl, ... , Xm is acyclic.
Suppose that Xl n n Xm = 0. This can happen only if m > n + 1.
Applying assertion (a) of Lemma 4.1, we obtain H m - 2(X I U ... U Xm) i- o.
On the other hand, m - 2 ~ n; therefore, according to Theorem 4.8, we have
H m- 2(XI U U Xm) = o. We have arrived at a contradiction.
Now, suppose that Xl n ... n Xm i- 0. By assumption, the space
Xl n n Xm is not acyclic. This can happen only if m > n. There exists
a number p ~ 0 for which Hp(XI U ... U Xm) i- O. Let us write p in the
form p = q - m + 1. According to assertion (b) of Lemma 4.1, we have
Hq(XI n ... n Xm) i- o. Note that q = p + m - 1 ~ n. This contradicts
Theorem 4.8.
0
4. Singular Homology
210
Cellular Homology. For any CW-complex X, we can define cellular homology in analogy with the case of simplicial complexes with the only difference that simplicial homology should be replaced by singular homology.
Using Problem 116, we obtain Hi(Xk,X k- 1) ~ Hi(Xk/X k- 1) ~ Hi(V Q S~)
for i ?: 1. Therefore, Hi(X k , X k- 1) = 0 for i i- k; for i = k, this is a free 3
Abelian group whose generators are in one-to-one correspondence with the
k-cells of the complex X. This implies, in particular, that Hk+l(Xk) = o.
Indeed, the exact sequence of a pair
, -----+
HHl(X k , X k- 1)
-----+
Hi(X k- 1)
-----+
Ha(Xk)
-----+
+ 1.
Hi(X k , X k- 1 )
-----+ .
Therefore, Hk+1(Xk) ~
As in the simplicial case, we set Ck = Hi(X k , X k- 1 ) and' define a homomorphism 8 k : C k --+ Ck-l. Then, we prove that H k- 1 ~ Ker8k_I/Im8k
and Hk-l(X) ~ Hk_1(X k ). The proof of the latter isomorphism uses the
fact that any singular chain is contained in some finite-dimensional skeleton
XN.
When cellular homology is used, the following assertion becomes obvious.
Let X be a CW -complex containing mk cells of dimension k. Then the
rank of the group Hk(X) is at most mk. We need it to prove the Morse
inequali ties.
1.5. The Morse Inequalities. Suppose that M n is a closed manifold and
E (-I)kmk
3This group contains only finite sums of cells because the image of 1LIl) simplex under a
continuous map is compact and any compact subset of a CW-complex intersects only finitely
many open cells.
211
Proof. The groups Tk and Tk-l are quotients of free Abelian subgroups
Fk and Fk-l of ranks tk and tk-l in Ck and Ck-l. The group Fk-l is
the epimorphic image under the map 8k of a rank-tk_l free Abelian group
F~_l C Ck, and the group Fk is the image of a similar group F~ C CHI.
Thus, the group Ck contains the subgroups Fk and F~ 1; it has also a
free subgroup Sk of rank rk, which is contained in Ker 8 k and has trivial
intersection with 1m 8k+l; this subgroup corresponds to a free summand of
Hk(Mn). The group Fk is contained in Im8k+l; therefore, the sum Fk + Sk
is direct. Moreover, we have 8 k (Fk ffi Sk) = 0 and 8kF~ 1 = Fk-l, where
F~_l and Fk 1 are free Abelian groups of the same rank. Hence the sum
FLI + Fk ffi Sk is direct as well. Thus, the group Ck, whose rank equals
mk, contains a free Abelian subgroup of rank tk 1 + tk + rkj therefore,
tk-l + tk + rk ~ mk.
0
The numbers rk and mk are also related by the following series of inequalities (Morse inequalities).
= 0,1, ... , n,
+ rk-2 -
... ro
mk - mk-l
+ mk-2 -
.. , mo
Proof. It is easy to show that (a) follows from (b). Indeed, suppose that
- rk)t k = E (1 + t)dktk, where dk ~ O. Then mo - ro = do ~ 0,
ml - rl - (mo - ro) = d 1 ~ 0, m2 - r2 - (ml - rl) + (mo - ro) = d2 ~ 0,
etc. Clearly, d m = O. Thus, it suffices to prove (b).
Let al < a2 < ... < am be the critical values of the function f. Choose
numbers b1, ... , bm+l so that -00 < b1 < al < b2 < ... < am < bm+l <
00 and consider the manifold Mp = {x E M n I f(x) ~ bp}, where p =
1,2, ... , m + 1. Consider also the polynomials Rp(t) = E rkHk(Mp)tk and
Rpq(t) = ErkHk(Mp,Mq)tk for p > q. Let us write the exact sequence for
the pair (Mp, Mq):
E (mk
Hk+l(Mp,Mq)
8 k +1,
Hk(M n )
Hk(Mp)
~ Hk(Mp,Mq) ~
Hk-l(Mq).
Clearly,
and
rk 1m 11'
= rkHk(Mp) -
rklmi
= rkHk(Mp) -
(rkHk(Mq) - rklmak).
212
4. Singular Homology
Therefore,
+ rk 1m 8k+1,
(Rp+1(t) - Rp(t))
= Rm+1(t) = R(t);
p-l
1.6. Multiplications.
The Eilenberg-Zilber Theorem. The Eilenberg Zilber theorem claims
that Hk(X x Y) ~ Hk(C.(X) C.(Y)) for any topological spaces X and Y.
Its proof, which is based on the acyclic model theorem, is presented below.
Let T be the category of topological spaces and continuous maps, and let
TxT be the category whose objects are ordered pairs of topological spaces
(X, Y) and morphisms are ordered pairs of continuous maps f: X -+ X',
g: Y -+ Y'. Let us define two functors, T and T', from the category TxT
to the category of nonnegative chain complexes.
(i) The functor T takes each pair (X, Y) to the singular chain complex
C.(X x Y);
(ii) the functor T' takes each pair (X, Y) to the tensor product C.(X)
C.(Y).
Recall that the tensor product of chain complexes is defined by
(C.(X) C.(Y))k =
EB
Cp(X) Cq(Y),
p+q-k
8(ep cq) = 8ep cq + (-1)Pep 8cq.
The functors T and T' are acyclic4 with respect to the models from
M = {(~p, ~q)}, where p and q range over all nonnegative integers. Indeed,
the acyclicity of T is obvious because the space ~p x ~ q is contractible. To
prove the acyclicity of T', is suffices to show that if chain complexes C~ and
C: are acyclic, then so is the chain complex C~
Thb follows easily
from the algebraic Kiinneth theorem.
C:.
4The definition of a functor acyclic with respect to models was given on p. 103.
213
The functor T' is free 5 with respect to the models from M. Indeed,
the group Cp(X) Cq(Y) is freely generated by the singular chains of the
form Cp cq , which are in one-to-one correspondence with the pairs of maps
I: /:l.P --+ X, g: /:l. q --+ Y. Therefore, for the element ep,q E C* (~P) C* (/:l. q)
we can take the singular chain /:l.P x /:l. q
The functor T is free with respect to the models from {(/:l.k, /:l.k)} eM.
Indeed, the group Ck(X x Y) is freely generated by singular chains that
are in one-to-one correspondence with the maps F: /:l.k --+ X X Y. Any
such map is determined by a pair of maps I: /:l. k --+ X, g: /:l. k --+ Y. Let
dk: /:l.k --+ /:l.k X ~k be the diagonal map. Then F can be represented as
the composition /:l.k :!!:..... /:l.k X /:l.k ~ X X Y. Therefore, for the element
ek E C*(/:l.k x /:l.k) we can take the singular chain corresponding to the
map dk.
The algebraic Kiinneth theorem implies the existence of a canonical
isomorphism Ho(C*(X) C*(Y)) --+ Ho(X) Ho(Y). Clearly, the pathconnected components of X x Yare the products of those of X and Y.
Hence there exists a natural isomorphism cp: Ho(X)Ho(Y) --+ Ho(C*(X)
C*(Y)). Applying the acyclic model theorem to the maps cp and cp-l, we
obtain chain maps T: C*(XxY) --+ C*(X)C*(Y) and T: C*(X)C*(Y) --+
C.. (X x Y), which induce the maps cp and cp-I, respectively, in the 0dimensional homology groups.
The chain map TOT induces the identity map of the group Ho(X x Y).
Hence, according to the acyclic model theorem, the map TOT is chain homotopic to the identity. Similarly, TOT is chain homotopic to the identity as
well. Thus, the map T*: H*(X x Y) --+ H*(C.. (X) C*(Y)) is an isomorphism. We have proved the following theorem.
Theorem 4.13 (Eilenberg Zilber [35]). For any topological spaces X and
Y, the groups Hk(X x Y) and Hk(C*(X) C*(Y)) are isomorphic.
214
4. Singular Homology
the composition
t-+
here [0, 1, ... ,n] is a singular simplex f: [0, 1, ... , n] -+ X, and [0, ... , i] and
[i, .. . , n] are the restrictions of f to the corresponding faces. The proof that
this is a chain map is the same as in the simplicial case (see p. 105).
At the level of cochains, the cup product determined by the AlexanderWhitney diagonal approximation has the form
(cP '-" cq , [0, 1, ... ,p + q]) = (cP, [0, ... ,p])(cq , [p, ... ,p + q]).
Now let us define the cap product. Any cochain cP E CP(X; R) can be
regarded as a homomorphism c?: C. (X) -+ R (for i i- p, this homomorphism
vanishes at the i-dimensional chains). Consider the composition
215
The Relative Case. In the relative case, the functorial chain equivalence
between C.(XxY) and C.(X)C.(Y) is replaced by that between C.(XxY,
(X x B) U (A x Y)) and C.(X, A) C.(Y, B) (the spaces {X x B, A x Y}
must satisfy the excision axiom). This chain equivalence is constructed as
follows. If the spaces {X x B, A x Y} satisfy the excision axiom, then the
natural embedding
C.(X x B)
+ C.(A x
Y) ~ C .. X x B) U (A x Y))
induces an isomorphism of homology groups, and therefore so does the natural map
C.(X x Y)
C.(X x Y)
C .. (X x B) +C.(A x Y) ~ C.X x B) U (A x y))'
The functorial chain equivalence C.(X)C.(Y) ~ C .. (XxY) maps C.(X)
C .. (B) to C .. (X x B) and C.(A) C .. (Y) to C.. (A x Y). We have obtained
c.(XxY)
d
.
. I
b t
a ch am eqmva ence e ween C.(XxB)+C.(AxY) an
___
C.~(X---.:.....)-=--C.~(_Y!..-)_ _ '" C.(X)
C .. (Y)
C.(X) C.(B) + C.(A) C.(Y) = C .. (A) ffi -C..-(B-),
The composition of these two chain equivalences is the required chain equivalence.
This chain equivalence implies the Kiinneth theorem for relative homology:
Hk(X x Y, (X x B) U (A x Y))
~
(H. (X, A) H.(Y, B))k ffi (Tor (H. (X, A), H.(Y, B)))k-l'
4. Singular Homology
216
H*(lRn,lR n \ {O}).
The cohomology sequence for the pair (lRn ,lRn \ {O}) implies that
Hk(lRn,lR n \ {O}) ~ iIk l(lRn \ {O}) ~ iIk-l(sn-I). Therefore, the group
Hn(lR n , lR n \ {O}) is isomorphic to the additive group of the coefficient ring,
and all of the other groups Hk(lRn,lR n \ {O}),k i- n are trivial.
To simplify notation, we set lR8 = lRn \ {O}, lR+ = {x E lR I x > O}, and
lR_ - {x E lR I x < O}. The excision isomorphism HO (lR+) ~ HO (lRo, lR_)
holds. Let us write the exact sequence for the triple (lR, lRo, lR_):
217
(IRn,lRQ) x (IRm,IR
o)= (IRn+m,IR(j+m).
Indeed, take u E IRn and v E IRm. Then IRn x IRQ consists of all pairs Cu, v)
in which v :/: 0, and IR~ x IR m consists of all pairs (u, v) in which u :/: O.
Clearly, the union of these sets consists of all nonzero vectors in IRn+m.
Consider the element
en
= ex
x e,
which belongs to
Hn(IRn,IR~).
Theorem 4.15. If A
defined by a
t-+
a x en is an isomorphism.
= 0.
where the horizontal arrows in the left square are the excision isomorphisms
and 0' is the homomorphism from the cohomology sequence of the triple
(X x IR, X x RQ, X x IR_). The left square of the diagram is commutative,
and the right one is commutative up to sign because o'(axx) = (-l)k axox.
The homomorphism 0' is an isomorphism because
for i > 0 (both spaces X x IR and X x IR_ are deformation retracts of the
same space X x {-I}). Thus, the element a x e E Hk+l(X X IR, X x IRo) is
the image of a E Hk(X) under the composition of isomorphisms.
4. Singular Homology
218
xz
o ~ Ck+l ((X, A)
xz
Ck(A) ---~) 0
xz
~ Ck+I(A
x IR, A x IRa)
with exact rows. The vertical arrows are cochain maps bec~use "(.c.c: z) =
(de) x z. Thus, we obtain the following commutative diagram for cohomology
groups:
----+)
xe
~ Hk+l ((X, A)
x (IR, IRa))
xe
~ Hk+1 (X
x JR, X x IRa)
--~)
Hk(A) --~
xe
We have already proved that the vertical maps are isomorphisms for absolute cohomology. By the five lemma, they remain isomorphisms for relative
cohomology.
The required assertion for an arbitrary n follows from if s validity for
n - 1 because the associativity of the cross product implies that a x en =
(axen-I)xe.
219
Hk(X" sn)
--+
Hk(Xf)
--+
Hk(sn)
--+ ....
The excision theorem implies Hk(Xf' sn) ~ Hk(s2n) for k > O. Therefore,
for k i- 0, n, 2n, the group Hk(Xf) is surrounded by trivial groups; for k = n
and 2n, we obtain isomorphisms Hn(Xf)
Hn(sn) and H2n(s2n)
2n
H (Xf)
Let 0 and (3 be the generators of the groups Hn(Xf) and H 2n(xf )
corresponding to the orientations of the sphere sn and the disk D2n. Then
o '--' 0 = H(f){3, where H(f) is an integer. This integer is called the Hopf
invariant of the map f.
It follows directly from the definition that the change of the orientation of
sn does not affect the Hopf invariant, whereas the change of the orientation
of D2n changes its sign.
.=.
.=.
Exercise. Using the quaternions and the Cayley numbers, construct maps
f: S7 - S4 and f: S15 _ S8 with Hopf invariant equal to 1.
Remark. Adams [2] proved that the maps f: s2n-l _ sn with Hopf invariant equal to 1 exist only for n = 2,4,8.
4. Singular Homology
220
eSe = f#(a). It is easy to verify that the cochain f#(c) - e '-"' f#(a) is a
cocycle. Indeed,
eS(f#(c) - e '-"' f#(a
Therefore, the cohomology class of f#(c) - e '-"' f#(a) is defined. This class
belongs to the group H 2n-l(s2n-l); hence it is proportional to the class [bJ.
The coefficient of proportionality is the Hopf invariant H(f).
Let us prove the equivalence of the two definitions of the Hopf invariant
given above. Consider the auxiliary space Sf = snUf(s2n-l x I) (the sphere
sn attached to the cylinder s2n-l X I along one of its bases) and the pair
( Sf, s2n-l ), which contains the other base of the cylinder. The excision
theorem implies Hk(Sf, s2n-l) ~ Hk(Xf' *) ~ Hk(Xf) for 1 ~ 1.
Consider the diagram
Hn(sn) ~ I Hn(Sf) ~ Hn(sj, s2n-l)
~ H 2n (Sf, s2n-l) +-- H 2n - 1 (s2n-l).
~
Here sq(x) = x '-"' x, and the remaining maps are natural isomorphisms
(the first is induced by the projection p: Sf --+ sn, which is a homotopy
equivalence, and the two others are taken from the cohomology sequence of
the pair). It is fairly easy to extract the first definition of the Hopf invariant
from this diagram: the class [aJ is identified with a class 0 by means of
the first two isomorphisms; applying the map sq to Q (sq(o) = 0 '-"' 0),
we obtain H(f)(3, where (3 is the image of the class [bJ under the natural
isomorphism. Let us show how to obtain the second definition from this
diagram considered at the level of cocycles.
At the level of cocycles, the isomorphism p. takes the co cycle a to
af = p# (a). Moreover, f# (a) is the restriction of the co cycle af to the set of
singular simplices s2n-I, i.e., f#(a) = i(af), where i: c(s2n-l) --+ C(Sf)
is the natural embedding (the restriction map to the subset S2n-l). Take
a cochain c E c(s2n) such that eSc = a '-"' a and consider cf = p#(c)
and f#(c) = i(cf). By assumption, we have i(af) = f#(a) = eSe for some
e E c(s2n-l). Let e' be an extension of e to Sf, i.e., a co chain such
that e = i(e'). The difference af - eSe' is a co cycle in Cn(Sf)' and it vanishes on c n (s2n-l). It can be considered as a cocycle in C n (Sf,S2n-l); in
Hn(Sf' S2n-l), this co cycle represents the class corresponding to raJ. Let us
apply the map sq to this cocycle. For a representative of the resulting class
we can take the co cycle (af - eSe') '-" af because this prouuct vanishes on
cn(S2n-l) and eSe' is a coboundary.
221
Clearly, f#(c) - e '--' f#(u) = i(cf) - ie' '--' i(uf) = i(cf - e' -- af).
Therefore, the class of the co cycle f#(c) - e '--' f#(a) is identified with the
class of the co cycle 5(cl-e' '-' a,) = a, '-' af-(5e') '--' a, = (a,-5e') '-' a"
as required.
1.8. Simplicial Volume (the Gromov Norm). Let M n be a closed orientable manifold. Each singular chain E ad, E Ck(Mnj R) is assigned its
norm /IE adi" = E Iai I This norm carries over to the homology groups
Hk(Mn jR)j namely, for a homology class ( E Hk(Mn j R),
11(11
= inf{llzlll z
= o.
Proof. Let fn: [0,1] -+ SI be the map defined by fn(t) = e2'1!"lnt. Then fn
is a cycle representing the homology class n[SI]. Therefore, the class [SI] is
represented by the cycle !fn, whose norm equals ~.
D
The construction from Example 55 applies to any closed orient able manifold M n admitting maps Mn -+ M n of arbitrarily large degrees. Such maps
are easy to construct, e.g., for the sphere sn and the torus Tn (it suffices
to construct a map of degree larger than 1). Therefore, IIsnll = 0 and
IITnll =0.
Example 56. If M; is a sphere with 9 handles, where 9 ~ 2, then IIM;II =
2Ix(M;)1 = 2(2g - 2).
M;
M;
n-to-one, we obtain
2Inx(M;)1 + 2. Let-
4. Singular Homology
222
map
admits a lifting
j:
H2
Ylp
~2~M;
is commutative. Let us replace the singular simplex
by a singular simplex
l' whose image is the triangle in the hyperbolic plane with the same vertices.
If a cycle L adi represents the fundamental class [M;J, then so does the
cycle L oW(];). Moreover, 27rlx(M;)I = vol(M;) :::; L la~1 vol(p(]I(~2))),
where vol denotes area in the hyperbolic plane. The inequality arises because
some overlapping parts of simplices may cancel each other; if there are no
such cancellations, we obtain an equality. Finally, since the ar~ Qi any
triangle in the hyperbolic plane does not exceed 7r, we have yol(p(]I(~2))) :::;
7r. Therefore, 2Ix(M;)1 :::; L lail :::; IIM;II.
0
.an
zl(JC:5) - zl(Jc:n
+ zl(Jc:~) = 0,
for all singular 1-simplices f: ~l --t X. (Note that we cannut take zl(f) to
the left-hand side because the group operation is noncommutative.)
223
It is easy to show that the relation of being cohomologous is an equivalence. The set of equivalence classes is Hl(X, Y; G). It is not a group,
but it contains a distinguished (zero) element, namely, the equivalence class
of the trivial cocycle, which vanishes at each singular I-simplex. We put
HO(X, Yj G) = ZO(X, Y; G); this set is a group.
= 0,1).
o.
I:
~2
4. Singular Homology
-+
HI(X, Yj G).
i*: Hq(X, Yj G)
-+
= int Xl U int X 2
r:
121
HI (C!Xl,X2} (X, XO)j G).
The map li is one-to-one because there is no essential difference between
cochains taking nonzero values at simplices in Xl and X2 and vanishing at
all simplices in X2 and those taking nonzero values at simplices in Xl and
vanishing at all simplices in Xl n X 2
For any triple of spaces Z eYe X, we define a map d' HO(y, Zj G) -+
HI (X, Yj G) as follows. Given a cohomology class 0:0 E H (Y, Zj G), we
define a cochain cO E CO(X, Yj G) by setting cO(x) = o:O(x) for x E Yand
221
(34)
where the maps i~ and j~ are induced by inclusions and 6. is the composition
(35)
4. Singular Homology
226
Theorem 4.16 allows us to obtain the most general version of van Kampen's theorem about the fundamental group of a union of two sets. For
this purpose, we need a dual definition of an amalgam of groups. Namely,
a group G is the amalga.m of two groups G I and G 2 over a group Go with
respect to homomorphisms 'PI: Go --+ G 1 and 'P2: Go --+ G2 if the commutative diagram
,pi
_ 1?t
Theorem 4.17 (Dlum [98]). Suppose that spaces UI, U2, and Ul n U2 are
path-connected and Xo E UI n U2. The group 7l"l(Ul U U2, xo) is the amalgam
of the groups 7l"1(Ul, xo) and 7l"1(U2, xo) over 7l"l(Ul U U2, xo) with respect to
the homomorphisms induced by the inclusions UlnU2 c Ul and UlnU2 c U2
if and only if the natural map
i*: Hl(UI U U2, Xoj G') --+ HI (C!Ul,U2} (U1 U U2, XO)j G')
is one-to-one for any group G'.
Proof. First, suppose that the map i* is one-to-one for any group G'. Then
we have the commutative diagram (34) (with G replaced by G'). Moreover,
the path-connectedness of Ul n U2 implies HO(UI U U2, Xoj G') = O.
Suppose that X is a path-connected space and Xo EX. Take an element
wE 7l"1(X, xo) and consider a sequence of I-simplices 6L ... , 6l which form
a loop belonging to the homotopy class of w. For zl E ZI(X, Xo; G'), we
set zl(w) = zl(6l) + ... + zl(6l). It is easy to show that zl(w) depends
only on the homotopy class of the loopj moreover, it depends only on the
cohomology class of the cycle zl, i.e., we have a map H1(X,xo;G') --+
Hom(7l"l(X, xo), G'). This map is one-to-one. Applying Theorem 4.16 and
replacing HI by Hom, we see that 7l"1(Ul U U2 , xo) is the required amalgam.
Now, suppose that 7l"1(Ul U U2 , xo) is such an amalgam. Replacing Hom
by HI, we obtain the exact commutative diagram
227
for any group C ' . Comparing it with the diagram (35) in which Xi is replaced
by Ui, we see that the map i" is one-to-one.
D
o for
-----t
Hk(Vj)
-----t
Hk-I(Vj-1 n Uj )
-----t . .
The sets Uj and Vj-l n Uj are homeomorphic to open subsets of JRn; hence
Hk(Uj) = 0 and Hk-I(Vj-1 n Uj ) = O. Moreover, Hk(Vj-I) = 0 by the
induction hypothesis. Therefore, Hk(Vj) = O. This means that zk is the
boundary of a singular chain in Vj C Mn.
D
For connected noncompact manifolds, Theorem 4.18 can be strengthened; namely, we can guarantee that Hk(M n ) = 0 for k ~ n. To prove this,
we need the following auxiliary lemma.
Lemma 4.2. Suppose that U C JRn (n ~ 2) is an open set, a E Hn(JRn, U),
and for each point x E JRn \ U, we have (ix) .. (a) = 0, where ix: (lRn , U) _
(JRn, lRn \ {x}) is the natural embedding. Then a = O.
Proof. Consider the exact sequence of the pair (lRn , U):
.,. __ Hn(JR n )
-----t
Hn(JR n , U) ~ Hn-I(U)
-----t
Hn(JR n ) -----t
., . .
4. Singular Homology
228
= 0,
shows that the image of (3 under the inclusion homomorphism Hn-I(V) Hn-l (JRn \ {x}) is the zero element.
Now, let us show that the image of {3 under the inclusion homomorphism
Hn-l (V) - Hn-l (Q \ U:l p,) is zero as well. Consider the sets Qk =
Q \ U7-1 Pi (k = 0,1, ... , m). We prove the required assertion by induction
on k. For k = 0, it is obvious since Qo = Q and Hn-I(Q) = O. To make
the induction step, consider the Mayer Vietoris exact sequence for Q and
JRn \ PHI (it is defined because both sets are open):
Hn(Q U (JR n \ PHd)
---t
Since the set Q U (JRn \ PHd is open, its n-dimensional homology group
is trivial. Therefore, j. is a monomorphism. It remains to note that the
images of (3 under the homomorphisms induced by the inclusions V C Qk
and V C JRn \ Pk+1 are zero. For the former homomorphism, this is so
by the induction hypothesis, and for the latter because Hn_l(JRn \ Pk+1) 9:!
H n_l(JRn \ {x}).
Since the set Qm is contained in U, we can represent the homomorphism
Hn-l(V) - Hn-I(U) as the composition of homomorphisms Hn-I(V) Hn-I(Qm) - Hn-I(U). The image of {3 under the first homomorphism is
the zero element. Therefore, i.{3 = 0, i.e., B*a = O.
0
The exact sequence of the pair (JRn, JRn \ {O}) implies H k (JRn JRn \ {O}) ~
HdJR n \ {O}) ~ Hk_1(sn-l) for all k > 1. Hence Hn(JRn,JR n \ {al) ~ Z and
Hn(JRn, JRn \ {O}j Z2) ~ Z2 for n ~ 2.
229
h.=idl
Hn(Mn)
The equality (Px).
= 0 follows
~ Hn(Mn,Mn \
{x})
h.
~ Hn(Mn,Mn \ {y}).
from (Py).
= o.
4. Singular Homology
230
By the induction hypothesis, we have Hn(Vk) = O. Moreover, the contractibility of Uk+l implies Hn(Uk+d = 0 and H n - 1(Uk+d = O. Therefore,
Hn(Vk+d = 0 if and only if the homomorphism i.: Hn-l(Vk n Uk+d Hn l(Vk) is a monomorphism.
Suppose that {3 E H n- 1(Vk
n Uk+d
and i.{3
= o.
The second row and the second column in this diagram are segments of exact
sequences of pairs. The equality i.{3 = 0 implies {3 =
{3" for some (3" E
Hn(Vk, Vk n Uk+!). Moreover, {3 = a~{3' for some {3' E Hn(Uk+l' Vk n Uk+d
because a~ is an epimorphism. Consider the element (3 = i~{3' - i~{3". Let
us write a part of the exact sequence of a pair:
8':
Hn(Vk+d
Clearly, a.i~ = a~ and a.i~ = a~. Hence a.~ = a.i~{3' - a.i~{3" = EY.{3' a~{3" = {3 - (3 = 0, and therefore a.{3 = p.a. for some a. E Hn(Vk+!).
As at the beginning of the proof, the noncom pact ness of M n implies
that the homomorphism (Px).: Hn(Vk+d - Hn(Mn,M n \ {x}) is zero for
each point x E Mn. In particular, p.a. = O.
Let x E Uk+! \ (Vk n Uk+l). Then Vk n Uk+! C Mn \ {x}j hence the
homomorphism (Px). can be represented as the composition of homomorphisms
o.
231
<PI 1mono
Hn(Mnjz m )
<P21 mono
Here 'PI and 'P2 are the monomorphisms from the universal coefficient formulas. The homomorphism p. id is a monomorphism as well. On the
other hand, if 0: is a generator of the group Hn(Mn), then (p. id)(o: 1) =
p.o: 1 = m 1 = O.
0
For every point x E Mn, consider the groups Tx = Hn(Mn, Mn \ {x}) ~
Z and T x (Z2) = Hn(Mn,Mn \ {X}jZ2) ~ Z2. Let us introduce topologies
on the sets T = UxEMn Tx ar,d T(Z2) = UXEMn T x (Z2) so that the natural projections of T and T(Z2) onto Mn be coverings. Note that such
topologizations are equivalent to defining local systems of coefficient groups
isomorphic to Z and Z2 on Mn. For coefficients in Z2, the local system
is trivial because there exists precisely one isomorphism Z2 --+ Z2. The
space T(Z2) consists of two copies of the manifold Mnj one of them corresponds to the zero element of the group Z2, and the other corresponds to the
nonzero element. We want to construct a local system of coefficient groups
isomorphic to Z that generalizes the system Or M n for smooth manifolds.
We say that a set V is admissible if V is the interior of a closed disk
contained in some chart on Mn. To construct a topology on T, we use
the observation that if a set V is admissible and x E V, then the inclusion
4. Singular Homology
232
---+
Hn(Mn,M n \ {x})
= Tx
233
Proof. The most important and difficult part of the theorem is the existence
of a fundamental class. We start with this part, postponing the proof of
uniqueness.
We recall that if V is an admissible 6 set, then the map iv.% :
Hn(M n , M n \ V) -+ T% is an isomorphism. This enables us to construct
the required homology class Ov in Hn(Mn, M n \ V). Our goal is to glue
such classes together by using the relative Mayer Vietoris sequence and
obtain a homology class in Hn(M n , 0) = Hn(M n ). In dealing with Mayer
Vietoris sequences, open sets are more convenient to handle because they
automatically satisfy the excision axiom. Thus, instead of the admissible
set V, we take its closure Vi the map iv.% is an isomorphism as well, and
we can construct the class 0v E Hn(M n , M n \ V).
Since the manifold Mn is compact, it can be covered by finitely many
closures of admissible sets V 11 , V m. Suppose that we have already constructed an element
OI ... k E
Hn(M n , M n \ (VI
u u Vk))
such that ixoI .... ,k = s(x) for all x E VI U U Vki here ix is the homomorphism of homology groups induced by the map of pairs
-+
(Mn,M n \ {x}).
(OI ... k,
-Ok+!) in
4. Singular Homology
234
Proof. The proof of the lemma follows a scheme which has already been
used many times in this book. It consists in proving the required assertion
for simple domains and extending it by using the Mayer Vietoris sequence.
First, suppose that the set Mn \ U is contained in a coordinate neighborhood W ~ ~n. Consider the commutative diagram
Here the vertical arrows are excision isomorphisms. The equality p*(3 - 0
is equivalent to i*(3 - 0, where iJ is the preimage of (3 under the excision
isomorphism. Lemma 4.2 implies (3 - 0 and, therefore, (3 - O.
Now we consider the general case. Let Vi be an open eoordinate neighborhood in M n homeomorphic to ~n. The compact set M n \ U can be
covered by finitely many open sets Vi. Let U, = (Mn \ U) n Vi. Then
M n \ U - U (Mn \ Ut ), i.e., U
Ui . Thus, it is sufficient to show that if
the assertion of the lemma holds for open sets U' and U", then it holds for
U' n U". Consider the relative Mayer Vietoris sequence
Hn+I(M n , U'
u U")
- - Hn(M n , U'
n U")
-+
Suppose that it takes (3 to ((3', (3"). Let (3x, (3~, and (3~ be the images
of (3, (3', and (3" under the map to Tx Then (3~ = (3x and (3~ = -(3x.
Therefore, if (3x - 0, then (3~ - 0 and (3~ = o. By assumption, (3x = 0 for all
x E Mn \ (U' n U"). Therefore, (3~ = 0 for all x E M n \ U' and (3~ = 0 for
all x E Mn \ U". It follows that (3' = 0 and (3" = O. SincE' the map under
consideration is a monomorphism, we have (3 = O.
0
The element 01, ... ,k+l that is mapped to (Ol, ... ,k. -Ok+r) has the required
property, i.e., ixaI, ... ,k+l = s(x) for all x E VI U U Vk+l.
The uniqueness of the fundamental class is very easy to prove. If 0
and a' are two fundamental classes corresponding to the same orientation s,
then, for each x E Mn, the homomorphism Hn(Mn) _ Hn(M n , M n \ {x})
235
(i) ()(x, y) = (x, y') for all x E V and y E M n (here y' is some point of
the manifold Mn);
(ii) ()(x, x) = (x, xo) for all x E V;
(iii) (P2()lx) .. (S(x)) = s(xo) for all x E V (here we mean maps of pairs
because s(x) is the homology class of a pair).
The statement of (iii) uses (ii): (p2()lx)(x)
Proof. Consider the self-homeomorphism of V x Dn defined by the condition that its restriction to each line segment with endpoints (x, x) and (x, y),
where x E V and y E aDn, is a linear map onto the segment with endpoints
(x, xo) and (x, y). Figure 4 shows the restriction ofthis self-homeomorphism
to {x} x D n for n = 2. On V x aDn, this map is the identity; therefore, it
can be extended over V x Mn by the identity map outside V x Dn,
The composition P2()lx coincides with the map shown in Figure 4; clearly,
it is orientation preserving.
D
4. Singular Homology
n,
the pair
(p-l(V),p-l(V) \ d(Mn))
= (V x M n , V x
n \
d(Mn))
= (V x M n , V x
Mn
d(Mn))
-+
V x (M n , M n
{xo}).
EB
p+q=k
and
EB
237
Hn(V, V \ {x})
(I z ).
~
Hn(VX)
6.
~
r~
1
Hn(M n , M n \ {xo}).
We know that (P20lx) .. (s(x)) = s(xo). Hence the map Ho(V) - Ho(V)
Hn(Mn, M n \ {xo}) induced by the map [xl - [xl s(xo) is an isomorphism.
Returning to Hn(V X), we obtain the map [xl - (lx) .. (s(x)) instead of this
isomorphism.
Thus, the assertion of the lemma is true for the set V. Note that we have
not used the connectedness of Vj the isomorphism Hn(V X) ~ Ho(V) holds
even for disconnected open sets V. It remains to show that if the assertion
is true for open sets U1, U2, and Ul nu2, then it is also true for U1 UU2. We
take two segments of the Mayer Vietoris sequences and map them to one
another by the homomorphism described in the statement of the lemma:
HO(UI n U2)
--~)
---~)
Ho(Ul U U2)
111
Hn((Ul n U2)X)
U2)X).
-------~)
238
4. Singular Homology
For X
M n x M n and A - M n x Mn\d(Mn), we have U E Hn(x, A).
For a cohomology class a k E Hk(Mn), the class pi(a k ) belongs to Hk(X)j
therefore, we can consider the relative cup product Hk(X) Hn(x, A) --+
Hn+k(x, A). We set <J>(a k ) - pi(a k ) '-' U E Hn+k(Mnx).
Theorem 4.22 (Thorn isomorphism). For any k, the map <1>.: Hk(Mn)
Hn+k(Mnx) is an isomorphism.
--+
CP.({3k)
Let V be an open set satisfying the conditions of Lemma 4.3. Then the
homeomorphism 0 from this lemma induces an isomorphism
--+
Hn(vx).
Using Theorem 4.15 on p. 217, we can identify the element O I(UV) with
1 ,n E HO (V) H n (Mn , M n \ {x} ), where ,n is the generator of the group
Hn(M n , Mn\ {x}) such that (,n, s(x)) - 1 (in the notation of Theorem 4.15,
,n = en: we identify the groups Hn(M n , M n \ {x}) and Hn(lRn,lR n \ {a})
by means of the excision isomorphism).
The homomorphism 0 has the property PI = piO (on the set V). Therefore, the naturality of the cap product implies
Hk n(V).
The homomorphism (pt). takes the cap product of 1 ,n E HO(V)
Hn(M n , Mn\{x}) andbk n s(x) E Hk n(V)Hn(Mn,Mn\{x}) tobk-n.
This means that CP.({3k) - bk n' The map (3k 1-+ bk n is the composition of
isomorphisms
--+
Hk n(V) is an isomorphism.
239
o ~ Ext(Hk
l(Mn),Z)
l~l
0------+ Ext(Hk+n
1 (Mnx),
--4)
Hk(Mn)
--4)
Hom(Hk(Mn),z)
l~
1~2
Here 'P*l and CP*2 are isomorphisms becaufle Cp* is an isomorphism. According to the five lemma, cp* is an isomorphism as well.
D
n:l
4. Singular Homology
240
simplices and leave the remaining simplices intact. Among the new simplices
we chose those intersecting M n , and so on.
Since M n is compact, it follows that the distance from any point x E
~k \ M n to M n is positive; therefore, each point x has a neighborhood
intersecting only finitely many simplices constructed above. This means
that what we have constructed is indeed a triangulation K of the space
~k\Mn.
]Rk
is compact it follows that for any x E]Rk there exists at least one point
= d(x, un). Such poi~ts y are said to be nearest to x in Mn.
IIx - yll
241
Thus, the k-simplex from K containing x is obtained not earlier than at the
(m + l)th step. The diameter of any such simplex is less than c.
D
For each point x E Mn c ]Rk and every c > 0, we construct a system
of open neighborhoods Va ::J Vi ::J ... ::J Vk+1 in ]Rk so that Vk+1 c Nand
r(Vk+d C D! e' where D! e = {y E ]Rk I IIx - yll < c}. For Va we take the
open subset ~f D! e containing x and such that Vo n M n is an admissible
subset homeomor~hic to ]Rn. We assume that Va c ~ k For i ~ 1, the
neighborhood Vi is constructed from V; 1 as follows. First, we choose a
number c(i) > 0 so that D!,5e(,) eVil. Then, using Lemma 4.5, we choose
~(i) < c(i) such that if y E ~k \ Mn and IIx yll < ~(i), then the diameter
of any k-simplex from K containing y is less than c(i). Finally, we choose
an open set Vi C ~k in ]Rk such that it is contained in D!,6(,) (and contains
x) and Vi n M n is an admissible set homeomorphic to ]Rn.
Suppose that y E Vk+1 \ Mn and ~k(y) is the k-simplex from K containing y. By construction, all vertices of ~k(y) belong to D!,26(k+1) C Vk.
If v is a vertex of ~k(y), then Ilv - r(v)11 ~ Ilv - xii; therefore, the images
of all vertices of ~k(y) under the map r belong to D!,46(k+1) C Vk.
Since the set Vk n Mn is homeomorphic to ]Rn, we can extend the map
r, which is defined on the vertex set of the simplex ~k(y), to the edges ~~.
Hence each ~~ is contained in N. There is an extension of r to ~~ for
which the diameter of the image of ~~ is less than 2~(k + 1); therefore, the
diameter of r(~~) is less than 4~(k + 1) < ~(k). Since the endvertices of the
edge ~~ belong to Vk, it follows that r(~~) C Vk-l n Mn.
Applying the same argument to the 2-skeleton, 3-skeleton, and so on,
we obtain ~k(y) eN and r(~k(y eva = D!,e. In particular, r(y) E D;,e.
This means that the map r is continuous at the point y. Moreover, Vk+1 C
N.
D
Lemma 4.6. For any closed topological manifold M n , there exists an open
neighborhood W of d(Mn) in Mn x M n for which the maps pIlw and P21w
are homotopic.
4. Singular Homology
242
= (y, x).
H*(Mn)
(P1Iw)",
243
4. Singular Homology
244
For homology classes a,13 E H*(M n ; R), let a x 13 denote the image of
a13 in H*(M n x Mn; R) under the monomorphism from the Kiinneth theorem; for cohomology classes a, b E H*(Mn; R), a x b denotes the element
pi(a)
p;(b) E H*(Mn x Mn; R). As above, U E Hn(Mnx) is the Thorn
class. The notation U - i*(U) is used for the element of the group Hn(Mn x
Mn) that corresponds to U under the homomorphism i*: Hn(Mnx) Hn(Mn X Mn). Under a ring homomorphism Z _ R taking 1 to the identity element of R, the element fl transforms into an element of the ring
Hn(Mn x Mn; R), which we denote by the same symbol fl. Finally, for an
arbitrary point x E M n , [x] denotes the generator of Ho(Mn) determined
by x.
The element [x] x [Mn] is represented in Hn(Mn x Mn) by the cycle
(lx)*([M n]); therefore, the homomorphism i*: Hn(Mn X Mn) _ ~nx)
takes [x] x [Mn] to (lx)*(s(x)). Thus,
-...J
= (U, (lx)*(s(x))) = 1.
Since the classes [x] x [Mn] and [Mn] x [x] are obtained from each other by
means of T*, it follows that [Mn] x [x] = (-l)n[x] x [Mn]; hence
(36)
Let us prove one more formula: If aP E HP(M n ; R) and bq E Hq(M n ; R),
then
(37)
it is assumed that
we have
(-l)nu
-...J
UE
(a P x bq) = T*(U
-...J
= T*(U)
(a P x bq))
T*(a P x bq) = (-l)n+pqu '-' (b q x aP ).
-...J
(a k x 1)
and
r---
([Mn] x 13k)
= pi(ak)
r---
([Mn] x fJk)
245
Let [mo, ... , mnl and [b o, ... , bkl be simplices contained in representatives
of the homology classes [Mnl and 13k. Then [mo, ... , mnl x [b o, ... , bkl is
the sum of simplices [vo, ... , vn+k], where Vi = (mM(i) , bB(i) and either
(i) Vi+! = (mM(i)+!' bB(i) or (ii) v~+l = (mM(I), bB(i)+l). By definition,
and
p;(a k ),....., [vo, ... ,vn+kl- (ak,[bB(n), ... ,bB(n+kll)[vo, ... ,vnl.
Nonzero expressions are obtained only if the simplices [mM(n) , ... ,mM(n+kll
and [bB(n) , ... , bB(n+k)l are nondegenerate. In case (ii), the simplex [vo, ... ,
Vn+kl is uniquely determined by this condition; therefore, p;(ak) ,.....,
([Mnl x 13k) = (a k , 13k} [Mnl x [bolo We can take [xl instead of [bol because all
points of the connected manifold Mn determine the same zero-dimensional
homology class. In case (i), only the simplex [v n , ... , vn+kl is determined
uniquely. The only conditions on the simplex [vo, ... , vn+kl are Vo = (mo, bo)
and Vn = (mn-k, bk ). The sum of all such simplices is equal to [mo, ... ,
mn-kl x [bo, .. . , bkl. Therefore, PiCak) ,....., ([Mnl x 13k) = (ak ,-... ([Mn]) x 13k.
We obtain
(U,
D(a k ) x 13k}
(-1)n(a k ,13k).
Relation (38) leads us to conclude that if a k -I- 0, then D(a k ) -I- o. Hence,
the maps Hk(Mn; R) ~ Hn_k(Mn; R) and Hn-k(Mn; R)~Hk(Mn; R) are
monomorphisms. If R is a field, then Hk(Mn; R) is the linear space over R
dual to Hk(M n ; R). These spaces are finite-dimensional by Theorem 4.24;
hence they are isomorphic to the same linear space Vk Thus, we have
two monomorphisms, Vk -+ Vn- k and Vn-k -+ Vk, of finite-dimensional
linear spaces; clearly, they must be isomorphisms. Thus, we have proved
the Poincare isomorphism theorem for (co ) homology with coefficients in Zp,
where p is a prime.
4. Singular Homology
246
Let us prove it for the integral (co )homology. To this end, we construct
a chain complex with chain groups C n k - cHI(Mn) ffi Cn_k(M n ), i.e.,
Ck
cn HI(Mn) ffi Ck(Mn), and define the boundary homomorphism
0: Ck - t Ck I by
o(an k+l,f3k) = ((-1)k6a n k+l,of3k + D#(a n HI)).
It is easy to see that 00
o.
Indeed,
oo(an k+l,f3k)
- (-66a n HI, O(of3k
+ D#(a n
k+l))
+(
---+
C n HI(Mnr't:~
o.
Such short exact sequences of groups form an exact sequence of chain complexes. The map C* - t C*(Mn) is chain only up to sign, but this is sufficient
for constructing an exact homology sequence for chain complexes. Let us
show that the connecting homomorphism Hn-k+I(Mn) - t Hk I(M n ) in this
exact sequence coincides with D. Suppose that a E cn k+l(Mn) and 6a - O.
Then (a, 0) E Ck belongs to the preimage of a. Let o(a, 0) = (0, D#(a)). The
preimage ofthis element in Ck(M n ) is equal to D#(a). The map a 1-+ D#(a)
is the required connecting homomorphism (at the level of chains).
Applying the same construction to the coefficient group Zp, we obtain
the exact sequence
... ---+
Hn-k(Mn; Zp)
Hk(C*; Zp)
---+
H n k+l(Mn; Zp)
J!...... ... ,
in which the homomorphisms D are isomorphisms. Therefore, H*(C*; Zp) O. Since all groups H*(C*) are finitely generated, the universal coefficient
theorem shows that H*(C*) = o. Thus, D is an isomorphism for integer
coefficients too.
0
Any closed connected topological manifold is orientable with respect
to the coefficient group Z2; therefore, a similar (but somewhat simpler)
argument shows that the map D: Hk(Mn; Z2) - t Hn_k(M n ; Z2) defined by
D(a k ) = a k ,....., [Mnh is an isomorphism.
2.4. The Lefschetz Isomorphism. For topological manifolds, the theorem on the Lefschetz isomorphism is derived from the Poincare isomorphism
theorem in the same way as for smooth manifolds. However, the reduction
requires some effort, for it uses the collar theorem, whose proof for topological manifolds is more complicated than in the smooth case. Moreover, we
247
H.(x t)
"
{h,(X' t)
(x, t)
[-1, 1] - M+ defined by
if t E [0,1],
ift E [-1, 0].
(a) f,(x)
B);
-1 for all
4. Singular Homology
248
u,
coincides with the entire interval [-1,1]; formally, this can be written as
'P~(H~ l(y,_l(Vi ))) = Ui x [ 1,0]. Moreover, we want the maPt~.. to be
the identity on (U, \ U,) x [-1,1] and on Ui x {O}. To construct such an
embedding, we apply the Urysohn lemma (see Part I, Theorem 3.6). The
closed subsets Ui \ Ui and V, of the normal space B are disjoint. Hence there
exists a function Ai: U, --+ [0,1] taking the value on U i \Ui and 1 on Vi. Let
Lz be the affine map from the interval [fi-l (x), 1] onto [( 1 - Ai (x)) fi-l (x) +
Ai(X)( -1),1]. For x E V" we obtain the interval [-1,1]' and for x E Ui \ Ui,
we obtain [f,-l(x), 1]; thus, in the latter case, Lz is the identity map. For
(x, t) E Hi-l (Yi-l (Mn)), we set 'P,(x, t) = (x, Lx(t)); the map 'Pi thus defined
is continuous. Next, we define the map 4>,: Yi(Mn) --+ M+ by
4>,(x) = {H''P,H,-I(X)
x
Finally, we set Y~ = 4>,Yi-l. The map 4>i (and hence y,) is well defined
because 'Pi is the identity map on (U, \ U,) x [-1,1] and Ui x {o}. The map
4>i (and hence y,) is an embedding because each map Lx is one-to-one and,
therefore, 'Pi is an embedding. Moreover, we have
y, l(M n ) n H,(Ui x [-1,1]) - H,(Ui
[0,1]) U {(x, t) I t
Ii-l(x), x E Ui }
because (c) holds for Yi-l. The function flex) is determined by (b). Conditions (a) and (c) hold by construction.
0
Let Mn be a compact topological manifold with boundary alvIn. Consider the closed topological manifold Mn obtained from two copies of M n
by identifying the respective points of their boundaries.
For all x E M n \ aMn, the groups Tx are defined (see p. 231). They
determine a covering T --+ M n \ aM n . The manifold M n is said to be
orientable if this covering has a section s such that sex) generates the group
Tx for every x E M n \ aMn. The section s is then called an orientation.
It is easy to verify that a manifold Mn is orient able if and only if Mn
249
Theorem 4.27. Let Mn be a compact connected orientable topological manifold with boundary aMn, and let s be an orientation of Mn. Then there
exists a unique fundamental class a E Hn(Mn, aMn) such that ax = sex) for
all x E Mn \ aMn. Also, the connecting homomorphism a.: Hn(Mn, aM n )
--+ Hn_l(aM n ) takes a to a fundamental class of the closed manifold aM n ,
i.e., a.(a) determines a fundamental class on each connected component of
the manifold aMn.
Proof. The orientation s of lof n determines an orientation s of jjn. Since
the manifold jjn is closed and orient able, there exists a unique fundamental
class a E Hn(jjn) such that (px).(a) = sex) for all x E Mn. We shall
construct the class a from o. For this purpose, we need an isomorphism
does not hold. Instead, we construct the required isomorphism using the
collar theorem; namely, we cut off (Mn)' \ aM n from the union of (Mn)'
and a collar of M n rather than from (Mn)'. To do this, some obvious
homotopy equivalences are needed.
We define the class a as the image of a under the composition of homomorphisms
Obviously, ax = sex).
Let x E aM n . Take a closed ball nn-l centered at x in some chart of
the manifold aM n and consider the subset
E
= {(x, t) I x
E nn-l, t E [0,1/2]}
4. Singular Homology
250
diagram:
I.
H n (M n ,8M n )
la.
,
I.
Hn 1(8Mn)
) Hn l(M'E) (
{x})~Hn l(M'E,M'E
H n (E,8E)
~ lao
la.
p ).
Hn 1(8Mn,8Mn
) Hn(Mn,M'E) (
k~
Hn 1(8E)
~l
{x})~Hn 1(8E,8E {x}).
The horizontal isomorphisms in this diagram arise from the excision theorem
(in some cases, excision should be performed with care, by using obvious
homotopy equivalences).
~
H n (M n ,8Mn ) ~ Hn(Mn,M'E) _
Hn~,
8Mn)
Hn(Mn,M n \ {y}).
= o.
The same argument as the one used for smooth manifolds (in the triangulable case) proves the following theorem.
Theorem 4.28 (the Lefschetz isomorphism). Let M n be a compact orientable topological manifold with boundary 8M n , and [Mn] E Hn(M n , 8Mn)
251
--+
252
4. Singular Homology
253
the last equality holds because g*(.8a~) = g*(,8)g*(a~) for any ,8 E H*(B).
The uniqueness of the decompositions implies Xi (g* ) = g* (Xi ()), as required.
We proceed to the last (and most difficult to prove) condition, namely,
that the Whitney formula Xk( EEl TJ) = I:~+i k x~()xi(TJ) must hold. (The
Whitney formula can be written differently, but here it is more convenient to
prove it for bundles over the same base.) The linear space Vi EEl \12 contains
the subspaces VI EEl {O} and {O} EEl V2, which are isomorphic to Vi and \12.
Therefore, the topological space E(P(EElTJ)) contains the canonically defined
subspaces E(P) and E(PTJ). These subspaces are deformation retracts of
U = E(P( EEl TJ)) \ E(P) and V
E(P( EEl TJ)) \ E(PTJ)' respectively. In
the cohomology ring of E(P( EEl TJ)), take the elements
m
01
L ( l)ixi()ym'
and
i=O
02
L ( l)i xi (TJ)yn
i,
3 0
Hm(E, V)
Hm(E) ~ Hm(v)
- + ., ..
(t (-l)iXi(~)ym-i) (t
,-0
(-l)i Xi (1J)yn- i ) =
o.
3=0
4. Singular Homology
254
On the other hand, there exist unique elements Xk(' E9 TJ) for which
m+n
(-l)k xk (e E917)ym+n k -
o.
k 0
= L'+i
3.1. The Thorn Isomorphism for Bundles. Every smooth manifold has
a tangent bundle, whereas topological manifolds have no tangent bundles.
For this reason, Milnor [91] introduced the notion of a microbundle, which
generalizes that of a vector bundle. Each topological manifold has a tangent
microbundle; tangent micro bundles mimic tangent bundles of smooth manifolds in many respects. For example, the proof of the Poincare isomorphism
for topological manifolds given above essentially uses microbund~
--+
(ii) the map p is locally trivial in the sense that for each point b E B,
there exist open neighborhoods U 3 b and V 3 i(b) and a homeomorphism
hb: U x IRn --+ Vnp leU) such that phb(u,v) = u for all (u,v) E U x IRn
and hb(U, v) = i(u) for all u E U.
Example 57. A vector bundle p: E
section i(b) - (b,O) can be taken.
--+
25E
--t
i' and
Theorem 4.30. The tangent bundle of a closed smooth manifold M is equivalent to its tangent micro bundle.
Proof. Consider a Riemannian metric on the tangent bundle. For each
tangent vector v E TxM, there exists a unique geodesic 'Yv(t) such that
'Yv(O) = x and ct'Yv(O) - v. Consider the map expx: TxM --t M that
assigns the point 'Yv(l) to each tangent vector v. Since M is compact, we
can choose a number c > 0 such that for each x EM, the restriction of the
map expx to the open ball in TxM that consists of vectors of length less
than c is a diffeomorphism from this ball to some open neighborhood of x
in M.
--t
(M x M,M x M\d(M))
--t
(E, E \ i(B))
4. Singular Homology
1-+
p*(a) ........, Ue is an
Hi+n(E, Eo)
--+ . . .
Since the map p is a homotopy equivalence, it follows that p*: Hi+n(B) --+
H'+n(E) is an isomorphism. We also have the Thom isomorphism cp*: Hi(B)
--+ Hi+n(E, Eo). Using these isomorphisms, we obtain the exact sequence
--+
H'(B)
p. IJ.'P,
--+ .
Hi+n(E, Eo).
257
+ 2, 2)
81
G+(2n + 2, 2).
3.2. The Thorn and Wu Formulas. In this section, we consider cohomology with coefficients in Z2. Suppose that { is a real bundle over a
compact simplicial complex B, U{ is its Thorn class, and cp: Hi(B) ---.
Hi+n(E, Eo) is the Thorn isomorphism defined by cp(a:) = p*(a) '-' U~.
Theorem 4.32 (Thorn [137]). The Stiefel Whitney class Wi({) is equal to
cp l(SqiU{), where Sqi is the Steenrod square.
Proof. Let us show that cp-l(SqiUd satisfies all of the conditions determining the ith Stiefel Whitney class. Clearly, cp-l(SqOU{) = cp-l(Ud = l.
Moreover, if i > n = dim{, then SqiUe = o.
Let us verify naturality. Suppose that f: B' ---. B is a map, { is a bundle
over B, f*({) is its pullback over B', and g: E ---. E' is the fiberwise map
of bundles induced by f. Then g*(U{) = UrCe), and we have the following
commutative diagram for the Thorn isomorphisms:
Hi(B) ~ Hi+n(E, Eo)
1r,
19
4. Singular Homology
258
Thus, ep'f*
r(Wt(~))
= (ep')-lg*. Therefore,
Let us show that the Whitney formula holds. This time, it is more
convenient to prove it in the form w(~ x "I) - w(~) x w(rJ). Consider the
cross product of the Thorn classes Ue E Hm(E, Eo) and UTI E Hn(E', Eo).
The class Ue x UTI belongs to the group Hn+m(E x E', (E x Eo) U (Eo x E')).
The set (E x Eo) U (Eo x E') consists precisely of the nonzero vectors in
E x E'. Therefore, the class Ue x UTI belongs to the same group as the Thorn
class U~XT/' Let us show that these two cohomology classes coincide. To this
end, it suffices to verify that the restriction of Ue x UTI to (IR n +m, lRo+m) ,
where IR n +m is the fiber of the bundle ~ x "I, is a nonzero cohomology chtsfiJ'or
the fiber of the bundle ~ x "lover each point. The class undeuonsideration
equals the cross product of the restrictions of the classes Ue and UTI to
(IRm,IRW) and (IRn,IR~); according to Theorem 4.15 on p. 217, this product
is nonzero.
To prove the Whitney formula, we must also verify that the Thorn isomorphisms of the bundles ~, "I, and ~ x "I are related by ep~ (a) x epT/ (/3) =
ep~XT/(a X /3), i.e.,
(Pea '-' U~) x (P~/3 '-' U~) = (PeXT/ (a x (3)) '-' U~XT/'
In the case of coefficients in Z2, signs do not matter; thus,
(Pea '-' U~) x (p~/3 '-' Ue ) - (Pea x p~/3) '-' (U~ x Ue).
The equality Ue x UTI - U~XT/ has already been proved. Let PB and PB'
be the projections of B x B' onto the first and second factors, and let PE
and PE' be similar maps for E x E'. Then PeXT/(a x (3) = PeXT/(PBa '-'
PB,/3) = (PBP~xT/)*a '-' (PB'P~xT/)* /3 and Pea xp;/3 - (P'EPea) '-' (PE'P~/3) (pePE)*a '-' (PT/PE' )*/3. But PBPexT/ = PePE (both maps coincide with the
natural projection of Ex E' onto B), and PB'P~xT/ = P~PE"
Thus, in the case that w(~) = ep l(SqU~), we have ep~XT/(w(rJ) x w(~))
epeXT/((epZl SqUe ) x (ep;jl SqUT/)) - SqUexSqUT/ = Sq(UexUT/) = SqU~XT/
epeXT/(w(rJ x ~)), which means that w(rJ) x w(~) = w(rJ x ~).
It remains to perform calculations for the bundle ,I over Rpl ~ 8 1
For this bundle, the pair (E, Eo) consists of the Mobius band }.;[ and the
Mobius band from which the central circle is removed. It has a deform ailion retract of the form (M, oeM), where oeM is the curve at distance e
from the boundary of the Mobius band (parallel to the boundary). The
excision isomorphism implies H*(M,oe M ) ~ H*(lRp2,D 2), and th~ cohomology sequence of the pair (lRp2, D2) implies Hi (lRp2 , D2) ~ Ht (lRP2)
25
'Yt
Mn.
Theorem 4.33 (Wu [155]). The Wu class of any closed manifold Mn has
= SqT[Mn]. Therefore,
(Sq a, [Mn]) - (a, SqT[Mn]) = (a, Dv) = (a, v
[Mn]) = (a '--" v, [Mn]).
Proof. By definition, Dv
r--,
(Sq v,,B)
= (v, SqT {J) (~) (ii, SqT,8 x Dv) = (U, SqT {J x SqT[Mn])
= (U,SqT(fJ x [Mn])) = (Sqii,,8 x [MnJ)
= ((w(Mn) x 1) '-' ii, {J x [Mn]) (~) ((1 x w(Mn)) '--" U, {J x [MnJ)
= (U, (1 x w(Mn)) (,8 x [Mn])) = (ii, {J x (w(Mn) [Mn]))
r--,
= (U, {J
r--,
260
4. Singular Homology
+ ... + V n ,
Wk -
Wk
0, then
= 0 and
VI =
n -
... -
Vk =
2k or 2k
0 and
+ 1,
then
261
(39)
--+
Hk(]Rn+k)
--+
Hk(Jvl n )
of restriction homomorphisms. Obviously, this composition is the zero homomorphism because Hk(]Rn+k) = O. Therefore, it suffices to prove the following lemma.
Lemma. The composition (39) takes the class corresponding to the Thom
class U E Hk(E,Eo;Z2) to Wk(IIMn).
Proof. The zero section s: M
Hic(M n ). The composition
Hk(E, Eo)
--+
--+
Hk(E) ~ Hk(Mn)
takes the Thom class U to Wk(IIMn). Indeed, the Thom isomorphism cp:
Hk(Mn) --+ H2k(E, Eo) takes the class S*(UIE) to P*S*(UIE) '-" U =
(UIE) '-" U = U '-" U = SqkU; therefore, S*(UIE) = cp-lSqkU = Wk(IIMn).
Replacing the pair (E, Eo) by the homeomorphic pair (Me, Me \ M n ),
we see that the composition
Hk(Me, Me \ Mn)
--+
Hk(Me)
--+
Hk(Mn)
4. Singular Homology
262
1~
Therefore, the composition (39) takes the class in Hk(JRn+k, JRn+k \ Mn)
corresponding to the Thorn class U to Wk(VMn).
0
Problem 123. Prove that if n - 2m , then JRpn cannot be embedded in
JR2n 1
Chapter 5
....
1. Sheaf Cohomology
1.1. Sheaves and Presheaves. Suppose that X is a topological space,
associated with each open set U C X is an Abelian group F(U) so that
F(0) = 0, and associated with each inclusion of open sets V C U is a
homomorphism T~: F(U) -+ F(V), which is called the restriction homomorphism. Suppose also that the correspondences F and T satisfy the conditions
(i) T~ = idF(u), and
~Q(U)
lr~
lr~
F(V)~Q(V)
263
264
Example 59. For any Abelian group G, we can consider the presheaf that
assigns the group G to every nonempty open set U C X and the trivial
group to the empty set. This presheaf is called constant.
Example 60. The set F(U) of continuous functions on U is a presheafj the
group operation is the pointwise addition of functions.
265
1. Sheaf Cohomology
3x
266
= glv,
Le.,
Now let us show that T[j is an epimorphism. Take s E r(U, i"). Each
point x E U has a neighborhood V :3 x such that there exists an f E F(V)
for which fx = sex). This means that the sections sand rv(J) coincide at
x. Two sections coinciding at a point x must coincide in somE' neighborhood
W of this point. Therefore, slw = 7W(Jlw). To each point x E U we have
E F(Wz )
assigned an open set Wx :3 x (contained in U) and an element
so that f: = s(y) for all y E W z . The family of elements {r E F(Wx )} is
consistent, Le., rlw",nw.. = rlw",nw... Indeed, we have I: = s(y) = g for
all y E Wx n W z . Therefore, 7W",nw.. (rlw",nw.. - rlw", w..) = 0; recall that
T is already proved to be a monomorphism. Using the second sheaf axiom,
0
we obtain an element f E F(U) such that fx = sex) for all x E U ~
Proof. For any a, (3 E J o, we can choose tS' E J so that a > tS' and (3 > tS'.
For this tS', we can choose tS E Jo so that tS' > tS. Therefore, Jo is a directed
set.
1. Sheaf Cohomology
267
_'"'
k
.....
(dC )(Uoo,,,,,UOA:+l) - L.,,(-l) iC
(Uoo,,,,,Uol,,,,,UOII:+Jluao
... all:+l
i=O
(~#ck)(Uoo,""
It is easy to verify that ).,# is a
= ck(V~(oo)"'" V~(OA:'
cochain map, i.e., ~#d = d~#.
U Ot )
The cochain
map ).,# induces a homomorphism~: bk(Vj F) -+ bk(Uj F) of cohomology
groups.
The homomorphism ~. does not depend on the choice of~. Before
proving this assertion in the general form, we explain why it is true for a
constant sheaf F.
Example 66. For a constant sheaf F, the homomorphism
~.: bk(VjF)
-+
bk(UjF)
n(V~(OI) n
V"COI :::)
UOi
f.
0.
Joining such points X(x) and ji(x) by segments, we obtain the required
homotopy.
0
Let us prove a general assertion.
268
Theorem 5.3. If >',J.L: A --+ B are maps for which Ua C V~(a) and Ua C
VJL(a), then there exists a cochain homotopy between>. # and J.L#.
Proof. Consider the map D: Ck(V;F)
--+
Ck-I(U;F) defined by
k-l
k
J-
_""' _
ik
to the set V~(O) ... ~(J)JLu) ... JL(I) ... IL(k) cancel each other (we assume that i >
j; the case of i < j is treated similarly). The only remaining terms are
ck(V~(O)' VIL(O), ... , VIL(k) and (_l)k( -l)k+1ck(V~(o), ... , V~(k)' VIL(k).
0
We have constructed a directed set of Abelian groups; so we can consider the direct limits !!!!l bk(U; F) = bk(X; F), which are called the tech
cohomology groups of the space X with coefficients in the presheaf F. We
denote the Cech cohomology groups of X with coefficients in the constant
presheaf corresponding to an Abelian group G by bk(X; G).
Theorem 5.4. If K is a finite simplicial complex, then
Hk(K;G).
bk(IKI; G)
Proof. Let Uo be the cover of the space IKI by the open sets st Vi, where
each Vi is a vertex of K. The nerve N(Uo) is identified with K; therefore,
bk(Uo; G) ~ Hk(N(Uo); G) ~ Hk(K; G).
Suppose that K' is the barycentric subdivision of the complex K, hI: K'
K is a simplicial approximation ofthe identity map (hI takes the barycenter of each face to one of the vertices of this face), and UI is the cover of
IKI by the stars of vertices of the simplicial complex K'. Identifying N(UI)
with K', we can regard hI as a map N(UI) --+ N(Uo). This map induces an
isomorphism of cohomology groups.
--+
Similarly, for the cover Urn of IKI by the stars of the vertices of the
mth barycentric subdivision of K, we construct a map N(Urn) --+ N(Urn-I),
which induces an isomorphism of the cohomology groups.
We have constructed the directed set Uo > UI > ... and the directed
set of Abelian groups bk(Urn ; G), in which all homomorphIsms fa{3 are isomorphisms. We have !!!!l b k (Urn; G) ~ Hk (K; G).
269
1. Sheaf Cohomology
To apply Theorem 5.2, we must show that the covers Uo > UI > ...
form a cofinal subset in the set of all covers of IKI. Take an arbitrary open
cover U of IKI; let d be its Lebesgue number (we assume that the simplicial
complex K is embedded in Euclidean space). Choose m so that the diameter
of any simplex in the mth barycentric subdivision of K is less than d. We
haveUm <U.
0
Theorem 5.5. Let X be a normal topological space, and let Y be its compact
subspace. Then Jik(y; G) ~ lim Jik(U; G), where U is the cover ofY by open
sets in X (not in Y, as in the definition of Cech cohomology).
~
Proof. Let U be a cover of Y by open sets in X. Take its finite sub cover
{Ut, ... , Un} and consider the cover of Y by the sets U, nY, which are
open in Y. Any subspace of a normal space is Hausdorff, and any compact
Hausdorff space is normal. Therefore, the space Y is normal, and the cover
{UinY} has an open refinement {~} such that Vi c UinY. Here Vi is the
closure of Yi in Y; it is also the closure of Yi in X because Y is closed in X.
Let us construct open sets WI,"" Wn in X such that Vi c Wi, Wi CUi,
and the nerves of the covers {V t, ... , V n} and {W 1. ... , W n} coincide, i.e.,
Vii n ... n Vip = 0 if and only if W il n .. , n Wi p = 0. Let CI be the
union of all sets of the form Vii n ... n Vip disjoint from V 1. The sets V 1.
Ct, and X \ UI are closed in X, and the sets VI and C I U (X \ UI) are
disjoint. Therefore, we can choose an open set WI in X so that Vi C Wi
and WIn (CI U (X \ Ud) = 0; the latter condition means that WIn CI = 0
and WI CUI. Let us show that the nerves of the covers {WI, V2, ... , V n}
and {VI, ... , V n } coincide. Clearly, if WI n Vii n ... n Vip = 0, then
VI n Vii n ... n Vip = 0 because VI C WI C WI. Now suppose that
VinViInnVip = 0. Then Vi1n nVip c CI. But WInCl = 0; hence
WI n Vii n n Vip = 0. Applying the same procedure to WI, V2,., V n,
we construct W 2 , and so on.
Let us show that the nerve of the cover of Y by the sets WI,.'" W n ,
which are open in X, coincides with that of the cover by the sets WI n Y,
... , Wn n Y, which are open in Y. Clearly, if Wi l n ... n Wi p = 0, then
W il n n Wip n Y = 0. Suppose that W il n n W ip n Y = 0. Then
Vii n .. , n Vip = 0, or, equivalently, W il n ... n Wi p = 0. Therefore,
W il n ... n Wi p = 0.
Thus, we have shown that the cover {WI, ... , W n } of the space Y by open
sets in X, whose nerve coincides with that of {WInY, ... , WnnY}, is cofinal
in the family of covers of Y by open sets in X. According to Theorem 5.2,
we have ~iIk(U;G) ~ ~Hk(W;G). By construction, iIk(W;G) ~
iIk(W n Y; G); here W n Y = {WI nY, ... , Wn n Y}. Moreover, the cover
270
W n Y is cofinal in the set of all open covers of Y. This implies the required
isomorphism.
0
In calculating Cech cohomology, the following assertion is often useful.
Theorem 5.6. Let X be a compact triangulable 1 space, and let Y n be a
subcomplex of some triangulation of X. Suppose that IY11 ::J IY2 1 ::J .. and
n~=llYnl = Y. Then iIk(Y;G) ~ ~Hk(Yn;G).
Proof. Let Xn be a triangulation of X for which some2 subdivision Yn is
a full subcomplex (Le., any simplex in Xn spanned by some vertices of Yn
is a simplex in Yn). We can choose this triangulation to be so fine that
(i) the diameter of any simplex in Xn is less than lin (we assume that
X is embedded in Euclidean space) and (ii) the star of each vertex of Xn
is contained in the star of some vertex of Xn-l. We endow Yn"tlit.h the
triangulation induced by X n .
2 According
1. Sheaf Cohomology
271
n:'-l
The same argument as the one used to prove the Lebesgue theorem
about open covers shows that there exists a positive number 0 such that any
B of diameter less than 0 intersecting IYnl is contained in an open set from
U. Suppose that 11m < 0/2 and m :S n. Let us show that the cover U.:n is
a refinement of U. The diameter of the star of any vertex of Ym is less than
21m <
Moreover, this star intersects IYnl because IYml c IYnl. Therefore,
it is contained in an open set from U.
0
o.
Using the Cech cohomology, we can state and prove the following, more
general, version of the Alexander duality theorem.
Theorem 5.7 (Alexander Pontryagin duality). If A ~ gn is a closed set,
then jJk(A) ~ Hn_k_1(sn \ A) for 0 :S k :S n - 1. (Here jJ. is the reduced
tech cohomology and iI. is the reduced singular homology.)
Proof. Let K be a triangulation of the sphere gn so fine that it contains nsimplices disjoint from A, and let K(m) be the mth barycentric subdivision
of K. Consider the subcomplex Mm of K(m) consisting of the simplices
intersecting A. The simplicial complex Mm is not necessarily a manifold;
it may have singular points (or simplices). But all of its singular points
are outside A; therefore, we can turn Mm into a manifold containing A by
removing small neighborhoods of singular points (see Figure 1).
n:l
272
According to Theorem 5.6, the direct limit on the left-hand side is the Cech
cohomology group j{k(A). Let us show that the group on the right-hand
side is the singular homology group H n_k_l(sn \ A).
The homomorphisms Hn-k 1 (sn \ M,)
the inclusions determines a homomorphism
~Hn_k_l(sn \ M,)
--+
--+
Hn k
1 (sn
\ A) induced by
Hn-k-l(sn \ A).
Let us show that this is an isomorphism. The support of any singular chain
in en k_l(sn \ A) i.s compact. The increasing open sets sn \ Mi cover
it; therefore, it is contained in one of these sets. This implies surjectivity. Injectivity follows from the compactness of the support of any singular
(n - k)-chain whose boundary is the difference of two given singular
(n - k - I)-chains.
0
1.3. Bundles with Structure Groups. Suppose that G is a topological
group, B is a topological space, and the group G acts effectively on a topological space F. A locally trivial bundle p: E --+ B with fiber F is called a
bundle with structure group G if the homeomorphisms hi: p-l (Ui) --+ Ui X F
have the property that, for any pair of indices i, j, there exists a map
9,]: U, n Uj --+ G such that hzht(u, J) = (U,9ij(U)J) for all u E Ui n Uj.
Since the action of G on F is effective, each map 9ij is uniquely determined
by the homeomorphisms h, and hj . Such a map is called a transition function. The transition functions determine how the "pillars" Ui x F and Uj x F
are attached to each other (see Figure 2).
1. Sheaf Cohomology
273
This definition of a bundle with a structure group has the essential drawback of being dependent on the cover {Ui}' To overcome it, consider all
homeomorphisms hu: p-l(U) --+ U x F that can be added to the homeomorphisms hi, namely, those with the property that, for any Ui, there
exists a map gU,i: Un Ui --+ G such that hUh-;l(u,f) = (U,gU,i(U)f) for all
u E Un Ui. Such homeomorphisms are called admissible charts. We assume
that two covers {Ui} and {Uj} with homeomorphisms {hI} and {hj} specify
the same bundle with structure group G if they determine the same set of
admissible charts.
Now we introduce the notion of an isomorphism between two bundles
with structure group G over the same base B. Let p: E --+ Band p': E' --+ B
be bundles with structure group G. A homeomorphism cp: E --+ E' is called
an isomorphism of bundles with structure group G if, for each point bE B,
the following conditions hold:
(i) each fiber p-l(b) is mapped to (p') l(b);
(ii) there exists a neighborhood U 3 b, a map gu: U --+ G, an admissible chart hu: p I(U) --+ U x F for the bundle E, and an admissible
chart hf,: (P')-l(U) --+ U x F for the bundle E' such that hf,cphc/(u, f) =
(u, gu(u)f) for all u E U.
For example, an n-dimensional vector bundle is the same thing as an JRn_
bundle with structure group GL(n, JR). An isomorphism of vector bundles is
the same as an isomorphism of bundles with this structure group. If a vector
bundle admits a Riemannian metric (e.g., if its base is compact), then we
can assume that the structure group is O(n). Such a bundle is orient able if
and only if for the structure group the group SO(n) can be taken.
Example 67. Suppose that the manifold cpn is covered by charts Ui,
i = 0, ... ,n, which are specified by the equations Zi = 0 in homogeneous
coordinates (zQ : '" : zn). Then the canonical bundle 'Y~ over cpn is
determined by the transition functions 9ij = zd Zj.
Proof. The fiber of the canonical bundle over a point (zQ : .. , : zn) is the
complex line (AZQ, ... , AZn). The homeomorphism hi: p-l (UI ) --+ Ui x C can
be defined by
hi (AZQ, ... , AZn )
274
vt,
Proof. Each map 91j: VI --+ V2 induces a dual map V2* --+
which is
determined by the matrix 9~. We are interested in the inverse map Vt --+
V2*.
0
p: cpn+1 \ (0 : ... : 0 : 1)
--+
cpn
given by p(zo : ... : Zn+1) = (zo : ... : zn). This map is the vector ~undle
dual to the canonical bundle 'Y~.
Proof. The homeomorphism hj: p-l(U,) --+ Uj xC can be defined by hj(zo :
... : Zn+1) = zo : ... : zn), ~,), where ~i = Zn+1/Zj. Thus,9ij = ~j/~j =
Zj/Zj.
0
1.4. Noncommutative Cech Cohomology. We can define 8 sheaf of
non-Abelian groups on a space X in precisely the same way as a sheaf of
Abelian groups. In the non-Abelian case, the cohomology groups iIk(X; F)
for k > 1 cannot be defined, but there is a cohomology set iII (X; F) with
a distinguished element. Moreover, if F is a sheaf of Abelian groups, then
this set coincides with the Cech cohomology group, and the distinguished
element is the zero element of the cohomology group.
Recall that if F is a sheaf of Abelian groups on a topological space X and
U = {UDo} is an open cover of X, then to every ordered set Uj, Uj any cochain
c 1 E Cl(U; F) assigns an element Cl(Ui' Uj ) E F(UjnUj) = r(UinUj ; F). A
cochain c l is a co cycle iffor any ordered triple Uj , Uj , Uk, we have c l (Uj, Uj) +
cl(Uj , Uk) = cl(Uj , Uk) on Uj n Uj n Uk. A co chain c l is a coboundary if
there exists a cochain cO E CO(U; F) such that c1(Uj, Uj) = cO(Uj ) - cO(Ui )
on Uj n Uj.
For sheaves of non-Abelian groups, the corresponding definitions are as
follows. A (one-dimensional) cocycle I assigns an element lij E F(UjnU,) =
f(UjnUj;F) to each ordered pair Ui, Uj so that lij/jk = lik on U,nUjnUk.
Two co cycles I and I' are equivalent (differ by a coboundary) if for each
set Ui, there exists an element 9i E qUj; F) such that IIj = 9il/i,9j on
Ui n Uj. The cohomology set iIl(U; F) is the set of classes of equivalent
cocycles. The distinguished element of this set is the class of the co cycle
1 that takes all ordered sets Ui, Uj to the identity element of the group
2. De Rham Cohomology
275
Clearly, any bundle over B with structure group G and fiber F can be
represented as Eg for some co cycle g. We have proved the following theorem.
Theorem 5.B. Suppose that a topological group G acts effectively and continuously on a space F. Then there is a natural one-to-one correspondence
between the classes 01 isomorphic bundles over B with structure group G
and fiber F and the elements 01 the cohomology set iI 1 (Bj Q). Moreover,
the trivial bundle B x F corresponds to the distinguished element.
2. De Rham Cohomology
Recall that a differential k-form W on a manifold Mn is a polylinear skewsymmetric function of k vector fields 6, ... , ~k on Mn. We denote the
linear space of k-forms on a manifold Mn br nk(Mn). For two differential
forms WI E np(Mn) and W2 E nq(Mn), their exterior product WI 1\ W2 E
np +q (Mn) is definedj it has the property WI 1\ W2 = (-1 )1JqW2 1\ WI. Exterior
multiplication makes the linear space n*(Mn) = ffik>o nk(Mn) into an
algebra.
Any smooth map I: Mm ~ Nn induces a linear map
nk(N n ) ~
nk(Mm) by the rule (j*w)(~1. ... , ~k) = w(j.6, ... , I*~k)' where I. = dl
r:
276
r:
Thus, in a fixed local coordinate system, [e, TJl is a vector field. The operator
[~, TJl, which acts on smooth functions, does not depend on the choice of a
local coordinate system; so we obtain a vector field [~, TJ]' which is called the
commutator of the vector fields ~ and TJ.
It follows directly from the definition that [~, TJl = -[TJ, ~l. Moreover, if
= cp[e, TJl - TJ(cp)~; this follows from the relation
a(cp~l) = cp a~i
aXj
aXj
+ ~I acp .
aXj
dw(~o, . .. , ~k) =
i-a
O<I<]<k
For cp E coo(Mn) = nO(Mn), we put dcp(e) = ~(cp). By definition, the
form dw is antisymmetric and polylinear. The equality dw(cp~o, .. . , ~k) =
cp dw(~o, ... , ~k) follows from
~i(W(cp~O, ... , ~k))
2. De Rham Cohomology
277
Let us introduce local coordinates Xl, ... , Xn and calculate the differential of the form W = cp(x) dXil 1\ ... 1\ dXile' where il < ... < ik. We set
{o = ~,
... , {k = ~ for jo < ... < jk The vector fields {i commute,
X'Q
]Ie
i.e., [{i, {j] = O. Therefore,
k
dw({O, .. ,{k)
= L(-l)P ax.
p-O
3"
Here W({O, . .. , p, ... , {k) = cp(X) if il = jo, ... , ip = jp-l, ip+1 = jp, ... , ik =
jkj in all the other cases, we obtain O. We have jp-l < jp < jp-tl. Hence
= o.
Proof. For JR, there is only one nontrivial differential d: nO(JR) --+ nl(JR),
which is defined by cp ~ ~ dx. Clearly, Ker d consists of constant functions.
Therefore, HgR(JR) = Kerd ~ JR. It is easy to show that Imd = nl(l~).
Indeed, any I-form on JR can be represented as {dx, where { E CCXl(JR). We
set cp(x) =
{(t) dt for X ~ 0 and cp(x) = I~ {(t) dt for X ~ o. We have
dcp = {dx. Thus, H6R(JR) = nl(JR)/Imd = n l (JR)/nl (JR) = o.
0
Ie:
278
r:
Theorem 5.9. II M n = UI U U2, where Ul and U2 are open sets, then the
Mayer Vietoris exact sequence
--+
--+
holds.
n U2) -----. O.
Let W E nk(Mn). We set i"'(w) = (iiw, i 2w), where iiw and i 2w are the
restrictions of w to Ul and U2, respectively. Take WI E nk(ut) and W2 E
n k (U2). We set j"'(Wl,W2) = jiwl - j2w2, where jiwi is the restriction of Wi
to Ui.
The injectivity of the homomorphism i'" is obvious because any form on
Mn is uniquely determined by its restrictions to U1 and U2.
Let us show that j'" is an epimorphism. Let {~1' ~2} be a smooth
partition of unity subordinate to the cover {U}, U2}. Then the form w E
nk (UI n U2) can be represented as ii ~2W + iPIWj here ~2W is a well-defined
form on Ul because ~2 = 0 on UI \ (UI n U2).
Finally, let us verify that Ker j'" = 1m i"'. The equality J"'i'" = 0 implies
Ker j'" ::J 1m i"'. Suppose that (WI, W2) E Ker j"', i.e., jiWl = j2W2. This
means that Wl(X) = W2(X) for all x E U1 n U2. Hence there exists a form
W on M n such that it is equal to WI on U1 and to W2 on U2. Clearly,
i"'w
(WI, W2).
For a noncompact manifold M n , it is often useful to consider, in addition to the algebra n"'(Mn) of differential forms, the algebra n~(Mn) of
compactly supported differential forms (that is, forms identically vanishing
2. De Rham Cohomology
279
outside some compact sets). The definition of the differential d for compactly supported forms is the same as for general forms, and dod = O.
Therefore, for compactly supported forms, cohomology can be constructed;
it is denoted by H~(Mn). If the manifold M n is compact, then its cohomology H~ coincides with H
But if Mn is noncompact, then this cohomology
is different.
rJR .
O.
Proof. The kernel of the homomorphism d: n~ (Mn) -+ n~ (Mn) consists of
compactly supported constant functions. But since Mn is noncompact (and
connected), there exists only one such function (identical zero).
0
Example 73. The isomorphism
HJ (JR) ~ JR holds.
H:(M n )
----+
H:(UI n U2)
----+
----+
H:+1(Mn)
----+ .
280
Proof. Consider the exact sequence
o ~ n~(UI n U2)
.!L n~(Mn) ~ 0
defined as follows. Let W E n~(UI n U2). We set j*w = (jiw, -j2w), where
j;w is an extension of w to Up. For two forms WI E n~(Ud and W2 E n~(U2)'
we set i*(Wb W2) = iiwi + i;W2, where i;wp is an extension of wp from Up to
the entire manifold.
The injectivity of j~ and exactness at the middle term are obvious. Let
us verify the surjectivity of i~. Take W E n~(Mn) and let PI, >'2} be a
smooth partition of unity subordinate to the cover {UI, U2}. The support
of the form >'pw is the intersection of the compact set supp wand the closed
set supp >'p; therefore, it is compact (any closed subset of a compact space
is compact). Hence >'pw E nc(Up). Clearly, i~(>'IW, >'2W) = w.
0
2.1. The Stokes Theorem. Homotopy Invariance.
Integration of Forms. Let us choose coordinates in ]Rn and write a form
W E nn(JRn) as W - ~(XI' ... ' xn) dXI /\ ... /\ dx n . We shall use the abbreviated notation W = ~(x) dx. Passing to another coordinate system y(x),
we obtain dYI /\ ... /\ dYn = det(~) dXI /\ ... /\ dx n , or, in the abbreviated notation, dy = det(~) dx. In the new coordinates, we have W =
J
(y) dy. Let us determine the relation between the functions (y) and
~(x). Clearly, ~(x) dx = W = (y) dy = (y) det(~)
dx; therefore, ~(x) =
J
(y(x)) det(~).
Jan
We define the integral of a form W E n~ (Mn), where M n is an oriented manifold, as follows. Take an arbitrary locally finite atlas {Ua } with
orientation-preserving charts fa: Ua - ]Rn. Let {>'a} be a smooth partition
of unity subordinate to it. We set
{
lMn
W=
L Jan
{ >'aU;;I)*W = L 1 >'aW
a
Ua
The support of the form >'o<w is compact because it is closed in the compact
set supp >'0<. If {V.a} is another orientation atlas and {JL.a} is a partition of
281
2. De Rham Cohomology
unity subordinate to it, then the equality L(j J.L(j = 1 implies La IUa AaW =
La,(j
AaJ.L(jW. Since the support of AaJ.L(jW is contained in Ua n V(j, we
have IUa AaJ.L(jW = IVIJ AaJ.L(jW. Hence La IUa AaW = La,(j IVIJ AaJ.L(jW =
L(j IVIJ J.L(jw because La Aa = 1. This means that the integral of the form
W over the manifold Mn is well defined.
Iua.
The Stokes Theorem. The Stokes theorem says that IMn dMJ = IaMn W
for any form W E n~(Mn). Formally, in the second integral we should write
i*w instead of w, where i: aM n --+ M n is the natural embedding; in other
words, i*w is the restriction of W to aM n . The sign before the second
integral can be removed by imposing the requirement that the orientation
aM n must be induced by that of Mn.
Let us prove the Stokes theorem.
Case 1. M n
= lRn.
1t
Ln
dMJ
= (_l)n-l
J([: :::
It dX n /\ dXl /\
But I~oo /!; dXn = cp(XI, ... , Xn-I. 00) - CP(Xl,"" Xn-l, -00)
the function cp is compactly supported.
Case 2. M n
Li
E lR n
I Xn
because
o}.
{n dMJ =
llR+
l~i<n
(_l)i-l
(1
00
-00
t=
+ (_l)n-l
If i
=0
(1
= 0, as in Case
00
:~: dXn)
1. For i
= n, we obtain the
282
the last equality holds because the form dX n vanishes on aIR+., and therefore
the restriction of w to aIR+. contains only one term, r.pn dXl/\ ... /\ dXn-l.
There is no sign ( _1)n ifthe orientation of aIR+. is determined by the form
(_I)n dXl/\ .. /\ dXn-l. This condition can be stated differently as follows.
Suppose that a basis el, ... , en-l determines the positive orientation of the
boundary and E is the outward normal to the boundary. Then the basis
E, el. .. . , en-l determines the positive orientation of the manifold. Indeed,
we have E = -en, and hence the basis E, el, ... , en-l has the same orientation
as (-I)nel. ... ,en-l.en.
In what follows, we assume that the orientation of aIR+. satisfies this
condition and omit the sign from the Stokes formula. Note that on p. 96,
we were led to the same condition on the orientation of the boundary by
different considerations.
Case 3. M n is an arbitrary oriented manifold.
The passage from IRn and IR+. to an arbitrary manifold is performed
by means of partitions of unity. Let {Ua } be an orientation atlas for Mn
in which all sets Ua are diffeomorphic to IR n or IR+., and let Pa} be a
smooth partition of unity subordinate to it. We represent w E n~-I(Mn) as
w = E ,xaw. It is sufficient to prove the Stokes theorem for each form ,xaw
separately. The support of such a form is a closed subset of the compact set
supp,xa c Ua ; therefore, it is compact.
Homotopy Invariance of the de Rham Cohomology.
Theorem 5.11. Let io, il: IRn --+ IRn x IR = IR n+! be the embeddings defined
by x 1--+ (x,O) and x 1--+ (x, 1). Then, for any k ~ 0, there exists a linear
map D: nk(IRn+!) --+ nk-l(IRn) such that dD + Dd = ii - i o.
Proof. For r.p E no (IRn+!) = Coo (IRn+! ), we set Dr.p = O. The basis forms in
nk(IRn+!), where k ~ 1, are of two types. Namely, let t be a coordinate on
the line JR, and let Xl, ... ,Xn be coordinates on IRn. We denote the forms
not containing dt by a = a dXil /\ ... /\ dXilc and the forms containing dt by
(3 = b dt /\ dXjl /\ ... /\ dXjlc_l. Any form is a sum of such forms; so it is
sufficient to prove the required assertion only for forms of types a and (3.
U:
= 0 and Ddr.p =
(ii) dDa = 0 and Dda =
(i) dDr.p
J: ~
(Jo
dt
= r.p(1) -
r.p(0) = (~:
o)r.p
2. De Rham Cohomology
283
(iii) Note that io{3 = ii{3 = 0 because the restrictions of dt to io(l~n) and
to il(lRn) vanish identically (the t-coordinate of any tangent vector is zero).
We have
and
= o.
~ Hk
DR
(sn)
~ {lR
if k
if k
= n,
i- n.
284
k
Inln
2.2. The Poincare Isomorphism for de Rham Cohomology. Suppose that Mn is a compact oriented manifold, o. k E n k (M"n), and (3n-k E
nn-k(Mn). Then o. k 1\ (3n-k E nn(Mn); thus, we can consider the integral IMn o. k 1\ ~-k. For a noncompact manifold mn, this integral may be
divergent. To prevent this, we assume that (3n-k E n~-k(Mn).
n~-k(Mn)
_ R
285
2. De Rham Cohomology
d( o:k " w n- k- l ) = o:k "dw n- k 1; therefore, the forms dw k 1" {3n k and
o:k "dw n- k 1 are exact. But the integral of any exact (compactly supported)
form over a manifold without boundary vanishes. This means that the map
carries over to the coset space of the set of closed forms modulo the exact
forms. As a result, we obtain a bilinear map H8R(M n ) x H~-k(Mn) --+ JR,
i.e., a linear map D: H8R(Mn) --+ (H~-k(Mn)t.
is an isomorphism.
Proof (see [42]). First, let us show that the required assertion is true for
M n = JRn. We have already calculated the groups Hk(JR n ) and H~(JRn) (see
the Poincare lemma and Example 74). The only nontrivial groups among
these are HD(JRn) and H~(JRn), and both of them are isomorphic to JR.
Therefore, it suffices to verify that the map
is nonzero.
Let 1 E HD(JR n ) be the cohomology class of the function identically equal
to 1 on JRn , and let 'P(XI,"" xn) dXI""'" dX n E n~(JRn) be a form whose
cohomology class is nonzero. Then
... _
H-:-k(M n ) _
H~-k(UI) EB H~-k(U2)
- - H-:-k(U1 n U2) _
H~-k-I(Mn)
__ ....
Let us dualize it, i.e., take the sequence of dual spaces and dual maps. The
Mayer-Vietoris sequence for the de Rham cohomology can be mapped to
286
DMn
H~ k(Mn)*
) Hk(Ul) E9 Hk(U2)
DUI EBDUI
n U2)
lDu
U:I
) Hk+l(Mn)
lDMn
The form a~ I\f3f- k - 1 has compact support in Ui; consequently, the integral
lUI d(a~ 1\ f3f- k - 1 ) vanishes. Therefore,
The support of the form df3~-k-l = -df3~-k-l is contained in the intersection of the supports of the forms f3~-k-l and f3~-k-l; hence it is contained
2. De Rham Cohomology
28'j
ci+l" fjn-k-l
at" fjn-k
}Ulnu2
) Mn
a~ "fjn-k
}Ul nu2
}ulnu2
a k "fjn-k,
UlnU2
as required.
According to the five lemma, if the Poincare isomorphism holds for the
manifolds Ulo U2, and U1 n U2, then it holds also for the manifold Ul U U2 =
Mn.
The next (and most important) step is proving the Poincare isomorphism
for any open set U C jRn. Let U be the base for the topology of R n which
consists of all open rectangles given by ai < Xi < bi for i = 1, ... , n. This
base has two properties important for our purposes; namely, (i) the Poincare
isomorphism theorem is valid for any set from U, and (ii) the intersection
of any two sets from U belongs to U.
Lemma 5.1. Let U be a base for the topology of Mn with properties (i)
and (ii). Then, for any finite union of sets from U, the Poincare isomorphism theorem is valid.
Proof. Take Ulo "" Uk E U. We shall prove that the Poincare isomorphism
holds for UI U ... U Uk by induction on k. For k = 1, this follows from (i).
For k > 1, we represent the union under consideration in the form U' U Uk,
where Ul = U1 U U Uk-I. The Poincare isomorphism theorem is valid for
U' and Uk by the induction hypothesis. It remains to show that it is valid
for U' n Uk = (UI n Uk) U U (Uk-l n Uk). According to (ii), the theorem
is true for each set Ui n Uk; therefore, it is also true for U' n Uk.
0
Lemma 5.2. Let U be a base for the topology of Mn with property (i).
Then, for any (not necessarily finite!) disjoint union of elements ofU, the
Poincare isomorphism theorem is valid.
Proof. Suppose that {Ua.}aEA C U and Ua n U{j = 0 for any a, fj E A. The
natural embeddings nk (U aEA Ua ) -. fIaEA nk(Ua ) and ffiaEA n~-k(Ua) n~-k(UaEA Ua ) are isomorphisms. The second map acts on the direct sum
rather than product because a compactly supported form can differ from
zero only on finitely many sets Ua . Dualizing the second map, we obtain an
isomorphism n~-k (UaEA Ua )* -. fIaEA n~-k(Ua)* (this time, to the direct
product). The situation is the same as for chains and cochains: each chain
288
contains only finitely many simplices, but a co chain may assign nonzero
values to arbitrarily many simplices.
Passing from forms to cohomology, we obtain isomorphisms of cohomology groups, which form the commutative diagram
"1
llQEADQ
k(
UUa)
aEA
II H~-k(Ua).
aEA
Hence D is an isomorphism.
Lj
I
(
,,
\.
\
U.----JY
K.
K.
2
,,,
,
,,,
,
,,,
,
,,,
,
We cover Ki \ K i - 1 with the base sets from U that are contained entirply
n int(Li \Li - I ). Since Ki \ K i - I is compact, it follows that this cover has a
inite subcover. Let Ui be the union of all sets from this subcover. According
o Lemma 5.1, the Poincare isomorphism theorem is valid for Ui. Moreover,
ly construction, we have U:I Ui = U and Ui n Uj = 0 for z- j I > 1.
Ne set WI = U:o U2i +1 and W2 = U:I U2i. By Lemma 5.2, the Poincare
somorphism theorem is valid for WI and W2. We have U = WI U W2 Thus,
289
it remains to prove the theorem for WI nW2. The set WI nW2 is the disjoint
union of the sets Ui n Ui+I, i = 1,2, .... Each of these sets is a finite union
of elements of U. By Lemma 5.1, the Poincare isomorphism theorem is valid
for Ui n Ui+l, and by Lemma 5.2, it is valid for WI n W2.
The proof of the Poincare isomorphism theorem for an arbitrary manifold Mn follows approximately the same scheme as that for an open set
U C JR n . The only essential difference is related to the choice of a base U
for the topology of Mn. For U we take the family of all open sets homeomorphic to JRn (they cover Mn) and their finite intersections. This base has
property (ii) by definitionj (i) holds because any set from U can be considered as an open subset of lRn , and for such sets, the Poincare isomorphism
is already proved. Instead of balls with rational radii and centers, we take a
suitable countable base for the topology of Mn. Otherwise the proof is the
same.
0
290
cp to,,,,
o
= k! ~
(-l)j r'J
Ho dHo
~
r'o
/\ ... /\;;;;
.
r,] /\ ... /\ dHo
rtk
j=O
As a result, we obtain a linear map cp: ck(Mn) -+ nk(Mn) (any linear map
is determined by its values at the elements of a basis). Below, we prove
several properties of this map, which imply that p* is an epimorphism.
Property 1. dcp(c!)
cp(8~).
t(
3=0
291
where E' denotes summation over all (k+1)-simplices [vp, Viol I Vi,.]. Note
that if p {io, ... ,ik} but no simplex is spanned by vp,Vio, . ,Vi/c, then
J.LpdJ.Lio /\ .. /\ dJ.Li/c = o. Indeed, if x stvp, then J.Lp(x) = O. If x E stvp,
then xp =1= O. In the latter case, XiJ = 0 for some j (otherwise, xp =1= 0,
Xio =1= 0, ... ,Xi/c =1= 0, and x belongs to the interior of the simplex [vp, Vio' . ,
Vi/c]). Consider the open set U consisting of all points Y E M" for which
Yi J < "~2. The point x belongs to U, and J.LiJ vanishes on U because
U C Gi J. Therefore, dJ.LiJ = O. Thus,
E J.Li(X) =
1 (which implies
E dJ.Li
= 0), we
=L
i=O
k
=L
(-1)i L
i=O
L (-1)i L
i=O
/\ /\
dJ.Li/c
p~i;
=L
P~'J
3=0
;=0
=-
;=0
Thus,
!t'(b"c!)
(k
= d!t'(c!).
292
Clearly, cO = L:i c?, where c? is the cochain dual to the simplex [ViJ.
Therefore, cp(cO) = L:i J.L, - 1.
Property 3. If c~ is the cochain dual to a simplex 6.~ - [Vio' .. , Vik], then
the form cp(~) vanishes identically in a neighborhood of the set M n \ st 6.~.
By definition,
k
cp( c~)
= k! L
For each i, the function J.Li and the form dJ.Li vanish identically on G t ; therefore, the form cp(~) vanishes on the set G iO U ... U G tk . This set contains a
neighborhood of Mn \ st 6.!.
Property 4. p 0 cp
= id.
rt
~~,jl = [Vio' .. ' Vi J , .. , VtkJ. Then 8c~,OI = ~+cf+ +c~, where c~, . .. , ~
are the cochains dual to k-simplices containing ~~ 0 1 as a face (and different
from ~~). But we just proved that (pcp(cf) , ~!) ~ 0 for t =1= s. Therefore,
(pcp(8c~ 1), ~~) _ (pcp(~), ~~). On the other hand, Property 1 and the
Stokes formula imply
(the last equality follows from Property 4 for cochains of dimension k - 1).
This completes the proof of the surjectivity of p.. Indeed, Property 1
implies that a induces the homomorphism cp*: Hk(Mn; JR) - t HtR(Mn) ,
and Property 4 implies p* 0 cp* = id. Therefore, p* is an epiluo phism.
Step 2. The map p* is a monomorphism.
Suppose that m
assertions are valid.
293
294
we obtain a form fjk-I defined in this neighborhood and satisfying the equality dfjk-I = wk. In particular, dfjk-I = w k in a neighborhood of 86.m - l ,
where 6. m - 1 = [VI, .. , v m ]. If m > 1, then we can apply assertion (Bk) to
the forms w k and fjk-I and the simplex 6. m 1. We must only verify that
ILlm. 1 w k = IaLl'" 1 fjk-I for m -1 = k. Let c = 86. m - 6.m - 1 . Then 8c =
_86. m - 1 and any simplex from the chain c is contained in the neighborhood
in which the form fjk-I is defined. Therefore, ILl'" 1 w k - IaLl'" 1 fjk-I =
ILlm 1 W k + Iacfjk-l = ILl'" 1 W k + Ic wk = IaLl'" W k = O. Applying (Bk-l),
we obtain a form fj~ I defined in a neighborhood of the simplex 6. m - 1 and
such that fj~-I = fjk-l in a neighborhood of 86. m - 1. The forms fj~-l and
fjk-l coincide on the intersection of their domains; hence we can sew them
together so as to obtain a form et~-l defined in a neighborhood of 86.m - 1 and
satisfying the equality det~-l = Wk. Let us extend it to a form etk - 1 defined
in a neighborhood of 6. m. Consider a function >. that takes the value 1 in
a small neighborhood of 86. m and vanishes outside a slightly larger neighborhood of 86.m. The form et k - I = >'et~-l has the required properties. It
remains to consider the case m = 1. In this case, the form w k is defined in
neighborhoods of the vertices Va and VI; we can assume them to be disjoint
(and homeomorphic to the open n-disk). According to the Poincare lemma,
there exists a form et~-l defined in these neighborhoods and satisfying the
equality det~-l = wk. A form et k - I defined in a neighborhood of the segment
[vo, VI] is constructed from et~-I in precisely the same way as above.
The injectivity of p. is implied by the following lemma, which
by using (Bk).
IS
proved
Proof. Recall that we have fixed a triangulation f: IKI --+ Mn. We construct the et k - 1 by induction on the dimension ofthe skeleton of the complex
K. To be more precise, we shall construct a sequence of forms et~-l , ... ,et~ I
such that
(i) each form et~-l is defined in a neighborhood of the m-skeleton of K,
and det~-l = w k in this neighborhood;
111.-
(iii) p(et~-_\) = ck - I
The last equality is understood as follows. The map p is defined only for
forms defined on the entire complex K, but in reality, only the restrictions
of k-forms to the k-skeleton is used. Therefore, we can assume that p is
295
= p(a~ 1),
D,
wi
~rx~
~r
= aP
'--'
(3q
3.2. The Simplicial de Rham Theorem. Differential forms can be considered not only on smooth manifolds but also on simplicial complexes. The
296
idea of constructing such forms goes back to Whitney [154] and Thom [138].
But the most important role in the development of this theory was played
by Sullivan's work [135], in which piecewise polynomial differential forms
were applied to solving some problems of homotopy topology. Moreover,
Sullivan developed the theory not only over the field R but also over the
field Q (and, in general, over an arbitrary field of characteristic zero).
Let XQ, . , Xn be the barycentric coordinates on a simplex
assumed that E x, - 1. We refer to any expression of the form
~n;
it is
where I'l, ... ,i,. is a smooth function on an open subset of lRn containing ~n.
A polynomial differential form on a simplicial complex K is obtained
by sewing together polynomial differential forms defined on the simplices
of K. These forms must be compatible in the sense that if two simplices
~l and ~2 have a common face ~12 and forms WI and W2 are defined on
these simplices, then the restrictions of WI and W2 to ~12 must coincide.
The restriction of a form to a face XI = 0 is defined by setting Xi = 0 and
dXi - o.
Smooth differential forms on a simplicial complex K are defined similarly. Note that smooth forms on a triangulation of a manifold are not the
same as smooth forms on this manifold. For example, smooth functions
(O-forms) on a triangulation of the circle are piecewise smooth (they may be
nondifferentiable at the vertices of the triangulation).
We denote the linear spaces of polynomial and smooth k-forms on a
simplicial complex K by Ak(K) and A~oc (K), respectively.
On the linear spaces Ak(K) and A~oc (K), the operator d acts and exterior product is defined. Importantly, for polynomial forms over Q, the form
d(Pil, ... ,i,. dXil 1\ . .. 1\ dXi,.) can be expressed in terms of the partial derivatives of the polynomial Pi1, ... ,i,., which are also polynomials with rational
coefficients.
Polynomial forms have properties similar to those of dlfferential forms
on manifolds.
297
Proof. Let us represent each point of the cone CK as >.x + (1- >.)a, where
x E K, a is the vertex of the cone, and 0 :$ >. :$ 1. Consider the map
p.:CKxI--+CK,
p.(>.x
+ (1 -
(>. + t(I -
>.))a,
~I)
d(L(-I)degQP
p~O
p~l
Lemma 2 (on extension). For any form w E Ak(a~n), there exists a form
n E Ak(~n)
1- Xo
= L ~1 .. ilt(YI"'"
where YI. ... , Yn are the barycentric coordinates on [VI, ... , V n ], then
7Towo = L
(-1
Xl , ... , -1
Xn ) d(I Xii )
- xo
- Xo
- Xo
- Xo
)\
298
But d ( 1 X~o) -
(1
such
that the form (1- xo)N 7rowo = wo is polynomial. The form wo is well defined
on the entire simplex ~n; indeed, Xo = 1 at the vertex Vo, so wo vanishes at
Vo
The face [VI, ... , vnl is determined by the equation Xo = 0; therefore, the
form Wo coincides with won this face. Thus, the form w - wo 8l!..n vanishes
on the face [VI, ... ,vnl.
By construction, if the form w vanishes on a face XI - 0, then the form
w - Wol8l!..n also vanishes on this face. In other words, given a form w on
a~n that vanishes on several faces, we can construct a form WI on ~n that
vanishes on the same faces and, in addition, coincides with won some other
face. Now we can construct the required form by induction because the form
w = a can be extended to ~ n in an obvious way.
D
Ie:
= 8[vl, ... , V n ],
0=
299
faoan w k = faoan(w k -
pk-l)
= {
(w k - pk-l).
joan
{jk-l =
jan
d{jk-l =
jan
dJ...Jk =
o.
Thus, we can apply the assertion (Bn) and obtain {jk-ll oan = d.:yk-2, where
.:yk-2 is a polylinear form on 8fj. n. Take an extension ,k-2 of .:yk-2 over
fj.n and let o:k-l = {jk-l - d,k-2. We have do: k - l = d{jk-l = w k and
o:k-ll oan = (jk-ll oan - d.:yk-2 = o.
0
We are ready to formulate and prove the simplicial de Rham theorem.
Let p: A"'(K) _ C"'(K; Q) be the map defined by (p(w), fj.n) = fan w n .
According to the Stokes theorem, p dJ...J = 5pw; hence p induces the map p'"
of cohomology algebras.
Theorem 5.13. The map p'" is an algebra isomorphism.
Proof. We start by proving that p'" is an isomorphism of vector spaces;
then, we prove that p'" preserves multiplication.
300
a form n~ E An(K) such that (p(ni), ~j) = c6iJ , where c =1= 0 is a rational
number. It follows that p is an epimorphism.
We have obtained the short exact sequence
----t
O.
Here Ker p consists of all forms wn E A*(K) such that L~n wn = 0 for any
simplex ~ n in K. To prove that p* is an isomorphism, it suffices to verify
that H*(Ker p) = 0; in other words, we must show that if wn E A*(K),
dw n = 0, and J~n w n = 0 for all simplices ~n in K, then w n = da n - 1 for
some form an 1 E Ker p (this means that J~n 1 an 1 - 0 for any simplex
~n-l in K (if n > 0) or wn = 0 (if n = 0)). According to Lemma 3, there
exists a form (Jr- 1 E An-l(~i) for which wnb~ = d{J~ 1 and {J~-118~~ = O.
Sewing all such forms {J~-1 together, we obtain a form ~n-l on the n-skeleton
of K which vanishes on the (n - 1)-skeleton. Using the extension lemma,
we extend the form ~n 1 to a form {In-l on the entire K. The closed
form wn - d{Jn-l vanishes on the n-skeleton, i.e., on the boundary of any
(n + 1)-simplex. Again applying Lemma 3, we construct a form 'Yj-l E
An+l) lor
r
d'Yjn-l and 'Yjn-11 8~n+l = 0 .
A n-l( i..JJ.j
w h'ICh (n
W
- dan-1)1
tJ
~n+l =
]
Then, we sew together the forms 'Yj-l so as to obtain a form .:yn-l on the
(n+1)-skeleton, which we extend to a form 'Yn - 1 on the entire K. The closed
form w n - d({Jn-l + 'Yn - 1) vanishes on the (n + 1)-skeleton. Thus, we can
repeat the construction. At the end, we obtain a n - 1 = {In-l + 'Y n - 1 + ....
This sum is well defined because the form obtained at the kth step vanishes
on the (n + k - 2)-skeleton. The form a n - 1 has the required properties
because the forms {In-l, 'Yn - 1, . " vanish on the (n - 1)-skeleton.
Now let us prove that p* preserves multiplication. Take a, (J E Z*(K; Q).
Recall that the class [a] '-' [(J] E H*(K; Q) is the image of the class [a (J]
under the map induced by the diagonal map d: IKI -+ IK x KI. Take
wi,wr E A*(K). Let L be the triangulation of IK x KI whose vertices are
the products of vertices of K. We define the form wi x w2 E An+m(L) as
follows. Any simplex ~ in L is contained in the product ~l x ~2 of two
simplices from K. Consider the canonical projections Pi: ~1 x ~2 -+ ~i
(i = 1,2). Sewing together the restrictions of the forms (Piwi) 1\ (P2wr)
(which are defined on ~l x ~2) to ~ for all simplices ~, we obtain a form
on L, which we denote by wi x wr.
The map p: A *(L) -+ C* (L; Q) takes this form wi x wr to a cochain
p(wi x wr) for which (p(wi x wr),Sf x ~~) = J~ix~~(Piwi) 1\ (P2 wr) =
6np6mq(J~n wi) (J~m wr); the second equality follows from the Fubini theo1
2
rem. Thus, p(wi x wr) = p(wi) p(wr). Moreover, it follows directly from
the definition that d*(wi x wr) = wi 1\ wr.
0
Chapter 6
Miscellany
301
6. Miscellany
302
HI (F) '" z2g+n 1. For generators of the group HI (X) we can take the
homology classes of the cycles shown in two equivalent ways in Figures
I and 2. Figure I shows a sphere with 9 handles with n disks removed,
which is standardly embedded in 3-space. The parallels and meridians on
the handles represent the generators of the I-dimensional homology groups;
the remaining generating cycles are homologous to the boundaries of n - I
removed disks. This surface is homeomorphic to a disk with 2g pairs of bands
attached to the upper part and n - I bands attached to the lower part, as
shown in Figure 2. Indeed, both surfaces are orientable, their Euler characteristics coincide, and their boundaries have equally many components. It is
easy to explicitly construct a homeomorphism between the surfaces and see
that the system of generating cycles on one surface is mapped to a system
of generating cycles on the other surface. It is seen from Figure 2 that each
of the cycles shown in this figure corresponds to a circle from a wedge of
circles homotopy equivalent to the surface under consideration.
303
--+
HI (8V)
--+
HI(V) EB HI (V')
--+
H 1(S3),
the first and last terms are zero; therefore, HI (8V) ~ HI (V) EB HI (V'). In
particular, HI (V) and HI (V') are free Abelian groups. We know the ranks
of the groups H 1(8V) and H1(V); thus, HI(V') ~ z2g+n-l. This group
is generated by the images of the elements Ci under the homomorphism
induced by the inclusion 8V C V'. Thus, the groups H1(V) ~ H1(F) and
HI(V') ~ H1(S3 \ F) have bases h, ... , !2g+n-l and CI, .. , e2g+n-l such
that lk(ci' I,) = dij.
The bilinear form f3: H 1 (S3 \ F) x HI(F) - Z determines the bilinear
form a: HI(F) x H1(F) - Z defined as follows. Since the surface F is
orientable, we can choose a positively oriented basis VI, V2 at each of its
points. Let n be the unit normal vector to F for which the basis VI, V2,
n is positively oriented. Note that it is not always possible to choose the
vectors VI and V2 so that they depend continuously on the corresponding
point of F, but the vector n depends only on the orientation determined by
VI and V2, rather than on these vectors themselves. Therefore, the vector
n continuously depends on the point. Choose a sufficiently small number
E > o. For each curve 'Y on the surface F, consider the curve 'Y+ obtained by
translating each point of'Y in the direction of the chosen normal by a distance
of Ej the curve obtained by applying a similar translation in the opposite
6. Miscellany
304
direction is denoted by 'Y-. We set a(x, y) = (3(x-, y). The bilinear form a
is called the Seifert form.
For the basis of HI (F) we again take !I, ... , !2g+n-I. In this basis, the
Seifert form is determined by the Seifert matrix A = (aij), where aij =
a(J"fJ) = Ik(J,-,fJ ) -lk(Ji,f/). Let el, ... ,e2g+n 1 be the basis of the
group H 1 (S3 \ F) dual to !I, ... , !2g+n-l with respect to the form {3. Then
I, - L J aiJej and I J+ = Li aije,.
1.2. Infinite Cyclic Coverings. Consider a compact orient able surface
F with boundary OF = L embedded in 8 3 . Let us construct a space Xoo
that is an infinite covering of 8 3 \ L. To this end, we cut the sphere S3 along
F. To be more precise, we take the space 8 3 \ F, add L to it, and for each
a E F \ L, add points a+ and a-, the respective limits of points converging
to a from each of the two sides of F. As a result, we obtain a 3-manifold
M3 with boundary F+ U F-; corresponding to each point a E F \ L are
two points, a+ E F+ and a- E F- (since the surface F is orient able, we
can choose compatible signs + and - for all points). We take countably
many copies M,3 (i E Z) of this manifold and identify Fi~l with F i- (by
and a; that correspond to the same point a).
identifying the points
This construction is schematically shown in Figure 3. The space Xoo thus
obtained covers 8 3 \L. The maps Ml- Mi~t-1 taking each point of Ml to the
corresponding point of the manifold Ml-tl ~ Ml induce an automorphism
t: Xoo - Xoo of this covering. The automorphism group of the covering is
generated by t and is isomorphic to Z; it acts transitively on the covering.
a;_l
We assume that the surface F is oriented and the points a+ and acorrespond to the positive and negative directions of the normal.
We have constructed the covering Xoo _ 8 3 \ L by using the surface
F. It turns out that this construction does not depend on the choice of F;
it depends only on the oriented link L (the boundary of F). Indeed, any
covering over 8 3 \ L is uniquely determined by the image of the fundamental
group of the covering space in 71"1 (8 3 \L). Let us show that this image consists
of those loops 'Y for which the linking number with L is zero (we assume
that if L has connected components L1, ... ,Ln , then lk(-y, L) = L lk(-y, Li)).
305
Clearly, the image consists of the loops I whose liftings to Xoo are closed.
In other words, going from any point of Mg along the lifting of I, we must
return to Mg. The transitions between M,3 and Mi~H correspond to the
intersection points of I with Fj the sign is the same as in the definition of
the intersection number. We arrive at the condition that the intersection
number of the curve I with the surface F equals o. According to one of the
definitions of linking number (see [108]), this is equivalent to the vanishing
of the linking number of I with L = 8F.
The automorphism of the covering t: Xoo -+ Xoo does not depend on
the surface F either. It is determined by those loops in S3 \ L for which
the linking number with L equals 1 (the starting point of the lifting of I is
mapped to the ending point of this lifting).
For each oriented link L C S3, there exists a connected oriented surface
F embedded in S3 so that its boundary is L (see, e.g., [105]). This surface is
called a Seifert surface of the link L. Using the surface F, we can construct
a covering Xoo -+ S3\L and an automorphism t: Xoo -+ Xoo ofthis covering
which depends only on L. Thus, with the link L we can associate the group
HI (Xoo) on which the automorphism t. is defined. This means that HI (Xoo)
is a module over the ring Z[C I , tJ, whose elements are polynomials in t I
and t with integer coefficients. To apply this algebraic structure, we need a
matrix describing the specification of a module by generators and relations
(a presentation matrix). Below, we give a definition of such a matrix and
prove some of its properties.
Let M be a module over a commutative ring R with identityj it is
assumed that 1m = m for all m E M. The module M is said to be free if
there exist elements ml, ... ,mn E M such that any element m E M has a
unique representation in the form m = rlml + .. +rnmn , where ri E Rj the
elements ml, ... ,mn form a basis of the module M. A module M is finitely
generated if there exists an exact sequence
(40)
---+
'P
---+
---+
0,
where E and F are free modules (over the same ring R). Take bases
em and h, ... , fn in E and F. Let A = (aij) be the matrix of the
map a in these bases (Le., aUi) = E.i=l ajiej). The matrix A is called a
presentation matrix for the module M. Each of the m rows of A corresponds
to a generator of M, and each of the n columns corresponds to a relation
between generators. For a given module M, the exact sequence (40) is not
uniquej moreover, we can take different bases in E and F.
eI, . . . ,
Theorem 6.1. Let A and A' be two presentation matrices for the same
module M. Then they can be obtained from each other by the following
transformations (and their inverses):
6. Miscellany
306
g );
Proof. The exact sequences corresponding to the matrices A and A' give
the commutative diagram
F~E~M----+O
l'
19 ~' }d
a'
A ~ (A 0) ~ (A X')
(3):...,(4)
(~
X'
I
X'
I
A'
X') ~ (A0
X
X
J.
AY', we obtain
X' o XX')
0) (3):...,(4)
(A
0
XX' = AZ + I, we obtain
A'
A'
X'
I
0
A'
A'
307
Therefore,
as required.
Hi(M' n M")
--+
Hi(M') EB H,(M")
--+
Hi(Xoo )
--+ ... ,
all groups are modules over the ring Z[t- 1 , tl. The action of t interchanges
the groups Hi(M') and Hi(M"); hence it is not defined on any of these
groups, but it is defined on Hi(M') EB Hi(M"). The maps in the Mayer
Vietoris sequence are module homomorphisms.
We show that the segment
Hl(M' n M")
J..:.... HI (M')
EB HI (M") ~ HI (Xoo)
6. Miscellany
308
being a monomorphism. The groups Ha(M' n M") and Ha(M') ffi Ha(M")
are direct sums of the groups Ha(M: n M:+1) and Ha(M:), and each of
these groups is isomorphic to Z because the Seifert surface F is connected.
Therefore, the modules Ha(M' n M") and Ha(M') ffi Ha(M") are isomorphic to Z[t 1, tj; the element t k corresponds to 1 E Ha(M: n M:+1) and
1 E Ha(M:). Under this identification, the map i" takes t k to t k + t k +1. In
particular, i,,(I) - 1 + t i- OJ therefore, i" is a monomorphism.
Choose a basis {I,} in HI(F) = HI(M: n M:+1)' and let {ei} be the
basis in H I (S3 \ F) - HI(M:) dual to {I,} with respect to the form (3.
The modules H 1 (M' n M") and HI(M') ffi HI (M") are free. Their bases
consist of the elements 1 J.;, and 1 ei. Corresponding to the elements
I, E H 1 (M: n M:+1) and e, E HI (M:) are t k I, and t k e,. It is easy to
show that
i,,(1 I,) =
Thus, the matrix of the map i" in the chosen bases is tA - AT. But the
matrix of i" coincides with the presentation matrix of HI (Xoo).
0
The elementary ideal r of the module Hl(Xoo ) over the ring Z[rl, tj
is called the rth Alexander ideal of the oriented link L. A generator of
the minimal principal ideal containing the rth Alexander ideal is said to
be an rth Alexander polynomial of the oriented link L. The first Alexander
polynomial is called simply the Alexander polynomial; it is denoted by ~L(t).
A generator of the principal ideal is determined up to multiplication by a
unity (an invertible element) of the ring. In the ring Z[rl, tj, the unities are
tn , where n E Z. Therefore, the rth Alexander polynomial is determined
up to multiplication by tn.
According to Theorem 6.2, the module HI(Xoo ) has a square presentation matrix, namely, tA - AT. Therefore, the first elementarv ideal of this
module is principal, and hence ~dt) ~ det(tA - AT); here and in what
follows, the symbol ~ denotes equality up to multiplication by tn.
309
rt
ii
I.
us deform the Seifert surface so that the handles attached to the disk become
long and narrow. Were it not for the possible twisting of the handles (see
Figure 7a) it would be obvious how to arrange the Seifert surface. Since the
surface is oriented, it follows that the number of twistings of each handle
6. Miscellany
310
---X'--~><-- ~
a
()-
b
Figure 7. Twistings of a handle
is even. Two twistings in opposite directions cancel each other, and two
twistings in the same direction are replaced by a loop (see Figure 7b).
Problem 125. Calculate the Alexander polynomial for the knot shown in
Figure 8.
Problem 126. (a) Given odd numbers p, q, and r, we can construct a knot
P(p, q, r) as shown in Figure 9 (the numbers p, q, and r may be negative; for
each negative number, the types of crosses change). Calculate the Alexander
polynomial for the knot P(p, q, r).
(b) Prove that the Alexander polynomial of the knot P( -3, 5, 7) is t;
i.e., it coincides with the Alexander polynomial of the trivial knot. (This
knot is called the Seifert knot.)
Now we prove some general properties of the Alexander polynomial. It
follows from the properties of determinants that ~L(t) ~ ~L(Cl) for any
oriented link L. Indeed, ~L(t) ~ det(tA - AT) = (_t)n det(C I A - AT) ~
~L(t 1).
o.
311
of linking numbers, consider the strip F, spanned by the curves I j - and li+
and orient it so that its boundary is the cycle It 1,+. The required difference
of linking numbers is equal to the intersection number ((Fi, IJ)) = ((J" fJ)),
where the last intersection number is calculated on the Seifert surface. It is
easy to show that under the sign convention which we use, the sign in the
last expression is minus.
When two I-dimensional cycles are interchanged, their intersection number changes sign. Therefore, the matrix B consists of 9 diagonal blocks
6) and n - 1 zeros on the diagonal. If n = 1, then det B = 1, and if
n > 1, then det B = o.
0
(J
The Multivariable Alexander Polynomial. In constructing the Alexander polynomial ~L(t), we used the infinite cyclic covering Xoo -+ 8 3 \ L. It
is constructed by using the subgroup of 71"1(83 \ L) consisting of the loops
for which the linking number with L is zero. For a knot, this is the commutator subgroup [71"1,71"1]. For a link, we can also consider the covering
constructed modulo the subgroup [71"1,71"1]. This subgroup is normal; therefore, we obtain a regular covering X -+ 8 3 \ L with automorphism group
71"1/[71"1,71"1] ~ HI (83 \L) ~ Zt, where r is the number of components in the
link L. The automorphism group of this covering is the free Abelian group
with generators tlo .. , t r , which correspond to small circles put on the components of L. Thus, H 1(X; Z) is a module over the ring Z[tt1, ... , f;-l], and
we can use this module to construct the Alexander polynomial ~dt1' ... ' t r )
in the variables t1, . .. , t r
1.5. The Conway Polynomial. The Alexander polynomial is determined
up to multiplication by tr ; actually, this is a whole class of polynomials
rather than a single polynomial. The Conway polynomial is a uniquely determined polynomial in the class of Alexander polynomials, which is obtained
312
O. Mlscel1any
313
A 3 , i.e., the union of the cones whose vertices are the centers of the 3simplices from the initial triangulation and bases are the stars (in the second
barycentric subdivision) of the centers of those 2-faces of these simplices
which are not contained in 81M3. Removing B3 n F2 from the surface F2
and attaching the closure of 8B3 \ (B 3 n F 2) instead, we obtain a surface
F'. This transformation is of the same form. Indeed, if some 3-simplex
has n 2-faces not contained in 8 1 M 3 , then this simplex corresponds to the
attachment of the boundary of the c-neighborhood of a graph consisting of
n edges going from one vertex.
The surfaces F{ and F~ coincide inside M 3, and F{ n F~ = (F1 n F 2 ) U
(8A3 \ 8 1M 3). But, translating Fl along the collar 81M3, we might violate
the necessary condition 8F1 = L. This must be fixed. Each connected
component of the set Fl n F2 is either contained entirely in the boundary of
M3 or does not intersect it. If some component K of the link L is contained
in the boundary of M 3, then we change F{ by an isotopy that moves 8F{
back along the collar until 8F{ coincides with K.
These transformations of the Seifert surfaces Fl and F2 decrease the
number of domains into which these surfaces divide the sphere 8 3 . Therefore, we can achieve the situation that Fl and F2 do not divide 8 3 , i.e.,
coincide.
It remains to prove that there always exists a manifold M3 such that
it lies on one side of both Fl and F2. For this purpose, we use the infinite
cyclic covering p: Xoo -+ 8 3 \ L constructed in Section 1.2. The space Xoo
can be constructed by using either of the surfaces Fl and F2. Therefore, Xoo
contains the two families of surfaces t i Fi and ti F2 (these are the boundaries
of the 3-manifolds constituting Xoo). We are interested in the case where
Fl and F2 intersect not only in L. The idea is to consider the maximum
integer n for which F2 n t n F1 -:f:. 0 (see Figure 10). For such an integer to
exist, we assume that the set L is removed from 8 3 together with its open
c-neighborhood, so that the space obtained is compact. Now we deal with
compact sets, and the required number n does exist.
The surface F2 cuts Xoo into two parts; let Y be the part that contains
the surfaces t r F2 for r < o. The surface t n PI also cuts Xoo; let Z be the ;>art
6. Miscellany
314
~ (~8~)
000
or A
~ (~8 8),
010
where
Theorem 6.5. Any two Seifert matrices of the same oriented link are Sequivalent.
Proof. A basis change in HI (Fi Z) leads to a type (1) transformation of the
Seifert matrix. According to Theorem 6.4, it remains to determine what happens to the Seifert matrix when a handle is attached. We can assume that,
under this operation, the basis of HI (F; Z) is supplemented by the generators
fn+! and fn+2 shown in Figure 11. If i ~ n, then IkU':;+2' fd = O. Choosing
.. (AOO)
0 0"6 .
IS
315
Transformations of type (1) reduce this matrix to the form (~o ~). Simio 00
A
0
0)
larly, in the latter case, the matrix reduces to the form ( {3 0 0
o
o lO
Let us introduce the formal variable t l / 2 , for which (t l / 2 )2 = t, and define
the Alexander polynomial in Conway's normalization ~LCt) E Z[C l / 2 , t l / 2 ]
by ~L(t) = det(t l / 2 A - C l / 2 AT), where A is the Seifert matrix of the
link L. If A is a matrix of order r, then ~L(t) = C r / 2 det(tA - AT);
therefore, the Alexander polynomial in Conway's normalization coincides
with the Alexander polynomial up to multiplication by a unit of the ring
Z[C l / 2 , t 1/ 2 ].
Theorem 6.6. For any oriented link L, the Alexander polynomial in Conway's normalization is determined uniquely; i.e., it does not depend on the
choice of the Seifert matrix A.
Proof. First, note that
det(t 1 / 2 pT AP _ C
1/ 2 pT AT P)
= det(pT(t l / 2 A _ t
1/2 AT)P)
Let B
0)
= ( Ao0 00
0 1 .
Q
l / 2 AT).
Then
Multiplying the last row of this matrix by suitable elements of the ring
Z[C 1 , t] and adding the result to the remaining rows, we kill the column
t 1/ 2 o. The row _C 1/ 2 o T can be killed in a similar way. Therefore,
det(t 1 / 2 B - C
1 / 2 BT)
= det(t 1/ 2A -
1 / 2 AT)
det ( _C0 1/ 2
t l / 2)
O
= det(t l / 2A _ C l / 2AT)
because det
similar.
(-t 01 2 tl~2) =
The proof of Theorem 6.3 implies the following properties of the Alexander polynomial in Conway's normalization.
(i) If K is a knot, then ~K(t) E Z[C 1 , t], ~K(I)
1, and ~K(t)
~K(Cl).
6. Miscellany
316
Theorem 6.7. Suppose that L+, L_, and La are oriented links whose diagrams coincide everywhere except in a small disk, in which they are as shown
in Figure 12. Then their Alexander polynomials in Conway's normalization
are related by
(41)
~L+ -~L
= (C 1/ 2 _
t 1 2)~Lo
X X )(
L+
La
Proof. Let us construct a Seifert surface Fa for the link La so that, in the
disk under consideration, it has the form shown in Figure 13. Attaching
Fa
a twisted strip to La, we obtain Seifert surfaces F+ and F_ for the links
L+ and L_. Take the basis in H 1 (F) that consists of the class of a closed
curve h going along the strip and the basis elements of Hl(Fo). If Ao
is the Seifert matrix for La, then the Seifert matrices for L_ and L+ are
(a Ao) and (n/i 1 Xo )' where n is an integer. Considering the determinants
of the matrices t 1 2 A - C 1/2 AT for the three Seifert matrices and taking into
account the fact that det (~ Ao) = a det Ao + c, where c does not depend on
a, we obtain the required result.
0
Relation (41), together with the condition that the Alexander polynomial in Conway's normalization for the trivial knot equals 1, makes it possible to calculate ~L for any oriented link L (see [108] for details). Therefore, ~L is a polynomial in z = C 1/ 2 - t 1/ 2 . The polynomial VL(Z) such
that V dt- 1 / 2 - t 1 / 2 ) = ~dt), where ~L is the Alexander polynomial in
Conway's normalization, is called the Conway polynom I. The Conway
polynomial satisfies the skein relation
(42)
317
Problem 127. Prove that if a link L lies on both sides of a plane disjoint
from this link, then V'L(Z) = O.
Let us write the Conway polynomial in the form V'L(Z)
al(L)z + a2(L)z2 + ....
ao(L)
Problem 128. Let n(L) denote the number of components in the link L.
Prove that aieL) = 0 for i == n(L) (mod 2).
Problem 129. (a) Prove that if K is a knot, then ao(K) = 1.
(b) Prove that if L is a link with more than one component, then ao(L)
O.
Problem 130. Let L be a link with n(L) components. Prove that al(L)
for i < n(L) - 1.
=0
6. Miscellany
318
Theorem 6.8 (Arf [8]). Any nondegenerate quadratic form q can be reduced
to the form XIYI + ... + XnYn + c(q)(x~ + Y~), where c(q) is the Arf invariant. Moreover, the Arf invariant c(q) does not depend on the choice of a
symplectic basis.
Proof. First, we consider the case n = 1. The equality q(el) + q(JI) +
q(el + h) - 1 implies that either one of the elements q(eI), q(h), and
q(el + fI) is equal to 1 and the two others are 0 or all of these elements
are equal to 1. The elements el, h, and el + h are equivalent in the
sense that any two of them can be taken for a symplectic basis because
B(el + h, el + h) - 0 and B(el + h, et) - 1. Therefore, we can assume
that q(el + fd = 1. Thus, for n = 1, we obtain two nondegenerate quadratic
forms, qo and ql; here qo(el) = qo(Jd - 0 and ql(el) - ql(Jd = 1. In
coordinates, these forms can be written as qo = XIYl and ql - XIYl +x~+Y~.
Clearly, c(qo) - 0 and C(ql) = 1.
To prove the independence of the Arf invariant on the choice of a symplectic basis, we must show that the forms qo and ql are not equivalent, that
is, cannot be obtained from each other by a basis change. Indeed, the form
qo takes the value 1 precisely once, while qi takes this value three times.
Now consider an arbitrary nondegenerate quadratic form q. Choose a
symplectic basis el, ... , fn. Let 'Pi be the restriction of q to the subspace
spanned by the vectors ei and fl' Then q = 'PI ffi ... ffi 'Pn, where each form
'Pi is equivalent to qo or to qi.
= qo ffiqo
and 'l/JI
= ql ffiql
are equivalent.
Proof. Let eI, h, e2, 12 be a symplectic basis for which 'l/Jo(ei) = 'l/Jo(J,) = 0
and 'l/Jl(ei) = 'l/Jl(f,) = 1. Consider the basis e~ - el + e2, ff = el + 12,
e~ = el + h + e2 + 12, f~ = el + h + h It is easy to show that this basis is
symplectic. Let us show that 'l/Jl(e~) = 'l/Jl(JI) = 0, i.e., 'l/J1(eD = 'l/Jo(ei) and
'l/JI (JI) - 'l/Jo (Jl)' Indeed, we have 'l/Jl (el + e2) = 'l/Jl (ed + 'l/Jl (e2) + B( eI, e2) =
1 + 1 + 0 = 0, 'l/J1(el + h) - 'l/Jl(ed + 'l/J1(h) + B(el' h) = 1 + 1 + 0 = 0,
'l/J1(el + h + e2 + h) = 'l/J1(el + e2) + 'l/Jl(Jl + h) + B(el + e2, h + h) =
0+ 0 + 0 = 0, and 'l/Jl (el + h + h) = 'l/Jl (el + h) + 'l/Jl (JI) + B(el + 12, fI) =
0+ 1 + 1 = O.
0
We introduce the notation
q ffi ... ffi q
-------
= nq.
n times
319
To prove that the Arf invariant does not depend on the choice of a
symplectic basis, we must prove that the forms nqo and (n - l)qo ffi qi are
not equivalent.
6. Miscellany
320
by the cycles h g+1. ... , hg+n-l corresponding to n - 1 boundary components. The cycle corresponding to the remaining boundary component is
homologous to the sum of these cycles. Thus, consider the quotient space
H1(Fj 71.2)/i.H1 (8Fj 71. 2 ), where i: 8F - F is the natural embedding.
For the form q to be well defined on this quotient space, each component
L, must satisfy the condition q(Li) = 0, or, equivalently, lk(Li, Li) = O. The
Seifert surface does not intersect Li j therefore, the linking coefficient of Li
and Li is congruent modulo 2 to that of Li and L - L" which, in turn, is
equal to the linking coefficient of Li and L - L i . Thus, we can assume that
the link L has the property
(43)
lk(L;, L,) = 0
(mod 2)
for all i.
Then the form q is well defined on the quotient space. The Arf invariant
A(L) of a link L with property (43) is defined as the Arf invariant of the
quadratic form q on the quotient space H1(Fj71.2)/i.H1(8Fj71.2).
Theorem 6.9. The Arf invariant A(L) of an oriented link L is well defined,
i.e., it does not depend on the choice of the surface F.
Proof. According to Theorem 6.4, it suffices to show that the Arf invariant
does not change when a handle is attached to F. The first 2g curves in
Figure 2 constitute a symplectic basis el, h, ... , eg, fg for the form q in the
space HI (F)/i.H1 (8F). After a handle is attached, we complete it by the
curves eg+1 and f g+1 chosen as shown in Figure 11 on p. 314. If eg+l is the
curve fn+2 in this figure, then q(eg+1) = O. Therefore, E~=l q(ek)q(fk) =
E~!~ q(ek)q(/k).
0
Proof. For K+ and K_, we can construct Seifert surfaces F+ and F_ which
are arranged as shown in Figure 15 over the small disk undt:!r consideration
and coincide otherwise. Using F+ and F _, we construct a surface Fo for the
321
xx
Figure 14. The diagrams of the two knots and the link
Fa
Figure 15. The three Seifert surfaces
curve L 1. The strips corresponding to the curves fn+1,+ and fn+1,- differ
by precisely one full turn; therefore, q(Jn+1,+) - q(Jn+1,-) = 1. Thus,
A(K+) - A(K-)
Theorem 6.11. (a) For any knot K, A(K) == a2(K) (mod 2), where a2(K)
is the coefficient of z2 in the Conway polynomial VK(Z).
(b) For any knot K,
A(K)
{a
1
i!
AK(-l)
if AK(-l)
== 1
== 3
(mod 8),
(mod 8),
6. Miscellany
322
and L2 are the components of the link L. Theorem 6.10 implies A(L+) ==
A(L_) + lk(Ll' L2) (mod 2). Moreover, if K is the unknot, then a2(K) =
0= A(K). Therefore, A(K) == a2(K) (mod 2) for any knot K.
(b) By definition, ~K(t) = V K(C 1/ 2 - t 1 2); thf'refore, ~K( -1) =
VK(-2i). Problem 128 implies VK(Z) = 1 + a2(K)z2 + a4(K)z4 + ....
Hence VK(-2i) == 1-4a2(K) (mod 8). If a2(K) is even, then V'K(-2i) == 1
(mod 8), and if a2(K) is odd, then V' K( -2i) == -3 (mod 8).
D
2.3. Knotting of Embeddings of the Graph K7. Using properties of
the Arf invariant, Conway and Gordon [26] proved the following theorem.
x-x
Figure 16. The transformations of edges
~-----b
Figure 17. A self-intersection of an edge
323
Dragging the vertices of the intersecting edges l to the cross under consideration, we obtain a diagram of the form shown in Figure 18. Figure 18a
refers to an intersection of adjacent edges, and Figure 1Sb, to an intersection of nonadjacent edges (of course, the cross itself may be of the opposite
type).
,,
X X
,,
\
,
,,
I
, .... __
....
Let us see what happens to A(C) under a change of the type of a cross.
We denote the variation of A(C) bye(C). If the cycle C does not contain at
least one of the two edges in the cross under consideration, then e( C) = o.
First, suppose that the cycle C contains both of these edges. Then, according
to Theorem 6.10, we have e(C) == lk(Ll, L 2) (mod 2), where Ll and L2 are
the components of the link L constructed as shown in Figure 14 (p. 321).
Suppose that the intersecting edges are adjacent. The construction of the
link L = LIUL2 in this case is shown in Figure 19a. Note that the component
~LI
,,
....
_-_
~LI
,
....
L1 is the same for all cycles C containing the edges under consideration.
Therefore, Ik(L 1 ,L2) = Lew(Ll,e), where the summation is over all edges
e of the cycle C different from the two edges in question, and w(Ll, e) is the
number of crosses at which L1 passes over e with signs taken into account.
The change of u equals La Le W(L1' e) (mod 2), where the first sum is
1 Together
6. Miscellany
324
,"
\L2
,
4~1
3~2
Figure 20. The numbering of graph vertices
the direction of traversing the cycle C. The curves Ll and L2 may contain
the following edges el and e2 (up to a renumbering of vertices): (a) (23),
(45); (b) (23), (56); (c) (27), (45); (d) (27), (56). It is easy to see that in
these cases, the cycles C are as follows:
(a) (1234567), (1234576);
(b) (1234567), (1234657), (1234756), (1234765);
(c) (1273456), (1276345);
(d) (1273456), (1273465).
In every case, an even number of cycles C is obtained; therefore, u does
not change.
A simple verification shows that for the embedding of K7 1O]R3 shown in
Figure 21, all but one of the cycles Care unknotted. Moreover, the knotted
325
cycle is the trefoil, and the Arf invariant of the trefoil is 1. Thus, we have
u = 1 for any embedding, so there always exists a knotted cycle C.
0
Remark. In Part I, we proved that for any embedding of the graph Ka in
]R3, there exists a pair of linked cycles (Theorem 1.10). The proof us much
simpler than that of Theorem 6.12 about knotting of cycles. It is known
that for any link, there exists a positive integer N such that this link can be
inscribed in any generic set of N points in]R3 (i.e., the line segments joining
some points from this set form a link equivalent to the given one); a simple
proof of this fact is given in [107].
326
6. Miscellany
V ~
]Rn,
where p(YI, . .. , Y2n) - (Yl, ... , Yn). Let v' - (VI, ... , v n ) be a regular value
of this composition different from the images of the double points belonging
to V. The n-dimensional subspace nn given by YI - VI, ... , Yn - Vn does
not pass through the double points of the image of M n that belong to V,
and at each point a E rrn n f(Mn) n V, the tangent space df(Tf l(a)Mn) is
complementary to nn, i.e., the direct sum of this space and nn has dimension
2n. This means, in particular, that all intersection points of nn and f(Mn)n
V are isolated.
Thus, adding the vector (VI, ... , V n , 0, ... ,0) to each point from the
image of Ui,1 and leaving all the other parts of the intersection f(Mn) n V
intact, we obtain an extension of the regular immersion over Ui,l.
We described what is going on in Ui,l. The global map that remains the
same outside Ui ,2, is constructed by using the bell-shaped function A, as in
the proof of the weak Whitney theorem. The only thing to care about is
the vector v', which should be sufficiently small for the map obtained to be
an immersion.
0
If a closed manifold Mn is regularly immersed in R2n, then the number of
double points is finite. Indeed, suppose that there are infinitely many double
points. Let Xo be a limit point of their preimages. It has a neighborhood
U with self-avoiding image. Let {Xi} be a sequence of preimages of double
points from U converging to Xo. The corresponding points Yi do not belong
to U. Let Yo be a limit point for {Yi}. Choosing a neighborhood of Yo
whose image intersects the image of U in at most one point, we obtain a
contradiction.
327
the orientation of the basis thus obtained is positive (negative), then the
self-intersection number is 1 (-1). The self-intersection number does not
depend on the choice of orientation of Mn because a simultaneous change
of the orientations of the bases of df(TxMn) and df(TyM n ) does not affect
the orientation of the basis of ]R2n composed of them. The self-intersection
number does not change under transpositions of the points x and y either.
Indeed, interchanging the first n vectors and the last n vectors requires n 2
transpositions.
The self-intersection number of a regular immersion f is defined as the
sum of the self-intersection numbers of all double points. If n is odd or the
manifold M n is nonorientable, then the self-intersection numbers of double
points have indefinite signs; in these cases, the self-intersection number of
the immersion f is defined to be the remainder of the total number of double
points on dividing by 2. We denote the self-intersection number of a regular
immersion f by If
2x
Yl =x- - - I +x 2
]Rn
-4
]R2n
and
Y2
= 1 + x2
points, no self-intersection occurs, The Jacobian matrix of this map is (1 2 ~~~~, -1!~2); it is nowhere vanishing. For x = l, we obtain the linearly
independent matrices (1, =fl).
For n ~ 2, consider the map defined by Yl = Xl - ~, Yi = Xi for
i = 2, ... , n, where X = (1 + x~) ... (1 + x~), Yn+! =
and Yn+i = x)t,
for i = 2, ... , n. Let us show that this map is a regular immersion with a
1-,
6. Miscellany
4X1X p
4X1X2
X(l+x~)
X(l+xa)
1
0
-2xl
X(I+xV
x2(I xJ)
X(l+x 1 )
2x~
2xn
X(I+xa)
X(l+x~)
Xl(l-X~)
2xlx~xn
X(I+x 2 )
X(I+xa)
-2X1X2Xn
X(l+x~)
= ... = Xn
yi
The Jacobian matrices at the points (l, 0, ... ,0) have the form
o
o
o
1
1/2
o
o
1/2
=f 1 / 2
o
o
329
1
o
o 1
o
o
1
o
o o
o
1
..............................................
0
0
-1/2 0
0
1/2
1
0
0
1/2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1/2
0 -1/2
0
-1/2
1 0
o
o
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0
0
0 0
-1
o
1
o
0
o 1
...............................
1
0
0
...............................
0 0 ... 0 0
0 . .. -1
This matrix is nonsingular, and hence the immersion is regular.
It follows directly from the definition of the self-intersection number
(provided that n is even and the manifold Mn is orientable) that it changes
sign when the orientation of ]R2n is changed. Therefore, using the regular
immersion constructed above and its composition with the symmetry of 1R2n
about a hyperplane, we can construct two regular immersions with one selfintersection each and self-intersection number +1 for one immersion and -1
for the other.
Suppose that f: M n --+ ]R2n is a regular immersion and U c M n is a
sufficiently small neighborhood homeomorphic to lRn such that the restriction of f to U is an embedding. It is easy is construct a regular immersion 9 coinciding with f outside U and such that the sets g(int U) and
f(M n \ int U) are disjoint, the image g(U) has a unique self-intersection,
and the self-intersection number for this point has a given sign (provided
that n is even and Mn is orientable). Compared to f, the immersion 9 has
precisely one additional self-intersection point. This construction proves the
required assertion.
0
6. Miscellany
330
331
1'1
tangent vectors to ,1 and ,2; therefore, slightly moving the surfaces under
consideration, we can glue them together so as to obtain an embedding
of a small neighborhood of the boundary of the disk r (see Figure 25).
Transversality is not violated.
To the interior of the obtained strip (this is the curve J in Figure 25)
we can attach the disk n 2 because any continuous map 8 1 ~ ]R2n extends
to a continuous map n2 ~ ]R2n. Since 2n > 5, we can approximate the
constructed map D2 ~ ]R2n by a smooth embedding without changing it
near
U
Then, using the inequality 2 + n < 2n, we can remove all
intersections of J(Mn) with the image of D2 that arise in the approximation.
This completes the construction of the required map 1/J.
,1 ,2.
W3, .. , W2n
,1
,2
,2
6. Miscellany
332
We shall assume for convenience that the curves 1'1 and 1'2 are not only
transversal but also orthogonal to T M!] and T Mf . On the curve 1'1, the
vector fields W3, ... , Wn+1 are defined. Consider the bundle over 1'1 whose
fiber over each point x is the (n -I)-dimensional subspace orthogonal to the
vectors W3(X), ... , Wn+l(x) and tangent to the space T:z;'!/J(T). At the points p
and q, the vectors Wn+2, .. . , W2n are defined; these are orthonormal sections
of this bundle. We need to extend them over the entire curve 1'1. First,
we extend the section wn +2. We can do this because the bundle is trivial
and the fiber jRn-1 \ {O} '" sn 2 is connected. Then, we extend a section
of the orthogonal complement of the bundle determined by the extended
section, and so on. The bundle used to extend the section W2n-1 has fiber
jR2 \ {O} '" Sl. When we try to extend the section W2n, the fiber will be the
disconnected set ]R1 \ {O}. To extend this section, we need the orientations
to be compatible; but they are compatible in the case under consideration.
Now we have the vectors W3, ... , W2n on the curve 1'1 and the vectors
Wn+2, ... , W2n on the curve 1'2. By Theorem 3.16, "Tr1(V(2n-2, n-I)) = 0 for
1 < (2n - 2) - (n -I), i.e., n > 2. Therefore, the vector fields Wn+2, ... , W2n
can be extended to the entire disk '!/J(T). Consider the orthogonal complement of the vectors Wn+2, ... , W2n and of the tangent space T:z;'!/J(T) at each
point x E '!/J (T). On the curve 1'1. the sections W3, ... ,Wn+l of this bundle
are given. Each point of the disk '!/J(T) can be represented as 1't(s), where
1 ~ s, t ~ 2. Let us extend the sections W3, ... , Wn+l, which are given at
1'1 (s), to constant sections of the trivial bundle over the curve 1't (s), where
s is fixed and t varies. As a result, we obtain the required vector fields
W3, ... , Wn+l on the disk '!/J(T).
Now, we can prove the strong Whitney embedding theorem. We assume
that T C ]R2 C ]R2n. Let us continue the embedding '!/J: T _ ]R2n to a map
from a small neighborhood of T to ]R2n as follows. For x = (Xl, ... , X2n), we
set
2n
+L
333
,pI
as to exit the small neighborhood of the disk 'ljJ(r); on their extensions, the
vector fields wa, ... , W2n are constructed in the same way as on the curves
themselves.
At each point X E 'ljJ-l bI), the tangent space TxNi is the plane (Xl, Xa,
.. , Xn+l); therefore, Ni differs little from this plane. Performing a small
deformation inside a small neighborhood of the curve 'ljJ-lbl), we can
assume that Ni coincides with a part of this plane (possibly, we need to
replace U with a smaller neighborhood of'ljJ-lbJ). Similarly, we can assume
that N; coincides with a part of the manifold obtained by applying all vectors of the space (X n +2, ... , X2n) to each point of the curve 'ljJ-l('Y2) and its
extension. Consider the projection
71':
(Xl, X2,
Xa, .. , X2n) ~
(Xl, 0, Xa,,
X2n)'
Clearly, 7l'(Ni) = Ni, and the set 7l'(Nr) is contained in the space (Xl, X n+2,
Therefore, the set Ni n 7l'(N;) lies on the xl-axis.
Let us subject Ni to the following deformation, which is the identity
outside the c-neighborhood of the disk r. First, all points of N; are translated parallel to the x2-axis; thus, the set 7l'(Ni) does not change. The
curve 'ljJ-I (2) and its extension are moved to the domain X2 < 0 (see Figure 28). For any other point (Xl, X2, . , X2n) E Ni, the displacement vector
is obtained upon multiplying the displacement vector of (Xl, X2, 0, ... , 0) by
>'(x~ + ... + x~n), where >'(0) = 1 and >'(t) = 0 for t > c 2.
The projection 71' takes the intersection points of Ni and Nr to those of
Ni and 7l'(Nr); hence if the plane (Xl, X2) contains no intersection points of
. , X2n)'
6. Miscellany
334
the manifold Nf and the deformed manifold N!], then these manifolds do
not intersect at all. Clearly, if c is sufficiently small, then the image of the
c-neighborhood of the disk T under the map 1j; contains no other parts of
the manifold J(Mn). Therefore, no new self-intersections arise.
We have proved the Whitney theorem in the case where the self-intersection numbers for the points p and q are of opposite signs. In the cases where
the manifold Mn is nonorientable and where it is orient able and n is odd,
the main construction is the same. But to apply it, we may need to change
the curves 'Yl and 'Y2. It is required that under the translation of the pair
of normal spaces to Mf and M'2 from p to q along the curves 'Yl and 'Y2,
the orientation of JR2n determined by this ordered pair of spaces change.
If it does not change and the manifold M n is nonorientable, then we can
extend one of the curves 'Yl and 'Y2 so that the translation along the added
part of the curve will change orientation (a change of the orientation of the
tangent space entails a change of the orientation of the normal space). If the
manifold is orient able but has odd dimension n > 1, we replace the curves
'Yl and 'Y2 with 'Yi and 'Y~, where 'Yi starts from the point p along the curve
'YI and arrives at the point q along 'Y2, and 'Y~ starts along 'Y2 and ends along
'YI. As a result, the spaces in the ordered pair are interchanged, which leads
to a change of orientation for odd n.
Remark. A similar argument proves that for n > 2, any continuous map
8 n --+ M 2n, where M2n is a simply connected manifold, is homotopic to an
embedding. But it turns out that there exist maps 8 2 --+ M 4, where M4
is a simply connected manifold, that are not homotopic to embeddings. An
example is given in [70].
Now, let us prove that any closed 2-manifold can be embedded in ]R4.
Clearly, a sphere with 9 handles can be embedried even in IR3. It is also
clear that if MJ and M1 can be embedded in IR 4 , then the connected sum
MJ # MJ can be embedded in ]R4 as well. Therefore, it is sufficient to prove
that JRp2 embeds in ]R4.
An embedding of ~'p2 into ]R4 can be constructed ru. follows. Consider the map from the unit sphere 8 2 C ]R3 to ]R4 defined by (x, y, z) '-
335
(xy, yz, zx, x 2 - y2). Let us show that this map induces an embedding of
JRp2 into JR4, i.e., that it is an immersion and the preimage of each point
consists of precisely two antipodal points of the sphere.
First, we prove the assertion concerning the preimage. If abc i- 0, then
the equalities xy - a, yz - b, and zx - e imply x = Jae/b, y - a/x, and
z = e/x. If a - b - e - 0, then two of the numbers x, y, and z are zero and
the third is equal to 1. It remains to consider the case where two of the
numbers a, b, and e are zero and the third is nonzero. In this case, one of
the numbers x, y, and z is zero and the two others are not. Now, we employ
the equality x 2 - y2 = d (or the equivalent equality 2x2 + z2 = 1 + d). If
x - 0, then y - R and z = b/y. If y - 0, then x = Vii and z - e/x.
If z = 0, then x = ~v'f+d and y = a/x.
Let us prove that the map f: JRp2 ~ JR4 is an immersion, i.e., its Jacobian matrix has rank 2 at each point (x, y, z) E 8 2 . The projective plane
can be covered by three charts with coordinates (x, y), (x, z), and (y, z), in
which z i- 0, y i- 0, and x i- 0, respectively. In the first chart, the Jacobian
matrix of f is
(
-~
z-~
2X)
_11.
-2y
The matrix formed by the first and last columns is singular if and only if
x 2 +y2 = 0, i.e., x = y = and z = 1. But in this case, the matrix formed
by the second and third columns is nonsingular. In the second chart, the
Jacobian matrix of f has the form
-.!
Y
4X).
2z
We are interested only in the points with z = 0. At these points, the matrix
formed by the two last columns is nonsingular if x i- 0, and if z = and
x = 0, then the matrix formed by the two first columns is nonsingular. The
nonsingularity of the Jacobian matrix at the point (1 :
0) in the third
chart is proved similarly.
6. Miscellany
336
an orientation-preserving embedding, and i2: D n -+ M; is an orientationreversing embedding. In Mf \ il(O) and M; \ i2(O), we identify il(tU) with
i2((1 - t)u) for every unit vector u and each t, 0 < t < 1. The map
il(tU) 1---+ i2((1 - t)u) is orientation-preserving; therefore, on the obtained
manifold Mf # M;, we can choose an orientation compatible with those
of the manifolds Mf and M;. Clearly, Mn # sn ~ Mn; in particular,
sn#sn~sn.
337
normal vectors at Xl and X2 directed toward each other (see Figure 30);
this is needed for the orientations to be compatible. Then, we perform a
cc(
M~#M~
sn
]Rn+l
sn
sn sn
sn
sn
sn
lRn+l
6. Miscellany
338
If the map N: Mn ---+ sn has degree zero, then, by the Hopf theorem, it
is null-homotopic and, therefore, induces the trivial bundle.
D
Corollary. Suppose that a manifold Mn zs not parallelizable and n is odd.
Then, if M n can be immersed into lRn +1, then it can be immersed into lR n +1
with any odd normal degree, but it admits no immersions into ]R.n+ 1 of even
normal degree.
Proof. Apply Theorem 6.17 and the corollary of Theorem 6.16.
\ Mn)
4. Complex Manifolds
339
The equality dimHO(Mn) = 0 implies dim Hn(A) - dim Hn(B) = O. Therefore, ~(M) = ~(A) + ~(B) because dimHo(Mn) + dim Hn(Mn) = 2 =
dim Ho(A) + dim Ho(B). We can apply the Alexander duality theorem not
only to M n but also to A. As a result, we obtain Hk(A) '" fIn k(sn+1 \A) =
hn k(B) for 0 ::; k ::; n, whence ~(A) = ~(B). Clearly, ~(A) = ~(A)
because the spaces A and A are homotopy equivalent. Thus, 2~(Mn) =
E(A).
0
4. Complex Manifolds
4.1. Complete Intersections. Let Y be a complex manifold of dimension
n, and let X c Y be its complex submanifold of dimension n - 1. This
means that X can be covered by open subsets Ui of Y so that in each
Ui, X is determined by the equation It - 0, where I, is a holomorphic
function such that grad It (x) =1= 0 for all x E Ui n X. We can assume that
the sets U, cover Y (if Ui n X - 0, then we set Ii - const -I 0). We
associate with the submanifold X C Y a one-dimensional complex bundle3
~(X) over Y with transition functions gij(X) = 11(x)/1i(x). If x E X, then
gij (x) = liIDyf/.x,y ...... x 11 (x) /IJ (x); this limit is equal to the proportionality
coefficient of the vectors grad 11 (x) and grad 1i (x).
The bundle ~(X) does not depend on the choice of the functions IiIndeed, suppose that in Ui , the set X is determined by the equations Ii = 0
and Pi = O. Then the function hi = Id Pi does not vanish on Ui , and
..
g- ZJ
-!!:J..
.
h. g1J'
(ZO
Zi
1~
"'."
... ,
Zi
Zi
3In algebraic geometry, this bundle is called the line bundle associated with the divisor X
and denoted by [Xl We do not use this notation because in topology, [Xl usually denotes the
fundamental class of the manifold X.
6. Miscellany
340
f.
Then
o
Example 77. Let Xd be a nonsingular hypersurface of degree d in CPR.
Then
x(Xd )
= ~ (_1)kdk+1 (
~
k=O
+1
n-1-k
).
Proof. In Example 76, we calculated the total Chern class of the manifold
X d In particular, we obtained
C.-l(X.)
To calculate X(Xd)
~ ~ (-l)kd"(n:; ~ k};n-l
= (Cn-l(Xd), [Xd]),
Cp2
l ,
[Xd]).
4. Complex Manifolds
341
The number (ii n- l , [XdD is equal to the number of the intersection points
in cpn of the cycle dual to o:n-l and Xd (with signs taken into account).
The cycle dual to o:n-l is the complex line Cpl. In general position, it
intersects a surface of degree d at d points because the restriction to this
line of a homogeneous polynomial F in n + 1 variables is a homogeneous
polynomial of degree d in two variables, which corresponds to an inhomogeneous polynomial of degree d in one variable. All intersection numbers are
positive because we deal with complex manifolds. Thus, the homology class
[Xd] is d[cpn-l].
0
In particular, for a smooth algebraic curve Xd of degree din C 2 , we have
X(Xd) = (~)d - (~)d2 = 3d - cPo Therefore, Xd is a sphere with 9 handles,
where 2 - 2g = 3d - d 2 , i.e., 9 = (d-l~d 2).
In a similar way, we can calculate the total Chern class and the Euler
characteristic not only for a nonsingular hypersurface but also for an intersection of generic nonsingular hypersurfaces, as in [22]. A complete intersection is the complex n-manifold M = MI n ... n Mp c cpn+p , where
M I , ... , Mp are the hypersurfaces defined by the homogeneous equations
fI = O,,/p = 0 such that the vectors gradfI, ... ,grad/p are linearly
independent at each point x EM.
Example 78. Suppose M = MI n .. n Mp c cpn+p is a complete intersection, and the hypersurfaces Ml, ... , Mp have degrees dl, ... , dp, respectively.
Suppose also that the hypersurfaces M I , ... , Mp are nonsingular. Then
X(M)
(1
In particular,
dimensional subspace of
CP
d l ... dp , i.e., that any generic pintersects M in d l ... dp points. This can be
6. Miscellany
342
done in different ways. First, we can employ the fact that the cycle Mi is
homologous to d, [cpn+p 1]. Indeed, consider the intersection of p generic
copies of cpn+p I in cpn+p (this intersection is cpn). The intersection
number of [CP P ] and [M] is equal to that of [CP P ] and [cpn] multiplied
by dl ... dp . Secondly, we can use the method of elimination of variables,
which is based on calculating the resultant of two polynomials. Applying
this method to the restrictions of homogeneous forms of degrees dl,"" dp
to a p-dimensional subspace, we obtain a polynomial of degree dl ... dp D
Remark. A more careful argument shows that we can dispense with the
assumption that the hypersurfaces MI, ... , Mp are nonsingular; see [9].
+ ... +
+ ... + zan
_ 1.
Hk(Va )
{o
if k
if k
i- n,
= n.
n ]Rn+! I x~
~ 0 for i
= 0, ... , n},
4. Complex Manifolds
343
X.
+ zf =
Zo
Now, let us prove that the space Ua is homotopy equivalent to the wedge
of (ao - 1) .. , (an - 1) n-spheres. We identify Ua with the space of n-tuples
(uoto, ... ,untn ), where each Ui is an aith root of unity, ti ~ 0, and E ti = 1.
This means that Ua coincides with the join Zao * Zal * ... * Zan' where Zm
is the m-point discrete space. Since Zm = ~, we have
m-l
Zao
* Zal * ... * Za
rv
sn V ... V sn
n~'
(ao-l) .. (an- 1)
6. Miscellany
344
because SO
* .,. * SO =
n+l
+ w? + ... + w~-l,
where i
= 0,1, ... , n.
w~ne, where 0 ~ ki ~
ai -
2,
345
A Lie group is commutative if and only if all matrices in its Lie algebra
pairwise commute.
Problem 135. Prove that the image of a linear subspace V of the space
of matrices under the map exp is a Lie group if and only if, for any two
matrices A, BE V, the matrix [A, B] = AB - BA belongs to V.
The Lie group T" =
21
'"
S:
1-1.
Let us prove that the set exp W contains some neighborhood of the
identity element in H. We decompose TeG into the direct sum W ffi W' and
I
W
d W I E W.I On some neighborhood of the
put cp(w, w)
= e w eWi or wEan
346
6. Miscellany
347
left-invariant vector fields VA and VB, their commutator [VA, VB] is defined.
This is again a left-invariant vector field vc. The matrix C, i.e., the vector
[VA, VB] at e E G, is defined to be the commutator of the matrices A and B.
Theorem 6.22. For matrix Lie algebras, [A, B] = AB - BA is the usual
commutator of matrices.
Proof. Any matrix Lie group G is a subgroup in the group GL(n, R) of
nonsingular matrices of order n. The commutator of two vector fields on G
is the same as the commutator of these vector fields considered on GL(n, JR).
Therefore, is suffices to prove the required assertion for GL(n, R). In this
case, the elements x) of the matrix Ilx)ll? can be taken for local coordinates. We are interested in the commutator of vector fields with coordinates
VA(X)) = x~A~ and VB(X)) = x~Bf (with summation over repeated indices).
By definition, [VA(X), VB(X)] = Vc{X) , where
k _ i AP 8 (x:Bj) _ i BP 8 (x:A7)
vc (x )I - xp j 8 i
xp j 8 i
Xj
Xj
q j J>k
~j 6k - xpi BPj AqI U
-- xpi APj B I 6qUi
q i - xpk(APqBqI
Thus, vc{x)t
= x!Cr,
where C
BPqAq)
I .
= AB - BA.
The Maps Ad and ad. Consider the transformation x 1-+ gxg- 1 on the
Lie group G. In a neighborhood of the identity, it can be represented as
etX 1-+ ge tX g-l, where X is an element of the Lie algebra g. It is easy to
see that the derivatives with respect to t of etX and ge tX g-1 at t = a are X
and gXg- 1 , respectively. Therefore, the map X 1-+ gXg-l, where 9 E G, is
a self-map of the Lie algebra g. It is denoted by Adg
Moreover, any fixed matrix A E 9 determines the map X 1-+ [A, X] =
AX - XA of the Lie algebra g. It is denoted by adA.
The maps Ad and ad are related as follows: adA X is the derivative of
Adexp(tA) X with respect to t at t = O. Indeed,
etA X e- tA
X A)
+ ....
6. Miscellany
348
~G
f(xg)
~G
f(gx)
f(x)
for any 9 E G.
~G
Exercise. Prove that Theorem 6.21 is valid not only for the torus T" but
also for any compact connected Lie group.
To define averaging, which is an analog of the arithmetic mean of functions on the group Zn, for functions on a compact Lie group G, we need
integration over G.
Left-Invariant Forms. Any left-invariant differential form is determined
by its values on the sets of vectors of the tangent space at the identitYj
therefore, it is also determined by its values on the sets of left-invariant
vector fields. If w is a left-invariant differential k-form and 6, .. ,t;.k are leftinvariant vector fields, then w(t;.I, ... ,t;.k) = constj hence T/W(t;.l, ,t;.k) = a
349
for any vector field TJ. As a consequence, the formula for the differential of
a form becomes simpler, namely,
(44)
(-l)i+i w ([{IO{J],,,,,i,,{k).
O$I<i$k
For the Lie algebra 9 of a Lie group G, we define the space of co chains
Ck(g; JR) as the space of skew-symmetric k-linear maps 9 x ... x 9 --+ JR;
the map d: C k --+ CHI is defined by (44). The cohomology of the cochain
complex thus obtained is called the cohomology of the Lie algebra 9 with
coefficients in JR. This is the same as the cohomology of the complex of
left-invariant differential forms. Generally, it does not coincide with the
cohomology of the complex of all differential forms, i.e., with the de Rham
cohomology of the Lie group G. But these cohomologies do coincide for
compact (and connected) Lie groups G.
Theorem 6.25. If a Lie group G is compact and connected, then the cohomology of its Lie algebra 9 is isomorphic to the de Rham cohomology of the
manifold G.
Proof. The proof uses the existence of the integral IgEG f(g) on a compact
connected Lie group G and its properties specified on p. 348.
First, note that if forms w and w are left-invariant and w - w = do. for
some form a, then w-w = da L for some left-invariant form a L . Indeed, since
the form do. is left-invariant, it follows that do. = IgEG L;(da) = d IgEG L;a.
Clearly, the form a L = IgEG L;a is left-invariant as well.
Now we prove that if w is an arbitrary closed form, then there exists
a left-invariant form w L such that w = w L + do. for some form a. Since
the group G is path-connected, for each 9 E G there exists a path g(t)
from g(O) = e to g(l) = g. Using this path, we obtain a family of forms
Wt = L;Ct)w which join Wo = w to WI = L;w. Clearly, the form L;w is
closed because so is w. Therefore, the homotopy invariance of the de Rham
cohomology (see p. 282) implies that w - L;w = dag for some form a g. The
dependence of a g on g is not necessarily continuous, but, in any case, it
can be assumed to be integrable (piecewise continuous) in g. Consider the
left-invariant form w L = IgEG L;w. Clearly,
w - wL =
where
0.=
IgEG a g.
gEG
(w - L;w) =
19EG
6. Miscellany
350
Example. For the torus rn, all differentials in the complex of left-invariant
differential forms are zero; therefore, Hk(Tn; JR) ~ Ak(JRn ) is the space of
skew-symmetric k-forms on JRn .
Remark. For noncompact Lie groups, Theorem 6.25 is false. For example,
rn and JRn have isomorphic Lie algebras, but the spaces H*(rn; 1R) and
H*(JRn ; 1R) are not isomorphic.
Bi-Invariant Forms.
Theorem 6.26. If G is a compact connected Lie group, then the de Rham
cohomology algebra of the manifold G is isomorphic to the algebra of biinvariant differential forms.
Proof. According to Theorem 6.25, the de Rham cohomology algebra of
the manifold G is isomorphic to the cohomology algebra of the complex of
left-invariant differential forms. For the latter, we can repeat the argument
from the proof of Theorem 6.25 with left translations replaced by right ones.
As a result, we obtain an isomorphism between the de Rham cohomology
algebra of the manifold G and the cohomology algebra of the complex of
bi-invariant differential forms. It remains to prove that the differential on
this complex is zero, i.e., dJJJ = 0 for any bi-invariant form w.
Consider the map i: G -+ G defined by i(g) = g-l. It takes the curve
ge tX to e- tX g-I; therefore, the tangent vector Y = gX at 9 is taken to
-Xg-I = _g-IYg- l . Thus, ifw is a bi-invariant k-form, then
(i*wg)(Xl. ... ) = Wg
i.e., i*w
= (_I)kw.
(i*Xl, ... )
Hence
351
Tl C T2 C ...
Z(8)
= {g
E G
I g8 = sg Vs E 8}.
1-+
gxg- 1 maps 8
= 1, and
Proof. (a) Consider the map N(T) ~ Aut(T) that assigns the automorphism x 1-+ gxg- 1 to each element 9 E N(T). The group Aut(T) is discrete because any automorphism of the torus is determined by an integer
matrix with determinant 1 (any such automorphism leaves the integer lattice invariant). Therefore, the connected component N(T)e of the identity
element is mapped to the identity automorphism, i.e., N(T)e C Z(T).
Let A be a tangent vector to Z(T) at e. Consider the subgroup H
generated by the torus T and the elements eAt, where t E JR. The subgroup
H is closed; therefore, it is a Lie subgroup. Moreover, the group 1I is
6. Miscellany
352
X(G/N(T
= X(D m ) + X(M)
- X(sm-l)
= X(Dm) = 1.
353
Corollary 1. All maxtmal tori are conjugate; i.e., ilT and T' are maximal
tori 01 a compact Lie group G, then T' = gTg-l lor some 9 E G.
Proof. Let t' be a topological generator of the torus T'. Take 9 E G for
which t' E gTg-l. We have T' C gTg- l . Clearly, gTg- 1 is a torus. Therefore, the maximality of T' implies T' = gTg-l.
0
Corollary 2. For any compact connected Lie group G, the image 01 the
map exp: TeG --+ G is the entire group G.
Proof. Let T be a maximal torus of the Lie group G. For each x E G,
we can choose 9 E G so that x belongs to the torus gTg-l. In the proof
of Theorem 6.19, we showed that the map exp is an epimorphism for a
torus.
0
The dimension of a maximal torus of a compact connected Lie group G
is called the rank of G.
Problem 136. Given a compact connected Lie group G and a positive
integer n, prove that the image of the map I: G --+ G defined by f (g) = gn
coincides with the entire group G.
5.4. Regular Elements. Let G be a compact connected Lie group. An
element 9 EGis said to be regular if it is contained in precisely one maximal
torus; if g is contained in more than one of the maximal tori, then it is called
singular. Regular elements can also be defined as follows: An element 9 E G
is regular if and only if the dimension of its normalizer NCg) is equal to that
of a maximal torus. To prove the equivalence of these definitions, we need
two lemmas.
354
o. 1Vllscellany
Proof. First, suppose that 9 is regular, i.e., belongs to precisely one maximal torus T. Then, according to Lemma 2, we have N(g)e = T, whence
dimN(g) = dimN(g)e = dimT.
Now, suppose that 9 belongs to two different maximal tori, Tl and T 2
According to Lemma 2, the normalizer N(g) contains both Tl and T2 Thprefore, the tangent space N (g) at e contains the sum of the tangent spaces to
Tl and T2. These spaces are diffcrent, and hence the dimcnslon of their sum
is strictly larger than that of a maximal torus.
0
355
where Or: T
-+
21TClr
sin 21TCl r
COS
- sin 21TClr)
cos 21TCl r .
is commutative are often considered. The map Or is the lifting of Or 0 exp for
which Or(O) = O. Such a lifting exists and is unique because the topological
space t is simply connected. The linear maps Or: t -+ Hi are called roots too.
Theorem 6.32. A torus T is maximal if and only if Vo
= t.
356
6. Miscellany
H consisting of the elements etX , where t E JR, the torus T acts triviallyj
therefore, the subgroup generated by T and H is connected and Abelian,
and it contains T as a proper subset. This contradicts the maximality of T.
Now, suppose that Vo = i, T and T' are tori, and T is contained in T'.
Then T acts trivially on t', and therefore t' c Yo. Hence t c t' c Vo = t,
which means that dim T = dim T'. Thus, T = T', and the torus T is
maximal.
0
Corollary. The dimension of any compact connected Lie group G is equal
to 1+ 2m, where 1 is the rank of G and 2m is the number of roots.
For each root Or: T --+ JR/Z, we denote its kernel by Ur . Clearly, Ur is a
subgroup in T of dimension 1 - 1, where 1 = dim T (= the rank of the Lie
group G).
Theorem 6.33. If an element t E T belongs to precisely J.L groups Ur , then
dim N(t) = 1 + 2J.L.
Proof. Let V C 9 be the subspace on which the given element t acts trivially. By Theorem 6.31, we have V = Vo EB LUr 3t If,.j therefore, dim V =
1 + 2J.L. Thus, it is sufficient to prove that V = TeN(t).
The elements of N(t) commute with tj hence tnC 1 = n for any n E N(t),
which means that t acts trivially on TeN(t). Therefore, TeN(t) C V.
Now, suppose that X E V. Then tXC l = X, and hence te>'xC l = e>'x
for any ~ E lR. Therefore, e>'x E N(t) for all ~ E lRj thus, X E TeN(t).
0
Corollary. An element t E T is regular if and only if it does not belong to
any of the subgroups Ur .
Theorem 6.34. The singular elements of a Lie group G form a subset of
codimension at least 3 in G in the sense that this set is the image of one or
several smooth compact manifolds of dimension at most dim G - 3 under a
smooth map.
Proof. First, let us show that the group Ur has a topological generator. The
connected component (Ur)e of the identity in Ur is a torus of co dimension
1 in the torus T. The quotient of a torus by a torus is a compact connected
commutative Lie group, that is, a torus. Therefore, T / (Ur)e is a torus of
dimension 1, i.e., the circle S1. The group Ur/(Ur)e is a finite subgroup in
T/(Ur)e ~ Slj hence Ur/(Ur)e ~ Zk for some positive integer k. Let t be
a topological generator of the torus (Ur )e, and let 9 E Ur be an element
such that the group Zk is generated by the coset g(Ur)e. fis in the proof of
Lemma 1 on p. 354, we choose an element 8 E (Ur)e for whirh tg- k = 8 k and
consider h = g8. The same argument shows that h is a topological generator
of Ur .
357
+ dimUr
dimG - (I
+ 2) + (I-I) = dimG -
3.
treg if and only if ge X g-1 E Greg for any 9 E G. Thus, we have a map
CPreg: (G/T) x treg - Greg, and this map is surjective because so is cp. Let
us show that cpreg is a local homeomorphism. It suffices to verify that the
Jacobian cpreg vanishes nowhere.
Lemma. A point (g,X) is regular for the map cp: (G/T) x t only if X E trego
G if and
6. Miscellany
358
= eX + eX dX.
More-
ge X g-1
= 9 dz,
where dz
Below, we use the notation of Theorem 6.31. The map id - Adex vanishes on Va = t, and it is nonsingular on v;. (r = 1, ... , m) if and only if
Or(e X ) i- 1, i.e., eX Ur . Thus, the restriction of id - Adex to E:.n=1 Vr is
nonsingular if and only if the element eX is regular, i.e., X E trego
Clearly, the restriction of Adex to t is an automorphism, so it is always
nonsingular.
D
Consider the commutative diagram
7
X
(G/T) x
ireg
l~reg
~ (G/T) x t
C
I Greg
1~
I G.
(G/T) x t
1~
IG.
The space t is contractible, and therefore the map ii. is homotopic to a map
X - (G/T) x {O}. Since cp(g, 0) = e is the identity element of G, it follows
that cp takes (G/T) x {O} to the identity element e.
D
5.5. H-Spaces and Hopf Algebras. A topological space X with a base
point Xo E X is called an H-space if it is equipped with a continuous map
/L: X x X - X such that the maps x ~ /L(x,xo) and x ~ /L(xo,x) are
homotopic to the identity map (it is assumed that /Ltxo. xo) = xo). The
map /L is called a multiplication.
The Hopf theorem (Theorem 6.41) shows that the cohomology algebra
of an H -space over a field of characteristic zero has a very special form.
359
One of the corollaries of this theorem is that H2(G; JR) = 0 for any simply
connected Lie group G.
Natural examples of H-spaces are Lie groups and topological groups.
But there exist other examples.
Example 80. The spaces Cpoo and Rp oo are H-spaces.
Proof. Let us identify Coo \ {OJ with the space of polynomials by assigning
the polynomial ao + alz + ... + anz n to each point (ao, al, ... , an, 0, ... ).
Multiplication of polynomials induces a multiplication in Coo \ {OJ for which
(1,0,0, ... ) is an identity element. Identifying proportional polynomials,
we obtain a multiplication in the space Cpoo with the identity element
(1 : 0 : 0 : ... ). For JRpoo , the construction is similar.
0
Example 81. The sphere 8 7 is an H-space.
Proof. Let us represent 8 7 as the set of Cayley numbers with unit norm.
Multiplication of Cayley numbers induces a (nonassociative) multiplication
on S7.
0
Theorem 6.36. If X is an H -space with base point xo, then the group
xo) is Abelian.
71'1 (X,
Proof. A homotopy between loops afJ and fJa can be constructed as follows.
Consider the map of the inner rhombus in Figure 33 defined by (s, t) 1-+
Q
fJ
J.L(a(s), fJ(t)). Maps of the remaining four triangles are constructed by using
homotopies between the maps s 1-+ a(s) and S 1-+ J.L(a(s), xo) and between
the maps t 1-+ fJ(t) and t 1-+ J.L(xo, fJ(t)).
0
Theorem 6.36 has the following generalization.
Theorem 6.37. Any H -space X is simple.
Proof. Clearly, 71'n(X X Y, (xo, Yo)) ~ 71'n(X, xo) x 71'n(Y, Yo), and the action
of the group 71'1 (X x Y, (xo, Yo)) corresponds to a product of actions; namely,
(a,fJ)(u,v) = (au.fJ v ).
6. Miscellany
360
1I"1(X x X)
1I"n(X
X)
1I"n(X
l~x~.
X)
1~
1I"1(X) x 1I"n(X)
) 1I"n(X),
11"1
on 1I"n.
Let el and en be the identity elements of 11"1 (X) and 1I"n(X). Then, for
any a E 1I"1(X) and U E 1I"n(X), we have (a, el)(e n , u) = (ae n , elu) = (en, u).
Therefore, J.t*(a, edJ.t*(e n , u) = J.t*(en, u), and hence au = u.
D
Let F be the additive group of some field, and let X be a connected
H-space for which all groups Hi(X; F) ~ Hi(X; F) are finite-dimensional
spaces over F. Consider the cohomology algebra A = ffi,>o Ai, where Ai =
Hi(X; F). The diagonal map d: X - X x X determines a multiplication
A A - A in the cohomology algebra. The multiplication J.t: X x X - X
induces a map ~ - J.t*: A - A A. This map is called a coproduct. The
coproduct ~ has the following properties.
1. The map ~: A - A A is a homomorphism of algebras, i.e., ~(1)
1 1, and if ~(a) - Eali a2i and ~(b) = Eb 1j b2j , then
~(a ~ b)
I,j
This follows from the Kiinneth theorem for cohomology with coefficients in
a field and from the multiplication law in the algebra H*(X x X).
2. Let PI: AA - A be the map defined by a Pl 1-+ a P and aPa q 1-+ 0
for q > 0, and let P2: A A - A be a similar map taking 1 a P to a P.
Then both compositions in the diagram
A--~~)AA
lpl
P2
AA
)A
X(
~r
XxX
r~(,XO)
X x X (~(xo,) X
are homotopic to the identity map.
361
For a field F with characteristic Pi- 0, Theorem 6.38 is false because the
equality xn = 0 may hold for n = pm. To prove a version of Theorem 6.38
for fields of nonzero characteristic, we need the following lemma.
Lemma. Suppose that n = E nipi and r
Then (~) == TI, (~:) (mod p).
= E ripi,
6. Miscellany
362
(1
+ X)pk
(1
+ x)n
+ x)no+nlP++nmpm
(1 + x)n0(1 + x)n 1P ... (1 + x)nmpm
(1 + x)n0(1 + xP)n 1 (1 + xpTn)n",
(1
IT f= (~t)xkP'
t
(mod p).
0k 0
(~)
= (~.)
363
According to Theorem 6.38, the algebra generated by Xn is the polynomial algebra F[xnl (if the dimension of Xn is even) or the exterior algebra A(xn) (if the dimension of Xn is odd). Therefore, since the algebra
A is graded commutative and associative, there is a natural epimorphism
A n - l F[xnl --+ An (if the dimension of Xn is even) or An 1 A(xn) --+ An
(if the dimension of Xn is odd). It is sufficient to prove that this epimorphism
is a monomorphism (and then apply induction on n).
Consider the ideal I generated by x~ and the elements of A n - l of positive
dimension. It consists of all expressions of the form ~ akx~, where ak E
An 1 and the zero-dimensional components of ao and al vanish. Clearly,
Xn I because any element of I of dimension dimx n must belong to A n - l
(the ideal I has no elements of the form AXn , where A E F).
Consider the composition
An ~ An An ~ An (An/I),
o= L
= L akx~ 1 + L kakx~-l
xn
6. Miscellany
364
obtain
0= ao 1 +
al
l(xn 1 + 1 xn)
+ alxn ) 1 + al Xn
al Xn = o. As in the preceding
(ao
= O.
Corollary 1. Let G be a Lie group. Then the cohomology algebra H*(G; 1R)
is an exterior algebra on generators of odd dimensions.
Proof. The polynomial algebra is infinite-dimensional; hence a finite-dimen0
sional algebra cannot contain a polynomial subalgebra.
Corollary 2. If G is a simply connected Lie group, then H2(G; JR.)
= O.
Proof. Since G is simply connected, Hl(G;JR) = O. Therefore, all generators in the cohomology algebra H*(G; 1R) are of dimension at least 3.
0
3 65
366
Let us show that (f id)Q2 - 0 and Q3(f - id) - O. The former equality
is derived as follows: Til 1172Q2 - 171 1cp2(32 - 1711171Q2 = Q2. To prove
the latter, note that CP4 Q3 = (33171, i.e., Q3 = CP4 1(33171, whence Q31711172 =
cP 4 1(33171171 1172 - cP 4 1(33172 = cP 4 1CP4 Q3 = Q3
Thus, Im(f - id) c KerQ3 - ImQ2 and ImQ2 c Ker(f id); therefore,
(f - id)2 - o.
(b) First, suppose that such a homomorphism d exists. We set 172 171 + 171 d. The first two conditions ensure the commutativity of the diagram,
and the last condition implies that 172 is a homomorphism of rings. Let us
show that 172 is a monomorphism. If 172(X) - 0, then 171 (x) = 171 (-d(X));
therefore, x - -d(X), which means that d(x)
-d2(x) - 0 because Imd C
Ker Q3 - 1m Q2 C Ker d. Let us show that 172 is an epimorphism. Suppose
that y E B3 and y - 171 (X). Then 172(X - d(X)) - 171 (X - d(x)) -171(d(x)d2 (x)) - 171 (x) - y.
Now suppose that there exists a diagram with two different isomorphisms
171 and 172. Consider d
171 1172 - id. It is easy to show that d has all the
required properties.
(c) The commutative diagrams
cp
1/J
o -------t Z2 -------t
Z2 X Z2 -------t Z2 ~ 0
Ihl
cp
l~
1/J
Ihl
Ht{KonKd
(10. 31),
---+
HI (T2)
---+
Ho(KonKd
---+ 0
---+
Z ---+ 0,
where r.p = (jo, -j1). The group Hl(Ko n Kd consists of elements of the
form na + mb. The homomorphism r.p takes any such element to the pair
(njo(a) + mjo(b), -njl(a) - mj1(b)). But jo(a) = jo(b) and jl(a) = jl(b).
Therefore, cP has the form (m, n) ~ (n + m, -n - m). Hence Ker cP = Z
and 1m cP = Z. Since the exact sequence
0---+ Z ---+
HI (T2)
---+ Z ---+ 0
367
o ~ H2(T2) ~ HI(Ko n Kd
(3D. il).
HI (Ko) E9 HI(Kd
o ~ H2(T2)
Therefore, H2(T2) ~ Kercp ~
~ Kercp ~
o.
z.
~ Hi(T2)
For i
~ H i (S3).
2, we obtain
o.
368
1, we obtain
0---- Z ffi Z
and
0---- z2n ~ Zn ffi HI(Kd ____ O.
We have 8.(1) = (1, ... , l)j hence H2(Kd = zn-l. The map j. takes parallels of n tori to generators of the group HI (Ko) = zn j therefore, meridians
of these n tori are mapped to generators of H1(KI). Thus, HI(Kd = zn,
and generators of this group are represented by small circles put on the link
components.
10. Let us write the Mayer Vietoris sequence for Ko = M n \ int Dn
and KI = D n :
Hk(sn-l) ____ Hk(M n \ int Dn) ffi Hk(D n ) ____ Hk(M n ) - + Hk_l(sn-l).
If k ~ 1, then Hk(Dn) = 0, and if 2 ~ k ~ n - 2, then Hk(sn-l) = 0
and Hk-I (sn-I) = OJ for k = 1, we consider reduced homology groups.
11. Let K' be the barycentric subdivision of the simplicial complex K.
Consider the simplicial map f: K' -+ N(e) defined as follows. Each simplex ~ in the complex K is covered by one of the sub complexes L i . To
the barycenter v of ~ we assign the minimum index i. We must show that
if K' contains a simplex with vertices vo, VI, ... , Vk which correspond to
369
sub complexes LiD, Lip ... , L ik , then N() contains a simplex with vertices
LID' ... ' L ik , i.e., LID n ... n Lik =1= 0. We can assume that in the initial
simplicial complex K, Vo is a vertex, VI is the midpoint of an edge, V2 is
the center of a 2-face, etc. Then Vm E Lim implies Vo, . , Vm 1 E Lim.
Therefore, Vio E LiD n ... n L'k.
Let us prove that f induces an isomorphism of homology groups. We use
induction on n. For n - 1, the complex K = Ll is acyclic, and N() = *
consists of one point. Thus, the basis of induction is obvious. The induction
step is as follows. Suppose that 1 = {Ll. ... , L n }, Kl = Ll U ... U L n ,
and K2 - Ln+l. Consider the sub complex Nl = N(l) of N() and let N2
be the closed star of the vertex (n + 1). By construction, f takes K~ to N l ,
and by the induction hypothesis, the restriction of f to K~ induces an isomorphism in homology. The restriction of f to K~ also induces an isomorphism in homology because the complex K2 - Ln+l is acyclic and N2 is a
cone with vertex (n + 1).
Let M, = Li U Ln+l. Then M = {Ml , ... , Mn} is a cover of the set
Kl n K 2, to which the induction hypothesis applies. Therefore, f induces
an isomorphism between the homology groups of the complexes Kl n K2
and N(M) = Nl n N 2. Let us write the Mayer Vietoris exact sequence:
Hk(Kl
l~
Hk(Nl
n N2)
l~
~ Hk(Nd E9 Hk(N2)
------+ Hk(N)
----t
Hk-l(Kl ) E9 Hk-l(K2)
l~
~ Hk-l (Nl
l~
The pairs of the left and right maps are isomorphisms; hence, by the five
lemma, the middle map is an isomorphism as well.
12. In case (b), consider the diagram
O~A
'P
>B
'I/J
)C----tO
1 1 1
idA
<l>EB..p
ide
o~ A ~ A E9 C ------+ C ------+ 0 ,
where (<p E9 'I/J)(b) = (<P(b), 'I/;(b)). It is easy to show that this diagram is
commutative; it suffices to apply the relations 'l/;cp = 0 and <Pcp = idA.
Therefore, according to the five lemma, <P EEl 'I/J is an isomorphism.
370
+ W(c).
13. (a) The map 1f'k(B) ~ 1f'k(E) ~ 1f'k(B) is the identity; therefore,
P. is an epimorphism. For k = n+ 1, the map 8.: 1f'n+I(B) --+ 1f'n(F) is zero.
Thus, we obtain an exact sequence 0 --+ 1f'n(F) ..!..4 1f'n(E)~1f'n(B) --+ 0, and
s. is a right inverse of the homomorphism P.
--+
0,
(c) Since the space F is contractible in E, any spheroid in F is contractible in E. Therefore, the map 1f'n(F) --+ 1f'n(E) is zero. Thus, we obtain
an exact sequence 0 --+ 1f'n(E) ~ 1f'n(B) ~ 1f'n-I(F)
that the homomorphism 8. has a right inverse.
--+
O. Let us show
Take a homotopy It: E --+ E for which lolF = idF and !l(E) = eo is a
singleton; we can assume that eo E F. Let IP: sn-l --+ F be a spheroid to F.
Then ItIP can be considered as an n-spheroid in B. Homotopic spheroids in F
correspond to homotopic spheroids in B; thus, we obtain a homomorphism
1f'n-I(F) --+ 1f'n(B). Clearly, this homomorphism is a right inverse for 8 .
14. Each homomorphism IP E Hom(A, Z) determines the homomorphism rj; E Hom(mA, Z) defined by rj;(ma) = IP(a); the same formula defines
the inverse correspondence. We only need to verify that if ma = 0, then
IP(a) = O. Suppose that IP(a) = k. Then 0 = IP{ma) = mk, and k = O.
15. Let us construct a sequence aI, a2, a3, ... E QjZ as follows. The
element al is arbitrary; the element a2 is such that 2a2 = al; the element a3
is such that 3a3 = a2, etc. After the element an-l is chosen, there are
n possible choices of an. Therefore, the set of such spquences is uncountable.
Indeed, even if there were only two choices at each step, we would obtain an
uncountable set of sequences (the set of all dyadic fractions is uncountable).
For each sequence aI, a2, a3, ... E QjZ, we define a homomorphism
Q --+ QjZ by setting I(~) = an. The equality n! I(~!) = 1(1) holds
because n! an = al. Clearly, if I(~) is given and I is a homomorphism,
I:
then f (~)
integer m.
(n - I)! f
371
(;h)
is defined; therefore,
where i(ek) = mkek for the standard generators of zr. The group Ext (A, 71..)
is the quotient of Hom(Zr, 71..) ~ zr modulo the image of Hom(Zk EEl zr, 71..)
under the map induced by (0, i), i.e., modulo the image of Hom(r, 71..) under
the map i. induced by i. Let Ck E Hom(zr, 71..) be the element dual to ek,
i.e., such that ck(eJ ) = 8kj. Then i.(ck) = mkCk. Therefore, the quotient of
Hom(Zr,Z) by the image of i. is isomorphic to T.
17. Using free resolutions
and
O-R'-+F'-+B-O
and the canonical isomorphism
Tor(B, A)
111
111
111
1
1
1o.
o
o
)RF'----+FF'
) AF'---+) 0
o~Tor(A,B) ----?RB~FB
) AB---+) 0
372
o.
Ker 1331.
Take X13 E Ker a13. Using the surjectivity of 1312, we choose an element
X12 E X 12 for which J312(X12) - X13. We have J322aI2(X12) = a13J312(XI2) =
a13(x13) = 0; therefore, for the chosen element X12, there exists a unique X21
such that J321(X21) - a12(x12). The element X12 itself is not uniquely
determined. But if x~2 is another element for which J312(X12) = X13, then
J312(X12 - X~2) = 0; therefore, X12 - x~2 = J3u(xu) for some Xu E Xu.
We pass from X21 to X31 - a21(x2!) E X31. This element is determined uniquely. Indeed, J321(X21 - X~I) = a12(x12 - X~2) = a12J311(xU) =
J321aU(Xl1). But 1321 is a monomorphism; therefore, X21 - x~l = all(xu),
whence a21 (X21 - x~l) = a21aU (Xll) = O.
Let us show that X31 E Ker 1331. By construction, 1331 (X3!) = 1331 a21 (x2d
= a22J321 (X2t) = a22aI2(X12) = O.
The map Ker 1331 - Ker a13 is constructed is a similar way. Clearly, the
element X31 = a21 (X2!) is mapped to X13; thus, the constructed maps are
mutually inverse.
For the periodic group T, there exists a resolution of the form
o - F ~ F~T - 0, where F is a free Abelian group. Indeed, suppose
that the epimorphism p: F - T takes each generator JO/. to an element
of order nO/.. Then we set i(fO/.) = nO/.JO/.. If Ext(T, Z) = 0, then the map
18.
373
'I/J{3
= O.
(3(g)
Q )
(b) According to Theorem 1.19, it suffices to prove that rj; is an epimorphism. In other words, if A c B is a subgroup, then any homomorphism
a: A -+ G c~ be extended to a homomorphism (3: B -+ G. Take x E B\A.
Let us extend the homomorphism a to the group generated by x and A as
follows:
(1) if mx A for all mEN, then we set (3(x)
= 0;
= CP2a.
374
Consider now the following commutative diagram with exact rows and
columns:
Hom(A, B)
Hom(A, G)
E,
Hom(A, H)
~Ext(A,B)
E,
1
Hom(R, B)
1
Ext(A, B)
E.
~
E,
1
Hom(R, G)
E3
~
1
Hom(R, H)
1
) o.
The two zeros in this diagram appear because the group F is free and G is
divisible.
It is easy to show that Ker El = Ext(A, B) and Ker E5
Indeed, in both cases we deal with diagrams of the form
= Ext(A, B).
375
111
111
o ~ Hom(A, H)
Hom(B, H) ~ Hom(C, H) ~ 0
--+
Ext(X, A)
--+
and
o --+ Hom(A, X)
--+
Hom(A, G)
--+
Hom(A, H)
--+
Ext(A, X)
--+
imply that the kernel and cokernel of the map Hom(F, A) --+ Hom(R, A) are
Hom(X, A) and Ext(X, A), respectively, and the kernel and cokernel of the
map Hom(A, G) --+ Hom(A, H) are Hom(A, X) and Ext(A, X). Applying
Problem 2, we obtain the required result.
23. According to the universal coefficient theorem, we have
because Ext(zn,
ffi 1i-I, Z) ~ Ti
I by Problem 16.
25. First, let us prove the assertion about torsions. Consider the two
sequences of homomorphisms
Ci+I
8,+1
8.
i --+
i-I
and
376
matrices with determinants 1 on the left and on the right, we can reduce
this matrix to a matrix in which the diagonal contains 1, ... ,1, dl, ... , dl
(d] ~ 2) and all of the remaining elements (both diagonal and off-diagonal)
are zero. It is easy to see that Ti ~ Zdl EEl ... EEl Zdl . To calculate T, we
must reduce the matrix of the map 6i - 1 =
to the Smith normal form. It
is obtained from the matrix of ai by transposition; therefore, the group T,
which is calculated by using the operator
is isomorphic to the group
Ti-l, which is calculated by using the operator i .
a:
a:,
Now let us prove the assertion about the ranks of groups. Note that the
torsion subgroup T, is completely determined by the operator a,+l; however,
to calculate the rank of the ith homology group, we need both operators a,+l
and a,. Suppose that the diagonal of the Smith normal form of the matrix
of contains ai nonzero elements. Then
a,
rkKera,
rk Ker 6'
= rkC, = rk Ci -
ai,
a,+l.
rkIma,+l = ai+I.
rkIm6 i - 1 = ai
Therefore,
Indeed, in the quotient by the image, every 1 on the diagonal kills one direct
summand Z, and every d > 1 replaces one summand Z by Zd, which makes
no contribution to the rank.
26. Since the groups Ho(X) and Ho(Y) are torsion-free, Ext(Ho(X), Z)
o. Thus, the universal coefficient theorem gives natural isomorphisms Hl(X) -+ Hom(Hl(X), Z) and Hl(y) -+ Hom(Hl(Y)' Z).
The zero homomorphism f.: H1(X) -+ H1(Y) induces the zero homomorphism Hom(Hl(Y), Z) -+ Hom(HI(X), Z); therefore, after natural identifications we obtain the zero homomorphism Hl(y) -+ Hl(X).
= Ext(Ho(Y), Z) =
377
"" Hn(sn)
H n+1(ESn ) -=---+
(E/).
1/.
"" Hn(sn) ,
H n+1(ESn ) ---=---t
where the horizontal arrows are isomorphisms of suspensions. Therefore, if
f. is multiplication by d, then so is (Ef) .
29. Clearly, Ho = Zp and H2 = Zp (in the orient able case) or H2
(in the nonorientable case). We have
HI(Kj Zp)
H1(K) Zp
ILJp
Ext(Z2' Z) ~ Z2.
31. Obviously, HUX = S3 and HnX = 8H is a sphere with 9 handles.
Therefore, the Mayer Vietoris sequence for X and H has the form
--+
--+
378
33. The integral cohomology groups are easy to calculate if the integral
homology groups are known (see Problem 24). Example 10 shows that
for calculating the cell homology of X has the form Z2 ~ 'Z} - 0, where the
homomorphism is determined by the matrix ( 3 ~ ). The determinant
of this matrix equals -lj therefore,
is an isomorphism. Thus, the CWcomplex X is acyclic.
71"1 (X)
379
37. Consider the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the diagram
and directed upward; we treat it as a point of the sphere 52. The points of
the torus mapped to this point are in one-to-one correspondence with the
crosses at which the curve J passes under K. It is seen from Figure H.4
that different types of crosses correspond to different signs of the Jacobian
of /.
~
~
~
K
--y7J
K
e= -1
e= +1
Figure H.4. The map
380
39. Let b~ and b~ be the number of k-simplices in K and L, respectively, and let bk be the number of k-cells in K x L. Then (_1)kbk =
L p +q k(-1)Pb~(-1)qb~ because bk = L p +q kb~b~. Therefore,
X(K x L) = L
(_1)kbk = (L
40. If In = idK and the map I has no fixed points, then we can construct
an n-fold covering p: K - K/"" where x '" I(x) '" P(x) '" ... '" In(x) =
x. If the triangulation of the complex K is sufficiently fine, then the simplices
~ and I(~) do not intersect. Such a triangulation induces a triangulation
of K/",. According to Problem 38, we have X(K) - nx(K/",) 0 (mod n).
41. Clearly, 1m I,
Thus,
=L
+L
(-1)'dimlml, + L
( _1)i dim 1m Ii
= o.
42. Let Ko be the c-neighborhood of the given link, and let Kl be the
closure of 8 2 \ Ko. Then X(8 3 ) = X(Ko) + X(KI) - X(Ko n Kl). Here
X(8 3 ) = 0, X(Ko) = 0, and X(Ko n K 1 ) = 0 because Ko n Kl consists of one
or several tori. Hence X(Kl) = 0, as required.
43. Let us write the exact sequence of a pair for homology with coefficients in some field:
This sequence contains only finitely many nonzero terms, so we can use
Problem 41. As a result, we obtain
(_1)i dimH,(B)
+L
+L
(_1)i dimH,(A, B) =
o.
44. * Let us enumerate the i-faces of the complex K by 1, 2, ... , I" where
I, is the number of i-faces, and consider the number pij(k) of j-faces that
intersect the kth i-face F~. The number of j-faces disjoint from this face is
Ii - Pi) (k); therefore,
I.
(1)
O!ij
I.
k=l
Proof. Let us endow the manifold M n with a Riemannian metric and consider the set Qe of all points of Mn at distance at most c from F~. If c is
381
j-O
j 0
D
as required.
Formula (1) implies
n
\lI(K)
L L (-I)i+
jQij
i=O 3=0
n n
i=O
n
Ii
k=l
j=O
n
382
normal subspace). The map Mk ---. N k /'" is a covering because each normal
plane intersects Mk transversally.
46. It is sufficient to prove that for coefficients in Z2, the intersection
number of Mk and every normal subspace is O. Any (n - k)-dimensional
subspace in IRn can be transformed into any other (n - k)-dimensional subspace by a motionj therefore, the intersection number of Mk and an (n - k)dimensional subspace does not depend on the subspace. But for any compact
manifold, there exists a subspace disjoint from it.
47. Choose a puint a E Mk such that the function f(x) - Ilx - a1 2 ,
x E Mk, has no degenerate critical points. The critical points of this function
are the intersection points of Mk with the normal subspace at a. Let ri be
the number of critical points with intersection number i. Then
0 r, = r
k
and
o( -l)ir, - X(M ). Clearly, ro > O. Therefore, -r < X(Mk) ~ r.
But X(M k ) - rx(N k ), where N k is the manifold introduced in the solution
of Problem 45. Hence -1 < X(N k ) ~ 1. Thus, X(N k ) is equal to 0 or 1, i.e.,
X(M k ) is equal to 0 or r.
48. Solving Problem 47, we proved that if Mk is a closed manifold
admitting a transnormal embpdding and X(M k ) -:f:. 0, then ri = 0 for all
odd i. Therefore, Mk is homotopy equivalent to a CW-complex containing
no cells of odd dimension.
49. It is sufficient to prove the required assertion in the case where f is
a simplicial map. In this case, the chain map ik: Ck(Kj IR) ---. Ck(Kj IR) is
determined by a matrix A with integer elements, and the chain map Jk is
determined by the matrix AP.
E:
E7
U:J == 0
383
shows that the map HP' (K, L,) -+ HP' (K) is an epimorphism, that is,
HP' (K, L,) has an element {3, mapped to 0,. Moreover, {31 ....., ... ....., {3n
is mapped to 01 ....., ... ....., On. But {31 ....., ... ....., (3n E H(K, U~-l L,) = o.
(b) The required assertion follows from (a) because the suspension can
be represented as the union of two contractible spaces (cones).
384
alo.~
and
then
I*(A) =
1*(0.1 '-"
f3d = (ald l
+ ... + amdm -
(b) The homomorphism h that takes 0.1 to o.~ and 132 to f3~ is not
induced by any continuous map f: M? ---t Mi because 1*(0.1) '-" 1*(132) =
o.
385
and El, . .. , Ek, el, .. , ek have the same orientation. Under this choice of
orientations, the sign is plus.
59. Let 0 and fJ be the cohomology classes dual (in the sense of linear
algebra) to the homology classes of the cycles sm x {xo} and {Yo} xsn. Then
0'-" fJ is a generator of Hn+m(sn x sm). Thus, it is sufficient to prove that
/*(0) = 0 and /*(fJ) - O. But /*(0) E Hm(sn+m) - 0 and /*(fJ) E
Hn(sn+m) _ O.
69. Any contractible manifold is orientablej therefore, we have the Lefschetz isomorphism Hk(M n , aM n ) !:!:!. Hn k(Mn). Hence Hn(Mn, aM n ) Z and Hk(M n , aMn) - 0 for k i- n. It follows from the exact sequence for
the pair (Mn,aM n ) that Hk(aM n ) '" Hk(M n ) for k < n-l and H n _ 1 (aMn)
!:!:! Hn(Mn,aM n ) = Z.
70. Consider the following commutative (up to sign) diagram for homology and cohomology groups with coefficients in the field Q:
H 2 (M 3, aM 3) ~ HI (aM3)
~ ~[M3l
H 1 (M 3)
""
,.
i.
r~[aM3l
HI (M 3 )
""
r~[M3l
o -----+ Ker A
-----+
-----+
-----+
Coker A
-----+
o.
o -- (Ker A)* - - rr -- V* - -
(Coker A)* - -
o.
Thus, Coker(A*) = (Ker A)*. Therefore, dim Coker i* = dim Ker i*, which
means that dim 1m a = dim Ker i. = dim Coker i* = dim Coker a. As
a result, we obtain dimlma = dim(HI(aM3)/lma) = dimH1 (aM 3) dimlma, i.e., dimlma = ~ dim HI (aM 3 ), as required.
71. According to the Alexander duality theorem, we have
if k = n - 2,
if k = 0,
otherwise.
386
Therefore,
Z
H,(X)
zm
= zm-l
0
if i = 0,
if i = 1,
if i = n - 1,
otherwise.
where Pm and Pn are double coverings, is commutative. According to Problem 60(a), the map f!H): HI (Rpm; Z2) --+ HI (Rpn; Z2) is zero; therefore,
so is the map f!7f): 71"1 (Rpm; Z2) --+ 71"1 (Rpn; Z2). Indeed, if n = 1, then
the homomorphism f.: Z2 --+ Z is zero for obvious algebraic reasons, and
if n > 1, then we can identify the generators of the groups HI (Rpn; Z2)
and 71"1 (Rpn) and the generators ofthe groups HI (Rpm; Z2) and 7I"} (Rpm).
After such an identification, we obtain f!7f) = f!H).
The map f induces the zero homomorphism of fundamental groups;
hence it has a lifting
387
388
= Mt n \
int D 4n
75. Let zP and w q be cochains with values in G which represent the cohomology classes aP and bq. Then 8 (zP '-" w q), 8 ( zP) '-" w q, and zP '-' 8 (w q) is a
cochain representing the classes [3*(a P '-'" bq), [3*(a P) '-" bq, and aP '-" [3*(b q).
Clearly, 8(zP '-" w q) = 8(zP) '-" w q + (-l)PzP '-" 8(wq).
76. Obviously, Tor(Hp(MP), Hq_ 1(Nq = 0 because Hp(MP) = 0 or Z.
Therefore, according to the Kiinneth theorem, we have Hp+q(MP x Nq) ~
Hp(MP) Hq(Nq). This group is isomorphic to Z if and only if Hp(MP) = Z
and Hq(Nq) = Z.
77. Suppose that sn = MP x Nq, where MP and Nq are manifolds
of dimensions p, q ~ 1. Clearly, these manifolds must be closed. Moreover, according to Problem 76, they must be orientable. Therefore, by the
Kiinneth theorem, the group Hp(sn) contains the subgroup Z = Hp(MP)
Ho(Nq), and 0 < p < n. This is impossible.
78. The fundamental groups of both spaces coincide with Z2, and all
of the remaining homotopy groups for the sphere and projective space of
the same dimension are isomorphic. For homology, it suffices to prove that
the homology groups with coefficients in Z2 are different. By the Kiinneth
theorem, the dimension of the space Ef),>o Hi(X x Yj Z2) is equal to the
product of the dimensions of Ef),>o Hi (X;Z2) and Ef),>o Hi(Yj Z2)' Hence
the dimensions of Ef)i>O H.(sn x !Rpmj Z2) and Ef)i>O H~(sm x !Rpnj Z2) are
equal to 2m + 2 and 2n + 2, respectively.
79. Clearly, 7I"1(S2 x !RpOO) ~ Z2 ~ 7I"1(!Rp2) and 7I"k(S2 x !RpOO) ~
7I"k(!Rp 2) for k ~ 2 because 7I"k(POO) = 0 and 7I"k(S2) ~ 7I"k(!Rp2) for k ~ 2.
According to the Kiinneth theorem, the group H.(S2 x lRPOOj Z2) contains a subgroup isomorphic to HO(S2j Z2) Hi (lRpoo j Z2) ~ Z2j in particular, this group is nontrivial for any i. On the other hand, II. (lRp 2 j Z2) = 0
for i ~ 3.
... ~ H r+1(A*B)
-+
-+ . . . .
0---+ H r+1(A * B)
---+
---+
o.
is induced by the projection onto the first factor. For q > 0, the map
Hr_q(A)Hq(B) -+ Hr(A) is zero, and Hr(A)Ho(B) -+ Hr(A) ~ Hr(A)
Ho(*) is induced by the map B -+ *, which has kernel Hr(A) Ho(B). For
the map tPB, the argument is similar.
=A
x B/A V B
Hr(A V B)
---+
Hr(A x B)
---+
Hr(A x B, A V B)
---+
Hr-I(A V B)
---+ ....
Here
Hr(A x B)
E9 (Hi(A) Hj(B
i+j=r
and Hr(A V B)
-+
ffi
E9
i+j=r-l
In particular, this map (and a similar map of the (r - 1)-dimensional homology groups) is a monomorphism. Therefore, the group Hr(A x B, A V B) is
390
isomorphic to the quotient group Hr(A x B)/ Hr(A V B). Taking the quotient modulo the subgroup Hr(A V B) is equivalent to passing to reduced
homology.
81. The Kiinneth theorem implies that the graded cohomology groups
of the given spaces are isomorphic to the quotients of thp additive groups of
the polynomial rings Z2[XI, ... , Xk] and Z[Xl, .. . , Xk] modulo the relations
X~l +l = ... = X~k+l _ O. These groups are generated by elements of the
form a;nl x ... X a;k, a ~ m, ~ ni. Here a, is a generator of the onedimensional cohomology group in the real case and of the two-dimensional
cohomology group in the complex case. By Theorem 2.27 not only the
groups but also the rings are isomorphic. In the complex case, the sign
(_1)Q1P2 can be ignored because all nonzero elements have even dimension.
82. Theorem 2.27 expresses multiplication in the image of the natural
monomorphism H* (K) H* (L) --+ H* (K xL) in terms of those in the
rings H*(K) and H*(L). But if one of the groups H*(K) and H*(L) is
torsion-free, then this monomorphism is an isomorphism.
84. If there exists such a nondegenerate bilinear map, then the number
a < k < n. Therefore,
n
(a + b)n == an + b (mod 2) for all integers a and b.
(~) is even for all k satisfying the inequalities
(a + b)n
== (a21t + b21t )m
1) a(m
2)2Itb2.2k
Here m .
+...
(mod 2).
a (mod 2).
rt1 1= (t 1) (t
Xi ti
Zktk
k-l
Yiti-1) .
i=l
If the product of two polynomials is the zero polynomial, then one of these
polynomials must be zero. Therefore, the bilinear map f is nondegenerate.
We have constructed a nondegenerate bilinear map ]Rr x lRs -+ lRr +s - l .
Similarly, we can construct a nondegenerate bilinear map C r xes -+ C r +s - 1 ,
which is a nondegenerate bilinear map ]R2r X ]R2s --+ jR2r+2s-2. Moreover, we
can use not only the complex numbers C, but also the quaternions ]HI and
the octonions (Cayley numbers) O.
86. (a) Let X be an acyclic CW-complex. Then the space X is pathconnected. Therefore, according to Problem 50 in Part I, the space l:X is
391
sq
sq
0 0, ... ) ,
(WI,W2,pe 27!"ik/m "
(WI. W2, pe 27!"i OOO)
" , . .. ,
~<(J<k+l;
m
0< p
~ 1,
IWI12 = 1 _ p2;
0< p
1,
IWII = 1 -
0< p
1,
0< p ~ 1, IWll2
p,
k+l
< (J < - - ;
m
+ IW212 = 1- p2,
~<(J<k+l;
m
.. ~Z~Z~Z~Z~Z.
The homology of this complex is as required.
89. Let M3 be the universal covering of the manifold M3. Then
7l"I(M 3 ) = 0 and 7l"2(M3) = 7l"2(M) = o. The group 7l"I(M3) is infinite;
therefore, the manifold M3 is noncompact. Hence H3(M3) = o. Clearly,
392
Hk(M3)
= 0 for k
90. Suppose that the group 71' contains an element of finite order. Then
it contains the cyclic subgroup Zm generated by this element. Let X -+ X
be the covering that corresponds to the subgroup Zm C 71'. Then X is
a K(Zm,l) space; therefore, it is homotopy equivalent to Lr:;. This is a
contradiction because, on one hand, X is a finite-dimensional simplicial
complex, and on the other hand, according to Problem 88, X has nontrivial
homology of arbitrarily high dimensions.
91. Obviously, the required map 71' exists for the trivial bundle. Now,
suppose that such a map 71' exists for the bundle E. Consider the map
f: E -+ B x IRn defined by f(e) = (p(e), 71'(e)). According to Theorem 3.13,
this map determines an isomorphism from E to the trivial bundle B x lin.
92. Introducing a Riemannian metric, we can assume the trivializations
to be orthonormal. Take some trivialization of the bundle T S3. Any trivialization ofTS3 is uniquely determined by a map S3 -+ SO(3). A homotopy of
trivializations is a homotopy of such maps. It remains to note that SO(3) R::
Rp3 (see the solution of Problem 91 in Part I) and 71'3(IRp3) = 71'3(S3) = Z.
93. Take a trivialization of the bundle T S3 . Any vector field on S3
without singular points is uniquely determined by a map S3 -+ IR3\ {O} '" S2.
A homotopy of vector fields without singular points is a homotopy of such
maps. Clearly, 71'3(S2) = Z.
94. We prove the required assertion by induction on k. For k = 1, this
assertion is obvious. Suppose that it is true for the products snl X . X
sn/e 1. We assume the sphere sn/e to be embedded in lRn/e+1. The normal
bundle to sn/e in lin /e+1 is trivial; hence so is the normal bundle to sn/e
in lR n1 +,,+n/e+1. The fiber of this trivial bundle is IRnl ++n/e-l +1. By the
induction hypothesis, snl X X sn/e 1 can be embedded in this space. As
a result, we obtain the required embedding.
95 [124]. We use Examples 38 and 39.
If all numbers
ni
Therefore, any vector field on the manifold snl X X sn/e has a singular
point, and hence this manifold is not parallelizable.
Now let us prove that the manifold snl X ... X sn/e wlth k ~ 2 is parallelizable provided that one of the numbers ni is odd. For k = 2, this
assertion is an obvious corollary of the following lemma.
393
Lemma. Let Ml and M2 be closed manifolds such that the Whitney sum of
the tangent bundle TM. and the one-dimensional trivial bundle is trivial and
x(Md = O. Then the manifold Ml x M2 is parallelizable.
CD
CD
yen, k)
sn-k
----+
Yen, k - 1)
sn-k-l
sn-2
----+
I '"
Yen, 1)
= gn-l.
(n - 1) + (n - 2)
+ ... + (n -
k)
= nk -
k(k
+ 2, 2)) = {
z
Z2
+ 1) .
+ 1.
According to
if n is even,
if n is odd.
394
homology groups. The remaining groups can be found using Poincare duality. As a result, we obtain
H.(V(n + 2,2)) = {:
if k - 0, n, n
otherwise,
+ 1,
2n + 1,
Obviously, three independent sections can be extended from the boundary of the 4-disk to this disk with the center removed.
If independent sections over Mn with several punctures Xl, ... ,X n are
given, then we construct independent sections over Mn with one puncture Xo. To this end, we connect the point Xo ith Xl, ... , Xn by disjoint
paths and contract these paths to Xo.
101. Let 6 = (u}, vd and ~2 = (U2' V2) be vectors in the space TxM x
TxM ~ T(x,x)(M x M). We set (6'~2) = (UI,U2) + (V},V2).
Take u, v E TxM. The vector ~ = (u, v) E T(x,x) (M x M) is tangent
to d(M) if and only if u = v, i.e., ~ = (u, u). The vector.,., = (v, w) is
orthogonal to all vectors (u, u) if and only if v = -w, i.e., .,., = (v, -v). The
map 7M --+ lId(M) taking each vector v E TxM to (v, -v) E T(x,x)(M x M)
is an isomorphism of vector bundles.
102. The sphere with 9 handles is orientable; therefore, WI = o. Its
Euler characteristic is even; therefore, W2 = o.
The equalities WI = 0 and W2 = 0 can also be proved by using the
triviality of the normal bundle for the standard embedding of the sphere
with 9 handles in lR3
103. For the sphere to which m Mobius bands are attaLhed, the parity
of the Euler characteristic coincides with that of the number m. Therefore,
395
= dijA,
whence w~
= mA = W2.
104. Let VM'" be the normal bundle, and let a = Wl(VMn). Then
w(Mn)(l+o) = 1; therefore, WI +0 = 1, W2+WIO = 0, ... ,Wn+Wn-lO = O.
Hence WI = 0,W2 = 0 2 , ... ,Wn = an.
105. Let Wk = Wk(JRpn) = (ntl)ok for k = 1, ... , n. According to
Problem 104, we have Wk = wt. Therefore, the numbers (ntl) , where
k = 1, ... ,n, are either all even or all odd.
Over the field Z2, we have (l+x)2Tn = 1+x2Tn. Let aO+al 2+ +am 2m
be the binary decomposition of n + 1. Then
(1
x)m
= (1 +
x)a o (1
x 2)a 1
(1
x 2Tn )a
Tn
If all of the numbers (ntl) are even, then ao = ... = am-l = a and am = 1;
this means that n + 1 = 2m . If all of these numbers are odd, then ao = ... =
am = 1; this means that n + 1 = 2 m +! - 1.
wr
108. The only if part is obvious; let us prove that if the bundle t;,k ffi e 1
is trivial, then so is t;,k. Since both bundles t;,k ffi e 1 and e 1 are orientable,
so is t;,k. We assume that all fibers of t;,k ffi e 1 and t;,k are endowed with
orientations. Each fiber of t;,k ffi e 1 is identified with IRk+! , and each fiber
of t;,k is an oriented k-dimensional subspace in IRk+!. The space of oriented kdimensional subspaces in IRk+! is homeomorphic to the sphere Sk. Consider
the bundle
over Sk whose fiber over each point x E Sk is the oriented kdimensional subspace of JRk+l corresponding to this point. Let f: B ---+ Sk
be the map taking every point b E B to the fiber of t;,k over this point.
Clearly, t;,k = f*'Yt. Since the dimension of the complex B is less than k, it
follows that the map f is null-homotopic. Therefore, the bundle t;,k is trivial.
109. (a) This is an obvious corollary of Problem 108.
'Yt
396
TMn
vk
111. Suppose that some finite group acts freely on ]Rn. Any finite
group contains the subgroup G = Zp with some prime p. The group G acts
freely on lRn. This action induces an action of G on sn such that it has the
unique fixed point 00, i.e., (sn)G = {oo}. On the other hand, Theorem 3.56
implies that the space (sn)G is a homology sphere, while the topological
space consisting of one point is not a homology sphere.
112. According to Theorem 3.62, we have Sqa 2m = (a + ( 2)2m =
2m
a
+ a 2m +l because e~) == 0 (mod 2) for 1 ~ i ~ 2m - 1. Therefore,
Sq(a + a 2 + a 4 + ... ) = (a + ( 2 ) + (a 2 + ( 4 ) + (a 4 + ( 8 ) + ... = a.
113. Solution 1. Theorem 3.32 implies the existence of a monomorphism
where f*w m = O"m(aI, ... , an) is the mth elementary symmetric function.
Moreover, SqO ai = aI, Sql ai = a~, and Sqr ai = 0 for r > 1. Therefore, by
the Cartan formula,
Sqk(ail ... aim)
where the summation is over all permutations of il, ... , im for which il
... < ik and ik+l < ... < im. Therefore,
Sqk(/*W m )
=L
~
2
2
~
~ ail ai/oai/O+l ... aim == ~
1=0
(m - k+ i-I)
i
O"k-iO"m+i
(mod 2).
<
397
Let
17m
O'~
be the mth elementary function of the variables al, ... , an-I. Then
+ O'~; therefore, the right-hand side of (3) takes the form
= anO'~_I
( m k-
1) ( *
anO'm+k_I
*)
+ O'm+k
z:: .
+ z:: ((m - + i-I) + (m - . + i -2))
2 k-I (
= an
i=O
an
m-k+i-l )
O'k-i-IO'm+i-I
'l
i=O
'l
'l-
O'k-iO'm+i-I
because
Solution 2. It is easy to obtain the required relation for the bundle 'l
over lRpoo. Indeed, WI (,1) = a is the generator of HI (lRPoo; Z2). Hence the
proof reduces to the obvious equality Sql a = a 2 Suppose that the required
relation is valid for the bundles ~ and Wi = Wi(~). According to the Whitney
formula, we have wm(~ x ,1) = Wm x 1 + Wm-I X a. The Cartan formula
398
implies Sq(Wm-1 x
Sqk (Wm(~
0)
x, ))
1
= (Sqk wm-I) x
= WkWm
1+
+ (Sqk-l Wm-l)
(m - k) Wk-lWm+1
1
+ ... + ( m-1)
k
WOwm+k
+ WkWm-l
X 0
lWm
+ ... +
1 X 02
Therefore,
x 1
(m -: -1)Wk_1Wm
+ ... + (m;2)WoWm+k
+ Wk
X 0 2.
(m ~ k)Wk_2Wm
(7 -=- :)WOWm+k
X 0
X 0 2
0 2.
,1.
,n
Hi(CY) --- Hi(X U CY) --- Hi(X U CY, CY) --- H,_I(CY).
Here Hi(CY) = H i - 1 (CY) = 0 because the cone CY is contractible. Therefore, Hi(X U CY) ~ Hi(X U CY, CY) for i ~ 1. It remains to apply Problem 114.
116. For i = 0, the required assertion is obvious. Suppose that i ;::: 1.
Then Hi(X, Y) ~ Hi(X U CY) by Problem 115. Since the complex CY is
contractible, we have Xu CY (X U CY)/CY = X/Yo
r.J
399
117. No, this is not true The set U c lR n determined by the equation
closed. It is homeomorphic to the set V c lRn determined by the
equation Xn = 0 and the inequality x~ + ... + Xn-l < 1. This set is not
closed.
Xn
= 0 is
119. Let us represent sn as 8,6.n+l, where ,6.n+1 = [vo, V!, ... , Vn+IJ,
and consider the sets st Vi for i = 0,1, ... , n + 1. Any r ~ n + 1 vertices
ViI,, Vir span a simplex [Vil' ... ' VirJ. Moreover, U~ I st Vile is the star of
this simplex; this is a contractible set.
120. We calculated the cohomology groups of the manifold V(2n + 2,2)
in the solution of Problem 97. Let us write the Gysin sequence for the bundle
z
{
Hk(G+(2n + 2,2)) =
Z Ee Z
o
if k is even, k
i- 2n,
if k = 2n,
if k odd.
The Wu class has only one component of positive dimension, namely, V2k.
According to Problem 121, we have W2k = V2k. Clearly, (Sqa 2k , [M4k]) =
(a 2k '-"' a 2k , [M4k]) and (a 2k '-"' V, [M4k]) = (a 2k '-"' V2k, [M 4k ]). Therefore,
the class V2k is completely determined by the equality a 2k '-"' a 2k = a 2k '-"'
V2k (for all a 2k ). In particular, V2k = 0 if and only if a 2k '-"' a 2k = 0 for all
a 2k E H2k(M4k; Z2).
Now we consider a cohomology class a 2k over Z. It can be naturally
associated with the cohomology class a 2k over Z2 (by reducing the value
assigned to each chain modulo 2). The number (a 2k '-"' a 2k , [M4k]) is even
if and only if a 2k '-"' a 2k = O.
123. It is seen from the proof of Theorem 3.26 that if n = 2k, then
= 1 + a+a 2 + ... +a n - l ; therefore, Wn_I(lRpn) i- o. On the other
hand, if a manifold M n is embedded in lRn+k, then wk(M n ) = o. Thus, if
n = 2k, then lRpn cannot be embedded in lR 2n - i .
w(lRpn)
400
(5 -l ),
:t;).
and
-1. Therefore, in
00 00 [][]
L
Lo
128. It is easy to show that n(L+) = n(L_) = n(Lo)l (see Figure H.7).
Thus, if the required assertion is true for two of the three links L+, L_,
and La, then it is also true for the third link. The assertion If> true for the
trivial m-component link (if m > 1, then the Conway polynomial is zero);
hence it is true for any link.
401
,. ----,.
....
....
"
"\
: X"'"
I
"
"
""
I
~ ("
",'
"\
,-",-
....
)()
" 'X'
",\
:"
, ,,:'
\
\"
",
'''''::<-'
= n(L
= n(Lo) 1
The relation VL+(Z) - VL (z) = ZVLo(z) implies a2(L+) If Lo is a two-component link, then al(Lo) = Ik(Ll' L 2)
by Problem 131.
132.
a2(L_)
= al(Lo).
Wi
= N.(TS n ).
on Ua is defined by
Under such an action, the ith face aie, which is determined by the equation
ti = 0, is fixed. Therefore, (1 - w,)aie = 0, which means that
402
(b) First, suppose that n = O. Let w
where no, . .. , nao are integers. Then
w(l - wo)
therefore, an element w belongs to the kernel of the given map if and only
if no = nl = ... = nao-l = nao
Now, suppose that n = 1. Again, let w = no + nlwO + ., r+ naowao-l;
1 - 1 with
however, this time, the ni are linear combinations of 1,WI, ...
integer coefficients rather than simply integers. Consider w' = w(l - wd =
n~+n~wo+ .+n~owao 1, where n~ = ni-n,W. The equality w'(l-wo) = 0
is again equivalent to n~ = n~ = ... = n~, i.e.,
,wr
w(l - wI)
= n'(l +
Wo + w~ + ... + w~ I).
wr
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Index
G-complex
regular, 174
simplicial, 173
G-space, 173
H -space, 358
K('II", n) space, 122
S-equivalent matrices, 314
r-transnormal embedding, 56
action
effective, 177
free, 183
simplicial, 173
acyclic
functor, 103
model,104
theorem, 104
simplicial complex, 6
support theorem, 7
admissible set, 231
Alexander
duality, 81
ideal,308
polynomial, 308
in Conway's normalization, 315
theorem, 205
Alexander Pontryagin duality, 271
Alexander Whitney diagonal
approximation, 105, 214
algebra
Hopf,361
connected, 361
Lie, 344
cohomology, 349
algebraically trivial map, 120
almost parallelizable manifold, 141
basis
of a free Abelian group, 4
of a module, 305
symplectic, 317
Betti numbers, 3
bi-invariant form, 348
bilinear map
nondegenerate, 109
of Abelian groups, 27
Bockstein homomorphism, 14, 92, 142
Borromean rings, 85
multidimensional, 87
Borsuk Ulam theorem, 76
boundary, 2
homomorphism, 2
of a simplex, 1
411
412
braid
colored, 122
group, 123
bundle
associated with a divisor, 339
conjugate, 170
dual, 171
induced, 133
nonorientable, 143
orientable, 143
vector, 131
equivalent, 132
isomorphic, 132
smooth, 131
stably equivalent, 148
with structure group, 272
canonical
map, 9
vector bundle, 153
cap product, 70
Cartan formula, 189
Cartesian product of Abelian groups, 21
category, 103
with models, 103
Cech cohomology, 267, 268
cellular homology, 37, 210
centralizer, 351
chain, 2
complex, 4
free, 4
nonnegative, 4
ordered,60
total, 60
homotopy, 5, 196
map, 4
relative, 12
with closed supports, 48
characteristic
class
Chern, 163
Chern of a complex manifold, 171
Euler, 144
Pontryagin, 172
Stiefel Whitney, 141
Euler, 51, 90
of a pair, 55, 182
Chern characteristic class, 163
of a complex manifold, 171
class
Chern, 163
of a complex manifold, 171
Euler, 144
fundamental, 36
cohomology, 125
Pontryagin, 172
primitive homology, 49
Index
413
Index
cycle, 2
homologous, 3
degree of a map, 36
Dehn twist, 50
de Rham
cohomology, 277
theorem, 289
diagonal approximation, 105, 184, 214
Alexander Whitney, 105,214
difference cochain, 117
differential fonn
closed,277
exact, 277
polynomial
on a complex, 296
on a simplex, 296
smooth,296
dimension axiom, 203, 204
direct
limit, 265
product of vector bundles, 134
sum
of Abelian groups, 21
of bundles, 134
directed set, 264
of Abelian groups, 265
divisible group, 32
domain invariance theorem 205
double point, 325
'
dual
bundle, 171
Stiefel Whitney class, 149
duality
Alexander, 81
Alexander Pontryagin, 271
Poincare, 44
dunce hat, 115
effective action, 177
Eilenberg theorem, 117
Eilenberg MacLane space, 122
Eilenberg Zilber theorem, 213
element
regular, 353
singular, 353
elementary ideal, 307
embedding
r-transnonnal, 56
transnormal, 56
equivalent
microbundles, 254
vector bundles, 132
equivariant map, 173
Euler
characteristic, 51, 90
of a pair, 55, 182
class, 144
exact
fonn, 277
sequence
Mayer Vietoris, 18
of a pair, 12
Smith,181
split, 24
exactness axiom, 203, 204
excision
axiom, 200, 203, 204
noncommutative, 224
isomorphism, 12
theorem, 198
extraordinary (co)homology theory, 204
five lemma, 15
form
bi-invariant, 348
closed,277
exact, 277
intersection, 88, 260
left-invariant, 348
polynomial
on a complex, 296
on a simplex, 296
quadratic over 2':2, 317
right-invariant, 348
Seifert, 304
smooth,296
fonnula
Cartan, 189
coboundary, 186
of universal coefficients, 33
Thorn, 257
Whitney, 147
WU,193
free
action, 183
chain complex, 4
functor, 103
module, 305
resolution of an Abelian group, 28
functor
acyclic, 103
contravariant, 103
covariant, 103
free, 103
fundamental class, 36
cohomology, 125
of a topological manifold, 232
with boundary, 249
generalized (co)homology theory, 204
germ, 265
Gromov norm, 221
414
group
cohomology, 22
reduced,23
relative, 23
singular, 202
colored braid, 122
divisible, 32
free Abelian, 4
homology
of a chain complex, 4
singular, 196
Lie, 344
of braids, 123
of coefficients, 203, 204
periodic, 31
ring, 180
simplicial homology, 3
Smith homology, 181
Gysin sequence, 256
Helly's theorem, 208, 209
homologous cycles, 3
homology
cellular, 37, 210
disk,183
group
of a chain complex, 4
simplicial, 3
Smith,181
primitive class, 49
reduced, 17
relative, 12
sequence
for a triple, 15
of a pair, 12
singular, 196
sphere, 45, 81, 183
with closed supports, 48
homomorphism
Bockstein, 14, 92, 142
houndary,2
connecting, 12, 14
Hurewicz, 112
of presheaves, 263
restriction, 263
transfer, 179
homotopic
trivializations, 133
vector fields, 133
homotopy
axiom, 203, 204
chain, 5, 196
Hopf
algebra, 361
fibration, 219
invariant, 219
theorem, 337, 362
Index
Index
lemma
on extension, 297
Poincare, 283
lens space, 93
infinite-dimensional, 123
Leray Hirsh theorem, 168
Lie
algebra, 344
group, 344
line bundle associated with a divisor, 339
linking number, 46, 83
local system of groups, 136
manifold
almost parallelizable, 141
Grassmann infinite, 153
hyperbolic, 222
parallelizable, 132, 260, 338
Schubert, 157
stably parallelizable, 156
Stiefel, 139
complex, 162
topological with boundary orientable,
248
map
algebraically trivial, 120
chain, 4
equivariant, 173
splitting, 167
Massey triple product, 84
matrix
presentation, 305
Seifert, 304
maximal torus, 351
Mayer Vietoris sequence, 18, 200
for de Rham cohomology, 278
for de Rham cohomology with compact
supports, 279
noncommutative, 224
relative, 20, 202
microbundle, 254
equivalent, 254
tangent, 254
Milnor theorem, 338
Minkowski theorem, 177
model, 103
acyclic, 104
module
finitely generated, 305
free, 305
Moore space, 128
morphism, 103
Morse inequality, 210
multidimensional Borromean rings, 87
multiplication, 358
Kolmogorov Alexander, 59
415
416
differential form
on a complex, 296
on a simplex, 296
Pontryagin
characteristic class, 172
theorem, 152
presentation matrix, 305
presheaf, 263
constant, 264
primitive homology class, 49
product
Massey triple, 84
of Abelian groups
Cartesian, 21
tensor, 27
tensor of chain complexes, 97
vector bundle, 132
projective
resolution, 32
projectivization of a vector bundle, 167
pullback, 133
quadratic form over Z2, 317
nondegenerate, 317
rank of a Lie group, 353
reduced
cohomology, 23
homology, 17
regular
G-complex, 174
element, 353
immersion, 325
relative
chain, 12
cochain,23
cohomology, 23
homology, 12
Kiinneth theorem, 215
Mayer Vietoris sequence, 20, 202
resolution
injective, 32
projective, 32
restriction homomorphism, 263
right-invariant form, 348
ring
Borromean, 85
group, 180
roots, 355
Schubert manifold, 157
265
of a bundle, 131
zero, 132
Seifert
form, 304
knot, 310
~ction,
Index
matrix, 304
surface, 305
self-intersection
number, 326, 327
point, 325
sequence
exact of a pair, 12
Gysin, 256
Mayer Vietoris, 18, 200
for de Rham cohomology, 278
for de Rham cohomology with
compact supports, 279
noncommutative, 224
relative, 20, 202
Smith exact, 181
set
admissible, 231
cofinal, 266
directed, 264
of Abelian groups, 265
sheaf,264
associated with a presheaf, 265
generated by a presheaf, 265
signature
of a manifold, 90
of a product, 108
Thom theorem, 91
simplex
boundary, 1
singular, 195
simplicial
G-complex, 173
action, 173
complex acyclic, 6
homology group, 3
volume, 221
singular
cohomology, 202
element, 353
homology, 196
simplex, 195
skein relation, 316
skew-commutativity of cup product, 63
Smith
exact sequence, 181
homology group, 181
theorem, 183
smooth
differential form
on a compl:lx, 296
on a simplex, 296
triangulation, 289
vector bundle, 131
space
K(7I",n),122
Index
Moore, 128
split exact sequence, 24
splitting map, 167
stably
equivalent vector bundles, 148
parallelizable manifold, 156
Steenrod square, 188
Steenrod's five lemma, 15
Steenrod Eilenberg axioms, 203, 204
Stiefel
manifold, 139
complex, 162
theorem, 260
Stiefel Hopf theorem, 109
Stiefel Whitney
class
characteristic, 141
dual,149
of a manifold, 150
total, 149
number, 152
Stokes theorem, 281
strong Whitney embedding theorem, 325
sum
connected of manifolds, 336
direct
of Abelian groups, 21
of bundles, 134
Whitney, 134
support of a chain, 6
suspension isomorphism, 20, 201
symplectic basis, 317
tangent microbundle, 254
tensor product
of Abelian groups, 27
of chain complexes, 97
theorem
acyclic model, 104
acyclic support, 7
Alexander, 205
Arf,318
Borsuk Ulam, 76
chain homotopy, 5
collar for smooth manifolds, 78
de Rham, 289
simplicial, 299
domain invariance, 205
Eilenberg, 117
Eilenberg Zilber, 213
excision, 198
Helly's, 208, 209
Hopf, 337, 362
Hopf Whitney, 119
Hurewicz, 113
K iinneth, 99
for relative homology, 215
417
index
41ti
vector
bundle, 131
canonical, 153
complex, 162
equivalent, 132
isomorphic, 132
product, 132
smooth, 131
stably equivalent, 148
trivial, 132
field
homotopic, 133
left-invariant, 346
Whitney
formula, 147
sum, 134
theorem
duality, 149
strong embedding, 325
trick, 329
Wu
class, 259
formula, 193
theorem, 259
zero sertion, 132
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45 Inder K. Rana, An introduction to measure and integration, second edition, 2002
44 Jim Agler and John E. MCCarthy, Pick interpolation and Hilbert function spaces, 2002
43 N. V. Krylov, Introduction to the theory of random processes, 2002
42 Jin Hong and Seok-Jin Kang, Introduction to quantum groups and crystal bases, 2002
41 Georgi V. Smirnov, Introduction to the theory of differential inclusions, 2002
40 Robert E. Greene and Steven G. Krantz, Function theory of one complex variable,
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38 Elton P. Hsu, Stochastic analysis on manifolds, 2002
37 Hershel M. Farkas and Irwm Kra, Theta constants, Riemann surfaces and the modular
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36 Martin Schechter, Prmciples of functional analysis, second edition, 2002
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34 Sigurdur Helgason, Differential geometry, Lie groups, and symmetric spaces, 2001
33 Dmitri Burago, Yuri Burago, and Sergei Ivanov, A course in metric geometry, 2001
32 Robert G. Bartle, A modern theory of integration, 2001
31 Ralf Korn and Elke Korn, Option pricing and portfolio optimization: Modern methods
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30 J. C. McConnell and J. C. Robson, Noncommutative Noetherian rings, 2001
29 Javier Duoandikoetxea, Fourier analysis, 2001
28 Liviu I. Nicolaescu, Notes on Seiberg-Witten theory, 2000
27 Thierry Aubin, A course in differential geometry, 2001
26 Rolf Berndt, An introduction to symplectic geometry, 2001
25 Thomas Friedrich, Dirac operators in Riemannian geometry, 2000
24 Helmut Koch, Number theory: Algebraic numbers and functions, 2000
23 Alberto Candel and Lawrence Conlon, Foliations I, 2000
22 Gunter R. Krause and Thomas H. Lenagan, Growth of algebras and Gelfand-Kiri1lov
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