APPROACHES, METHOD AND TECHNIQUES

i) Grammar- Translation Method

Principles
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little

Description
a method of foreign or secondlanguage
teaching which makesuse of translation and
grammarstudy as the main teaching andlearning
activities."---Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2002).

Techniques
1. Translation of a literary passage. Students
will be asked to read aliterary passage and
then translate th etarget language into their
native language
2. Translation may be written or spoken.
Translation made by the students canshow
that they understand their meaning
3. The ability of communicating in the target
language is not a goal. The students ask
questions in their native language and are also
answered by the teacher also in their native
language. The teacher asks students in their
native language
4.Deductive application of rules.It is important
for students to learn about the forms(grammar
rules) of the target language.
5. Grammar rules are presented wit
hexamples. Students are asked to apply
therules to examples they are given

Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of students: They are discovers. They
follow teacher instruction. Students are very
passive.
Role of teachers: They are who know. It is
teacher centered.
Role of materials and resources: to practice
reading, writing and grammar.

active use of the target language.

2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists
ofisolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of
grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words
together, and instruction often focuses on the form
and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts,which
are treated as exercises in grammaticalanalsis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises intranslating
disconnected sentences from the target language
into the mother tongue..

Strengths and limitations

Advantages
Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning
of words and phrases.
Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is
carried out in the mother tongue.
It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in
the mother tongue.
Criticism
What the method is good at is teaching about the language , not
teaching the language.
Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing
from the curriculum.
Students lacked an active role in the classroom.
Very little attention is paid to communication.
Very little attention is paid to content.
Translation is sometimes misleading.

Implication of syllabus design

Teaching involves any instructionaltechnique
that draws learners attentionto some
specific grammatical form in sucha way that
it helps them either tounderstand it
metalinguistically and/orprocess it in
comprehension and/orproduction so that
they can internalize it.

ii) Direct Method

Description
The Direct Method aims at establishing the
direct bond between thought and
expressions and between experience and
language. It is based on the assumption that
the learner should experience the new
language in the same way as he
experienced his mother tongue.

Principles
1. Classroom instruction is conducted
exclusively in the target language. The
teacher should demonstrate, not explain
or translate.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and
sentences are taught.
3. Grammar is taught inductively. There
may never be an explicit grammar rule
given.
4. New teaching points are introduced
orally.
5. Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized.
6. Students should learn to think in the
target language as soon as possible.
Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if
students use it in full sentences, rather
than memorizing word lists.
Strengths and limitations
Advantages

Techniques
Reading aloud
Question-answer exercise
Student self-correction
Conversation practice
Fill-in-the-blank exercise
Dictation

Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of students: to follow teachers
instruction and to communicate in the
foreign language.
Role of teachers: to use the foreign
language in the classroom.
Role of materials and resources: to
facilitate the learning through mine,
demonstration and pictures.

iii) Audio-lingual Method

1. it promises to teach the language and Not about the

language.
2. It is a natural method which teaches language in the
same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the target
language is used and the learning is contextulaized.
3. Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those
who have needs of real communication in the target
language.
4. It is one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of
vocabulary through realia
Criticism
In spite of its achievements, the direct method fell short
from fulfilling the needs of educational systems. One of its
major shortcomings is that it was hard for public schools to
integrate it Direct Method did not take well in public
schools where the constraints of budget, classroom size,
time, and teacher background made such a method difficult
to use.

Implication of syllabus design

The method relies on a step-by-step
progression based on question-andanswer sessions which begin with
naming common objects such as
doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a
motivating start as the learner begins
using a foreign language almost
immediately. Lessons progress to verb
forms and other grammatical
structures with the goal of learning
about thirty new words per lesson

Description
The Audio-lingual Method is a
method of foreign language teaching which
emphasizes the teaching of listening and
speaking before reading and writing. It uses
Description
dialogues as
the main form of language
presentation and drills as the main training
The
SilentMother
Way it
is based
on thein
techniques.
tongue
is discouraged
premise that
teacher should
thethe
classroom.

be silent as much as possible in

the classroom and the learner
should be encouraged to
produce as much language as
possible. (Richards;
Techniques ROGERS,
2007,
Techniques
of AL p.81).
Backward-up drill.

Backward build-up drill: to teach long lines

of dialogues:break down the line into several
parts, repeat a part of the sentence, follow
the teacher, students expand what they
repeated part by part until they are able
repeat the entire line.
.Techniques ofTechniques
AL Dialog Memorization.
Students take the role of one person in the
dialogue and
the teacher the other. Switch
Sound-color
chart
roles and memorize the other persons part.
Word
chart
Half
of the class to take one role and the
Fidel
charts
pronunciation
other
half(color-coded
to take the other.Some
pairs of
charts)
students might perform the dialogue for the
Pointer / Rod rest of the class.
Techniques
of Fidel
AL Chain
Drill.To
make
Charts
in English.
Charts
in English
students ask and answer questions with
Self- correction
gestures.
technique
each other.
It allowsFinger
some controlled
Used
to
Isolate
a
Word
communication among students and give
Cuisinaire
Rods for
telling and
the teacher
anstore
opportunity
to check
vocabulary
students speech.
Say It Again! Feedback Is the Key
Silent Way Picture for Vocabulary Study
Experience
Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of students: to produce the target

language orally with accurate grammar.
Also,
should produce
correct
Role
oflearners
teacher, learners
and resources
responses. They play a reactive role
Role
of students:
and
because
they havetotodiscover
response
to create.
stimuli.
They are the principal actor and they
Role of
to stimulus
learners to
should
beteachers:
independent
and autonomous.
learn
the
foreign
language
orally.
They should generalize rules andThey
workare
the center cooperatively.
and active. Moreover, they
model the language.
Role of materials and resources: to
Role of
teachers:
to direct
the class in
teachers.
To improve
iv)orientate
Silent
Way
silence
and
not
model
learners
tooitmuch.
pronunciation and listening skills
is used
To
monitor
students
interaction
tape recorders and audiovisual equipment.
Role of materials and resources: to
facilitate learning through physical objects
(the rods and the color-coded
pronunciation charts) and problem solving.
Also, to elicit student responses.
Moreover, to illustrate the relationship
between the sound and the meaning in
the foreign language.

Principles
1. Use drills to teach the lines of
dialogues.Repeat the language mode as
accurately and quickly as possible.
2. ble to use the target language
communicatively 2. Learn to use language
auctomatically without
stopping to think.
Principles
Using this method, students are supposed to
Structural
lesson
planned
around
form new syllabus:
habit in the
target
language
grammatical
items
and
related
vocabulary.
3.There is student to student interaction
Language
items:
introduced
according
to
in chain drills
or when
students
take
their grammatical
complexity
and their
different
roles in dialogue,
but this
interaction
relationship
is teacherto whatdirected.
has beenMost
taught
of the
interaction is between
teacher and students
previously.
as The
is initiated
by theisteacher.
imperative:
normally the first
structure introduced, because of the ease
with action verbs may be demonstrated
using Silent Way materials.
Strengths and limitations
Numeration and prepositions of location

Advantages
The first method to have a theory. Making
language teaching possible to large groups of
learners.
Emphasizing sentence production , control
over grammatical
structures
and development
Strengths
and limitations
of oral ability.
ADVANTAGES
Developing
simple
techniques
and making
This
method fosters
cooperative
learning
betweenuse
of language lab. Developing the separation of
individuals.
the language skills
It embodies a new approach to education in general,
a Disadvantages
respect for the individual and an awareness of the
individuals
extraordinary
cognitive powers.
Weak basis
of its theory
If it is succeeded to teach the language the by using
developing
language
, lack of
theNot
rods
without repeating
too competence
much, it will really
effectiveness
, andfor
boredom
caused
by
save
time and energy
both teachers
students
endless pattern drills. Learners having little
DISADVANTAGES
control over their learning. Teachers
For
some teachers
theclass
rigidity
domination
of the
. of the system may be
meaningless.
teacher-oriented materials
How such a method would in the average classroom
situation, or how successfully it might be used at
more advanced levels is a question mark left in our
minds.
Language is separated from its social context and
taught through artificial situations usually by rods.

Implication of syllabus design

Many of the structural elements of this
approach were called into question in
the 1960s, causing modifications of
this method that led to communicative
language teaching. However, its
Implication of syllabus design
emphasis on oral practice, grammar
The
teacher
is largely
silent,
and
sentence
patterns
stillgiving
finds
more
space forsupport
the students
explore
widespread
amongtolanguage
the language.
They
are responsible
teachers and
remains
popular infor
theircountries
own learning
and
are
where foreignencouraged
language
to syllabuses
express themselves;
beginners
are still heavily
basedtalk
on
about what they
see,
more
advanced
grammar.
students talk about their lives and
what they think. The role of the
teacher is not to model the language
but to correct mistakes by giving
sensitive feedback..

Description
A teaching method based on the
idea how the human brain works
and how we learn most
effectively. It includesa rich
sensory learning, a positive
expectation of successand the
use of a varied range of methods
like dramatisedtexts, music,
active participation in songs and
games, etc.

Principles
Comfortable environment. In the
classroom, the chairs are arranged
semicircle and faced the black or white
board in order to make the students pay
more attention and get more relaxed. The
light in the classroom is dim in order to
make the students mind more relaxed
The use of music. Use of Baroque music
during the learning process. Baroque
music, with its 60 beats per minute and its
specific rhythm, created the kind of
relaxed states of mind for maximum
retention of material.
Peripheral Learning. The students learn
English not only from direct instruction but
also from indirect instruction
Strengths and limitations

Techniques
Classroom set-up
Emphasis is placed on creating a physical
environment that does not "feel" like a
normal classroom, and makes the students
feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible
eripheral Learning Students can absorb
information "effortlessly" when it is
perceived as part of the environment, rather
than the material "to be attended to
Role-play pretend temporarily that they are
someone else and perform a role using the
target language First Concert T does a
slow, dramatic reading of the dialog
synchronized in intonation with classical
music

Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of students: To be childlike,
participate in the activities, trust and
respect the Teacher. Moreover, students
should
be relaxed following teachers
v) Suggestopedia
instructions.
Role of teachers: to provide feeling of
security for students eliminating the
barriers to learning; increase their
communicative ability.
Role of materials and resources: to
engage learning by lowering the affective
filter of students.

ADVANTAGES
Students can lower their affective filter.
Classes are held in ordinary rooms with
comfortable chairs, a practice that may also
help them relaxed. Authority concept. Students
remember best and are most influenced by
information coming from an authoritative
source, teachers. Double-planedness theory:
It refers to the learning from two aspects. They
are the conscious aspect and the subconscious
one.
Disadvantages
Environment limitation: Most schools in
developing countries have large classes. Each
class consists of 30 to 40 students. There
should be 12 students in the class. The use
of hypnosis: Some people say that
suggestopedia uses a hypnosis, so it has bad
deep effects for human beings..
Infantilization learning: Suggestopedia class is
conditioned be child-like situation.

Implication of syllabus design

The language teaching method known
as Suggestopedia provides some
valuable insights into the power of
cognition and creates techniques that
make students feel comfortable,
relaxed and suggestible to the
material being learned.

Description
It is based on the counseling
approach in which the teacher is
seen as a counselor. It
emphasizes the sense of
community in the learning group,
encourages interaction as a vital
aspect of learning, and it
considers as a priority the
students' feelings and the
recognition of struggles in
language acquisition. There is no
syllabus or textbook to follow
and it is the students themselves
who determine the content of
the lesson.

Principles
1. Building a relationship with and among
students is very important.
2.Any new learning experience can be
threatening. Students feel more secure
when they have an idea of what will
happen in each activity. People learn no
defensively when they feel secure.
3.The superior knowledge and power
of the teacher can be threatening. If the
teacher does not remain in the front of the
classroom, the threat is reduced and the
students learning is facilitated.
4.The teacher should be sensitive to
students level of confidence and give
them just what they need to be
successful.

Techniques
1. Tape Recording Student
Conversation(Students choose what they
want to say, and their target language
production is recorded for later
listening/dissemination)
2.Transcription(Teacher produces a
transcription of the tape-recorded
conversation with translations in the mother
language - this is then used for follow up
activities or analysis)
3.Reflection on Experience(Teacher
takes time during or after various activities
to allow students to express how they feel
about the language and the learning
experience, and the teacher indicates
empathy/understanding)
4.Reflective Listening(Students listen to
their own voices on the tape in a relaxed
and reflective environment)

ADVANTAGES :.
Works well with lower levels students who are
struggling in spoken English .. Lower students
anxiety and overcome threatening affective
filter.. It creates a warm , sympathetic and
trusting relationship between teacher and
learners . . Counselor allow the learners to
determine type of conversation . . Train
students to become independent .
.DISADVANTAGES :
Some learners find it difficult to speak on
tape .. In order for students to become
independent , teacher might neglect the need
for guidance .. Teacher has to be highly
proficient in the target language and in the
language of students .. Translation is an
intricate and difficult task . The success of this
method relies largely on the counselors
translation .. It is time consuming to carry
out .pedia class is conditioned be child-like

Role of teacher, learners and resources

The teacher: The teachers initial role is
primarily that of a counselor. This means
that
the teacherLanguage
recognizesLearning
how
vii)
Community
threatening a new learning situation, can
be for adult learners, so he skillfully
understands and supports his students in
their struggle to master the target
language.
The students: Initially the learners are
very dependent upon the teacher. As the
learners continue to study, they become
increasingly independent.
Role of materials and resources: to
engage learning by being the medium of
learning for the students.

Strengths and limitations

situation.

Implication of syllabus design

the enduring value of CLL has been its
emphasis on whole-person learning;
the role of a supportive, nonjudgmental teacher; the passing of
responsibility for learning to the
learners (where it belongs); and the
abolition of a pre-planned syllabus.

Description
a method of teaching language
using physical movement to
react to verbal input in order to
reduce student inhibitions and
lower their affective filter
(stress).

Techniques
Review
Teacher gives a summary of the last
lesson.
Teacher repeats the verbs/items etc. that
were learned in the previous lesson.
New commands
Giving the commands. Three commands
at a time.
Varying the sequence of commands.

vii) Total Physical Response

Role of teacher, learners and resources
Role of students: to check their own
progress. To recognize and respond to
several taught items. Moreover, to listen
and response.
Role of teachers: active and direct. They
know what to teach. Also, they model and
present new materials.
Role of materials and resources: to
practice learners speech. It is used
materials and realia instead of textbooks.

Principles
Learning Activities
Imperative drills are the major classroom
activity in TPR. Other class activities
include role plays and slide presentations.
Conversational dialogues are delayed until
after almost 120 hours of instruction.

Strengths and limitations

Advantages of TPR
Students enjoying moving around the
classroom.
Not preparing long hours
before the lessons.
Effective for both adult and young learners.
Disadvantages of TPR
Best suitable for beginners.
Challenging for shy students.
Rude and inappropriate language of the
learner.

Implication of syllabus design

The syllabus is predictable from the
exercises used in the class: A
sentence-based syllabus with
grammatical & lexical criteria being
primary in selecting teaching items.
TPR requires initial attention to
meaning rather than to the form of
items. Grammar is thus taught
inductively.

Description
Communicative language
teaching makes use of real-life
situations that necessitate
communication. The teacher sets
up a situation that students are
likely to encounter in real life.
Unlike the audiolingual method
of language teaching, which
relies on repetition and drills, the
communicative approach can
leave students in suspense as to
the outcome of a class exercise,
which will vary according to their
reactions and responses.

Techniques

Task-completion activities
Information-gathering activities
Opinion-sharing activities
Information-transfer activities
Reasoning-gap activities
Role plays.

Principles
Make real communication the focus of
language teaching
Provide opportunities to experiment and
try out
Be tolerant to learners errors
Develop both fluency and accuracy
Link the different skills
Let students discover grammar rules

Strengths and limitations

ADVANTAGES
Teacher-student relationship is an
interactive, harmonious relationship, rather
than the traditional education, the kind of
master-servant relationship.
Greatly enhanced the students
interest.Communicative language teaching
encourage students to participate in
DISADVANTAGES
Often, there is no text, grammar rules are
not presented, and classroom arrangement
is nonstandard. Students are expected to
interact primarily with each other rather
than with the teacher, and correction of
errors may be absent or infrequent.
Students with low levels of proficiency in the
target language may find it difficult to
participate in oral communicative activities.

viii) Communicative Approach

Role of teacher, learners and resources
Role of students: as negotiator between
the self, thelearning process, and the
object oflearning, emerges from and
interacts with therole of joint negotiator
within the group andwithin the classroom
procedure and activitieswhich the group
undertakes.
TEACHER ROLE: 1. Facilitator 2.
Independent Participant, Need analyst
,Counselor, Group process manager
Role of materials and resources:
consequently make use of a wide variety
of small-group activities.

Implication of syllabus design

emphasizes interaction as both the
means and the ultimate goal of
learning a language. Despite a number
of criticisms[15]it continues to be
popular, particularly in Europe,
whereconstructivistviews on language
learning and education in general
dominate academic discourse.

Description
It was first developed by N.
Prabhu inBangladore, Southern
India. Prabhu believedthat
students may learn more
effectively whentheir minds are
focused on the task, rather
thanon the language they are
using.

Techniques
Use materials such as picture/text/song
etc. to lead into the topic. Brainstorming,
comparing ideas, sharing experiences.
Provide elicit vocabulary. Provide a
model, exploit role-play. Do a similar task
Allow the students time to plan. Pair
work and small group work versus the
whole class. Introduce a surprise
element. Set a time for completing the
task

Principles
Making errors is natural and is considered
as a part of the process in acquiring the
target language.2. Exposure to
comprehensible input is crucial.3. Learning
tasks facilitating learners to engage in
interactions are essential.
Learners need to be encouraged to
produce the target language as producing
the target language facilitates learning. 5.
Although language production may be
encouraged from the early stage in the
learning process, it is reasonable to allow a
silent period. 6. Focus on form is
necessary.

Strengths and limitations

ADVANTAGES
Encourages students to be more ambitious
in the language they use. initiative on the
part of the task. There is a risk for learners
to achieve fluency at the expense of
accuracy. TBLT requires resources beyond
the textbooks and related materials usually
found in language classrooms
DISADVANTAGES
While Task-Based Instruction may fruitfully
develop learners authority of what is known,
it is significantly less effective for the
systematic teaching of new language. This is
especially so where time is limited and outof-class exposure is unavailable.

ix) Task-based Learning

Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of students.Group Participant
2.Monitor 3.Risk-Taker and Innovator
TEACHER ROLE: Selector and Sequencer
Of Tasks 2. Preparing Learners For Tasks 3.
Consciousness-Raising
Role of materials and resources:
consequently make use of a wide variety
of small-group activities.

Implication of syllabus design

The basic assumption of TBLT -that it
provides for a more effective basis for
teaching than other language teaching
approaches- remains in the domain of
ideology rather than fact. It depends
on tasks as the primary source of
pedagogical input in teaching, but the
absence of a systematic grammatical
syllabus entails current versions of
TBLT.

Description
Concentrating on developing
learners proficiency with lexis, or
words and word combinations.
Reflecting a belief in the
centrality of the lexis to
- language structures
- language use
- multiword lexical units or
chunks

Techniques
Listening and Reading intensively and
extensively.
Repetition and recycling of activities.
Guessing the meaning of vocabulary
items from context.
Noticing and recording language patterns
and collocations.
Working with dictionaries and other
reference tools.

Principles
Principles of LA
Language = Grammar + Vocabulary
Observe Hypothesis Experiment Circle
(Present Practise - Produce)
Gramaticalized lexis--not lexicalized
grammar
Holistic - not atomistic
Lexicon-is-prime

Strengths and limitations

ADVANTAGES
feel more encouraged with the learning
material - It is helpful and motivating for Ss
to have a step-by-step learning process. - Ts
feel more comfortable with a clearly defined,
progressive course.
DISADVANTAGES
Language cannot be divided into different
units in real life. - Some topics traditionally
considered advanced can actually be taught
in much more lower levels. concentrates on
described by in the such as so that Ss are
able while Ts are to having both "Language
is grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized
grammar" (Lewis 1993).

x) Lexical Approach

Role of teacher, learners and resources

The teachers roles: Teachers talk is the
major source of learners input
Organizing the technological system,
providing scaffolding to help learners
The teacher methodology: Task, Planning,
Report
The learners roles
Replace the idea: the teacher is the
knower the learner is the discoverer
Role of materials and resources:
Collection of
vocabulary teaching activities

Implication of syllabus design

It has lexically based theory of
language. It doesnt have any certain
learning theory. It is an alternative
approach. It focuses on words and
word combinations. Grammar and lexis
are the heart of learning. It aims to
teach vocabulary within grammar.
Teachers help learners to discover
knowledge instead of giving it
directly.

Description
The eclectic approach is the label
given to a teacher's use of
techniques and activities from a
range of language teaching
approaches and methodologies.
The teacher decides what
methodology or approach to use
depending on the aims of the
lesson and the learners in the
group.

Techniques
Any of a wide variety of activities or
devices in the language classroom for
realizing lesson objectives. It must be
consistent with a method and in
harmony with an approach

xi) Eclectic Approach

Role of teacher, learners and resources

Role of Teacher
teacher as a facilitator: who facilitates the
learner, as a guide: who guides the
students, as a slightly higher rank official:
who uses his authority to conduct the
class and make the process of teaching
and learning systematic.
Role of Learner
the learner's role in class should be
cooperative and they will be allowed to
communicate, self correct each other and
ask questions about the substance
provided for teaching learning activities.
Role of materials and resources:
Collection of
vocabulary teaching activities

Principles
The use of a variety of language learning
activities through lexis which have
different characteristics and may be
Concentrate on developing learners
proficiency with motivated by underlying
assumptions lexis or words
Limited number of techniques will not give
any Believe in the centrality of the lexis to
benefits to the students in learning

Strengths and limitations

ADVANTAGES
Teachers have the chance to choose
different kinds of teaching techniques in
each class. Criteria for effective teaching
methods It must be simple for both teacher
and learner, and must be within the
capabilities of all teachers. Also, the teacher
must feel that pupils are progressing
satisfactorily.
DISADVANTAGES
Reliance upon a single theory of teaching
has been criticized because the use of a
limited number of techniques can become
mechanic

Implication of syllabus design

The influence of this tendency on this
education is natural. It reflects a
harmonious synthesis of all those dynamics
ideals and principles.

Second Language Learning

Theories (Krashens Monitor Model)
a) Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through
using language meaningfully) is different from language learning
(consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and
language acquisition is the only way competence in a second
language occurs.
Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using
language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously

learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the

only way competence in a second language can develop.
This acquisition-focused approach sees communicative competence
progressing through three stages:
(a) aural comprehension,
(b) early speech production, and
(c) speech activities, all fostering "natural" language acquisition, much as a
child would learn his/her native tongue.

Following an initial "silent period", comprehension should precede

production in speech, as the latter should be allowed to emerge in natural
stages or progressions.

Acquisition
A product of subconscious
processes very similar to
the process children
undergoes when they
acquire their first language:
Needs natural
communication in the
target language.
Informal situations.
Depends on attitude.
Uses grammatical feel

Learning
A product of formal
learning. It comprises a
conscious process which
results in conscious
knowledge 'about' the
language, for example
knowledge of grammar
rules.
Formal situations.
Depends on aptitude.
Uses grammatical rules.

STRENGTH
Language is learned is
through natural
communication.

WEAKNESSES
The idea of Language
does not lead to
acquisition is refuted by
the experience of anyone
who has internalized
some of the grammar
they have consciously
memorized.
The definitions of
acquisition/subconscious
and learning/conscious
are not clear enough
(Gregg, 1984)

b) Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks
or repairs the output of what has been acquired
Acquired system is responsible for spontaneous language use
Learned system acts as a monitor

Three specific conditions:

Time

Focus on form

Know the rule

Individual variation in monitor use:

Monitor Over-users are learners who attempt monitor all the time.
Monitor Under-users are learners who prefer not to use their conscious
knowledge.
Optimal Monitor users are learners who use the monitor appropriately.
According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is or should be minor.

Weaknesses
There is no clear evidence
to show us monitor use.
We are not able to
determine the language
that has been produced by
the learned system and the
Applications to teaching
acquired system
Produce Optimal Monitor Users
(Lightbown, & Spada,
Easy rules to remember and apply
Communicative competency

Knowing a language
rule does not mean
one will be able to use
it in communicative
interactions (Brown,
2000).
Discourage
Speech is halting
Focus more on

c) The Natural Order Hypothesis

Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it
does little good to try to learn them in another order
By referring to several prior research findings by Brown, 1973; Dulay and Burt ,
1974 ; Andersen, 1976; Kessler and Idar, 1977; Fabris, 1978; Christison, 1979;
Makino, 1980, Krashen said that grammatical morphemes seem to be acquired in
natural order. Some structures are acquired earlier and some later.
Natural order is found in both language acquisition by children and adults
alike. In case of L2, natural order exists regardless of the acquirers L1. Later
findings show that this hypothesis is valid for other language acquisition as
well.

Weaknesses of the Natural Order Hypothesis

The morphemes themselves do not form any linguistic unity, so there can be no
unitary hypothesis to explain why they should follow in sequence. (Mason, 2002)
Any language learners behavior may vary. So a morpheme present today may
disappear tomorrow. (Mason, 2002)
The order may depend to some greater or lesser extent upon the situation in
which the learners acquire their L2.
The complexity of morphemes depends on the

learners L1.

Implication on Teaching
A syllabus should not be based on the Natural Order Hypothesis (Krashen,
1982).
Lots of grammar programs are based on whether the points covered are easy or
difficult for the teacher to formulate, rather than on whether they are easy or difficult
for the learner to acquire

d) Input Hypothesis
People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly
beyond their current competence:
i+1
An important condition for language to occur is that the acquirer
understand (via hearing or reading) input language that contains
structure a bit beyond his or her current level of competence.
For example,

If a learner is at a stage I, then maximum acquisition takes place when

he/she is
exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level i + 1'.
The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not learning.
Human acquires language in only way by understanding messages, or by
receiving comprehensible input and Learners improve and progress along
the the natural order when they receive L2 comprehensible input.
Speaking is a result of acquisition & NOT its cause.
If input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary
grammar is automatically provided

Teaching Application
Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to
designing a syllabus.
Michael Long (1985-1996) takes up where in a sense Krashen left off. He
posits in what has come to be called the interaction hypothesis, that
comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction.

e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks
input necessary for language acquisition.

Learners feeling or attitude as an adjustable filter that freely pass,

impedes or block input necessary to acquisition
3 kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to SLA
1) Motivation:

high

2) Self-confidence:
3) Anxiety:

high

low

(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 183)

Learners with a low affective filter: high motivation, self-confidence, a

good image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success
in SLA
Learners with a high affective filter: low self-esteem and a high level of
anxiety
Form a mental block.

When the filter is high, it blocks language acquisition.

The low affective filter is desirable.

Strengths of the Affective

Filter

Teachers try to reduce learners negative feelings.

Learners can have higher competence when they

receive comprehensible input in low-stress condition.

A learner who is tense, angry, anxious, or bored will

screen out input, making it unavailable for acquisition.
Thus, depending on the learners state of mind or
disposition, the filter limits what is noticed and what is
acquired. The filter will be up or operating when the
learner is stressed, self-conscious or unmotivated. It
will be down when the learner is relaxed or
motivated.

(Lightbown and Spada,1993,p. 28)

Weaknesses of The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Sheltered classroom environment

vs.
Real world environment
The stresses of everyday life and communication are
uncontrollable variables.

Implication for Language Teaching

Students activities should be based on meaningful
communication rather than on form.
Input should be interesting and student needs based.
Input should contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.

f) Implication of the hypotheses for Teaching

Acquisition is more important than learning.
In order to acquire, two conditions are necessary. The first is
comprehensible (or even better, comprehended) input
containing i+1, structures a bit beyond the acquirer's current
level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow the
input 'in'.
Present as much comprehensible input as possible
Things that help comprehension are student needs based
such as pics/realia- exposure to wider lexicon / vocabulary
Focus should be on reading & listening speaking comes
later when ELLs ready
Natural Approach focuses mainly on basic communication
skills.
2nd perspective is that the purpose of a language course will
vary according to the needs of the students and their
particular interests Krashen & Terrell 1983:65.

g) Universal Grammar
Proposed by Noam Chomsky
What is a linguistic theory?

Linguistic

Descriptive adequacy

Explanatory adequacy

( to characterize what human languages

they are that way)

( to explain why

are like )
Universal Grammar is therefore a proper theory as it explains the
underlying linguistic knowledge in second-language learners
minds

What is Universal Grammar?

- Noam Chomsky claims that all languages have a
common underlying system and all human beings
inherit a universal set of principles that provide
SLLs to acquire L2 as they acquire their native
language with the help of an acquisition device that
is UG.
- Much of unconscious knowledge of grammar
( abstract linguistic system )does not need to
be learned
in the course of L1 acquisition as it derives from
UG.
- The focus is on what is universal within this mind

UG arguments from L1 acquisition

UG arguments from L2 acquisition
Principles and Parameters
UG access Hypotheses
Parameter setting Hypotheses

UG arguments from L1 acquisition

Main characteristics of L1 acquisition;
Children go through developmental stages
These stages are very similar across children although the rate differs
These stages are similar across languages
Rule governed and systematic
Children are resistant to correction
Childrens processing capacity limits the number of rules they can apply at any
time and they will revert to earlier hypothesis when two or more rules
compete.
These characteristics of L1 acqusition are similar to L2 acquisition
characteristics , hence Universalists could not conclude the evidence that
there is a langugae module in the brain out of it.

However, it is clear that child language acquisiton has nothing with

intelligence.

EXAMPLES
a. John saw himself
b. * Himself John saw
c.Looking after himself bores
John
d.*John said that Fred liked
himself
e.*John told Bill to wash himself
f. John believes himself to be
intelligent
g.* John believes that himself is
intelligent
These sentences show that
children deal with a difficult task
to arrive at correct rule.
Children with cognitive deficits
achieve it
Brocas aphasia and Wernickes
It shows that specific areas of brain deal with specific aspects of language and
that suffering from a language deficit does not mean having lost language
completely.
All this evidence make universalists claim that there must be a kind of innate
language faculty that is biologically triggered . As language in children seems
to grow in the same way a teeth develop or children start walking

More evidence for language specific module in brain

by Lennebergs criteria
The behaviour emerges before it is necessary
Its appearance is not the result of a conscious decision
Its emergence is not triggered by external events
Direct teaching and intensive practice have relatively little effect
Children go through well-defined stages milestones
critical period controversial issue

Principles and Parameters

UG approach claims that there is a universal set of principles and parameters

that control the shape of human languages .

Goverment & Binding

Theory

Principles

Paramaters

-unvarying

-possess a limited

-applicable to all

number of open

natural languages

values

We can not apply the same structure to all languages although the principles
are the same. The reason of it is that languages not only have PRINCIPLES but
also PARAMETERS.

Parameters decide and limit the way in which sth can be done.

Minimalist Programme of Chomsky

Chomsky argues that the core

of human language is lexicon.

Lexical
categories
( content
words)
Lexicon

Principles

In Minimalist programme ,
parametic variation occur
within functional category such
as various word order,
morphology, determiners,
auxilirias..etc
Abstract principles underlying
all languages will already be
specified in the computational
module , children and SLLs is
facing the task of learning

Structure Dependency : Language is organized in such a way that it

crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a
sentence.
Words are regrouped into higher-level structures which is based on a hierarchical
structure.
Ex: My friend bought a new car yesterday.
The friend that I met in Australia last year bought a new car yesterday.
The friend I am closest to and who was so supportive when I lost my job two
years ago bought a new car yesterday.

The same kind of groupings perform the same role in the sentence. We know
that the crucial word is

friend or she
This kind of grouping is called as Phrase such as NP ( noun phrase), VP
(verb phrase), AP, PP according to the head ( main element) of the phrase.

UG & L2
Second Language Learning is theoretically more complicated than L1
acquisition as many factors intervene the process such as;
L2 learners are cognitively mature
L2 learners already know at least one language
L2 learners have different motivations for learning a second language.
So, even if UG hypothesis is correct for L1 , there are still a number of logical
possibilities concerning its role in L2.

S e c o n d La n g u a g e s a re n o t U n iv e rsa l G ra m m a r
c o n stra in e d

S e c o n d la n g u a g e s a re n o t c o n stra in e d b y U n iv e rs a l
G ra m m a r p rin c ip le s a n d p a ra m e te rs a n d th e y d o n o t
b e h a v e like n a tu ra l la n g u a g e s

S ec o n d La n g u a g e s a re U n iv e rsa l G ra m m a r
c o n stra in e d

Fu ll a c c e s s : T h e w h o le o f U n iv e rsa l G ra m m a r is a v a lia b le to
se co n d la n g u a g e le a rn e rs , in th e sa m e w a y a s it is to fi rst
la n g u a g e le a rn e rs.

P a rtia l a c c e s s : S o m e p a rts o f U n iv e rsa l G ra m m a r is n o t

a v a lia b le a n y lo n g e r. Fo r ex : fu n ctio n a l fe a tu re s th a t a re n o t
re a lize d in th e fi rst la n g u a g e c a n n o t b e a cq u ire d .
It has been a very useful tool for linguistic analysis,
enabling more researches , such as principled way of
language transfer, cross-linguistic influence and

principles and parameters.

UG is useful not only in establishing some facts about SLA but also
explaining.

Theories of Language Learning

a) Behaviorism

Behaviorism assumes that a learner is essentially passive, responding to

environmental stimuli.

Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and behavior is
shaped by positive and negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the possibility of an

event happening again.

Punishment, both positive and negative, decreases the possibility of an

event happening again.

Positive reinforcement is the application of a stimulus.

Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of a stimulus.

Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning.

Important People in Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov- Did the experiment with the dogs. Came up with the theory of
classical conditioning.

B.F. Skinner- Developed the theory of operant conditioning. Operant

Conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of
behavior.

John B. Watson- The Little Albert experiment. He gets credit for establishing
the psychological school of behaviorism.

Pavlovs Dog Experim

ent
Experiment
Ivan Pavlov did a fam ous experim ent that
dem onstrates the theory of classical conditioning
(or respondent conditioning).
Every tim e Pavlov would bring put out the dogs
food he would ring a bell.
After doing this for a certain period of tim e,
Pavlov would ring the bell without presenting
food. The dogs would salivate just from the sound
of the bell.
The connection the dogs m ade between the bell
ringing and the food, caused the dogs to
associate the two, so they responded to the bell
even without the presence of the food.
Important B. F Skinner Theory
o Schedules of reinforcement- Continuous, interval, and ration.
These theories are used often in daily life with everything from
parenting to schooling to work life.
o Operant Conditioning- the use of consequences to modify the
occurrence or form of behavior. Differs from classical conditioning
in that it deals with voluntary behavior.

What teachers do under this theory

Give the learner immediate feedback.

Break down the task into small steps

Repeat the directions as many times as possible

Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks

Give positive reinforcement

Skinner believed that positive reinforcement is more effective in changing

behavior then punishment.

All of these are to be adjusted to be age appropriate

What students do under this theory

Respond to reinforcement

Pace themselves in an assignment to work from the most basic to the more
complicated concepts

Ask questions for more clarity in directions

Ask for feedback

Behavioral Theory and my own Teaching

I think that the behavioral theory can be very useful in my own teaching.

I can use reinforcement to encourage students to do their best work and to

encourage improvement.

I will try to avoid punishment, unless absolutely neccesary.

I will clearly explain my expectations and have clear, printed out and verbally
explained, directions to assignments.

I will always be positive and let my students know that they can do it, and can
do it well.

b) Humanism
Abraham Maslow
He first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his
1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and his
subsequent book, Motivation and Personality

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with

the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need
for self actualization at the top.

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what
Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love,
security, and physical needs

Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met
before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the
secondary or higher level needs.

Physiological Needs
For the most part, physiological
needs are obvious they are the
literal requirements for human
survival. If these requirements are
not met, the human body simply
cannot continue to function.

Love and Belongings

The need is especially strong in
childhood and can over-ride the
need for safety as witnessed in
children who cling to abusive
parents.

Safety Needs
In the absence of physical safety -due to war, natural disaster, or, in
cases offamily violence,childhood
abuse, etc. -- people (reexperience) post-traumatic
disorderand trans-generational
trauma transfer.

Esteem
All humans have a need to be
respected and to have self-esteem
and self-respect. Esteem presents
the normal human desire to be
accepted and valued by others.

Self- Actualization
What a man can be, he must
be.This forms the basis of the
perceived need for selfactualization. This level of need
pertains to what a person's full
potential is and realizing that
potential.

Carl Rogers

He was an influential American psychologist and among

the founders of the Humanistic approach to psychology.

According to him, what people want is unconditional

positive self regard(the feeling of being loved without
strings attached)

The role of any educator and leader in this approach is to

be a facilitator

Listening rather than talking is the skill needed.

Learners choose what is to be learned and Educators serves as resource

persons who will help guide learners to make wise decisions/choices.

Fostering:

Curiosity

Enthusiasm

Initiative

Responsibility

Enduring

Humanistic Psychology

contends that feelings and emotions are the keys to learning,

communication and understanding

Tell me how you feel is much more important statement to humanists

rather than Tell me what you think

Self Actualization
The main goal of human existence is self-actualisation:(becoming all what we are
capable of)

Valued

Accept
ed

Prized

Selfexploratio
n

All students are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn.

Selfactulisatio
n

Weaknesses of the Theory

The theory has been criticized for promoting self-centered learners who
cannot take criticisms or compromise their deeply felt positions

The touchy-feely approach of the humanists makes some learners and

educators feel truly uncomfortable.

Facts, information, memorization, drill, practice and the tedious work

which humanists minimize and sometimes disdain have been found to
contribute to significant learning, knowledge building, and skill development

Application of Humanist Theory

On whole school level: Open classrooms , class meetings, alternative modes of

assessment.
On class level: would support:
-Students having control over daily activities.
-Students monitor their own progress, andsSelf-evaluation.
-Teacher does not control learning process, only a facilitator.

-Integrating personal and communications skills ( Cooperative learning)

c) Cognitivism
Jean Piagets Theory Of Cognitive Development
Basic components:

Schemas (building blocks of knowledge)

Processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibration)

Stages of Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete

operational, formal operational)

Schemas
Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior a way of
organizing knowledge.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive
around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental)
balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development. A
schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which
we use both to understand and to respond to situations.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Assimilation using an existing schema to a new situation.

Accommodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) needs to be

changed to take in new information.

Equilibration the force which moves development along. An unpleasant state of

disequilibrium happens when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas
(assimilation.) Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do
not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new
challenge (accommodation)

Stages of development
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go
through 4 universal stages of cognitive development.
These different levels is that they are qualitatively different. In other words, at
each successive stage, it's not just a matter of doing something better, but of doing
a different thing altogether.

Stage 1: Sensorimotor Though (birth-2 years)

They know the world only in terms of their own sensory input (what they see, smell,
taste, touch, and hear) and their physical or motor actions on it (e.g. sucking,
reaching, grasping)
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are
characterized by the development of a new skill.
Reflexes (0-1 month):

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn
reflexes such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a
child may such his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the
action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For
example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child
may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin
exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior
of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children
begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child
might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage.
For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting
attention from a caregiver.
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):
Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the
final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards
understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through
actions.

Stage 2: Preoperational Stage

(2-7 years)

Intuitive Though logic bases only on experiences

Symbols in Play
Egocentrism
lack of conservation
Symbols in Play
Symbolic play: use one object to stand for another

 Fantasy play: pretend to be something, or pretend activities that are

impossible
Make-believe play: use toys as props

Stage 3- Concrete operational Stage (7-11 years)

This period spans the time of middle childhood and is characterized by the development
of logical thought. While kids at this age become more logical about concrete and specific
things, they still struggle with abstract ideas.
During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin
thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.

Logic
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the
use of inductive logic (inductive reasoning). Inductive logic involves going from a
specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have
difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the
outcome of a specific event.

Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding
of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being
able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a
child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a
dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Stage 4- Formal Operational Stage (age 12 and up)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into
adulthood.

During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

Logic
Piaget believed that deductive reasoning became necessary during the formal
operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics often require this type of
thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts.
Abstract Thought
While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the
ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage.
Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in longterm planning.
Problem-Solving
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal
operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive
development are often able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a
problem.
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills
(Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural
patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and
skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the
simplest to the most complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each
category):
o

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones
must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy
Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the
cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the
three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer,
Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000):
o

changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms

rearranging them as shown in the chart below

creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix

Bloom Taxonomy

o Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

d) Social Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky

Social constructivism focuses on the artifacts that are created through the social
interactions of a group. It emphasized the profound influence of social contexts in the
advances in the levels of knowing.

One key concept of Vygotskys social constructivism theory is that, knowledge

construction is both a social and cognitive process.

Knowledge and meanings are actively and collaboratively constructed in a

social context mediated by frequent social discourse.

In a social constructivist learning environment, effective learning happens only

through interactive processes of discussion, negotiation, and sharing.

1. Cultural influences on cognitive development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic
materials/abilities for intellectual development. Eventually, through interaction within
the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and
effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions.

2. Social influences on cognitive development

Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their
own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema.
Much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a
skilful tutor. The tutor may model behaviours and/or provide verbal instructions for
the child.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor
(often the parent or teacher) then internalises the information, using it to guide or
regulate their own performance.

Two main principles of Vygotsky's work:

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

It refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than
the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The key to MKOs is
that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being
learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child
can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.
Vygotsky sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills
they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

3. Language in cognitive development

Language is an accelerator to thinking/understanding. Language develops from

social interactions, for communication purposes. Later language ability becomes
internalized as thought and inner speech.
Language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit info to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Application in literacy learning

Reciprocal teaching

Teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills:
summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the
process is reduced over time.

Scaffolding

A teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a

novice can work on it successfully.

Collaborative learning

Group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers
can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.