16

P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson

for Using GPS Relative Positioning Techniques,"

Federal Geodetic Control Committee, Version 5.0,
May 1988

Standards for distance and elevation accuracy are

given in Tables 3-1 and 3-2.
The following survey specifications are
recommended for major projects:
Primary Horizontal Control: Second Order Class 1
plus
closing error 1:70,000

Fig. 3-6. The Taylor Hobson sphere.

remotely upon command. Survey data is transmitted to a

central computer for recording and processing. Robotic survey
instruments are useful for remote monitoring of mining and
construction sites, slope stability, glacier and ice field movement,
and structure deformation and movement.

GENERAL SURVEYING REQUIREMENTS AND

PROCEDURES
Accuracy

Requirements for survey accuracy are dictated by

the
type of project, length of the tunnel, and other factors. Conventional tunnels less than 10,000 ft long can be reliably
controlled and monitored using horizontal and vertical surveying techniques that were in use 50-100 years ago. In
contrast, specifications for the Department of Energy
(DOE)
Superconducting Super Collider in Waxahachie, Texas, required such precise tunneling and construction that the
highest order of geodetic control and construction surveys was
essential. Standards for all orders of horizontal and vertical
surveys, together with field and office procedures, network
design, instrument calibration, monumentation, etc., are described in the following publications:
"Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control
Networks," Federal Geodetic Control Committee, Rockville,
Maryland, September 1984 (reprinted August 1993)
"Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Specifications

formed after each shove should be in the range of one to tw

hundredths of a foot. The short time available for the perfoi
mance of these measurements explains the lesser precisio
required.

Table 3-1. Distance Accuracy Standards

Classification

Minimum Distance Accuracy

First Order
Second Order, Class I
Second Order, Class II
Third Order, Class I
Third Order, Class II

1:100,1000
1:50,000
1:20,000
1:10,000
1:5,000

Primary Vertical Control: Second Order Class 1

Tunnel Control Traverse: Second Order Class 1
Tunnel Control Benchmarks: Second Order Class 1

High-speed rail and specialized projects may require firs order

or higher horizontal and vertical accuracy.
Survey instruments and methods used to transfer workin
line and elevation underground and to set monuments fc
construction line and grade should provide for the following

Instrument Adjustments

Theodolites, Total Stations, EDMs, and GPS units cannc

be adjusted or calibrated in the field. This work must be don
in a competent service facility. Level instruments, however
require regular testing to assure that the horizontal crosshai
defines a true level plane, and field adjustments are require,
if the "peg test" or other testing techniques indicate that th
horizontal crosshair does not define a level plane.
On continuing projects where leveling is a daily task, time
can be saved by replacing routine "peg testing" with the fol
lowing procedure:
Consign one automatic level for office calibration only. Thi
instrument should be in perfect adjustment (preferably by in

Table 3-2. Elevation Accuracy Standards

1.

Angular measurements to the nearest 1 sec of arc

2.

Stationing to the nearest 1/1,000 ft

3.

Benchmark elevations to the nearest 1/1000 ft

4. Adjusted coordinates to the nearest 1/1,000 ft

The precision of the target readings of the tunneling mz

chine control system and tunnel ring measurements as pet

Classification
First Order
Second Order, Class I
Second Order, Class II
Third Order, Class I
Third Order, Class II

Maximum Elevation
Difference Accuracy
0.5mm/km
0.7mm/km
1 0mm/km
1.3mm/km
2.0mm/km