Chapter 4 2014

4-1
Chapter 4
PROCEDURES
School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW
Open Learning - 2014
4-2
CHAPTER 4
PROCEDURES
Contents
Page No
Table of Illustrations
Table of Tables
Table of Graphs
Objectives
4
5
6
7
1.0
ALARM LIMITS
1.1
High And Low Pit Level
1.2
Return Flow Sensor
1.3
Trip Tank Level
1.4
Hydrogen Sulphide & Flammable Gases
9
9
9
10
10
2.0
PRE-RECORDED WELL CONTROL INFORMATION

2.1
Dynamic Pressure Loss
2.2
Well Configuration
2.3
Fracture Gradient
2.4
Initial Maximum Safe Casing Pressures
14
14
16
17
18
3.0
FLOW CHECKS
3.1
When Drilling
3.2
When Tripping
21
21
22
4.0
SHUT-IN PROCEDURES
4.1
Soft Shut-in While Drilling
4.2
Hard Shut-in While Drilling
4.3
Soft Shut-in While Tripping
4.4
Hard Shut-in While Tripping
4.5
Soft Shut-in While Running Casing
4.6
Hard Shut-in While Running Casing
4.7
Soft Shut-in While Cementing
4.8
Hard Shut-in While Cementing
4.9
Soft Shut-in During Wireline Operations
4.10 Hard Shut-in During Wireline Operations
4.11 Soft Shut-in While Out of Hole
4.12 Hard Shut-in While Out of Hole
4.13 Well Divertion with Shallow Set Conductor Pipe
4.14 Verification Of Shut-In
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
4-3
5.0
WELL MONITORING DURING SHUT-IN

5.1
Record keeping
5.2
Volumetric Bleed From A Shut-In Well
5.3
Determining SIDPP When Using A Non-Return Valve
5.4
Influx Density versus Shut-in Surface Pressures
5.5
When SIDPP Is Greater Than SICP
5.6
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
5.7
Pressure Between Casing Strings
6.0
RESPONSE TO MASSIVE OR TOTAL LOSS OF CIRCULATION 34

6.1
Signs of Lost Returns
34
6.2
Dealing With Loss
34
7.0
TRIPPING
7.1
Procedures For Keeping Hole Filled
7.2
Measuring And Recording Hole-Fill Volumes
7.3
Wet Trip Calculations
7.4
Dry Trip Calculations
7.5
Pills
7.6
Overbalance & Trip Margin
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
8.0
FORMATION COMPETENCY
8.1
Prediction of Fracture Pressure
8.2
Formation Integrity Test
40
40
51
9.0
STRIPPING OPERATIONS
9.1
Controlling Bottom Hole Pressure
9.2
Stripping Procedure Through Annular Preventer
9.3
Stripping Using Rams
9.4
Snubbing Problems
63
63
70
74
77
10.0
REFERENCES
84
27
27
27
28
30
30
32
32
4-4
Table of Illustrations
Page No.
Figure 4.01 Surface stack pre-recorded information
13
Figure 4.02 Procedure to establish the SIDPP when a float is in use
29
Figure 4.03 Shoe pressure versus gas location
33
Figure 4.04 Volumetric method
65
Figure 4.05 Volumetric strip
67
Figure 4.06 API strip procedure
69
Figure 4.07 Stripping with the annular preventer
72
Figure 4.08 Stripping out with annular preventer
73
Figure 4.09 Ram to ram strip step 1
79
80
81
82
83
4-5
Table of Tables
Page No.
Table 4.01 Pressure versus pump rate
15
Table 4.02 Blowout preventer ratings
18
Table 4.03 API casing properties
19
Table 4.04 API tubular pressure ratings
20
Table 4.05 Gradient / densities for various formation fluids
30
Table 4.06 Indications of malfunctions during kill process
31
Table 4.07 Gunk plug mix for 300-foot plug
36
Table 4.08 Bulk density versus depth
41
Table 4.09 Deep-water overburden data
43
Table 4.10 Bulk density for various formation types
52
4-6
Table of Graphs
Page No.
Graph 4.01 Barite plug mixture
36
Graph 4.02 Average density versus depth below TVD
42
Graph 4.03 Overburden values
44
Graph 4.04 Average density values for overburden
45
Graph 4.05 Average density data for overburden for various water depths
46
Graph 4.06 Poissons ratio for US Gulf of Mexico
49
Graph 4.07 Typical cement channel
57
Graph 4.08 Small cement channel
57
Graph 4.09 Plugged cement channel
58
Graph 4.10 Small propped fracture
58
Graph 4.11 Formation fractured by test
59
Graph 4.12 Cement fracture
59
Graph 4.13 Pre-existing formation fracture
60
Graph 4.14 High permeability
60
Graph 4.15 Unconsolidated formation
61
Graph 4.16 Two-stage crack growth
61
4-7
CHAPTER 4
PROCEDURES
Objectives
On successful mastery of the content of this module, you will be able to:
Demonstrate the procedures for setting well control monitoring indicators.
Identify appropriate pre-recorded information.
Record standpipe pressure at slow pump rate.
Read at choke consol.
Recognise an error in gauge readings based on discrepancies between readings.
Recognise and measure normal flow back.
Recognise a flow that is different from normal flowback.
Take action based on recognition of flow.
Explain how to establish that well is static before starting trip.
Explain why an absence of flow (flow check) is not an absolute indicator that there
is no influx.
Demonstrate understanding that the primary indicator of influx is the trip sheet, not a
flow check.
Upon observing positive flow indicators, shut-in the well in a timely and efficient
manner to minimise influx, according to a specific procedure which will address the
design of a shut in.
For any shut-in, verify well closure by demonstrating that flow paths are closed.
Explain or demonstrate recommended procedures to use for well monitoring during

well shut-in.
Read, record and report well shut-in record keeping parameters.
Identify at least two causes of trapped pressure.
Describe the effects of trapped pressure on well bore pressure.
4-8
List two consequences on surface pressure resulting from shutting in on a gas versus
liquid kick of equivalent volume.
Perform choke manipulation to achieve specific pressure or volume objectives.
Demonstrate procedure for relieving trapped pressure without creating

underbalance.
If a float is in use demonstrate the procedure to open the float to obtain shut-in drill
pipe pressure.
List two situations in which shut-in drill pipe pressure would exceed shut-in casing
pressure.
Identify a response to approaching maximum safe casing pressure.
Describe at least one method for controlling BHP while gas is migrating.
Identify two causes of pressure between casing strings.
Identify at least two methods of responding to massive or total loss of circulation

during a well kill operation.
Perform hole fill-ups on trips.
Demonstrate, explain and perform procedures during trips.
Describe the steps involved in conducting different types of drills.
Describe or perform a Leak Off Test and Formation Integrity Test.
Describe how formation competency test results may be affected by fluid density
change.
Define the basic purpose of, and method for stripping.
Demonstrate stripping procedures.
4-9
1.0
ALARM LIMITS
1.1
HIGH AND LOW PIT LEVEL
All drilling rigs should be equipped with visual and audio alarm systems on the Return
Flow Monitors, Pit Volume Totalisers and Pit Deviation Monitors. Fast drilling, the
addition of pre-mix drilling fluid and the equalisation of mud tanks can lead to the
premature sounding of alarms. Sometime it seems convenient to turn the alarms off and
monitor the instrumental readoutss. This approach is subject to error. A small distraction
may prevent the driller from noticing a possible change in the drilling parameters. The
result of such a lapse in concentration may be a kick.
Pit level alarms are located on the Mud Totalisers Instrument display that needs to be
located near the driller. Alarms are also located on the pit level graph recorders and made
active when the recorder pen crosses over the alarm proximity arm.
Pit level monitors have a vernier setting that enables high/low calibrations. Calibration
settings are dependent on the volume of influx into the wellbore of loss of drilling fluid
volume into the formation that is tolerable. These values are also dependent on
instrumental error (both land and offshore operations) and physical variations such as rig
heave, rig pitch and rig roll in offshore dynamic drilling vessels. For example, an alarm
setting indicating a gain or loss of 5 barrels (0.8 m3) is suitable for an 8-1/2 inch hole (216
mm) using 6-1/4 inch (159 mm) drill collars and 4-1/2 inch (114 mm) drill pipe. This
value would not be acceptable in a slimhole operation where a 4 inch (102 mm) hole is
being drilled using 3-1/2 inch (89 mm) drill rods. A small annular capacity will allow the
influx length to reach true vertical lengths far exceeding those of larger capacity annular.
Distribution of an influx over the greater true vertical distance will produce greater
annular pressures at surface and at the casing shoe.
1.2
RETURN FLOW SENSOR
The return flow sensor, located in the annular return flowline, is positioned between the
Bell Nipple or Riser and the Shaker Header Tank. Its purpose is to:
Indicate any increase in flow during drilling operations;
Monitor all drilling fluid returns from wellbore.
This instrument, often referred to by their brand name such as Flo-Show (Flo-Show was
originally a brand name owned by the Martin Decker Instrument Corporation), have
alarms set using toggle limit switches incorporated into a gauge displaying the relative
indication of flow. The gauge functions in direct response to the movement of a paddle
located in the flowline. When no flow occurs the paddle in the flowline is vertical and the
gauge reads 0% flow. At maximum flow the toggle is horizontal and the reading is 100
%. The actual reading while drilling will depend on the relative pump output. Alarm
settings slightly over circulation return rates will warn the driller of any positive variation
in flow rate.
4-10
During a trip, an alarm setting above the fill-up pump flow rate from the wellbore will
indicate a flow from the wellbore due to swabbing or kicking.
1.3
TRIP TANK LEVEL
Not all trip tanks have alarm systems. The trip tank is always used in association with a
trip sheet. A close observance of correct hole filling quantities must be observed on ALL
trips, including wiper trips. If an alarm is available it should be calibrated to signal when
the trip tank gains any fluid or is near empty. A loss of trip tank fluid will prevent the
hole from being filled when tripping out of the hole. A dangerous situation when fill-up
pumps are left on while the collars are being tripped out. The fluid volume required to
fill the hole is greater for drill collars because the drill collar displacement is larger than
the drill pipe displacement. DANGER! If the trip tank runs dry and the hole is not filled
then the BHP will be reduced producing conditions suitable for a kick.
Make sure when setting the alarm limits on your trip tank, remote or manual, that you
know the limits of the tank. On a slide or gauge, be aware of the range between the full
mark and the empty mark.
1.4
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE AND FLAMMABLE GAS SENSORS
Equipment used to detect hydrogen sulfide and other flammable and explosive gases may
include fixed location monitors, personal detectors, mud monitors with electronic probes,
or chemicals for analysis of the drilling fluid. The monitors may be quantitative and may
function with chemical or electronic sensors.
The most important concern with any Hydrogen Sulphide air detector is proper placement
of the sensor units. Since Hydrogen Sulphide is heavier than air, it will settle in low
areas. The personal units should be attached to the clothing or carried level with the waist.
The electronic rig monitors have portable sensor heads that should be placed in low areas
such as the cellar and near the pits. A sensor should also be placed near the shale shaker
since it is the first location where the mud will receive exposure to the air.
Lead Acetate Paper Detectors
Several reasonably semi-quantitative detectors for Hydrogen Sulphide are based on lead
acetate paper. As the gas contacts the paper, the lead acetate impregnated in the paper
reacts with the gas to form lead sulfide that causes the paper to change colour from white
to various shades of brown or black. The degree of colour change depends on the
Hydrogen Sulphide concentration that can be roughly estimated by comparing the
observed colour to a control chart or table.
4-11
The primary advantage of these detectors is that they are carried by each crew member,
enabling him or her to detect the gas wherever he or she may be. This provides an
additional measure of safety to each crew member as well as an atmosphere of security.
The reaction time required for the detector to function is a disadvantage of the tool. The
total of 3 - 5 minutes necessary can be excessive and dangerous when large
concentrations of Hydrogen Sulphide are met. Also, it is advisable to consider the lead
acetate paper a quantitative indicator rather than as a determination of the concentration.
The two paper detectors most often employed are the badge type and the spot check.
Colour codes determine the Hydrogen Sulphide concentration.
4-12
Capsule Detector
The capsule detector resembles an ammonia type capsule and is filled with chemical
granules. The capsule is broken and attached to the clothing with a string. If Hydrogen
Sulphide contacts the granules, a brown discolouration will be observed. This detector
should be used only as an indicator of Hydrogen Sulphide because of the limitations of
the capsule. The life of the tube is approximately 6 days after it is broken. The maximum
concentration of the gas that can be measured accurately is 20 parts per million (ppm).
Draeger Detector
The Draeger (Registered company trade name for the Draeger organisation) unit is one of
the most widely used tools for quantitative gas detection. It can be altered to measure
almost any type of gas and as a result, is used extensively in Hydrogen Sulphide
detection.
The tool consists of a calibrated glass tube filled with lead acetate granules. A pump is
used to draw gas samples into the tube, and the level of colour change denotes the
Hydrogen Sulphide concentration. Several scales are usually presented on the glass tube
to denote high and low concentrations. The pump is usually the bellows type. The
simple operating procedure increases the utility of the tool. The tips of the detector tube
are broken and inserted into the suction outlet of the Draeger unit. Ten compressions of
the bellows is required to ensure an accurate reading in low concentrations of Hydrogen
Sulphide. As the gas is drawn into the tube by the bulb, the lead acetate granules become
discoloured denoting the quantitative measurement of the gas concentration.
The accuracy of the measurements depends on the training and practice of the personnel
using the unit. As varying amounts of air are drawn into the unit, the measurements will
be different form if ten compressions are used. In high concentrations of Hydrogen
Sulphide, only one compression is required.
The measurement obtained with the Draeger unit are usually reliable. Since there are no
electronic parts, the unit is not subject to electronic malfunction. The shelf life of an
unbroken tube is approximately two years, and the tube can be used after the tips are
broken as long as no indication of Hydrogen Sulphide is present.
Belt Detectors
The belt type of Hydrogen Sulphide detector is an electronic unit usually attached to the
crew members belt. The unit is operated by rechargeable and/or replaceable batteries.
The detector has a sensor head that will monitor Hydrogen Sulphide gas and report in a
visible readout for concentrations of 5 - 10 parts per million. An audible alarm can be
used and is usually pre-set to respond to 20 parts per million. The response time for the
unit is approximately 35 seconds.
4-13
Fixed-Location Monitors
The rig monitor is a fixed location, quantitative, electronic device designed for
permanent, full-time operation. Sensor heads are placed at various locations on the rig
and attached to the detection unit that is housed in a hard plastic or metal case. On the
monitor, a readout in ppg concentration will be shown on a needle type indicator.
A rotating beacon or strobe light attached to the unit will start automatically when a
specified amount of gas has been detected. An audible alarm can be used to denote a
higher level of gas concentration. The response time for the monitor is approximately 35
seconds for concentrations of 0 - 10 parts per million.
The detection unit, depending on brand name and model, can have from 1 to 12 channels
to which are attached the sensors. The most common units have 4 to 6 channels. The rig
monitor or the belt type detector must be calibrated and tested periodically to insure that it
is functionally properly.
4-14
2.0
PRE-RECORDED WELL CONTROL INFORMATION
Formation Strength Data:Surface Leak-off Pressure:-
Current Well Data:

Mud Data:
(A)
psi
Mud Weight:-
Weight
(B)
ppg
ppg
Gradient
psi/ft
Maximum Allowable Mud Weight:(B) +

(A)
= (C)
Shoe True Vertical Depth x 0.052
Casing Shoe Data:

ppg
Initial MAASP =
[(C) - Current Mud Weight] x Shoe TVD x 0.052 =
psi
Pump No. 1 Displacement
Pump No. 2 Displacement
bbls/stroke
bbls/stroke
Slow Pump
Rate Data:
Dynamic Pressure Loss (PL)
Pump No. 1
Size
inch
MD
ft
TVD
ft
Hole Data:Size
inch
Pump No. 2
spm
psi
psi
spm
psi
psi
MD
ft
TVD
ft
Figure 4.01 Surface Stack pre-recorded information
2.1
DYNAMIC PRESSURE LOSS
Secondary well control calls for the use BOP equipment in combination with hydrostatic
pressure to return the well to a controlled state. A dynamic pressure loss for the
circulating system is determined by recording standpipe circulation pressures at a reduced
pump rate. The slow pump rate (SPR) is determined by slowing the pump to a
predetermined rate that will provide an up-hole annular velocity suitable to maintain the
laminal flow of the kill fluid. Once pump rate is established standpipe pressures are
adjusted to provide a rounded pressure reading compatible to the gauge calibration in use.
Several recordings can be taken at different stroke rates and pressures. All pumps are
calibrated to the same pressure recordings and not the same stroke rates. The SPR is
independently determined for all pumps and the surface pressure and corresponding rates
(spm) are entered in the drilling report and kill sheet. These values are sometimes
refereed to as the Slow Circulating Rate, Slow Pump Rate or Slow Pump Pressure.
4-15
Slow Pump Pressures must be calibrated on all pumps because pump volumetric
efficiency may vary. While each pump is running at the same pressure the fluid in the
system is moving at the same velocity. A kill procedure requires an Initial Circulating
Pressure and a Final Circulating Pressure not an Initial Circulating Rate and Final
Circulating Rate.
The remote choke panel gauge should be used to record all pressures. Since gauges vary
the remote choke panel gauges are considered the rigs master gauges.
A reduced circulating pressure is necessary for the following reasons:
a) It minimises the annular friction pressure on an already pressured wellbore;
b) It allows more reaction time during choke adjustments;
c) It keeps flow rates into the atmospheric degasser within design specifications;
d) It permits the continued lamina flow of the drilling fluid.
Changes to pump rates or drilling fluid density will affect circulating pressures.
Changes to fluid density will either increase or decrease circulating pressure and is a
function of the ratio of the new to old mud density.
New Pump Pressure = Old Pump Pressure New Mud Density/Old Mud Density
Formula 4.01
Similarly changes to stroke rate will change the circulating pressure as the square of the
ratio of new is to old rate.
New Pump Pressure = Old Pump Pressure (New SPM/Old SPM)2
Formula 4.02
Changes in the pump kill rate make a big difference in pump pressure, so it is important
to get a pressure/rate reading after the pressure has stabilised. The small changes in pump
rate or speed will make big changes in pump pressure. The following chart illustrates
how a small change in pump rate or speed makes a large change in pump pressure.
Pressure (psi)
Pressure (kPa)
Duplex Pump (spm)
Triplex Pump (spm)
800
5520
30
60
1027
7086
34
68
1567
10812
42
84
2133
14718
49
97
2687
18540
55
110
3198
22066
60
120
Table 4.01 Pressure versus pump rate
4-16
The dramatic effect of pump rate versus circulating pressure also highlights the need for
constant and correct kill pump speed during the kill operation.
A new slow pump pressure and rate should be taken:
1. Every 500 feet of drilled hole;
2. After each tour change (when applicable);
3. After circulating around following each trip;
4. After any changes in BHA and or bit nozzles;
5. After mud weight changes;
6. After mud pump repairs;
7. Anytime there are good indications of a favourable formation change.
2.2
WELL CONFIGURATION
Pump Output (O/P) and Drill Pipe Capacity

A vital part of the well killing procedure is to determine the number of strokes required to
fill the Drillstem. This can be achieved by dividing the pump output (volume
displacement) per full stroke into the Drillstem volume. Volume whether drill stem or
annular must be calculated using measured depths.
True Vertical Depth (TVD) and Measured Depth (MD)
The true vertical depth must be used in all calculations dealing with hydrostatic pressures
and mud densities. Hydrostatic pressure is a function of true vertical depth not the length
of the drill stem. Using a measured depth instead of a true vertical depth in pressure
equations will result in an incorrect kill mud density.
The measured depth must be used in all displacement calculations such as the calculation
of surface-to-bit volumes. The proper use of true vertical depth and measured depth
obviously becomes critical in directional or highly deviated holes.
Calculation To Find TVD In A Directional Hole
To find the TVD of any deviated section of well apply the following formula:
TVD = Cos (deviation) x MD
See Chapter 1 for further explanation.
Annular Capacity and Surface Line Capacity or Active Surface Volume
4-17
Annular capacity is used to calculate bit-to-shoe and bit-to-surface volumes. Because the
wellbore is very rarely in gauge the bit-to-shoe values may, in reality, be in error.
Surface line volume is the amount drilling fluid required to fill the surface lines from
pump to Swivel. Surface line volume can be estimated as follows:
Platform/Tender
Land Rig
All Others
8 bbls
2 bbls
4 bbls
1.3 m3
0.3 m3
0.6 m3
The surface line volume must not be included in any Killsheet calculation. This value
needs only to be known so that the pump stroke counter can be reset to zero once the
surface lines have been filled with kill fluid. The surface lines are continuously flooded
and not a part of the wellbore U tube.
2.3
FRACTURE GRADIENT
Fracture Gradients are calculated by converting the total pressures required to

compromise formation integrity at the shoe into a gradient. The continued destruction of
the formation matrix will result in a loss of drilling fluid to the formation and a possible
underground blowout. The most common procedure to determine the fracture gradient is
called the Pressure Integrity Test or Leak-Off Test. The procedure used in the test is to
close a blowout preventer and then gradually apply pressure to the shut-in system until the
formation initially accepts fluid.
As the casing shoe is the theoretical point in the wellbore of least resistance, a leak-off
test is carried out everytime casing is set. In regions where the formation gradients are
well known, this test is not necessarily carried out. Once a pressure is obtained it is
converted into a mud weight and added onto the existing fluid weight used in the test. The
resulting value represents the equivalent mud weight (EMW) of formation breakdown at
the shoe. The mud weight in the circulation system must never exceed this value. If mud
densitys approach this value, then another string of casing will need to be run and set in
the well.
The formula for fracture gradient is:
Fracture Gradient =
((Test Fluid Density Constant TVD of Shoe) + Leak-Off Pressure)
True Vertical Depth of Casing Shoe
Formula 4.03
This facture gradient is then converted to an equivalent mud density at the shoe using the
formula:
4-18
EMW @ Shoe = FG / Constant
Formula 4.04
Or the Maximum Allowable Mud Density
MAMD = (LOP / Constant / TVD of Shoe) +Test Fluid Density
Formula 4.05
Example:
Casing is set at 600 feet. A LOP test is undertaken using 8.3 ppg water. A LOP of
300 psi is obtained. What is the Fracture Gradient of the formation and the MAMD
at the shoe?
FG = ((8.3 x 0.052 x 600) + 300)/600 = 0.9316 psi/ft
MAMD @ Shoe = (300 / 0.052 / 600) + 8.3 = 17.9 ppg
2.4
INITIAL MAXIMUM SAFE CASING PRESSURES
Wellhead Rating
When considering the initial maximum safe casing pressures one must first consider the
pressure rating of the blowout preventer assemble. The lowest pressure rated component
in the assembly hook-up must determine the blowout-prevention assemblys maximum
pressure capability. This item may be the casing, casing head or connector, side outlet
valves, the preventers itself, or other fittings exposed to pressure. The pressure capability
of the casing and the formations exposed below the casing seat are often the determining
factors for rating the working pressure of the assembly. Table 4.02 below shows pressure
ratings for blowout-preventer equipment, published in API RP 53.
API CLASS
2M
3M
5M
10M
15M
WORKING PRESSURE (psi) [kPa]

2,000 [13800]
3,000 [20700]
5,000 [34500]
10,000 [69000]
15,000 [103500]
Table 4.02 Blowout-Preventer Ratings

The maximum anticipated pressure at the Wellhead must consider the assumption that the
hole is void of fluid. Therefore, while drilling a well one may penetrate a formation
anticipated to contain 5 000 psi (34 500 kPa) of pressure. If this interface was at a depth
of 10 000 feet (3 048 m) and a column of gas with a gradient of 0.1 psi/ft (2.26 kPa/m)
then this gas column would exert a hydrostatic pressure of 1 000 psi (6 900 kPa). The
4-19
blowout preventer stack would therefore be exposed to a pressure of only 4 000 psi (27
600 kPa). Thus a 5 000 psi working pressure blowout preventer stack and subsequent
peripheral equipment would be a reasonable choice.
Casing Burst Rating
The casing burst rating is the maximum allowable internal working pressure of the casing.
Many operating companies impose design safety factors for burst strength, which applied
to the minimum yield strength of the casing. The allowable working pressure may be
deliberately down-rated because of protracted drilling. The examples in Table 4.03
illustrate predicted bursting strength of select casing.
Size (in)
Weight (lb)
Grade of Steel
20
16
13-3/8
10-3/4
9-5/8
9-5/8
9-5/8
7-5/8
7
7
7
5-1/2
94.0
75.0
61.0
40.5
40.0
40.0
29.7
26.0
29.0
29.0
29.0
23.0
J-55
J-55
J-55
J-55 & K-55
J-55 & K-55
C-75
N-80
N-80
J-55 & K-55
N-80
P-110
P-110
Min. Internal Yield

Pressure (psi)
2,110
2,630
3,090
3,130
3,950
5,390
5,750
6,890
4,980
8,160
11,220
14,520
Table 4.03 API Casing Properties
Tubular Collapse
During drill stem tests, tubulars are run into the well with limited internal fluid volume.
When the Drillstem test is initiated the tubulars are subjected to the hydrostatic pressure
of the drilling fluid in the annulus, and have been known to collapse. Down graded
tubulars can contribute to collapse failures during drill-stem tests. Various production
tubulars can experience the same problem if their rating is not chosen in accordance to the
hydrostatic pressures being applied to them. Table 4.04 illustrates the collapse pressures
of various tubulars.
4-20
Size
OD (in)
2-3/8
2-7/8
3-1/2
4-1/2
5-1/2
6-5/8
Nom. Wt.
(lb/ft)
4.85
6.65
6.85
10.40
9.50
13.30
15.50
11.85
14.00
15.70
13.75
16.6
20.00
22.82
16.25
19.50
25.60
19.20
21.90
24.70
25.20
Collapse Pressure Based On Minimum Values (psi)

E
11040
15600
10470
16510
10040
14110
16770
8410
11350
12900
7200
10390
12960
14810
6970
10000
13500
6070
8440
10460
4810
X-95
13980
19760
12930
20910
12060
17880
21250
9960
14380
16340
8400
12750
16420
18770
8090
12010
17100
6930
10000
12920
5310
G-105
15460
21840
14010
23110
13050
19760
23480
10700
15900
18050
8950
13820
18150
20740
8610
12990
18900
7300
10740
14000
5490
S-135
19070
28080
17060
29720
15780
25400
30190
12650
20170
23210
10310
16800
23330
26670
9860
15700
24300
8120
12710
17050
6040
Table 4.04 API tubular pressure ratings
4-21
3.0
FLOW CHECKS
3.1
WHEN DRILLING
Normal Flow Back

Normal flow back occurs as the drilling fluids below the swivel equalise with the top of
the flowline. Flow checks should be carried out when a drilling break occurs or if any
doubt arises in the mind of the driller as to the well's condition. If in doubt, check!
Normal flow back is minimised when the pumps are shut down soon after the bit is raised
off bottom. This practise is not recommended due to the possibility of pulling into tight
hole. If any tight hole is encountered when elevating the drill stem a pack-off may occur
around the bit or stabilisers. It is best to maintain circulation until correct space out in
achieved. Normal flow back will slowly decrease as the U tubing effect stabilises. The
pit level gain/loss indicators will also show no gain in pit volume if the flow-back is a
result of fluid equalisation. For offshore applications all fluid returns should be directed
into the trip tank so that return flow can be monitored.
Not Normal Flow Back
A flow that is not normal will slowly increase in intensity and result in a gain in pit
volume. A kick may not occur while circulating because of hydrodynamic pressure. A
slight overbalance credited to the annular friction loss will not be lost until all circulation
ceases. Slight hydrostatic underbalance may not register on the drill-pipe pressure gauge
because of gauge calibrations. If a rig is not equipped with a digital display standpipe
pressure gauge or finer calibrated instrument then the state of the well can be ascertained
from the return flow from the wellbore. Once the well is confirmed as flowing, then
normal shut-in procedures should commence.
Loss Of Equivalent Circulating Density With Pumps Off
An over pressured formation can resist early detection due to the effects of annular
friction loss on bottom hole pressure. During circulation a status quo may be
maintained between hydrodynamic pressure and reservoir pressure. If a minimal
connection time is achieved then only a short period of time will elapse when the
wellbore is not subjected to annular friction pressure. If however an underbalance
between hydrostatic and reservoir pressure does exist then the influx will slowly enter the
well during the period of each connection. The presence of influx in the wellbore may not
be detected until bottoms-up exposes the drilling fluid to surveillance by surface
instruments.
4-22
3.2
WHEN TRIPPING
Well Is Hydrostatically Balanced

When well circulation is suspended a hydrostatic balance exists when no flow is detected
leaving the wellbore. Wellbore hydrostatic pressure is sufficient to balance the formation
pressure. If an overbalance exists between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure
then this overbalance is called a trip margin. The implementation of a trip margin will
depend on the type of drilling being undertaken. Under-balanced drilling operations
encourage kicks so that drilling fluids do not enter formation pore spaces and damage
formation permeability.
During a trip the absence of flow is not an absolute indicator that no influx has entered
the wellbore. As the drill stem is elevated the mud level in the annulus should decrease
by a volume equivalent to the amount of steel displacement removed. If the well does not
accept the calculated volume of mud to bring the annular mud level back to the surface,
then it is assumed that a kick has entered the wellbore. Even though an influx may enter
the wellbore, the well may not flow while an overbalance exists.
Use And Purpose Of A Trip Sheet
A Trip Sheet is the primary indicator of a kick during a trip. The purpose is to indicate to
the driller that an influx has entering into the wellbore. This is achieved through the
correlation of calculated displacements versus actual volumes returned to the well as the
Drillstem is removed. If swabbing is taking place then a trip sheet will indicate the
volume of influx that has entered the wellbore. If the well does not take the correct
amount of drilling fluid then the trip should be suspended, a flow check initiated and if no
flow, the Drillstem should be returned to bottom and the annulus fully circulated.
4-23
4.0
SHUT-IN PROCEDURES
When one or more of the warning signs of kicks are observed, steps should be taken to
shut-in the well. If there is any doubt whether the well is flowing, shut-in and check the
pressures. Procedures for well shut-in may vary depending on site- specific issues. The
procedures listed below take this into account.
The reasons for closing the well are:
4.1
Keep the influx to a minimum;

Obtain and interpret the shut-in pressures;
Re-establish a balance between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure.
SOFT SHUT-IN WHILE DRILLING
Pick-up off bottom to space out point

Shut down pumps
Open BOP side outlet hydraulic controlled valve
Close preventer
Close adjustable choke
Record pressures
Set-up for soft shut-in:
4.2
BOP side outlet hydraulic controlled valve closed

Line to the remote adjustable choke open
Remote adjustable choke open
Line to the atmospheric degasser open
HARD SHUT-IN WHILE DRILLING
Pick-up off bottom to space out point

Shut down pumps
Close preventer
Open BOP side outlet hydraulic controlled valve
Record pressures
Set-up for a hard shut-in:
4.3
BOP side outlet hydraulic controlled valve closed

Line to the remote adjustable choke open
Remote adjustable choke closed
SOFT SHUT-IN WHILE TRIPPING
4-24
4.4
HARD SHUT-IN WHILE TRIPPING
4.5
Space out casing

Open BOP side outlet hydraulic control valve
Close ram preventer (fitted with correct inserts)
Fill casing with fluid
Install swedge into casing and head-up onto standpipe
Establish pressures
HARD SHUT-IN WHILE RUNNING CASING
4.7
Space out Drillstem

Install full opening stabbing valve
Close full opening stabbing valve
Close preventer
Install Kelly or top drive
Open full opening stabbing valve
Record pressures
SOFT SHUT-IN WHILE RUNNING CASING
4.6
Space out Drillstem

Install full opening stabbing valve
Close full opening stabbing valve
Close preventer
Install Kelly or top drive
Open full opening stabbing valve
Record pressures
Space out casing

Fill casing with fluid
Install swedge into casing and head-up onto standpipe
Establish pressures
SOFT SHUT-IN WHILE CEMENTING
Space out casing

Shut down cement unit pumps
4-25
4.8
HARD SHUT-IN WHILE CEMENTING
4.9

Space out casing

Shut down cement unit pumps
SOFT SHUT-IN DURING WIRELINE OPERATIONS
Notify wire-line operator to stop operation

Close lubricator packing around wire-line
Close remote adjustable choke
4.10 HARD SHUT-IN DURING WIRELINE OPERATIONS
Notify wire-line operator to stop operation

Close lubricator packing around wire-line
4.11 SOFT SHUT-IN WHILE OUT OF HOLE

Close blind ram
Close remote adjustable choke
4.12 HARD SHUT-IN WHILE OUT OF HOLE
Close blind ram

4.13 WELL DIVERTION WITH SHALLOW SET CONDUCTOR PIPE
Space out Drillstem

Shut down pumps
Open selected port or starboard vent (blooie) lines
Close return line to shakers
Close diverter bag
Remove non-essential personnel from rig floor
Commence pumping into the well at the highest possible rate
4.14 VERIFICATION OF SHUT-IN

4-26
For any shut-in it must be physically demonstrated that the following flow paths are
secure.
Annulus
Once the blowout preventer has been confirmed closed open the flow line to the trip tank.
Observe to ensure that flow has ceased from the annulus. If flow continues close another
preventer and repeat observation.
Drill String
1. Check that the wash-pipe packing on the swivel is secure.
2. Check that the valve on the standpipe is closed and holding back-pressure.
3. Check the pressure sensor hammer unions on the standpipe.
4. Check the mud pump shear relief valves for leaks.
Wellhead/BOP
For surface stack configurations inspect all drilling spool flanges for leaks. Observe the
BOPs weep holes.
If leaking mud then the primary seals have failed. Energise the piston shaft.
If leaking hydraulic fluid the secondary seals have failed. Lock BOPs.
For Subsea stack configurations deploy remote operating vehicle (ROV). Once ROV is at
Subsea stack observe all connectors and flange connections for discharge into the sea.
Observe pods for proper Sea Plate Mounted valve discharges on activation of BOP
component. Once inspection is complete park ROV at BOP intervention panel.
Choke Manifold
1. Check that the return lines to the Atmospheric Degasser are secure.
2. Check that the flare-line boom is secure and ignition source operative.
3. Close pre-choke valves up-stream from the variable choke when aligning
manifold prior to kick. If a positive closing choke is installed, slowly open prechoke valve and check that choke is holding pressure.
4-27
5.0
5.1
WELL MONITORING DURING SHUT-IN

RECORDKEEPING
Time Of Shut-In
Record on the Kill Sheet, Tour Report and Geolograph (Geolograph is a registered trade
name used by the TOTCO corporation) the time of well shut-in. It is also prudent to
record pressure build-up in time intervals. The interval should be determined relevant to
the speed of pressure build-up. This value can range from 30 second to 5 minute intervals.
It will enable the calculation of gas migration rate to surface.
Percolation rate = Increase in Pressure / (Current Mud Density x Constant)
Formula 4.06
Drill Pipe And Casing Pressures
Enter SIDPP and SICP on the Kill Sheet. Allow the well pressure to stabilise as the rise
in pressure is a function of influx type, rock permeability and the amount of underbalance
or kick size. Record the pressures at regular intervals. If migration rates are excessive
then a time versus pressure graph will need to be drawn to determine SIDPP.
Estimate Pit Gain
Check the Pit Volume Totalisers for pit gain. The value that is determined may not
provide a direct correlation to influx volume. Issue such as compressibility and solubility
may mask to true extent of the influx volume especially in oil-based mud.
Volume of a Rectangular Tank = Length x Width x Depth
Formula 4.07
5.2
VOLUMETRIC BLEED FROM A SHUT-IN WELL
Pressure Increase At Surface And Downhole

In gel based drilling fluids gas migration may range from 500 feet (152 m) to 8 000 feet
(2 438 m) per hour depending on the density of the fluid. Gas migration will tend to be
stagnant in oil based drilling fluids.
As the aim of all well control procedures is to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure
one must monitor pressure build-up in the wellbore due to containment and migration.
After shut-in pressures have been stabilised, gas migration will cause a pressure increase
on both the drill pipe and casing pressure gauges. The delta value between these two
gauges will always remain the same as long as the influx is contained at its shut-in
volume.
4-28
The simplest and most effective way to control bottom hole pressure (if not float is
present in the Drillstem) is to bleed fluid from the annulus and reduce the drill pipe
pressure back to its shut-in value. As a consequence of this action the casing pressure will
increase due to gas expansion. The principles of Boyles Law is relevant here and will be
discussed in more detail in a later chapter.
If for some reason the drill stem becomes blocked, and no longer can the drill pipe
pressure gauge be used to monitor bottom hole pressure, then an alternative method to
control bottom hole pressure must be used. As long as a shut-in drill pipe pressure was
determined then a volume of fluid can be calculated and bled from the well to maintain
bottom hole pressure.
Formula 3.04
5.3
DETERMINING SHUT-IN DRILL-PIPE PRESSURE WHEN USING A DRILLPIPE FLOAT
A kick may occur while a drill pipe float valve is in use. Since a float valve prevents
fluid and pressure movement up the drill pipe, there will be no drill pipe pressure
readings after the well is shut-in.
The following method can be used to determine SIDPP.
1. Shut-in well and record SICP.
2. Line up a low volume, high pressure reciprocating pump on the standpipe.
3. Start pumping and fill up all of the lines.
4. Gradually increase the torque on the pump until the pump begins to move fluid
down the drill pipe.
5. Allow the drill pipe pressure to increase until the casing pressure increases
suddenly.
6. Shut down the pump and record the drill pipe and casing pressure.
7. Subtract the casing pressure from the SICP to obtain a delta value.
8. Subtract this delta value from the drill pipe pressure and thus obtain the SIDPP.
Alternatively:
Having predetermined your slow pump rate and pressure, circulate the well at this rate
while maintaining the casing pressure at its shut-in value. Read the circulating pressure
from the standpipe and subtract the slow pump pressure. The value remaining will
represent the SIDPP.
4-29
Figure 4.02 Procedure to establish SIDPP when a float is in use.
4-30
5.4
INFLUX DENSITY VERSUS SHUT-IN SURFACE PRESSURES
Identifying The Influx From Density Differences

A relationship exists between the delta values of the SIDPP and SICP. As long as the true
vertical influx height can be determined.
Influx Length = Pit Gain / Annular Capacity
Formula 4.10
True Vertical Influx Height = Cos Deviation x Influx Length
Formula 4.08
The equation required to make this kick influx identification calculation is as follows:
Influx Gradient = Mud Gradient - ((SICP -SIDPP)/ True Vertical Influx Height)
Formula 4.09
The influx type can be determined by referring to the table below.
Formation
Fluid
Gas
Oil
Brine
Minimum
Gradient
0.05 psi/ft
0.26 psi/ft
0.40 psi/ft
PPG
Equivalent
1.0 ppg
5.0 ppg
7.7 ppg
Maximum
Gradient
0.15 psi/ft
0.37 psi/ft
0.50 psi/ft
PPG
Equivalent
2.9 ppg
7.1 ppg
9.6 ppg
Table 4.05 Gradients / densities for various formation fluids.
5.5
WHEN SIDPP IS GREATER THAN SICP
Cuttings Loading
This situation arises during periods of fast drilling. The loading of the annulus with
cuttings may produce a lower than expected SICP. If the influx has a density near the
value of the drilling fluid one may see a SIDPP that is greater than the SICP.
Inaccurate Gauge Readings
A ruptured diaphragm in the hydraulic sensor type gauge may result in an inaccurate
reading. Pressure can become trapped within the sensor and destabilise the calibration.
All gauges need to be calibrated against a master set on the choke manifold.
Density Of Influx Fluid Greater Than Drilling Fluid
4-31
An influx of salt water while drilling with a low-density oil based mud can produce a
SICP > SIDPP. A heavily saturated Brine solution would produce this effect.
Variations In Dynamic Drill Pipe and Casing Pressure
During a kill operation various malfunctions can occur which would result in changes in
circulating and annular pressures. Identification of these malfunctions is essential if one is
to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure. The table below highlights the changes that
will occur to drill pipe and casing pressure for each particular malfunction.
Drill Pipe
Pressure
Loss
Circulation
Casing
Pressure
Drill String
Weight
Pit Level
Pump SPM
of
Choke Plugs
Bit Nozzle Plugs
Bit Nozzle Out
Pump
Drops
Volume
Hole in
String
Drill
Gas Feeding In
Choke
Out
Washes
Gas
Reaches
Surface
Major Indication
Other Indications
Table 4.06 Indications of malfunctions during the kill process

4-32
5.6
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE
Procedure's When MAASP is Exceeded.

Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) is relevant at initial shut-in
and while circulating of the influx across the open-hole section of the well.
There is no immediate fix if the MAASP is exceeded at shut-in. No driller has the
authority to open the well once the well is secured. To open the choke and lower the
casing pressure to posted MAASP values will only allow more influx to enter the
wellbore and exasperate the problem.
If the casing shoe depth exceeds 1 000 feet (304 m) then the well will not breach to
surface. An underground blowout will result where the formation fluids will enter a thief
zone and communicate between formations.
If the casing shoe depth is less than 1 000 feet (304 m) then the well will breach to
surface. A rig evacuation must be considered.
If the MAASP is exceeded while circulating the influx across the open hole section
ensure that all excess pressure being held above calculated circulating pressures is
removed. The reduction of pump rate will also reduce the annular friction loss and thus
lower pressures at the shoe without allowing the bottom hole pressure to fall below pore
pressure.
After the top of the gas influx reaches the casing shoe, the open hole formations below
the shoe will be subject to reduced pressures even though the surface casing pressure
continues to increase. Figure 4.03 illustrates this situation.
5.7
PRESSURE BETWEEN CASING STRINGS
Pressure can exist between casing strings for the following reasons:
1. When the second string of casing was cemented the cement did not seal-off
active zones. These zones have now kicked as the old fluid density breaks down.
The formation pressure is held in check by the primary seals in the casing spool.
A casing cement bonding log would need to be run to determine what areas are
exposed. A perforation and squeeze job would follow.
2. The casing seat has broken down due to a pore cement bond allowing formation
pressure to bypass around the shoe and channel its way up behind the next string.
4-33
Mud
pressure
component A
does not
change until
gas hits shoe
Shoe pressure = BHP

(constant) less Mud
Pressure (constant)
so shoe pressure does
not change after gas
passes
Gas Below Shoe
Gas Hits Shoe
Gas Above Shoe
Pressure @ shoe =
Pressure @ shoe =
Mud Pressure A +
Mud Pressure A +
SICP-2
If BHP remains
constant, SICP-2 is
higher than SICP-1
to offset longer
bubble.
Once top of gas hits shoe, shoe

pressure begins to decrease.
Because gas must continue to
expand and expanding gas
pressure decreases. Even
though SICP-3 is greater than
SICP-2, shoe pressure has
decreased.
SICP-1
Figure 4.03 Shoe pressure versus gas location

.
4-34
6.0
RESPONSE TO MASSIVE OR TOTAL LOSS OF CIRCULATION
One of the major problems in controlling a well is lost circulation. In highly fractured
formations, lost circulation is often an all or nothing situation. This makes well control
difficult. In the softer shales in the younger marine basins, partial lost returns are a very
common situation. Any time that partial lost returns is encountered it is possible to kill
the well with the standard method as long as the loss of fluid does not exceed active fluid
system volume.
6.1
SIGNS OF LOSING RETURNS

1.
Choke Operation Changes

Most choke adjustments are gradually towards the open side. If the choke
operator begins to notice a gradual choke closing to maintain BHP, this
indicates either a washed choke or a partial loss of circulation. Pit levels need
to be continually monitored by the driller especially while circulating across the
open-hole section.
2.
Drop in Casing and Drill Pipe Pressure.

A leak in the system will cause both gauges to drop. The casing side drop will
probably be more pronounced. Other conditions such as a choke washout
might look the same. Pit levels may remain at a constant volume as gas
expansion forces drilling fluid into the formation ahead of the influx.
3.
Pit Level Changes.

Lost circulation is most likely to occur while circulating out a gas influx. The
pit level trend is the most reliable indication of losing returns.
6.2
DEALING WITH LOSS
When partial loss of returns occur during a kill one may:
Maintain kill rate speed and proper drill pipe pressure to keep a constant BHP
and attempt to keep up with the losses. The gas bubble may be close to the
shoe. Once the gas enters the shoe the losses may stabilise.
Pump Loss Circulation Material (LCM) into the annulus.
In most cases, losses occur at the shoe. The LCM will probably reach the shoe sooner
through the annulus and bit plugging is avoided. Pumping into the annulus may also
minimise additional influx.
4-35
Placing a Heavy Slug of Mud on Bottom.
This procedure is designed to help balance formation pore pressures below the shoe to
stop additional influx and then strip above the slug and circulate the influx out, set lost
circulation plugs, etc.
Set a Plug
The following describes several different types of plugs that are used if rig abandonment
is necessary. There are various types of plugs. The commonest are barite, gunk and
cement plugs.
There is no guarantee that any plug will work. Cement plugs generally will not set in the
presence of any flowing gas or water. It is difficult to set a barite plug in a large water
flow and gunk plugs are difficult to set in a gas flow. The best approach is to set a barite
or gunk plug and then set a cement plug on top to provide a firm seal.
Barite Plug.
The heavier the barite plug, the more difficult it is to settle. There may be advantages to a
heavy plug. Graph 4.01 shows one type of formulation for a 300-foot (90 m) plug. The
operator may use this graph or prefer to mix a maximum plug density of 22 ppg (2.64
g/cm3). Displace the plug so the slurry height in the drill-pipe is approximately 2 bbls
(0.32 m3) above the plug. Consider setting a cement plug on top of the barite plug.
Gunk Plug.
The gunk plug is a mixture of diesel oil and bentonite. Mix the pill according to Table
4.07. Pump down the drill-pipe with a diesel oil spacer ahead and behind the pill. Twenty
barrels (3.2 m3) is a good estimate of the spacer size. As soon as the gunk reaches the bit,
start the squeeze. Pump the gunk at about 4 to 5 barrels (0.6 to 0.8 m3) per minute and
the mud down the annulus at 2 to 3 barrels (0.3 to 0.5 m3) per minute. Always place a
cement plug on top of a gunk plug if there is any pressure in the well. The gunk plug is
not very strong and tends to lose its yield strength over time.
Cement Plug.
A cement plug will generally not set in flowing water or gas, but it can be set on top of
barite or gunk plugs for safety. The cement should be slightly heavier than the mud in
use. For high weight cements, greater than 16 ppg (1.92 g/cm3), use haematite as a
weighting agent. Barite will cause the cement to set too fast.
4-36
Hole Size (in)
Diesel Oil (bbl)
Bentonite Sacks
Total Volume
(bbl)
6-1/2
7-7/8
8-3/4
9-7/8
12-1/4
15
17-1/2
9
13
14
20
33
50
66
27
40
49
62
98
150
200
12
18
22
28
44
66
89
Table 4.07 Gunk plug mix for 300 ft plug
A = 15 Hole: 1,000 sx Barite & 150 lb Phosphate

B = 12-1/4 Hole: 700 sx Barite & 100 lb Phosphate, For 17-1/2 Hole use Twice Mix
C = 9-7/8 Hole: 425 sx Barite & 50 lb Phosphate
D = 8-3/4 Hole: 335 sx Barite & 50 lb Phosphate
E = 7-7/8 Hole: 270 sx Barite & 35 lb Phosphate
F = 6-1/2 Hole: 185 sx Barite & 25 lb Phosphate
Graph 4.01 Barite plug mixture
4-37
7.0
7.1
TRIPPING
PROCEDURES FOR KEEPING HOLE FULL
There are different methods available for filling the hole during trips. (Chapter 1).
Whatever method is used, the amount of mud required must be measured accurately.
The three methods used for measuring hole fill-up are:
1. A trip tank
2. A rig pump
3. Total mud system
The trip tank is any calibrated tank that can be used to monitor accurately the volume of
mud being pumped into the well. A centrifugal pump delivers mud to the annulus with
the overflow returning to the trip tank. The advantage of this trip tank system is that the
hole can be accurately filled and monitored to make sure the well is taking the correct
amount of fluid. The recirculating trip tank is one that is placed above the flowline height
to allow a gravity feed into the annulus.
The rig pump fills the hole by positively displacing fluid into the annulus and registering
the amount of stokes taken to fill. A flowline device is installed to indicate when mud
returns and automatically shuts off the stroke meter. This method is only viable on
mechanical pumps. SCR pumping units using electric charge pumps cause the discharge
valves on the pumps to lift during slow pump rates. This factor will cause false
displacement readings.
7.2
MEASURING AND RECORDING HOLE-FILL VOLUMES
Measuring the mud used to fill the hole when the drill-stem is removed is critical when
only a small overbalance exists between formation and hydrostatic pressure.
The trip tank measurement is the most advantageous because the exact amount of mud
needed to fill the hole, after a given number of stands of pipe pulled, can be accurately
observed. Counting the number of pump strokes required to fill the hole, after a given
number of stands, depends on the accuracy of the monitoring equipment on the pumps
and flowline. In this method the pump volumetric efficiency must be considered. The
trip tank pit level changes, usually expressed in inches or barrels per five stands, should
be posted on the rig so all concerned can quickly check this information while making a
trip. Hole-fill volumes are recorded using a Trip Sheet. (Chapter 1)
7.3
WET TRIP CALCULATIONS
4-38
A wet trip is caused by a blockage in the Drillstem. During a wet trip the mud in the drillpipe, once broken, can either return to the trip tank, through the use of a mud bucket, or
spill over the lease.
The volume required to fill the hole is calculated from the full tubular displacement.
MUD LEVEL DROP = VOLUME PULLED / ANNULAR CAPACITY
VOLUME PULLED = WET DISPLACEMENT x STAND
WET DISPLACEMENT = DP DISPLACEMENT + DP CAPACITY
7.4
DRY TRIP CALCULATIONS

MUD LEVEL DROP = VOLUME PULLED / TOTAL CAPACITY
VOLUME PULLED = DISPLACEMENT x STAND
DISPLACEMENT (bbl/ft) = (DP OD2 - DP ID2) / Constant
TOTAL CAPACITY = PIPE CAPACITY + ANNULAR CAPACITY
7.5
PILLS
Pills are used to reduce the mud level inside the drill pipe so as not to allow any spillage
of mud from the drill-stem during a trip.
Two formulae exist for the calculation of pill drop and pill density required for a
particular drop requirement. In both cases, a pre-determined pill volume needs to be
determined. The volume of the pill should correspond to the volume of the bottom hole
assembly.
Pill Drop = (Pill Density/Current Mud Density x Pill Length) - Pill Length
Formula 4.11
Pill Density = Current Mud Density x ((Pill Drop/Pill Length) + 1)
Formula 4.12
After a pill has been mixed and subsequently pumped into the tubular, due to the U tube
effect, an amount of mud will return into the trip tank. This amount is calculated by using
the following formula:
Gain in Trip Tank = ((Pill Density/Current Mud Density) - 1) x Slug Volume
Formula 4.13
7.6
OVERBALANCE & TRIP MARGIN
4-39
An overbalance or trip margin is a positive pressure differential added to the hydrostatic
pressure. As long as the overbalance is greater than the swab pressures the bottom hole
pressures will not drop below formation pressure.
Overbalance = Hydrostatic Pressure Formation Pressure
Formula 4.14
Trip Margin = Overbalance / Constant / TVD
Formula 4.15
4-40
8.0
FORMATION COMPETENCY
The formation fracture resistance is the force that a formation can sustain without the
propagation of a fracture plane. The mud density in the wellbore must be maintained at a
value below the Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (MAMW). The hydrostatic pressure
generated by the MAMW will produce a force at the casing shoe sufficient to fracture the
matrix of a sedimentary rock.
Knowledge of the fracture gradient of a formation is essential if casing depths and designs
are to adequately withstand abnormal pressures in the wellbore.
Formation fracture gradient approximations are used to develop equations that will
correctly estimate the fracture pressure of a formation. Techniques to develop these
equations include the predictive and verification method.
8.1
PREDICTION OF FRACTURE PRESSURE
Fracture gradient has been the subject of much research since 1960. Papers written by
Hubert and Willis (1957), Matthew and Kelly (1967) and Eaton (1968) all approach the
subject.
A survey sponsored by Japex in 1996 (Eaton & Eaton, 1997), Mouchet and Mitchell
(1989) and Yoshida et al (1996) all conclude that the Eaton method is currently the most
widely used means of predicting the fracture gradient of a formation.
8.1.1 EATON METHOD
Fracture gradients are controlled by 3 variables:
1. Overburden gradient;
2. Pore pressure gradient;
3. Horizontal matrix stress to vertical stress ratio.
Vertical stress ratio = v/(1-v)
Where v is the Poissons ratio of the rock (dimensionless).
The equation developed by Eaton (1968) relates to these variables.
Fracture Pressure Gradient =
(v/(1 v)) * (Overburden Pressure Gradient Pore Pressure Gradient) + Pore
Pressure Gradient
Formula 4.16
4-41
This equation may be applied anywhere in the world as long as the following 3 steps are
undertaken:
1. Determine overburden pressure gradient;
2. Determine pore pressure gradient;
3. Estimate Poissons ratio for any area.
Overburden Pressure Gradient
In order to determine overburden pressure gradients one must first determine the bulk
densities beneath the rigs zero datum point. For land, platform or jack-up operations this
point is referred to as the top of the Rotary Kelly Bush (RKB) or top of the rotary table.
For offshore semi-submersible or drill-ship applications this point is the top of the rotary
table calculated using a mean sea level.
3
TVD Interval (ft-m)
Bulk Density (ppg)
Bulk Density (g/cm )
Description
RKB to sea level of ground level
0.0083
0.001
Air
Sea level to sea bed or mud line
1.06
0.1272
Sea water
Mud line to 500 feet

(152 m) below mud line
1.6
0.192
Clastic material
Intervals of 500 feet (152m) to

TVD
Increasing bulk
density
Increasing bulk
density
Formation
lithologies
Total TVD minus 500 feet (152

m)
2.4
0.288
Sand and shale
Table 4.08 Bulk density versus depth (after Eaton)
Accurate results for bulk densities obtained in a 500-foot (152 m) interval will provide
accurate results. According to Eaton (1997) longer intervals may be used.
4-42
Graph 4.02 Average density versus depth below mud line (after Eaton, source: AMOCO)
The next step is to calculate the pressure exerted by each vertical column using the
following calculation:
P = Bulk Density x 0.433 x TVD interval
Formula 4.17
Therefore at any TVD the overburden gradient can be calculated from:
Overburden Pressure Gradient = P / TVD
Formula 4.18
Once the overburden pressure gradients have be calculated the values may be arranged in
a table and then plotted on a graph.
4-43
Well Depth in feet

0
100
350
500
700
800
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
Mud Line
7 100
7 350
7 500
7 700
7 800
8 200
8 500
8 700
9 250
9 750
10 300
11 000
12 000
13 000
14 000
15 000
16 000
17 000
Bulk Density g/cm

1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
1.060
Mud Line
1.400
1.550
1.640
1.700
1.775
1.840
1.890
1.940
2.000
2.100
2.200
2.200
2.250
2.280
2.310
2.330
2.380
2.400
Interval Pressure psi
Overburden Gradient psi/ft
0
45.898
114.745
68.847
91.796
45.898
91.796
458.98
458.98
458.98
458.98
458.98
458.98
Mud Line
60.620
167.788
106.518
147.220
76.858
318.688
245.511
168.004
476.300
454.650
523.930
666.820
974.250
987.240
1 000.230
1 008.890
1 030.540
1 039.200
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
0.459
Mud Line
0.461
0.468
0.473
0.480
0.484
0.499
0.510
0.518
0.538
0.557
0.579
0.602
0.633
0.661
0.685
0.706
0.727
0.745
Table 4.09 Deepwater overburden data (after Eaton).
4-44
Graph 4.03 Overburden values (after Eaton)
Bulk density determinations of sediments below the mud line will pose a problem.
Unconsolidated sedimentation can be an issue when drilling in regions such as major
river deltas and continental slopes.
Gardener et al (1974) developed an equation that relates average interval velocity to bulk
density for the same depth interval.
0.25
Bulk density = 0.23 * V

Where
Bulk density = g/cm3
V = Seismic interval velocity, ft/sec
Barker and Wood (1997) presented cumulative overburden data points as equivalent mud
densities for depths below the mud-line ranging from 2 000 to 7 000 feet. An average
overburden gradient versus true vertical distance below the mud-line was calculated. This
exercise produced a data distribution that was severely scattered but it did present an
average overburden gradient versus TVD below the mud-line.
The plot mentioned above is used to reverse extrapolate bulk densities of the sediments
and then an average overburden gradient in psi/ft versus TVD below the mud-line was
computed and plotted. The results of this determination is shown in graph 4.04.
4-45
Graph 4.04 Average density values for overburden (after AMOCO)
Graph 4.04 was computed from an average data across the Gulf of Mexico so therefore
the plot should be functional regardless of water depth.
Graph 4.05 represents overburden gradient curves for water depths of 1 000 to 7 000 feet.
Eaton noted that this data shows a sharp reduction in overburden gradient as water depth
increases. He also notes that these curves must be computed for site-specific cases when
sediment densities are known or can be calculated.
4-46
Graph 4.05 Average density data for overburden for various water depths (after Amoco)
Pore Pressure Gradient

Eaton equations for pore pressure prediction are widely used in the drilling industry.
These equations are presented as:
p/D = S/D [{(S/D) (P/D n )} * (R o /R N )1.2]
Formula 4.19
1.2
p/D = S/D [{(S/D) (P/D n )} * (C N /C O ) ]

Formula 4.20
4-47
p/D = S/D [{(S/D) (P/D n )} * ( tn / to )3]
Formula 4.21
p/D = S/D [{(S/D) (P/D n )} * (d co /d cn ) 1.2 ]
Formula 4.22
The equations above vary only in their exponential terms and can be used according to
various data gathering techniques. The most common exponent is 1.2 in Formula 4.19,
4.20 and 4.22 but this can have a range from 0.9 to 2.00. Similarly Formula 4.21 can have
a possible range from 2.0 to 4.0.
As Eaton states, the important idea is that it is possible to predict pore pressure gradient
values with no more than seismic data. Other data from offset wells simply serve to refine
the prediction.
Poissons Ratio For Any Area
The greater the value of Poissons ratio of a sediment the greater the vertical matrix stress
is transmitted in the horizontal direction. In other words the higher the value of Poissons
ratio the higher the fracture pressure gradients. Eaton does not agree with the hypothesis
that pore pressure has no effect on fracture gradients values (Rocha & Bourgoyne, 1996).
Let us examine Eatons Fracture Gradient Equation
(Eaton, 1997):
F/D = {[v/(1-v)] * [(S/D) (p/D)]} + (p/D)
If v = 0.50, then
F/D = {[0.5/(1-0.5)] * [(S/D) (p/D)]} + (p/D)
= {1 * [(S/D) (p/D)]} + (p/D)
F/D = S/D
This is the only example where the fracture gradient equals the overburden gradient due
to equal matrix stresses in all directions.
Now if p/D = S/D then:
F/D = {[v/(1 v)] * [(S/D) (S/D)]} + (S/D)
= [v/(1 v)}* 0] + S/D
4-48
F/D = S/D
This is the only example where pore pressure has no effect on fracture gradient values.
To establish a curve showing Poissons ratio as a function of Depth below the mud-line,
one must use known fracture gradient data
Eatons fracture gradient equation can be transposed to produce:
[v/(1-v)] = [(F/D) (p/D)] / [(S/D) (p/D)]
Formula 4.23
Two curves (Graph 4.06) were therefore developed over time. One curve represented
lower values of Poissons ratio and was established in the 1960s while the second curve
represents higher Poisson Ratios developed during the 1990s.
Equations have been developed to describe these curves at various depths below the
mudline.
Formula 4.24
Graph 4.06 Poissons ratio for US Gulf of Mexico (After Eaton)
4-49
8.1.2 HUBBERT AND WILLIS EQUATION
Hubbert and Willis equation is used to estimate the pressure required to extend and
existing fracture. It is expressed as:
P fk = min + P f
where
min
= minimal principal stress
P f = formation fluid pressure

It is assumed that minimal principal stress occurs in a horizontal plane and that x and y
are equal. It is also assumed that stress concentration near the wellbore is twice the stress
away from the wellbore. Thus the extension pressure can be given as:
P fk = 2* H + P f
From laboratory tests on cylindrical rock specimens at the University of New South
Wales School of Petroleum Engineering, it was concluded that minimal matrix stress for
shallow sediments is approximately 1/3 of the vertical stress.
min = 1/3 * z
We also know that
ma = ob - P f
where ob = overburden pressure
through substitution we obtain the equation for fracture pressure as:
P fk = 1/3 * z + P f
= 1/3 * ( ob P f ) + P f
= 1/3 * ( ob + 2*P f )
8.1.2.1 MATHEWS AND KELLY CORRELATION

Mathews and Kelly replaced the assumption that
4-50
min = 1/3* z by min = (M s * z )
where M s is the stress coefficient that was empirically determined from Gulf of Mexico
data. To use these correlations the assumption must be made that:
ob = 1 psi/ft and P f = 0.465*D n
where D n is the depth at which normally pressured formation would have the same matrix
stress as the abnormally pressured formations of interest.
Formula 4.25
4-51
8.2
FORMATION PRESSURE INTEGRITY TEST
Two types of formation integrity tests are performed at the casing shoe. The first is known
as a pressure integrity test (leak-off test) and the second is known as a formation integrity
test. The former permits the evaluation of the effectiveness of the cement bond and
strength of the formation at the shoe and the latter tests a formation to the maximum mud
density expected.
The leak-off test is performed after the casing shoe has been drilled out and tests the
effectiveness of the cement seal and strength of the formation at the shoe area. To
perform a leak-off test drilling mud known as the test fluid is pumped into the wellbore at
a slow rate in a closed BOP system. The pressure build-up is accurately recorded against
each volume increment pumped. A volume pumped versus pressure is plotted over which
is superimposed a fluid compression gradient line that is established prior to the drilling
out of the shoe. The pressure point where the pressure-volume function deviates from the
compression gradient is where the formation laminations are beginning to open and
accept fluid. This surface pressure when added to the hydrostatic pressure generated by
the test fluid at the shoe determines the formation fracture pressure. The formation
fracture pressure can therefore by transposed to produce the Maximum Allowable Mud
Density. Leak-off tests also evaluate the cement bonding around the shoe area. A leak-off
test does not damage the formation integrity if undertaken using a gel based drilling fluid
because the formation laminations will heal once the excess pressure being applied to the
formation is removed. Oil based drilling fluid can not be used to undertake a leak-off test
as the laminations once separated by the oil based fluid will not heal or bond together
again due to the lubricating nature of the oil.
Formation integrity tests are also known as Limit Tests and provide evidence that the
wellbore can sustain the forces generated by a specific mud density. A limit test does not
indicate the maximum allowable mud density that can be permitted before a formation
matrix commences to break down.
8.2.1 STRESS IN FORMATIONS
Weathered material from Igneous or Metamorphic rocks is laid down in sedimentary
basins where it is compacted, consolidated and cemented into a sedimentary rock. As the
sedimentary material thickens the stresses within the material underneath increases. The
vertical stress that is applied to a formation is a function of the density of the material
above the formation. When a porous formation containing a confined fluid is subjected to
a vertical stress, the stress pressure is transmitted throughout the formation fluid. If a
vertical stress is applied to a solid material, the horizontal stress will be less than the
vertical stress.
The vertical stress applied to a horizontal formation is the force applied by the density of
the material above the formation. If the formation is under the ocean, the force generated
by the true vertical depth of the ocean as a function of the oceans density will be less
4-52
than that generated by a rock. The vertical stress on a shallow formation will be different
in an ocean-drilling environment than it would be at the same depth on land.
Vertical stress, z , is the integration of the differential equation:
d z = constant*seawater density.dz + constant*bulk density of formations.dz
z ranges from 0 to mud-line in the first term and mud-line to formation in the second
term.
The bulk density of a formation will depend on the composition of the formation matrix
and the density of the liquid within the pore spaces thus a function of porosity.
Formation Type Bulk density (sg)

Salt
2.2 2.3
Shale
2.3 2.9
Sand
2.3 2.7
Carbonates
2.6 2.9
Table 4.10 Bulk density for various formation types.
Total vertical stress ( z ) is a sum of the product of varying bulk densities and formation
thickness.
Horizontal stress ( x ) = {v/(1 v)}* z
Where v is Poissons ratio.
During a leak-off test pressure increases inside the wellbore and the tensile stress in the
wellbore increases. When the stress in the wellbore exceeds the tensile strength of the
rock a crack will form. In the horizontal direction one horizontal stress is smaller than
other horizontal stress. A crack will open in a direction perpendicular to the lower stress.
(Zheng et al, 1989)
The early pressure build-up recorded during a leak-off test is consistent until fluid
commenced to enter the formation. At this point pressure will no longer rise uniformly.
Leak-off pressure is a function of crack length, formation stresses, stress concentrations
and matrix strength. The first departure from the gradient line is the minimum stress of
the formation. The pumps are stopped after confirmation of leak-off is established by
observation. The surface pressure will drop due to the decrease in flowing pressure losses
in the drill pipe. This value is called initial shut-in leak-off pressure. Slowly the crack
will close. When the crack has closed the pressure at the shoe is lower than the formation
4-53
stress. This pressure is called the final shut-in leak-off pressure. By observing this
pressure one can confirm that the point of departure of the pressure curve from the
gradient line is really the leak-off pressure. The leak-off pressure must be larger than the
final shut-in leak-off pressure. If the point of departure is lower than the final shut-in
leak-off pressure then the deviation in the initial curve is not the leak-off pressure.
4-54
8.2.2 TEST PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT
Before the Test
Drill out: A fluid compression graph is obtained before the shoe is drilled out.
A casing test is undertaken by drilling out the float collar and some of the
cement under the collar. By doing this the casing coupling at the float collar
and between the float collar and the shoe is also tested. For the leak-off test
drill out the shoe and flush the rat-hole below the casing and then drill a short
distance into new formation.
Prepare Test Graph Sheet
Record the maximum pressure permitted based on equipment or casing
limitations by drawing a line parallel to the x-axis at this pressure.
Circulation Requirements
Circulate and condition the drilling fluid to stabilize the drilling fluid properties and clean
the wellbore of any contamination caused by the drilling-out process. Ensure that the mud
density in and mud density out is within 0.1 ppg (0.012 sg) for three consecutive
measurements. This process assists in obtaining a uniform column of mud fluid density,
shears the gel structure, deposits a filter wall cake on any exposed permeable formation
and removes air bubbles in the circulation system.
Rig-Up
Use a high-pressure, low volume positive displacement pump.

Shut-in valve is installed between the pump and the pressure gauge. This
valve is used for shut-in instead of relying on the pump to prevent backflow.
Bleed value is installed between shut-in valve and the pump. After the test
this valve is used to bleed pressure from the drill pipe after it is connected to a
drain line.
Pressure Gauges: Inaccurate gauges or ones with the wrong calibration can
inhibit the results of the leak-off test.
Pump down the drill pipe as the fluid is more likely to be free of solids
contamination than fluid in the annulus.
Calibrate the pump and do not assume the mechanical stroke counter on the
pump is accurate.
Pressure test the circulation system up to the drill pipe prior to undertaking
the leak-off test.
During the Test
Pump rate should be slow and steady. For impermeable formations a rate of
bbl per minute (40 litres per minute) and for permeable formations a rate of
bbl per minute (80 litres per minute) will overcome filtration loss. Do not use
4-55
volumes greater than 1 bbl per minute (160 litres per minute).
Plot data accurately.
Near leak-off the plotted data will deviate from the straight gradient line.
4-56
8.2.3 PLOTTING DATA TO OBTAIN A LEAK-OFF PRESSURE
General Guidelines To Locate The Leak-Off Point
Curving Plot
Continue pumping until the pressure remains constant for three consecutive readings.
This constant pressure is the leak-off pressure.
Plot Leaves Gradient Line Far Below Anticipated Pressure
Pump one or two barrels extra and see if pressure will continue to increase. If the pressure
resumes to increase continue pumping until the real leak-off pressure is found. Stop
pumping when the pressure decreases.
Monitor Pressure Decline
The shut-in pressure has two distinct areas. The first area is where the shut-in pressure
rapidly decreases. If the pressure drops to a value less than of the leak-off pressure, a
cement channel is probably indicated. The second area is the region of more gradual
decline. If this pressure stabilises to a reasonable constant value just below the leak-off
pressure, the wellbore integrity is certified. If the formation has some permeability the
pressure will continue to decline slowly.
Retest
Confirmation of leak-off pressure will result with a similar pressure if the formation is
competent. A lower pressure will result if cement channels are opened.
4-57
8.2.4 INTERPRETING FORMATION INTEGRITY GRAPHS
Graph 4.07 Typical cement channel
Typical Cement Channel
Leak-off pressure more than ppg below expected Maximum Allowable

Mud Density.
Shut-in pressure not constant bleed-off seen.
Repeat tests show no improvement.
Graph 4.08 Small cement channel
4-58
Small Cement Channel
Sudden change in slope while pumping.

Shut-in pressure falls below point of slope change.
Second test shows similar shut-in pressure decay.
Graph 4.09 Plugged cement channel
Plugged Cement Channel
Shut-in pressure decays rapidly to a value far below apparent leak-off

pressure.
Second test shows reduced leak-off pressure.
Graph 4.10 Small propped fracture

4-59
Small Propped Fracture
Shut-in pressure decays rapidly to a value far below leak-off pressure.

Repeat test shows improvement in shut-in pressure.
Graph 4.11 Formation fractured by test
Formation Fractured By Test
Sudden pressure drop while pumping.

Shut-in pressure levels off at an intermediate value.
Second test shows indications of pre-existing formation fracture.
Graph 4.12 Cement fracture
4-60
Cement Fracture
Sudden drop in pressure while pumping.

Shut-in pressure decays rapidly to a level far below leak-off pressure.
Second test shows reduced leak-off pressure.
Graph 4.13 Pre-existing formation fracture
Pre-Existing Formation Fracture
Minimal bend in plot: sudden level-off during pumping.

Shut-in pressure levels off near final pumping pressure.
Graph 4.14 High permeability
4-61
High Permeability
First plot continually bends to right.

First plot demonstrates large pressure decay during shut-in.
Second test show improvement in pressure build-up and shut-in pressure
decay.
Graph 4.15 Unconsolidated formations
Unconsolidated Formations
Two apparent leak-offs.

First leak-off pressure lower than expected, second leak-off pressure near
expected value.
Graph 4.16 Two-stage crack growth
4-62
Two-Stage Crack Growth
Sudden change in slope while pumping.

Shut-in pressure levels off near point of slope change.
Second test shows lower maximum pressure but similar shut-in pressure.
4-63
9.0
STRIPPING OPERATIONS
The simplest method to kill a well requires that the bit be on or near bottom. A well
killed on bottom:
Requires the lightest kill weight density.
Results in the lowest casing shoe pressures during a kill.
If the well is stable prior to removing a drill string out of the hole the two most common
conditions to cause a well to flow are:
The well is swabbed as the tubular is pulled
The hole is not kept full to maintain hydrostatic integrity
A short wiper trip before tripping-out may be advisable to check for swabbing,
particularly if a drilling break has been encountered. During the trip every effort should be
made to see that the well is taking the proper amount of fluid. If the well is not taking the
proper volume of mud, return to bottom and circulate the annulus to condition the mud.
A trip tank is the best device for keeping the hole full and monitoring displacement.
If a well kicks during a trip the drill string should be returned to bottom. Running the
drill string back to bottom with the well closed-in while maintaining a constant bottomhole pressure is called "stripping".
When high wellbore annular pressures are experienced special problems arise concerning
the pull down of the tubular through the annular preventer. When tubular or drill stem
weight cannot overcome the wellbore pressure and BOP friction forces, a snubbing unit
must be used to force the assembly into the well.
9.1
CONTROLLING BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE WHILE STRIPPING
There are three general ways to strip a tubular into the well.
1. Install a special stripping head. When this is done, a special stripping crew is also
sometimes used. This is prudent with high well pressures.
2. Use the annular preventer as a stripping head. If operated correctly the annular
preventer is an excellent stripping device. To strip properly, the preventer must be
equipped with:
A pressure regulating and reducing valve;

A dump valve that allows the operating hydraulic fluid to return and be
dumped when a tool joint passes through the preventer. The line to this
valve must be short and large enough to allow the fluid to pass. A small
accumulator on the stack can be used to absorb the extra fluid when the
annular opens slightly to pass the tool joint.
4-64
3. The pipe rams, or one ram and the annular, can be used to strip by opening one unit
to pass the tool joint while closing the other unit to maintain well pressure. The
drill pipe will slide through the pipe rams without excessive wear on the ram
packing if the manifold pressure is reduced.
As the pipe is stripped into the hole it displaces drilling fluid. If the drilling fluid is not
released at the choke the pressure in the wellbore will rise high enough to cause a loss of
formation integrity. The primary goal with any well control procedure is to maintain a
Constant Bottom Hole Pressure. This is accomplished during normal kill operations by
maintaining the drill-pipe pressure. As drill-pipe pressure cannot be monitored during
stripping, casing pressure must be used to maintain a Constant Bottom Hole Pressure.
There are two common methods of handling casing pressure while stripping:
1.
Hold the casing pressure constant throughout the stripping operation. Holding
the annular pressure constant is known as stripping without volumetric
control. This method can be used when no migration of influx is recorded and
the casing pressure is adjusted to include a safety margin to anticipate a loss
of hydrostatic force when the bottom hole assembly intersects the influx
contamination.
2.
Casing pressure is held constant until a set volume of extra fluid is discharged
from the wellbore. The casing pressure is then adjusted based on actual mud
returning from the well during this stripping interval. This is called the
Volumetric Method.
The volumetric method requires certain mud
displacement measurements and calculations not necessary with the first
method, but is recommended for best control of bottom hole pressure during
stripping. The primary objective of Figure 4.04 illustrates the effect that
displacement of drilling fluid (due to expanding gas) has on bottom hole
pressure and how casing pressure must be adjusted to offset this expansion.
4-65
Figure 4.04 Open hole volumetric method
4-66
When stripping pipe in the wellbore, the space is occupied equal to the tubular
displacement (steel volume) plus the tubular capacity (inside volume). The tubular steel
displacement plus tubular capacity is referred to as "wet" displacement. The "wet"
displacement must be accounted for when measuring fluid bled from the wellbore during
stripping operations.
The influx location substantially affects the amount of bottom hole pressure reduction due
to each barrel (m3) of fluid bled from the wellbore. Formula 4.25 must consider annular
capacity. In an open-hole volumetric exercise the annular capacity is expressed as the
open hole capacity. Figure 4.05 illustrates how this problem can best be handled when
stripping a tubular into the wellbore.
The following outlines the volumetric procedure:

3
1.
Calculate the pressure exerted by each barrel (m ) of mud. Use an annular

capacity or an open-hole capacity depending on whether a tubular is present in
the wellbore.
psi/bbl = Mud Gradient psi/ft / Annular Capacity bbl/ft
3
kPa/m = Mud Gradient kPa/m / Annular Capacity m /m

Formula 4.26
2.
Calculate tubular "wet" displacement.
3.
4.
Read and record the shut-in casing pressure.

Calculate the safety factor based on the loss of hydrostatic pressure that will
be experienced when the bottom hole assembly intersects the influx
contamination. As stripping begins, allow the SICP to increase by the
calculated safety factor.
As stripping continues, maintain the casing pressure by releasing mud through
the choke.
Strip into the wellbore a pre-determined number of stands, then compare wet
displacement with actual mud bled. The "excess" mud bled over wet
displacement is measured by bbls (m3) and multiplied by the psi/bbl (kPa/m3)
term calculated in step 1. The casing pressure is then allowed to increase by
that amount as stripping begins again.
5.
6.
4-67
Figure 4.05 Volumetric strip
4-68
REQUIRED ADJUSTMENT IN CASING PRESSURE DURING STRIPPING IN
= (Actual Volume Bled - Wet Displacement) x psi/bbl [kPa/m3]
When stripping-out of a wellbore, the actual volume pumped "in" to replace pipe
withdrawn must be considered. When stripping-out the actual volume pumped in is
generally less than wet displacement. This means that gas migrating up hole is occupying
some of the space left by the pipe that is withdrawn. Casing pressure must be increased
to offset the resulting loss in mud hydrostatic pressure. The equation used for adjusting
casing pressure is different for stripping-out than the one just used for stripping-in.
REQUIRED ADJUSTMENT IN CASING PRESSURE DURING STRIPPING OUT
= (Wet Displacement - Mud Pumped In) x psi/bbl [kPa/m3]
4-69
Figure 4.06 API strip procedure
4-70
9.2
STRIPPING WITH THE ANNULAR PREVENTER
A kick while tripping is far more difficult to handle than when on bottom. Early
detection of swabbing or incomplete filling of the hole is important in avoiding this type
of kick. A proper "trip tank" showing the volume of mud fill must be used continuously
while tripping.
If the well starts to flow on a trip, the annular preventer should be closed and the annulus
pressure maintained according the stripping method being used as the pipe is stripped
back to bottom.
The annular preventer packer is a heavy rubber or synthetic element reinforced with steel
fingers. The packer element is pushed tight against the pipe by hydraulic pressure
supplied by the closing unit. In order to move the pipe through the annular preventer, the
hydraulic closing pressure must be low enough to allow the pipe to slide against the
rubber in the packer.
General procedures to follow when using an annular preventer:
1. The closing pressure on the annular preventer is lowered to allow passage of the
pipe.
2. Check the annular pressure regulating and reducing valve to see if it is operating
properly. The regulator valve allows backflow from the closing chamber so that
when a tool joint passes through the annular preventer, the packer will relax and
let it pass without tearing the packer rubber. A 1-1/2 regulator is recommended
for quick dumping of operating fluid that surges during passage of tool joints. An
accumulator bottle mounted at the annular preventer provides a way of relieving
closing and opening chamber volume surges.
3. Figure 4.07 illustrates such an arrangement.
4. Remove drill-pipe shock rubber protectors before stripping.
5. Strip at a slow rate, and try to ease the tool-joints through the annular preventer.
High stripping speeds will tear the rubber of the annular packer and cause
problems with the displacement. If possible, when going into the hole, lubricate
the annular preventer packer by filling the bowl on top of the preventer with
bentonite and water mix.
6. When stripping in the hole, the casing pressures should be kept constant by
releasing mud through the choke. It is sometimes easier to use a manual hand
choke as the choke operator will get a better "feel" than with the remote operating
choke. Stripping intervals between casing back pressure adjustments vary
depending on "excess" mud volume being bled.
7. Excess mud volume can be checked each stand. Use a calibrated and isolated tank
to monitor bleed volume. A trip tank is ideal. Do not use mud from this tank to
fill the drill pipe.
8. Fill the drill-pipe each 5 stands but do not use mud from the bleed tank. Calculate
theoretical mud volume required to fill the pipe.
4-71
9. Go Slow. Stripping procedures are complicated enough without compounding the
situation with errors and BOP equipment damages due to speed.
There are conditions that require the drill string to be stripped out under pressure.
Stripping out requires that an inside BOP be located in the drill string at some point
below the rotary table. A special sub above the drill collars is installed in the BHA to
receive a drop-in type inside BOP. Its purpose is to provide a means of securing the
internal passage of the drill string should a strip-out become necessary.
Procedures are for stripping out:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Drill-pipe rubber protectors will not pass through an annular preventer. Stop
every five stands and strip a joint of pipe using the pipe rams. This will allow
the annular preventer to be opened to pass the drill pipe rubbers.
When stripping out of the hole, the casing pressure should be kept constant by
pumping mud into the kill line. The pump used should be a small, positive
displacement pump like a cementing pump. If the rig pump must be used, the
well could be circulated through a choke (circulate down kill-line through
BOP) to maintain the casing pressure.
Mud pumped to maintain constant pressure while stripping should come from
an isolated pit. The mud dumped as each stand is broken out should not return
to the suction pit.
At intervals of 5 to 15 stands, stop and compare actual mud volume pumped
into the hole while holding casing pressure constant, to pipe "wet"
displacement. Actual mud volume pumped and the wet displacement should
match closely. Any major variation should call for use of the volumetric
technique to keep the bottom hole pressure constant and prevent an additional
kick.
4-72
Figure 4.07 Stripping in with annular preventer
4-73
Figure 4.08 Stripping out with annular preventer
4-74
Whether stripping in or out, maintaining constant casing pressure during stripping
intervals is not always easy to accomplish. A cementing unit pump is easier to control
than a large rig pump. It is difficult to pump directly into the hole on a fill-up basis.The
best solution is to pump through the BOP on a continuous basis using the choke to control
back pressure. The pumping system volume will then stabilise and allow accurate
dynamic readings. This system will also work quite well when stripping in the hole. It is
easier to adjust the choke to keep a constant casing pressure under flowing conditions
than it is to release a little mud at a time. Returns from the choke should go back to the
pump suction pit and be isolated from fill up volumes (stripping in) or mud volume
dumped from joints when stripping out.
9.3
STRIPPING ANNULAR TO RAM OR RAM-TO-RAM
Pipe rams would be used when the annular preventer fails or when the pressures are too
high for safe use of the annular preventer.
High casing pressures that develop when shut-in during a trip is normally due to a large
kick or keeping the well closed in for long periods allowing gas to migrate up-hole. If the
well kicks during a trip, strip back to bottom cautiously but without unnecessary delays.
The mechanics of stripping with the annular BOP is relatively simple. On the other hand,
if casing pressures exceed about 500 psi (3 450 kPa), it may be necessary to strip annular
to ram or ram-to-ram. Not only are the mechanics more complex, which encourages
errors, the procedure is slow and aggravates the gas migration problem.
When pipe rams are used to strip the pipe in or out of the hole, the process is more
complicated than using the annular preventer only because two pipe rams, or the annular
and a pipe ram, must be used to pass the tool joints. This is accomplished by opening one
unit to pass the tool joint while closing the other unit to maintain the well pressure. The
drill pipe will slide through the rams without excessive wear on the ram packing if ram
operating pressure is adjusted properly and if the pipe is not reciprocated (alternately
moved up and down) in the ram. Pipe rams have adequate extrudable packing to seal for
a considerable time when stripping.
When using the pipe rams for stripping or ram-to-ram stripping, there must be adequate
space between the rams for tool joints so both rams on a double unit could not be used.
One reason for placing blind rams in the middle in a three-ram arrangement is to provide
ample space between top and bottom pipe rams for ram-to-ram stripping. Kill and choke
flow-lines must also be arranged correctly to perform all the functions required for ramto-ram stripping. There is also the problem that if the rams are to be extensively used, the
bottom ram should be kept as an emergency master valve. This is generally accomplished
or compromised in a number of ways.
1.
If wellbore pressures allow it, the annular preventer in a three-ram stack be

used as the "upper ram" leaving the lower ram unused except for emergencies.
2.
3.
4-75
The lower rams should be used only during passage of the joint through the
upper rams. Most stripping is done through the upper ram.
A four-ram stack arrangement is used. This is particularly important for

tapered drill strings. A variable bore ram in at least one cavity also provides
flexibility in tapered string rams stripping situations.
Stripping in the hole on a ram-to-ram basis requires the following preparation:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Establish the closing operating pressure for stripping with the rams.
Rig up to pump through the kill line and out the choke line. It would be
convenient if the choke and kill lines were below the bottom rams used in
stripping because then the pump could be left circulating on the hole.
Arrangements need to be made so that mud can be pumped into or released
from the well below the lower stripping ram and between the two stripping
rams. Adjustable choke, appropriate high- pressure valves, and a cementing or
testing pump should be rigged for this purpose.
Measure the distance from the Kelly bushing to the top ram and to the bottom
ram that will be used for stripping. Make a rig floor marker so that the tool
joint in the stack can be located by measuring to the tool joint above the rotary
table.
The rams will be constantly moving, so decide if the accumulator is to be used
to operate the rams, or if the accumulators will be isolated and the rams
operated with the hydraulic pump.
Make arrangements for accurately measuring mud pumped or bled during
stripping so that proper volumetric calculations and casing pressure
adjustments can be made.
When the preparations have been made, the actual stripping in the hole is not difficult, but
it is slow and the supervisor must make sure that everything is done in proper sequence.
The entire stripping process should be made out on a check sheet, including the
displacement values, because there are so many steps that it is easy to get out of phase and
pressure up the well or start putting most of the wear on the bottom set of rams. The
major wear should be taken on the upper ram so that the packing can be replaced if
required. As mentioned earlier, to reduce wear on the ram packing, the closing pressure
on the ram must be reduced to below 500 psi from the normal position of 1 500 psi. For
Subsea applications, the lowest manifold pressure that would cause the fail safe stack
valves to close must be known. In either stripping in or stripping out, the annular
preventer could be used in place of the upper pipe rams if at all possible.
Stripping out of the hole involves the same basic procedures as stripping in the hole.
When all the preparations have been made, the actual stripping out of the hole is not
difficult, but it is time consuming and a slow, easy route should be established.
4-76
Step 1
If the well is shut-in on the top stripping rams, raise the drill pipe until the tool joint
is in the stack between the stripping rams.
Step 2
While raising the pipe, pump mud into the hole below the closed stripping ram to
keep the casing pressure constant.
Step 3
Close the lower stripping ram.
Step 4
Bleed off the annular pressure between the stripping rams.
Step 5
Open the upper ram.
Step 6
Raise the pipe until the tool joint is clear of the upper ram. Keep the casing
pressure constant while raising the pipe.
Step 7
Close the upper ram.
Step 8
Pressure up the annular area between rams to the well pressure.
Step 9
Open the lower ram.
Step 10
Raise the pipe, breaking the joint off at an appropriate height.
Step 11
4-77
Keep the casing pressure constant by pumping in below the closed stripping ram.
Step 12
Repeat the cycle.
This procedure will keep most of the wear on the upper ram.
It can be seen that stripping with the ram is much slower and a more exacting process
than stripping with the annular preventer. The problem of pressuring up the annular area
between the two rams and later releasing the pressure requires some special rig up. Ramto-ram stripping requires good planning and a worksheet, or at least a step-by-step
procedure chart should be made and followed "by the numbers" until the crew has
established a routine.
9.4
PULL DOWN PROBLEMS
When pressures become greater than 1 500 psi (10 350 kPa), special problems can start to
rise about pull down on the pipe and handling the annular preventers.
The weight of the drill string must be more than upward force applied to the drill string
before the pipe will strip into the hole without a pull down or snubbing unit. Several
thousand pounds of excessive weight must be present because of friction from the annular
preventer or rams.
The following equation illustrates the upward force effect:
Upward Force on the Drill String
F = (0.785) x D2 x P
where:
F = The Upward Force on the Drill String from Well Bore Pressure, lbs.
D = Diameter of the Drill Pipe or Drill Collar or Tool Joint.
P = Well Bore or Annular Pressure, psi.
For example, the upward force on 9" drill collars with 1 500 psi wellbore pressure is:
F = 0.785 x 92 x 1 500
F = 95 378 lbs.
4-78
About 97 000 lbs. downward stripping force would be required to offset this and the BOP
friction.
If only a short length of drill string is in the hole when the well kicks, the pressure may
become high enough to blow the pipe out of the hole. While the drill pipe can be held by
closed rams above the tool joint, there is no means to prevent the drill collar string from
blowing out of the wellbore. Therefore, handling time of drill collars should be reduced
where possible, and many aids to accomplish this are in use.
4-79
Figure 4.09 Ram to Ram strip step 1
4-80
Figure 4.10 Ram To Ram strip step 2
4-81
4-82
4-83
4-84
10.0 REFERENCES
Barker, J.W., & Wood, T.D. 1997, Estimating shallow below mudline deepwater Gulf of
Mexico fracture gradients, Proceedings of AADE Chapter Annual Technical Forum,
AADE, Houston, Texas, April.
Eaton, B.A. 1968, Fracture gradient prediction techniques and their application in
drilling, simulation and secondary recovery operations, Society of Petroleum Engineers
of AIME, SPE, 2,163, p. 12.
Eaton, B.A. & Eaton, T.L. 1997, Fracture gradient prediction for the new generation,
World Oil, October, pp.93-100.
Gardner, G.H.F., Gardner, L.W. & Gregory, A.R. 1974, Formation velocity and density
The diagnostic basis for stratigraphic traps, Geophysics, vol. 39, no. 6, December, pp.
2,085 - 2,095.
Hubert, M. King & Willis, D.G. 1957, Mechanics of hydraulic fracturing, Petroleum
Transactions, AIME, vol. 210.
Matthews, W.R. & Kelly, J. 1967, How to predict formation pressure and fracture
gradient, Oil and Gas Journal, February 2, p. 7.
Mouchet, J.P. & Mitchell, A. 1989, Abnormal pressures while drilling, Elf Aquataine,
Manuels Techniques 2, p. 191.
Neal Adams, Well Control Problems and Solutions, The Petroleum Publishing Company,
1980.
Rocha, L.A. & Bourgoyne, A.T. 1996, A new simple method to estimate fracture
pressure gradient, SPE Drilling and Completions, September, pp. 153-159.
Yoshida, C., et al. 1996, An investigative study of recent technologies used for
prediction, detection and evaluation of abnormal formation pressure and fracture pressure
in North and South America, IADC/SPE, 3,681.
Zheng, et al. 1989, Analysis of Borehole Breakouts, Journal of Geophysical Research,
vol. 94, no. 86, pp. 7171-7182.

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4-1

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

PRE-RECORDED WELL CONTROL INFORMATION

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

WELL MONITORING DURING SHUT-IN

RESPONSE TO MASSIVE OR TOTAL LOSS OF CIRCULATION 34

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

Figure 4.02 Procedure to establish the SIDPP when a float is in use

Figure 4.03 Shoe pressure versus gas location

Figure 4.04 Volumetric method

Figure 4.05 Volumetric strip

Figure 4.06 API strip procedure

Figure 4.07 Stripping with the annular preventer

Figure 4.08 Stripping out with annular preventer

Figure 4.09 Ram to ram strip step 1

Figure 4.10 Ram to ram strip step 2

Figure 4.11 Ram to ram strip step 3

Figure 4.12 Ram to ram strip step 4

Figure 4.13 Ram to ram strip step 5

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

Table 4.02 Blowout preventer ratings

Table 4.03 API casing properties

Table 4.04 API tubular pressure ratings

Table 4.05 Gradient / densities for various formation fluids

Table 4.06 Indications of malfunctions during kill process

Table 4.07 Gunk plug mix for 300-foot plug

Table 4.08 Bulk density versus depth

Table 4.09 Deep-water overburden data

Table 4.10 Bulk density for various formation types

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

Graph 4.02 Average density versus depth below TVD

Graph 4.03 Overburden values

Graph 4.04 Average density values for overburden

Graph 4.06 Poissons ratio for US Gulf of Mexico

Graph 4.07 Typical cement channel

Graph 4.08 Small cement channel

Graph 4.09 Plugged cement channel

Graph 4.10 Small propped fracture

Graph 4.11 Formation fractured by test

Graph 4.12 Cement fracture

Graph 4.13 Pre-existing formation fracture

Graph 4.14 High permeability

Graph 4.15 Unconsolidated formation

Graph 4.16 Two-stage crack growth

School of Petroleum Engineering, UNSW

Open Learning - 2014

Demonstrate the procedures for setting well control monitoring indicators.

Identify appropriate pre-recorded information.

Record standpipe pressure at slow pump rate.

Read at choke consol.

Recognise an error in gauge readings based on discrepancies between readings.

Recognise and measure normal flow back.

Recognise a flow that is different from normal flowback.

Take action based on recognition of flow.

Explain how to establish that well is static before starting trip.

Explain or demonstrate recommended procedures to use for well monitoring during

Read, record and report well shut-in record keeping parameters.

Identify at least two causes of trapped pressure.

Describe the effects of trapped pressure on well bore pressure.