Proc.

of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS IN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

OF CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS IN BANGLADESH
A. M. M. Safiullah
Professor of Civil Engineering, BUET and President, Bangladesh Society for Geotechnical Engineering (BSGE),
e-mail: safi@ce.buet.ac.bd
INTRODUCTION
Development of geotechnical engineering practice in Bangladesh has been very slow. Although some major civil
engineering works in Bangladesh such as Kaptai Hydraulic Dam, Coastal Embankment Project, Teesta Barrage,
Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project, Multipurpose Cyclone Shelter Project, involved intensive geotechnical
engineering works, many of the critical aspects of these works are designed and constructed by expatriate
consultants and contractors. As a result there had been a setback in the development of local skill and expertise in
this area.
Perhaps one of the earliest geotechnical investigation facilities in Bangladesh was developed by the then
EPWAPDA (or CB & I Department) at the Hydraulic Research Laboratory in Dhaka. There were a few private
organizations involved in geotechnical investigations. Private sector organizations like Swiss Boring took a
leading role in expanding soil exploration and analysis work in the early days. After liberation of Bangladesh in
1971, there was a tremendous pressure for civil construction works that required ground investigation. Although
importance of appropriate ground investigation in design and construction of civil engineering works was
recognized, no Code of Practice was proposed and developed for this country. In absence of such Code of
Practice large irregularities in investigation practice have developed. There has been a mushroom growth of soil
exploration firms whose quality of work remains questionable. Despite this, soil reports lacking credibility have
been used in many critical civil engineering works for design and construction. Although there is no survey of
present situation, it appears to the author that inaccurate reports and wrong interpretations of soil conditions have
often leaded to construction problems, delay in construction, excess cost, ill performance of structures, failure
and litigation.
This paper deals with some aspects of geotechnical engineering that are relevant to our local condition and is
unique to special geological and soil conditions of this country.
BENGAL BASIN: SOIL CONDITIONS
The Geological Survey of Bangladesh has prepared a geological map of Bangladesh, which shows various land
formations (Alam et al, 1990). Three factors have significantly affected the land formation in Bangladesh: climate
and hydrologic conditions, fluctuation of sea levels during post glaciation and interglaciation stages, and the
neotectonic activities.
Works by Brammer (1971) and Bakr (1976) have drawn attention to close links between the geology and
geomorphology of the basin. They suggested a land classification based on works of the sediment depositing
rivers. Based on study by Bangladesh Transport Survey (1974), Hunt (1976) grouped various land systems into
six Soil Units as shown in Figure 1.
Distribution of soils in Bangladesh is complex and are usually heterogeneous both in vertical and horizontal
direction. Soils consist of wide varieties of material ranging from gravel, poorly graded sand to silt and clay. In
general there is a predominance of silt-sized materials. Some of the plastic varieties of these soils are shown in
the Plasticity Chart in Figure 2. It can be seen that these soils lie both above and below A-line and cover a wide
range of plasticity and liquid limits.
For brevity soils from only three units out of six shown in Figure 1 will be described. These are: (1) the Raised
Alluvial Terrace deposits, (2) the Alluvial Flood Plain Deposits, and (3) the Estuarine and tidal Flood Plain
deposits. The first unit is usually described as Terrace deposit and the other two units are recent deposits. These
constitute about more than 80 percent of land surface of Bangladesh. Figure 3 presents sample bore logs in
Alluvial Flood Plain Deposits, Raised Alluvial Terrace Deposits, and Estuarine and Tidal Flood Plain Deposits.
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

Figure 1: Major Soil Formations of Bangladesh

Figure 2: Plasticity Chart for Bangladesh Soils

Fine materials (silt and clay) characterize alluvial floodplain Deposits at the surface and are underlain by coarse
materials (fine to medium sand). The Raised Alluvial Terrace Deposits or Pleistocene deposits comprise of a
relatively homogeneous clay known as Madhupur clay (in the east) and Barind clay (in the west). The thickness
of this layer varies but is underlain by sandy soil.
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

Figure 3: Soil Boring Logs for Three Major Deposits.

Figure 4 shows typical variation in moisture content with depth in Terrace and Recent (Alluvial and Estuarine)
deposits. Wide variation in moisture content in Recent deposits particularly for the Estuarine and Tidal Flood
Plain deposits is evident. Variation and compactness for these deposits can be observed from Standard
Penetration N values in Figure 3. These show that the Terrace deposits are more compact at relatively shallow
depth while there is a considerable variation in N value in Estuarine and Tidal Flood Plain deposits.

Figure 4: Showing Natural Moisture Contents in Three Major Deposits

As far as grain size and mineral contents are concerned. Pleistocene (Terrace) sediments are almost identical with
those of Recent Flood Plain sediments. Analysis of 39 samples of Recent Sediments and 16 Terrace Sediments by
Morgan and McIntire (1959) are shown in Figure 5. Despite similarity in grain size for the two types of sediments
(Terrace and Recent), field differentiation between the Terrace and Recent deposit is simple. Recent deposits are
typically dark, loosely compacted, and have a high water content with wide variation and may contain
appreciable quantity of organic matter. Terrace deposits, on the other hand is well-oxidized and typically reddish,
brown or tan, and is mottled. They commonly contain ferruginous or calcareous nodules. Water content is lower,
resulting in firmer, more compact material. Organic material in the Terrace sediments is confined to surface soil
profile.
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

It is the Recent deposits (Alluvial and Estuarine) that provide a wide variation in compactness and strength that
poses a challenge to accurate and intelligent geotechnical interpretation in the design of engineering
constructions.

Figure 5: Grain Size Characteristics of Recent and Pleistocene Deposits

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION FOR A SITE
There are several ways geotechnical condition of a site may be evaluated. The simplest way to examine a site is
to dig up a trial pit to a suitable depth to reveal soil condition and if necessary to collect undisturbed soil sample
for laboratory testing. This is a very effective way of soil exploration but has the disadvantage that this cannot be
performed for greater depths to which soil is usually stressed due to foundation load and in some cases when the
ground water table is near the surface. The common procedure is to bore a hole and test soil conditions within the
hole at several depths or to insert a rod and record its resistance as it is pushed down. Table 1 gives a list of
common in-situ tests used by the geotechnical profession.
Table 1: Common in-situ Tests.
Type of Test

Suitable for

Standard Penetration
Test (SPT)
Dynamic Cone Test
(DPT)

Sand

Static Cone Test (CPT)

Field Vane Test (VST)
Pressuremeter Test
Plate Bearing Test and
Screw Plate Test
Flat Plate Dilatometer
Test
Permeability Test

Sand and gravel

Not suitable
for
Soft to firm
clays
Clay

Sand, silt and

clay
Clay
Soft rock, sand,
gravel, and till

Soft sensitive
clays

Sand and Clay

Sand and clay

Gravel

Sand and gravel

The most commonly used procedure in this country is the use of a bore hole in which Standard Penetration test
(SPT) is performed and soil is sampled in tubes. The borehole is usually formed by wash boring process.
The author has observed that in many instances crew performing a boring operation hardly gives any attention to
the stability of the borehole. Samples collected and test performed in an unstable hole can lead to serious
misinterpretation of soil conditions. Factors, which are responsible for instability of a borehole, include:
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

Hydrostatic conditions leading to boiling and other instability

Jetting arrangement in chopping bit
Adequacy in the size of bailer in uncased holes
Rate of cutting

In most soils it is necessary that water in the borehole should be above the ground water level to accommodate
lowering of water table during withdrawal of tools from inside the hole. It is recommended practices that while
using chopping bits the water jetting should be directed upwards or sideways by reverse jetting. Direct jet action
destroys soil structure and composition and defeats the purpose of soil sampling or SPT test. In cohesionless soil
and in deep borings it is necessary that some drilling fluid (bentonite slurry) stabilize walls of the hole.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
One of the most widely used tests for granular formations is the Standard Penetration test abbreviated as SPT.
This test is most widely performed in this country to evaluate design parameters for sandy soils. The test although
named standard has many non-standard performance conditions. International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) have recommended an international reference test procedure for this test.
Some of the aspects that require attention for this test are:
Borehole formation
Clogging of vent hole in the SPT spoon sampler
Correction for energy during hammer blow
Non-standard performance conditions
Calibration of N- relations
Presently SPT test results provide N values that are corrected for energy and overburden pressure. The corrected
N value is correlated to angle of international friction using correlation developed by Gibbs and Holtz for
medium grained soils of US origin. Many countries have developed calibration for their soils. Although some
granulometric properties of Bangladesh soils are different no attempt has been made to correlate N- relations for
our soils. It should be mentioned here that some sand deposits in Bangladesh contain significant percentage of
mica that may invalidate the correlation suggested in many soil-engineering textbooks.
With above limitations it is worth questioning whether SPT should continue to be the main form of obtaining
geotechnical parameters for sandy soils in this country. Clearly this test is not recommended for clayey soils.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
The cone penetration test consists of pushing into the soil, at a sufficiently slow rate, a series of cylindrical rods
with a cone at the base, and measuring in a continuous manner or at selected depth intervals the penetration
resistance and/or of the local side friction resistance on a friction sleeve. In addition, the pore water pressure
present at the interface between penetrometer tip and soil can be measured by means of a pressure sensor in the
cone.
This method has the advantage over SPT that the time required to perform this test is less, problems of borehole
disturbance are completely eliminated in this test and the operators variables are minimum. But it has the
disadvantage that sample collections sometimes become necessary for grain size analysis or other mechanical
tests although a soil classification system is well developed from this test. Perhaps it is the best-suited test for
alluvial soils of Bangladesh.
Soil Sampling
Evaluation of shear strength, compressibility and deformation characteristics of cohesive soils require collection
of undisturbed samples for testing in the laboratory. Collecting truly undisturbed sample requires care that is
seldom given by our boring crew. Table 2 shows a classification of soil samples collected by various methods
after Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (1985).
Present Bangladesh practice is to collect samples from boreholes in open thin walled samplers. Therefore the
samples collected by this method are between Class 2 and 3. Such samples are not recommended for shear
strength or compressibility tests. Yet most of the geotechnical reports provide shear strength results from this
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

type of samples. Very often these samplers are fitted to drill rod by undersized adopters that do not seal the
sampler during withdrawal resulting in disturbed samples.
Table 2: Classification of Soil Samples (after CFEM 1985)
Class

Quality

Identification

1.

Undisturbed

2.
3.

Slightly disturbed
Substantially
disturbed
Disturbed

a-Block samples
b-Stationary piston sampler
Open tube thin-walled sampler
Open tube thick-walled sampler,
such as 'split spoon'
Random samples collected by
auger or in pits

4.

Properties that can be

Measured
A,B,C,D.E,F ,G,H,I,J,K
A.B,C,D,E,F ,G,H,I
A,B,C,D,E,G
A,B,D,E,G

A - Stratigraphy
B - Stratification
C - Organic content D - Grain size distribution E - Atterberg limits
F - Relative density G - Water content H - Unit weight
I - Permeability J - Compressibility K Shear
strength
The problems of tube sampling have been well described by Ladd and Lamb (1963). Disturbance due to
sampling, transportation, extrusion, trimming, etc. generally reduce the actual effective stress in soil specimen to
a value far below that existing in the ground. Ladd and Foot (1974) proposed a method of estimating in-situ
undrained strength of clay called SHANSEP (acronym for Stress History and Normalized Soil Engineering
Properties) to minimize the result of sampling disturbance. There has been some controversy on the effectiveness
of SHANSEP method. It has been criticized that the method allows additional strength due to aging disappear and
is therefore conservative while Ladd and his co-workers suggest that due to some loss in water during
recompression the strength obtained is un-conservative. Little verification of this method has been done for
Bangladesh soils.
Problems of Silty Soils
Foundation designers often use empirical correlation to design a foundation. Most empirical relations that are
available in textbooks are valid either for sandy soils or for sedimented clayey soils. Uses of many of these
relations for Bangladeshi soils are questionable. The soil formations in Terrace and Recent deposits of
Bangladesh consist significant amount of silt-sized particles. In the soil mechanics literature very limited studies
are available for behaviour of silts.
Compressibility
Correlations are available that relate compression index of sedimented fine-grained soils with liquid limit, natural
moisture content and initial void ratio. Most widely used compression index correlation relate to liquid limit as
given by Skempton (1944), Terzaghi and Peck (1967), and Nishida (1956). Figure 6 shows that for most of the
Bangladeshi silty clays liquid limits do not appear to be good correlation parameter. A comparison between
Figure 6(a) and 6(b) show that initial void ratio (eo ) is a better correlation parameter than liquid limit.
Correlation by Serajuddin (1987) and Azzouz et al (1976) show better fit than earlier equations. It has been found
by Serajuddin (1987) that initial void ratio and natural water content provides most suitable correlation with
compression index for the plastic silty and clayey soils of Bangladesh.
The author studied empirical correlation between Cc/(1+eo) with liquid limit for nine coastal soils of Bangladesh.
The results are presented in Figure 7. At lower liquid limits good correlation exists for these soils.

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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

Figure 7: Showing Correlation between Cc/1+eo

and Lw for nine coastal soils.

Figure 6: Showing Correlation between Cc and

Other Parameters
Evaluation of Shear Strength

In an effort to develop some empirical relations Safiullah (1994) investigated soils from nine locations in coastal
areas of Bangladesh. The soils contained various percentage of clay (9 to 27%) and are either CL or ML type
according to Unified Classification System. The soils have varying over consolidation ratios (OCR). Each of
these samples were isotropically consolidated in a triaxial cell to a pressure (c') equal to 2.5 to 4 times the
maximum overburden pressure (po') to attain a stress level in the virgin compression line (i.e. normally loaded
state). At the end of primary consolidation a deviator stress was applied in undrained state until failure took place.
Stress ratio su/c' is plotted against plasticity index (Ip) for these soils in Figure 8, su being half the deviator stress
at failure. The vertical line for each of these samples indicates range in values. It is interesting to note that unlike
Skempton's(1957) relation followed in most text books su/c' values increased with decrease in Ip.
In an attempt to discover the effect of sampling an undisturbed block sample collected from one location was
consolidated to high pressure (2.5 to 4 times po' ) and su/c' relation at various OCR was obtained. The same soil
was mixed with water 1.5 times the liquid limit to form slurry and was consolidated in a Rowe cell. The
reconstituted soil was tested at various OCR values. In Figure 9, the stress ratio for block sample and
reconstituted soil show considerable difference in strength, particularly with increasing OCR. Since most soft
clays are over consolidated at surface, considerable under estimation of shear strength is likely due to sample
disturbance effect.
Above demonstrate that there is a considerable need for research on sampling of silts.
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION
Problem with many civil engineering works begins immediately after the ground breaking. In geotechnical
engineering history there has been numerous litigation cases where ground conditions interpreted during design
turned out to be different at the time of construction. Often engineers design foundations on assumed soil
parameters. False and fabricated soil reports are not uncommon. Whatever may be the reason for variation in soil
condition from designed assumption, the result is extra cost or delay in construction time, change in design,
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

change in construction operation, or even failure. Good geotechnical engineering practice can limit uncertain soil
condition problems.

Figure 8: Undrained Shear Strength Ratio on

Recompression against Plasticity Index for
Nine Coastal Soils

Figure 9: Comparison of Undrained Shear Strength

Ratio for Undisturbed Block and
Reconstituted Samples at Different OCRs.

Bored Pile Construction Practice

A major concern for geotechnical designers in Bangladesh is the construction of cast-in-situ bored piles. At
present there is no Code of Practice in force for this type of construction. This method of pile construction is very
popular because piling can be done with very simple tools such as a tripod stand, wash boring equipment and
tremie concreting pipes. Two operations that are critical to safe pile construction are:

Prevention of hole collapse,

Quality of underwater concreting,
Clean borehole bottom, and
Integrity of the pile shaft

Prevention of hole collapse requires control of hydrostatic head within the borehole and use of bentonite slurry in
adequate mix and density. There are several specifications for slurry to be used in piling work. Table 3 shows a
slurry specification given by Federation of Piling Specialists (FPS) for cast-in-place diaphragm walling.
It is important that we develop slurry specification that is consistent with our soil types and construction practice
in order to provide adequate quality control during construction.
Checking integrity of constructed piles is an important condition in the assessment of quality. Such checks are
made by pile load test or by use of an integrity tester. During load testing it often appears that supports of
reference test gauges are placed in a way that these are affected by loading and unloading from load platform.
Interpretation of pile load test results is also very important. Selection of appropriate failure or performance
criteria is essential in these interpretations.
Ground Improvement Techniques
Over last decade there has been tremendous need for extension of urban areas and engineering facilities on
ground that were previously considered unsuitable. Such pressure has lead to the use of various ground
improvement techniques over the world. Ground improvement techniques have limited practice in Bangladesh.
Engineers often prefer to use costly pile or raft foundation rather than improve ground for shallow foundation.
Perhaps this is due to our lack of experience in ground improvement technologies and lack of adequate
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Proc. of Bangladesh Geotechnical Conference 2009

equipment for such work. But some ground improvement works can be very simply done by local resources
provided one understands the mechanism of achieving the strength improvement. Case studies of ground
improvement works are available in geotechnical literature that should inspire our engineers to promote this
technique. Reference may be made of the proceedings of the Bangladesh-Japan Joint Geotechnical Seminar on
Ground Improvement in 1993 published by Bangladesh Geotechnical Society in which interested cases of ground
improvement are presented.
Table 3: Slurry Specification by Federation of Piling Specialists (SPS) for Cast-in-place diaphragm walling
Property
Density
Viscosity
Shear strength (10 min gel strength)
PH

Range of results at 20 C
Less than l.l0g/ml
30-90 seconds
1.4- 10N/m2
9.5 - 12

Test Method
Mud density balance
Marsh cone method
Shear-meter
pH indicator

CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing discussions the following main point may be noted:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Bangladesh is formed predominantly by alluvial sediments which can be classified into six broad soil units.
Of these the Recent Alluvial Flood Plain deposits and the Estuarine and Tidal Flood Plain deposits provide
considerable challenge to geotechnical interpretation and consideration for design parameters.
Geotechnical correlation suggested for foundation design in many texts should be used with caution as
these may not be applicable for our alluvial soil deposits. There is a need for development of new
correlation consistent with our soil conditions.
Some ground testing and sampling procedures and techniques followed in this country need to be seriously
reviewed and a Code of Practice should be established in this respect.
More rigorous quality control practice should be introduced for geotechnical construction works such as
cast-in-situ bored piles. Specifications necessary for stable boreholes, good quality slurry concrete, and pile
load test should be enforced in all such construction works.
Ground improvement techniques should be developed and its use encouraged meeting the challenging
needs of a highly populated and expanding urban population.

REFERENCES
Alam, M.K., A.K.M.S. Hasan. M.R. Khan, and J.W.Whitney (1990): Geological Map of Bangladesh.
Azzouz, A.S., Krizek, R.J.,and Corotis, R.B. (1976): Regression analysis of soil compressibility. Soils and
Foundations. V.16 (2), p. 19-29.
Bakr, M.A. (1977): Quartenary geomorphic evolution of Brahmanbaria Noakhali area. Geological Survey of
Bangladesh record. Vol. 1-2.
Bramer, H. (1971): Soil resources of East Pakistan. Soil Survey Department. Food and Agricultural
Organizations
Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (1985): Canadian Geotechnical Society. 2nd Edition.
Ladd, C.C. and Lambe, T.W. (1961): The strength of undisturbed clay determined from undrained tests. ASTM
Special Publication No. 361, p.342-371.
Ladd, C.C. and Foott, R. (1974): New design procedure for stability of soft clays. J. Geotech. Engg. Divn.
ASCE, Vol. 100(7), p.763-785.
Hunt, T. (1976): Some geotechnical aspects of road construction in Bangladesh. Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol.7, p. 1-23.
Morgan, J.P. and McKintire, W.G. (1959): Quaternary geology of Bengal Basin, East Pakistan and India. Bull.
Geological Society of America, Vol. 70, p.319-342.
Nishida, Y (1956): A brief note on compression index of soil. J of Soil Mech. Foundn. Divn., ASCE,
Vol.82(3),p.l-14.
Safiullah, A.M.M. (1994): Geotechnical aspects of hazard mitigation in Bangladesh. 13th Int. Conf. On Soil
Mech. & Fdn. Engg., New Delhi, India.
Serajuddin, M. (1987): Universal compression index equation and Bangladesh soils. Proc. 9th SEAGC, V.l.p.5-6.
Skempton, A.W. (1944): Notes on the compressibility of clays. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, V.100, p.119-135,
Terzaghi, K. And Peck, R.B. (1967): Soil mechanics in engineering practice. 2nd. Ed. John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
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