Fuel Burner & Firebox Operation & Control

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels
File Reference: MEX10405
For additional information on this subject, contact

R.K. Khanna
Vessels
Contents
Pages
FUELS AND BURNERS ..................................................................................................... 1

Fuel Options.............................................................................................................. 1
Burners ..................................................................................................................... 1
Burner Components....................................................................................... 2
Gas Burners................................................................................................... 4
Oil Burners .................................................................................................... 8
Combination Gas and Oil Burners .................................................................. 9
Forced Draft Burners ..................................................................................... 9
Emissions Control.........................................................................................10
FUEL SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................16
Fuel Gas Systems .....................................................................................................16
Components..................................................................................................16
Controls........................................................................................................20
Fuel Oil Systems.......................................................................................................21
Components..................................................................................................21
Controls........................................................................................................26
Effects on Boiler and Process Heater (Furnace) Design ...........................................26
MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION........................27
Major Concerns........................................................................................................27
Flame Characteristics and Patterns ................................................................27
Typical Draft Profile .....................................................................................28
Optimum Operation for Excess Air ...............................................................29
Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces ......................................................29
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................30
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Table of Figures
Pages
Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners....................................................... 2

Figure 2. Pilot Burner............................................................................................... 4
Figure 3. John Zink Burner Capacities ...................................................................... 7
Figure 4. Typical Fuel Oil Burner ............................................................................. 8
Figure 5. Forced-Draft Boiler Combination Burner..................................................10
Figure 6. Typical LowNOx Burner ..........................................................................12
Figure 7. AVC LowNOx Burner..............................................................................13
Figure 8. LowNOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation ...........................................14
Figure 9. Flue/Fuel Gas Mixture ..............................................................................15
Figure 10. Typical Gas Burner System (Automatic Startup).....................................17
Figure 11. Typical Gas Burner System (Supervised Manual Startup)........................18
Figure 12. Pilot Gas System.....................................................................................19
Figure 13. Orifice Flow ...........................................................................................20
Figure 14. Fuel Oil System ......................................................................................22
Figure 15. RT Liquid Fuel System ...........................................................................23
Figure 16. Typical Oil Burner System (Automatic Startup) ......................................24
Figure 17. Typical Oil Burner System (Supervised Manual) .....................................25
Figure 18. Furnace Natural Draft Profile..................................................................28
Figure 19. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater ..................................................29
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FUELS AND BURNERS

Fuel Options
The fuel options include gas and oil. Gas can include natural gas and/or a refinery or gas plant
fuel gas. The refinery or gas plant fuel gas includes natural gas and make gas from the processes,
and usually has a higher heating value than dry natural gas. Oil can be No. 6 fuel oil, bunker fuel
oil, resids, or crude oil. It is almost always more economical to burn fuel oil and resids than to
burn crude oil.
Burners
Burners are mechanical devices for mixing fuel and air for combustion. The main functions of
burners are:
To provide and mix the proper quantities of fuel and air.
To provide a stable flame.
To release heat in the desired pattern.
Burners and their combustion control systems must produce satisfactory combustion over the
range of expected operating conditions (fuel compositions and firing rates). Burners are expected
to be reliable and to meet these requirements with reasonable initial cost and maintenance
expense.
Failure of burners to perform any of these functions adequately can lead to inefficient combustion
and/or poor flame patterns. This can lead to localized overheating and damage to furnace or
boiler components, resulting in increased maintenance costs. This damage can also cause a
premature shutdown due to failure (or impending failure) of critical components such as tubes,
tube supports, or the refractory lining.
Burners are available in two general types: natural-draft and forced-draft. Either type can be used
for burning gas or liquid fuels alone, or both fuels in combination.
Natural-draft burners are used in all Saudi Aramco process heaters.
Forced-draft burners are used in all boilers. Forced-draft burners may also be used in
process heaters (furnaces). At this time, none of Saudi Aramco's process heaters use
forced-draft burners.
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Burner Components
Burners consist of the following main components illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows typical
natural-draft burners.
Spider Head
Secondary
Air Register
Pilot
Fuel/Primary
Air Mixer
Fuel Gas Connection
c
With permission from the John Zink Co.
Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners

Air Register - Air enters the burner through the air register. Air flow can be controlled by
adjusting the size of the openings in the register. For natural-draft burners, the most common
type of air register consists of fixed and moveable concentric cylinders, each with slots.
Vessels
Plenum Chamber - The air register in some burners is located inside a plenum chamber, which
usually serves all the burners in the furnace or boiler. In boilers, the plenum chamber is called a
windbox. The plenum chamber can serve several purposes:
Reduces noise emissions from the burners.

Reduces wind effects on natural-draft burners.
Permits combustion air supply from a single source, such as a fan.
Enables total air flow to the furnace or boiler to be controlled at one point.
Fuel System - This consists of manifolds and piping to deliver the fuel to the burner tips. The
fuel passes through one or more openings in the tips, which act as restriction orifices. The fuel is
injected into, and mixes with, the airstream. Various types of burner tips are used, depending
upon the type of fuel and the flame pattern desired.
Refractory Burner Tile - This is located at the burner exit. The tile helps stabilize combustion
and shape the flame. The burner tile is usually shaped so that one section has a minimum crosssectional flow area. This is called the throat and acts as a venturi in the airstream.
The opening in most burner tiles is circular. Together with the air register and fuel tip designs,
this produces a circular-shaped flame. In some cases, the tile and other components are designed
to produce a non-circular flame shape. A rectangular-shaped tile opening can be used to produce
a flat flame, which is needed in some furnace arrangements.
Pilot Burner - This small burner is used for ignition of the main burner flame. In some burners,
it also acts as a stabilizer for the main flame. In boilers, the pilot flame itself is usually ignited by
an electric igniter. Pilots in process heater burners usually operate continuously, while pilots in
boilers are usually shut down after the main flame is ignited. Individual pilots should be
removable for maintenance while the boiler or process heater remains in operation. A typical pilot
burner is shown in Figure 2.
Vessels
Figure 2. Pilot Burner

Gas Burners
Natural-draft burners rely on the draft (negative pressure) in the furnaces radiant box to induce
the air required for combustion. The efficiency of fuel/air mixing is strongly affected by the
kinetic energy available in the air (i.e., the velocity of the air as it passes through the burner
mixing zone). Since the draft available is usually only about 0.3-0.5 in. water at the burner, the
energy for mixing is relatively low. Consequently, natural-draft burners are limited to a maximum
capacity of about 15 M Btu/hr. Flame lengths can be excessive in large natural-draft burners.
Many types of natural-draft burners have much lower capacities, resulting in some large furnaces
having many burners. For example, the Ras Tanura Crude Unit 15 F-100 A&B Atmospheric
furnaces each have 56 burners with a maximum firing capacity of 6.25 MBtu/hr each.
There are two principal types of gas-fired burners: raw gas and pre-mix.
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Raw Gas Burners - Raw gas burners (Figure 1a) are used for most applications. In these
burners, the fuel gas passes through orifices in the gas tip and is injected directly into the
combustion zone where it mixes with air. A stabilizer cone is located just below the gas to
improve combustion stability. Raw gas burners have a high turndown ratio (about 5 to 1). They
are suitable for mounting in plenum chambers and can be used with preheated combustion air.
Raw gas burners of this type (John Zink VYD) are used in Ras Tanura Rheniformer furnace 493F-301/2/3/4.
Pre-mix Burners - Pre-mix burners (Figure 1b) are sometimes used in special applications. In
these burners, the kinetic energy made available by the expansion of the fuel gas through the fuel
gas orifice inspirates about half of the combustion air (called primary air) into the venturi mixer.
This mixture exits through a large burner tip, where it is mixed with the balance of the combustion
air (secondary air). This secondary air flow enters the burner through the outer, secondary air
register. Primary air flow through pre-mix burners varies with fuel flow, giving these burners a
degree of excess air control. Pre-mix burners require less furnace draft than raw gas burners.
Pre-mix burners can produce a wide range of flame shapes. Use of a "spider" shaped tip, as
shown in Figure 1b, produces a short flame, which may be suited to a furnace with a short radiant
box. Other burner tips are used to produce other flame shapes (such as a long, thin flame).
One major disadvantage of pre-mix burners is their susceptibility to flashback. Normally the flame
front is stationary at or immediately above the burner tip, where the fuel/air mixture slows down
after emerging from the holes in the tip. At reduced firing rates and with a high flame velocity,
the flame can "flash back" through the tip and burn inside the mixer, just downstream of the fuel
gas orifice. Flashback will damage the mixer and burner tip if left unchecked.
Pre-mix burners are generally noisier than raw gas burners, and a muffler is almost always
required for the primary air inlet. Pre-mix burners also have less flexibility than raw gas burners
for fuel composition changes.
Natural Draft Burner-Selection Factors - Burner sizes are based mainly on their air flow
capacities. Air flow through a natural-draft burner is determined by the available draft at the
burner and by the size of the burners air register and burner tiles. The required air flow
determines the required number and size of burners. The required air flow is calculated at 120%
of maximum heat release and design excess air.
Fuel flow capacity is mainly a function of the size of the openings in the burner tips and the
available fuel pressure.
Vessels
The design maximum firing capacity of furnace burners includes some extra capacity above the
normal firing rate. This permits burners to be occasionally taken out of service for maintenance
without reducing the total furnace firing rate. However, burners should not be excessively
oversized. An oversized burner has reduced ability to operate efficiently at normal design and
turndown conditions. Most of the air-side pressure drop in an oversized burner is taken by the air
register to control air flow. Very little pressure drop is taken by the low-velocity air flow through
the burner throat, resulting in poor mixing of air and fuel.
The following table gives recommended maximum burner design capacities as a function of
normal design capacity (furnace design firing divided by the number of burners), based on API
Standard 560, Par. 10.1.3:
Number of Burners
Percent of Normal
Heat Release
Up to 5 burners
6 or 7 burners
8 or more burners
125
120
115
Burner design excess air rates are a function of the fuel fired, per API Standard 560,
Par. 2.2.2, 32-SAMSS-029 for heaters, or 32-SAMSS-021 for boilers:
Primary Fuel
Gas
Oil (combination)
API Std 560

20
25
Percent Excess Air

32-SAMSS-029
Heaters
10
20
32-SAMSS-021
Boilers
5
10
Capacity curves for typical natural-draft burners are shown in Figure 3. These curves are for
representative burners manufactured by the John Zink Company. Many of Saudi Aramco's
burners are manufactured by the John Zink Company. Similar curves are available from other
manufacturers. In these curves, burner capacity at a given excess air rate is shown as a function
of the air pressure drop through the burner (draft). The design maximum capacity of a naturaldraft burner should be as close as practical to the manufacturer's rated capacity, without
exceeding it.
Vessels
With permission from the John Zink Co.
Figure 3. John Zink Burner Capacities
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Oil Burners
Steam is always added to assist in the atomization of liquid fuels. The steam and oil are mixed in
specially designed fuel atomizers, where the kinetic energy of the steam jets breaks up the fuel
into small droplets. The resulting mixture of steam and finely dispersed oil is then released into
the air stream through a number of orifices in the burner tip. An efficient atomizer may use as little
as 0.1 pound of steam per pound of fuel but a typical design requirement is 0.3 pound of steam
per pound of fuel. A typical atomizer is shown in Figure 4.
Tip
Steam
Orifices
Fuel Oil
Orifice
Steam Oil Steam

Figure 4. Typical Fuel Oil Burner
For good atomization and combustion of liquid fuels, the steam must be perfectly dry. If there is
moisture in the steam, this moisture will flash when it mixes with the oil, causing erratic oil flow.
The atomizing steam should be superheated about 50F.
Mechanical atomization can be used when steam is not available. The kinetic energy in the oil
itself is used for atomization by releasing the oil through the tip under very high pressure.
Mechanical atomization is usually used only in large burners or with very clean fuels, since the
very small orifices required in smaller burners can become plugged by small dirt or coke particles
in the fuel.
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Combination Gas and Oil Burners

A typical combination gas and oil burner is shown in Figure 1c. This burner can be used to fire
liquid, gas, or a combination of liquid and gas fuels, depending upon the fuel systems supplied
with the burner.
Liquid fuel is fired through a centrally located oil gun. The oil and atomizing steam are fed
through separate pipes in the feed tube to the atomizer and burner tip. The fuel/steam mixture is
injected through orifices in the burner tip into the primary airstream, where combustion begins.
The primary air flow is limited to a small percentage of total air flow, so that the fuel will not be
cooled before combustion begins. The spray angle of the burner tip is designed so that the
fuel/steam spray just fills, but does not hit the primary refractory tile. This tile helps stabilize the
initial combustion of the oil spray. The balance of combustion air enters the burner through the
secondary air register.
Fuel gas is fired through a series of gas tips that are located in the secondary air flow path, around
the center oil gun. This type of burner is often used in gas-fired furnaces when provisions are
made for future oil firing.
Forced Draft Burners
Forced draft burners are used in all boilers. They rely on fans to supply the combustion air under
pressure. In well designed forced-draft burners, the kinetic energy of the airstream is used to
achieve much more efficient mixing of the fuel and air than is possible with natural-draft burners.
As a result of this improved mixing, smaller flame volumes are obtained. Higher burner capacities
and lower excess air (5% - 10%) are possible. Thus, fewer forced-draft burners are required for
the same total heat release than would be required with natural-draft burners. For example, the
Ras Tanura HP Boiler No. 8 has only six burners, each with a capacity of 108 M Btu/hr.
Boiler burners are normally sized for the maximum capacity of the boiler. These burners are not
usually oversized in the same manner as process heater burners.
A typical dual-fuel forced-draft burner is shown in Figure 5. This burner is a combination oil and
gas burner. The inner burner is an oil burner. The outer burner is a gas burner. Since most
boilers operate with an internal positive pressure, special interlocks are required to seal the oil gun
connection when the gun is removed (32-SAMSS-021). Otherwise, high-temperature flue gas
would escape through this opening, causing a safety hazard.
All boiler burners have pre-mix gas electric ignitor pilot burner. The pilot burner is used for
ignition only and is automatically tripped (shutoff) after flame ignition.
Vessels
Figure 5. Forced-Draft Boiler Combination Burner

Emissions Control
There is a worldwide trend toward more stringent and comprehensive control of the emissions
from combustion equipment. Emissions of concern are noise, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and
unburned hydrocarbons and other particulates.
10
Vessels
Noise - This is caused by the fuel and airstreams entering the burner, and by the combustion
process. Noise emissions are most often reduced by installing mufflers on the air inlets. Limiting
the maximum fuel gas pressure also helps to reduce noise emissions.
Sulfur - Emissions are directly related to the sulfur content of the fuel. On large, power plant size
boilers, flue gas cleanup processes can be used to reduce sulfur emissions. In other boilers and
furnaces, sulfur emissions are mainly reduced by using low sulfur fuels.
Incomplete Combustion - Can produce CO and particulate emissions. These can be minimized
by providing good combustion conditions (good atomization of liquid fuels, proper combustion
air flow, proper combustion control, etc.). The ash content of the fuel, if any, will add directly to
these particulate emissions.
NOx Emissions - NOx formation is a function of the combustion temperature and the excess air
level. Liquid fuels may contain a small amount of nitrogen, which can be converted to NOx in the
combustion process.
NOx emissions can be reduced by modifications to the combustion process. Two types of low
NOx burners are illustrated in Figure 6. These burners generally stage the combustion of the fuel
to reduce the combustion temperatures and oxygen concentration in the combustion zone. Peak
temperatures are reduced because some of the heat from the first stage of combustion is radiated
to the radiant section tubes before the second stage begins. Since the combustion is staged, the
total flame envelope is usually larger than that of conventional burners. This must be considered
when specifying the burners.
Staged air burners. Combustion begins in a fuel-rich zone. This is followed by

injection of the balance of the combustion air and completion of combustion in a
burnout zone.
Staged fuel burners. A portion of the fuel is burned at high excess air levels, lowering
the combustion temperature and NOx production. After some radiation to the
surroundings, a second stage of combustion follows where the balance of the fuel is
injected into the flue gas from the first stage as shown in Figure 6. Staged combustion
is more efficient and allows operation at lower percent excess air.
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High Fuel-to-Air Ratio

in Primary Zone
Staged Air
Primary Air
Fuel Connection
Pilot Gas
A. Staged Air Burner

High Air-toFuel Ratio
in Primary Zone
Secondary Fuel
Combustion
Air
Primary
Fuel Connection
Secondary
Fuel Connection
B. Staged Fuel Burner
"Combustors: Applications and Design Considerations", by W. Bartok, R.K. Lyon, A.D. McIntyre, L.A. Ruth &
R.E. Sommerlad, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 54-71 (1988). Reproduced by permission of
the American Institute of Chemical Engineers 1988 AlChE.
Figure 6. Typical LowNOx Burner
12
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Figure 7 is a forced draft combustion LowNOx burner incorporating staged air and staged fuel.
Figure 7. AVC LowNOx Burner
13
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Figure 8 is a forced draft LowNOx gas burner in the staged air, staged fuel and flue gas
recirculation. Flue gas recirculation dilutes the combustion mixture and reduces the combustion
temperature.
Figure 8. LowNOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation

14
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Figure 9 shows how flue gas is mixed with fuel gas in the burner on Figure 8.
Figure 9. Flue/Fuel Gas Mixture

15
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FUEL SYSTEMS
Fuel Gas Systems
Gas fuels vary from clean, dry, relatively constant molecular weight streams to dirty, wet mixtures
of process waste gases that can fluctuate greatly in molecular weight and composition. In the first
case, the fuel should burn easily and cause few problems. However, in the latter case, serious
safety and maintenance problems can occur unless the gas is thoroughly cleaned and dried. Both
solids and condensed liquids can plug the fuel ports in the burner tip. This can restrict the burner
capacity and cause poor combustion due to maldistribution of the fuel in the burner. Condensate
passing through the fuel ports can also interrupt steady combustion and cause a flame failure.
To protect against wet or dirty gas, knockout drums should be provided in all fuel gas systems.
These should be located as close to the furnace or boiler as possible, but no closer than 50 feet for
safety considerations. Piping downstream of the knockout drum may have to be heated and
insulated if condensation of the gas is a problem.
Filters should be provided in the fuel line downstream of the knockout drum, to remove scale or
dirt entrained in the gas stream not removed in the knockout drum. Care should be taken to
ensure that the fuel gas lines downstream of the filter are clean and are not corroded.
When sour gas fuels containing more than 0.5% H2S are burned, additional fouling (corrosion
and scaling) problems may be encountered in the fuel gas piping and burner tips. If fouling
becomes a serious problem, corrosion-resistant (stainless steel) piping may be necessary
downstream of the gas filter.
Components
Fuel gas systems include both the fuel to the main burners and the fuel to the pilot gas burners.
Figure 10 shows the minimum fuel gas system as specified by SAES-J-602 for an automatic boiler
startup and includes a knock-out drum (KO pot) to remove solids and liquids from the fuel gas, a
pressure reducing station, a flow meter, automatic double block and bleed shut-offs, an
emergency isolation valve and a firing control valve with a minimum pressure bypass. Many fuel
gas systems have an additional KO pot after the emergency isolation valve, and steam trace and
insulate the fuel gas line from the KO pot to the burners to prevent liquids from condensing in the
fuel gas lines. The emergency isolation valves provide a tight shutoff and will not reopen without
being reset.
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A
B
C
D
E
Manual Block Valve

BMS Operated Block Valve
BMS Operated Vent Valve
Flow Control Valve
Minimum Flow Regulator
F
H
FT
PI
PS
Pressure Regulator
Manual Vent Valve
Flow Transmitter
Pressure Indicator (Gauge)
Pressure Switch
Figure 10. Typical Gas Burner System (Automatic Startup)

Fuel gas systems without automatic startup provide the same functions as in Figure 10 using
manual instead of automatic valves as shown in Figure 11.
17
Vessels
A
B
C
D
E
Manual Block Valve

Flow Control Valve
G
H
FT
PI
PS
-Manual Block Supervisory

- Manual Vent Valve
- Flow Transmitter
- Pressure Indicator (Gauge)
- Pressure Switch
Figure 11. Typical Gas Burner System (Supervised Manual Startup)
18
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Figure 12 shows the minimum pilot gas system specified by SAES-J-602 for an automatic boiler
startup and includes a filter, double block and bleeds shutoffs, a pressure reducing station, and an
emergency shutoff valve. The pilot gas system does not have a firing control valve since it is
always at full flow when operating. Pilot gas systems without automatic startup provide the same
for three items as Figure 12 with manual valves and blinds.
A
B
C
D
E
Manual Block Valve

Pressure Control Valve
Bypass Valve
F
G
H
PI
PS
PC
Filter
Strainer
Manual Vent Valve
Pressure Indicator (Gauge)
Pressure Switch
Pressure Controller
Figure 12. Pilot Gas System
19
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Controls
The required maximum fuel gas pressure to a burner is largely determined by the required range
of burner firing rates. Gas burners typically have a turndown capability (ratio of maximum to
minimum firing rates) of about 5 to 1, provided that the maximum fuel gas pressure at the burner
is 30 psig or greater. 32-SAMSS-021 specifies that boiler burners should have a turn down ratio
of 3:1 for normal operations but should be capable of 6:1 turn down ratio with stable burner
operation over this range.
Fuel gas flow through a burner tip is equivalent to flow through an orifice. The flow rate (and the
corresponding firing rate) is proportional to the square root of the fuel gas pressure. This
relationship, illustrated in Figure 13, is valid up to about 15 psig, and is very close to about 30
psig. Thus, for a 5:1 burner turndown capability, the ratio of maximum to minimum fuel gas
pressure will be 25:1.
Source: R.O. Reed, Furnace Operations.
Figure 13. Orifice Flow
20
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The range of fuel gas pressures (and firing rate) is limited by the following constraints:
Maximum fuel gas pressure for satisfactory burner operations is about 40 psig. Higher
pressures can cause excessive noise. Also, very high gas velocities passing through the
burner tip can cause the flame to lift off the tip, which is an unstable firing condition.
Minimum fuel gas pressure is about 1-2 psig. Lower pressures are difficult to control
with standard instrumentation.
In cases where the fuel gas can vary considerably in molecular weight, burner turndown may be
limited. Low molecular weight fuel gases (low density and low heating value) will require the
highest gas pressure to achieve the maximum firing rate. Conversely, high molecular weight fuel
gases (high density and high heating valve) will require the lowest gas pressure at minimum firing
rate. This range of gas pressures may be beyond the burner turndown capability, and
compromises may be required. The usual solution is to size the burner orifices for the maximum
firing rate with the lowest molecular weight fuel. At low firing rates, it may be necessary to turn
some burners off to keep gas pressures above the minimum.
For very low pressure gases (maximum available pressure at the burner of about 3 psig), special
burners can be used. These use a steam eductor to pull the gas through the burner. This type
burner is often used to combust waste gas streams, such as crude vacuum column
noncondensibles.
Fuel Oil Systems
Components
Liquid fuels must be free of solids that may plug small atomizer holes in the burners. Liquid fuels
must be atomized (broken up) into micron-sized droplets before they can be mixed with air and
burned efficiently. The fuel oil system must be designed to control the pressure and viscosity of
the oil to the range for which the oil burner was designed. The viscosity of the oil is controlled to
about 26 centistokes (cSt) by controlling the temperature. Steam is always added to assist in the
atomization of liquid fuels.
Figure 14 shows a typical fuel oil system which includes an inline oil heater and a recirculation
system to make sure the oil does not cool if the oil flow is shut off at the burners. The
temperature control may be either in the day tank or at the inline heater shown in Figure 14.
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Figure 14. Fuel Oil System
22
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Figure 15 shows the Ras Tanura liquid fuel system. The chemical additive reduces fouling due to
soot and ash.
Figure 15. RT Liquid Fuel System

Figure 16 shows the minimum fuel oil system specified by SAES-J-602 for an automatic startup
boiler. Figure 17 shows a similar system for a supervised manual startup boiler. The oil system
includes a strainer (filter), a flow meter, an emergency isolation valve, and a firing control valve
with a minimum pressure bypass. The steam supply has a strainer (filter), and a differential
pressure control valve to provide steam at the pressure required for proper atomization.
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A
B
C
D
E
Manual Block Valve

Steam/Oil Pressure Regulator
Flow Control Valve
G
H
BMS
CCS
PDS
TS
Strainer
Manual Bleed Valve
Burner Management System
Combustion Control System
Differential Pressure Switch
Temperature Switch
Figure 16. Typical Oil Burner System (Automatic Startup)
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A
B
C
D
E
F
Manual Block Valve

Steam/Oil Pressure Regulator
Flow Control Valve
Manual Block Valve, Supervisory
G
H
BMS
CCS
PDS
TS
Strainer
Manual Bleed Valve
Burner Management System
Combustion Control System
Differential Pressure Switch
Temperature Switch
Figure 17. Typical Oil Burner System (Supervised Manual)
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Controls
Maximum liquid fuel pressure at the burner is typically 60-100 psig, depending on the particular
burner design. The pressure of the atomizing steam at the burner is usually 20-30 psi above the
fuel pressure.
Effects on Boiler and Process Heater (Furnace) Design
Gas fuels are capable of rapid mixing with combustion air, resulting in rapid combustion and short
flame sizes.
Larger combustion volumes (Firebox) and clearances must be provided when liquid fuels are
fired. Liquid fuels are introduced into the combustion zone as fine droplets that must first be
vaporized before combustion takes place. Droplets of heavy liquid fuels burn from the outside
before vaporization is completed. As a result, the length of time required for complete
combustion is much greater than for gas fuels. Consequently, flame sizes for liquid fuels are
larger and longer.
When both gas and liquid fuels are fired, the furnace or boiler design is based on the liquid fuels.
If a furnace or boiler is designed for gas firing only, its capacity with liquid fuel firing may be
limited.
For boilers, Saudi Aramco Standard 32-SAMSS-021 (Par. 5.2.2) requires a 33% larger
combustion volume when fuels of 15API or heavier are burned (60,000 vs 80,000 Btu/hr ft3).
The 15API corresponds to a specific gravity of 0.966. No. 6 fuel oil and resid are in this
category.
For furnaces, API Standard 560 (Par. 10.1.2) requires increased clearances between burners and
tubes or refractory walls when any liquid fuels are fired.
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MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION

Major Concerns
Flame Characteristics and Patterns
Flame characteristics are primarily determined by the burner design and the fuel-to-air ratio.
The burner design determines how well the fuel and air are mixed. The better the mixing the
quicker the combustion reaction can occur and the shorter the flames will be. The burner design
also determines the shape and stability of the flame during various operating conditions.
Over-Firing -Over-firing the burner (overdesign fuel rate) will result in longer flames and
unstable flames. Flames can tend to lift off the burner with the possibility of flame failure. Underfiring a burner can also result in flame instability and the possibility of flame failure. Burners
should be operated within the design limits of the 5:1 turndown specified for Saudi Aramco
burners.
Air-to- Fuel Ratio/Draft - The air-to-fuel ratio is critical to proper burner operation. Too low
an air-to-fuel ratio will result in long flames and can result in an unstable flame. Too high an airto-fuel ratio will result in short flames but can result in an unstable flame. Too high an air-to-fuel
ratio is an uneconomic operation.
The air-to-fuel ratio in a forced draft boiler is controlled by the air-to-fuel ratio controller. The
ratio is dependent to some degree on the heating value of the fuel. Higher heating value fuels
require a higher air-to-fuel ratio for combustion.
The fuel-to-air ratio in a natural draft furnace is controlled by the furnace draft and burner air
registers. The furnace draft also provides some kinetic energy for mixing in a natural draft
furnace. Inadequate draft will result in a low air-to-fuel ratio, long flames, and an unstable flame.
Too high a draft will result in a high air-to-fuel ratio, short flames, and could result in an unstable
flame. Too high a draft is an uneconomic operation.
Burner Distribution - All burners should normally be operating in a firebox. At low loads, it
may be necessary to shut off some burners in order to have stable flames. For reduced load
operation, the number of burners operating in a firebox should be set such that the load for each
burner is approximately equal and about midway in the turndown ratio for the burners. The
operating burners should provide an even flame distribution over the firebox. Uneven loading of
burners and/or uneven distribution of burners can result in overheating of tubes.
27
Vessels
Typical Draft Profile

Figure 8 shows a typical draft profile for a natural draft furnace. The fire box has a positive draft
(negative pressure). The lowest draft is at the top of the firebox.
0
Stack
Damper
Hood
Corbel
Convection
section
Shield tubes
Open Damper
Closed Damper
Radiant section
Burners
Secondary
air registers
Typical fired heater is shown in cross-section
.6
.4
.2
+.2
+.4
Pressure in inches
of Water Relative to
Atmospheric Pressure
With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source: Engineering Data Book.
Figure 18. Furnace Natural Draft Profile
28
Vessels
Optimum Operation for Excess Air

The optimum operation for excess air is dependent on the fuel and the burner design. Fuel oils
require a higher optimum excess air for proper operation. Each burner design will have a different
optimum excess air. Forced draft burners have a lower optimum excess air than natural draft
burners. Staged burners such as low NOX burners have a lower optimum excess air than normal
burners. The optimum excess air for any firebox can be determined by reducing the air ratio until
the CO content of the flue gas starts to rise. Then increase the air ratio until the flue gas CO
returns to normal to find the optimal air ratio. Since the optimum is an air ratio the firebox will
have to be rebalanced when the fuel rate changes significantly as in a load change.
Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces
Proper control of draft and excess air require control of both burner air registers and the stack
damper. The guide lines below show which one should be used in extreme situations.
Low Draft
High Draft
Low Excess Air (O2)
Open Damper
Open Burner Air
High Excess Air (O2)
Close Burner Air
Close Damper
Figure 19. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater
29
Vessels
GLOSSARY
flashback
Combustion in a pre-mix burner taking place inside the venturimixer, upstream of the normal combustion zone.
flashing
The sudden vaporization of a liquid due to a change in conditions,

such as a reduction in pressure.
knockout drum
A drum used to separate any liquid in the fuel gas stream from the
fuel gas vapor.
pulsing
Intermittent, noncontinuous combustion.
purge
A flow of air through a furnace or boiler and associated flues and

ducts, which will effectively remove any gaseous combustibles and
replace with air. Purging in furnaces is often accomplished with
steam instead of air.
pre-mix burner
A burner in which the fuel gas and some of the air are mixed ahead
of the burner combustion zone.
raw gas burner
A burner in which the fuel gas and air are mixed in the combustion
zone of the burner.
sour gas fuel
Fuel gas containing more than about 1/2% H2S.
stack effect
The difference in densities between the hot gases inside a furnace

and the ambient air outside the furnace.
turndown capability
The ratio of maximum to minimum burner firing capability.
30

Fuel Burner &amp; Firebox Operation &amp; Control

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control

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FUELS AND BURNERS ..................................................................................................... 1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners....................................................... 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FUELS AND BURNERS

To provide and mix the proper quantities of fuel and air.

To provide a stable flame.

To release heat in the desired pattern.

Natural-draft burners are used in all Saudi Aramco process heaters.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Fuel Gas Connection

Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Reduces noise emissions from the burners.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 2. Pilot Burner

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

API Std 560

Percent Excess Air

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

With permission from the John Zink Co.

Figure 3. John Zink Burner Capacities

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Steam Oil Steam

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Combination Gas and Oil Burners

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 5. Forced-Draft Boiler Combination Burner

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Staged air burners. Combustion begins in a fuel-rich zone. This is followed by

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

High Fuel-to-Air Ratio

A. Staged Air Burner

B. Staged Fuel Burner

Figure 6. Typical LowNOx Burner

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 7. AVC LowNOx Burner

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 8. LowNOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation

Figure 9. Flue/Fuel Gas Mixture

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Manual Block Valve

Figure 10. Typical Gas Burner System (Automatic Startup)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Manual Block Valve

-Manual Block Supervisory

Figure 11. Typical Gas Burner System (Supervised Manual Startup)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Manual Block Valve

Figure 12. Pilot Gas System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Source: R.O. Reed, Furnace Operations.

Figure 13. Orifice Flow

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 14. Fuel Oil System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 15. RT Liquid Fuel System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Fuel Burner & Firebox Operation & Control

Fuel Burner & Firebox Operation & Control