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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
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Chapter : Vessels
File Reference: MEX10504
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
CONTENTS
PAGE
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
The major concerns with purchased water are the cost, the reliability of supply, and the
potential quality variations. Water for Juaymah and Yanbu Gas Plants is purchased.
Surface fresh water can come from rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. These waters usually
contain suspended matter, organic matter, dissolved solids, dissolved gases, and other manmade and natural pollutants. Surface fresh water is rare in Saudi Arabia.
Subsurface groundwater can originate from springs and shallow or deep wells. These waters
are usually relatively free of suspended matter. They can have wide quality variations. Even
normally fresh water wells can have salt water intrusion or limited availability during dry
periods. Wells are a common source of water throughout Saudi Aramco.
Seawater is often used offshore or in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. This water has a high
dissolved solids content, frequently over 45,000 ppm. Waste heat or low-level heat is used in
many cases to evaporate seawater as a first step in water treatment. Desalination plants are
used to produce high-quality water.
Uses of Water
Water has many uses both in municipalities and in plants. The main uses of water in Saudi
Aramco plants are:
In addition to these main uses, water is used for engine cooling, chemical mixing, hydrostatic
testing, and other minor uses.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater is one of the main uses of water by Saudi Aramco. Boiler feedwater consists
of returned condensate and makeup water.
Makeup water is frequently a low percentage of total feedwater, often less than 10%, because
most of the condensate is returned. Makeup water must be treated in nearly all cases.
Returned condensate can also require treatment, particularly to remove oil and control pH.
The water quality required depends on the use of the water. Higher pressure boilers require a
better quality of water.
Hydrostatic Testing Water
Fresh water is preferred for hydrostatic testing because it is less corrosive than brackish or salt
water. Almost any source of fresh water is acceptable. Protection from corrosion must be
considered.
If chemical additives are used for corrosion protection, disposal of the water must be planned
and environmental requirements considered.
Impurities in Water
Water supplies contain dissolved ions shown below. A water analysis must be performed in
order to determine if these impurities are within acceptable limits for the intended use. These
impurities consist of cations, which are positively charged ions in water, and anions, which
are negatively charged ions. Impurities are conventionally expressed in parts per million by
weight (ppmw), which is equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/l).
The total hardness is equal to the sum of calcium plus magnesium. The total alkalinity is
equal to the sum of bicarbonate plus carbonate plus hydroxide.
Hardness and alkalinity are usually expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate equivalent
(CaCO3). Factors to convert impurities to CaCO3 equivalent are listed in Figure 1.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Cation Impurities
Calcium
MagnesiumHardness in water
Sodium
Chemical Symbol
Factor to Convert
to CaCO3 Equivalent
Ca+2
Mg+2
Na
2.5
4.1
HCO3-1
CO3-2
0.8
1.67
2.9
2.18
Anion Impurities
Bicarbonate
Carbonate Alkalinity
Hydroxide
Chlorides
Sulfates
OH-1
Cl-1
SO4-2
Nitrates
NO3-1
0.8
CO2
SiO2
1.14
0.83
1.4
1.0
Other Impurities
Carbon Dioxide
Silica
FIGURE 1
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Quality of Water
The following types of impurities found in water are a concern in steam generating systems.
For a summary of water impurities, difficulties, and treatment methods, see Figure 2.
Soluble salts and dissolved gases that can enhance or cause corrosion.
Dissolved solids, oil, and silica that can carry over into the steam from a boiler.
Scale
Scale and deposits result when insoluble salts deposit on heat transfer surfaces. These
deposits reduce heat transfer, increase tube metal temperatures, and cause possible equipment
failure.
Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:
Calcium.
Magnesium.
Silica.
Phosphates.*
Oil.
Iron, copper.
Other suspended solids and turbidity.
* NOTE: This impurity can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Corrosion
Corrosion affects distribution piping, feedwater piping and heaters, boiler internals, and
condensate piping. The main causes are oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and excess
alkalinity.
Corrosives act in different ways. Oxygen causes pitting or formation of small pits in
distribution piping, feedwater systems, and boilers. It also aggravates corrosion in condensate
systems. Oxygen can be removed externally in a deaerator, or it can be scavenged internally
by adding sulfite or hydrazine.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Page 1 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER
CONSTITUENT
Turbidity
Color
Hardness
Alkalinity
Carbon Dioxide
pH
Sulfate
Chloride
CHEMICAL FORMULA
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
None. Usually expressed Imparts unsightly appearance to
in Jackson Turbidity
water; deposits in water lines,
Units
process equipment, boilers, and
so on; interferes with most
process uses.
None
Decaying organic material and
metallic ions causing color may
cause foaming in boilers;
hinders precipitation methods
such as iron removal, hot
phosphate softening; can stain
product in process use.
Calcium, magnesium,
Chief source of scale in heat
barium, and strontium
exchange equipment, boilers,
salts expressed as
pipe lines, and so on; forms
.
curds with soap; interferes with
CaCO3
dyeing and so on.
Foaming and carryover of
Bicarbonate (CHO3-1)
solids with steam;
-2
carbonate, (CO3 ), and
embrittlement of boiler steel;
hydroxyl (OH-1),
bicarbonate and carbonate
expressed as CaCO3
produce CO3 in steam, a source
of corrosion.
H2SO4, HCl, etc.,
expressed as CaCO3
titrated to methyl orange
end-point.
CO2
Corrosion
Hydrogen ion
concentration defined as:
pH = log 1
(H+1)
(SO4)-2
Cl-1
MEANS OF
TREATMENT
Coagulation, settling, and
filtration.
Coagulation, filtration,
chlorination, adsorption
by activated carbon.
Softening, distillation,
internal boiler water
treatment, surface active
agents, reverse osmosis,
electrolytes.
Lime and lime-soda
softening, acid treatment,
hydrogen zeolite
softening,
demineralization,
dealkalization by anion
exchange, distillation,
degasifying.
Neutralization with
alkalies.
Aeration, deaeration,
neutralization with
alkalines, liming, and
neutralizing amines.
pH can be increased by
alkalies and decreased by
acids.
Demineralization,
distillation, reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis.
Demineralization,
distillation, reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis.
FIGURE 2
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Page 2 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER (CONTD)
CONSTITUENT
Nitrate
Fluoride
Silica
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
(NO3)-1
F-1
SiO2
Iron
Fe-2 (ferrous)
Fe-3 (ferric)
Manganese
Oil
Mn+2
Expressed as oil or
chloroform
extractable matter,
ppmw.
O2
Oxygen
Hydrogen Sulfide
H2S
Ammonia
NH2
Conductivity
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
Adds to solids content, but is
not usually significant
industrially; useful for control
of boiler metal embrittlement.
Not usually significant
industrially.
Discolors water on
precipitation; source of
deposits in water lines, boilers,
and so on; interferes with
dyeing, tanning, paper mfr.,
and so on.
Same as Iron.
Scale, sludge, and foaming in
boilers; impedes heat
exchange; undesirable in most
processes.
Corrosion of water lines, heat
exchange equipment, boilers,
return lines, etc.
Cause of rotten egg odor;
corrosion.
Corrosion of copper and zinc
alloys by formation of
complex soluble ion.
Expressed as
micromhos, specific
conductance.
MEANS OF TREATMENT
Demineralization, distillation,
reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis.
Adsorption with magnesium
hydroxide, calcium
phosphate, or bone black;
Alum coagulation; reverse
osmosis, electrolytes.
Hot process removal with
magnesium salts; adsorption
by highly basic anion
exchange resins, in
conjunction with
demineralization; distillation.
Aeration, coagulation, and
filtration, lime softening,
cation exchange, contact
filtration, surface active
agents for iron retention.
Same as Iron.
Baffle separators, strainers,
coagulation, and filtration,
diatomaceous earth filtration.
Deaeration, sodium sulfite,
corrosion inhibitors,
hydrazine or suitable
substitutes.
Aeration, chlorination, highly
basic anion exchange.
Carbon exchange with
hydrogen zeolite,
chlorination, deaeration,
mixed bed demineralization.
Any process which decreases
dissolved soils content will
decrease conductivity;
examples are
demineralization, lime
softening.
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Page 3 of 3
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPURITIES IN WATER (CONTD)
CONSTITUENT
Dissolved Solids
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
None
Suspended Solids
None
Total Solids
None
DIFFICULTIES CAUSED
MEANS OF TREATMENT
Dissolved Solids is a
measure of total amount of
dissolved matter,
determined by evaporation;
high concentrations of
dissolved solids are
objectionable because of
process interference and as
a cause of foaming in
boilers.
Suspended Solids is the
measure of undissolved
matter, determined
gravimetrically; suspended
solids plug lines, cause
deposits in heat exchange
equipment, boilers, etc.
Total Solids is the sum of
dissolved and suspended
solids, determined
gravimetrically.
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Carbon dioxide also causes condensate system corrosion. It can be removed in a deaerator,
degasifier, or decarbonator.
Ammonia attacks copper alloys. Ammonia is sometimes added for pH control in feedwater or
condensate. It can also be formed by hydrazine decomposition. A deaerator will remove
ammonia.
Abnormal alkalinity produces film corrosion and turbine fouling.
Excessive chelates or dispersants can cause corrosion in steam piping and throughout the
steam system.
Impurities that enhance corrosion include:
Oxygen.
Carbon dioxide.
Ammonia.*
Alkalinity.*
Chlorides.
Sulfites.*
Hydrazine.*
Chelates.*
Organics.
* NOTE: These impurities can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Solids
Carryover of solids from boiler water into the steam is caused by inadequate separation in a
boiler drum, by volatilizing of silica, and by foaming resulting from oil contamination of
boiler water. Solids carryover can result in superheater failure, steam turbine blade fouling,
and process catalyst fouling. The main causes of such problems are high total dissolved
solids (TDS), alkalinity, oil, and silica in the boiler drum.
Caustic
Caustic embrittlement is the cracking of metal along grain boundaries. It can result from too
much caustic in boiler water, particularly in poorly controlled caustic-pH programs where
caustic is added for pH control.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
External treatment, upstream of the boiler and deaerator. This can reduce the hardness
ions of calcium and magnesium, silica, chlorides, oil, organics, suspended solids, and
other impurities.
Deaeration. This can reduce the amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ammonia in the
water.
Internal chemical treatment in the boiler or deaerator. This can control scale and
corrosion that result from impurities not removed in external treatment.
Blowdown. This can remove solids that accumulate and concentrate in the boiler
because of evaporation.
Boiler water treatment is illustrated in Figure 3, which is a simplified flow plan of the water
treatment facilities at Uthmaniyah. This shows the many treatment steps that can be required
in a single plant. The flow sequence includes the following steps:
Preheating.
Other external water treatment processes are used in other plants. These include the
following:
-
Cation units.
Anion units.
Reverse osmosis.
Sodium zeolite softening.
Multistage flash evaporation.
Deaeration.
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Boilers - Water Treating
FIGURE 3
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
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Vessels
Boilers - Water Treating
Blowdown.
Deaeration
Gases dissolved in water, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, must be minimized. Both
carbon dioxide and oxygen can cause corrosion of carbon steel in steam generation facilities.
Dissolved oxygen is a major contributor to the pitting corrosion experienced in boilers,
especially in economizers and downcomer tubes. Corrosion frequently is more severe in the
cooler portions of boilers, because the oxygen is released there first. Carbon dioxide causes
condensate line corrosion, especially in combination with oxygen.
Deaerators are required to remove oxygen in the boiler feedwater before the water is fed to
the boilers. Boilers operating above 600 psig require deaerators capable of reducing oxygen to
less than 0.007 ppm.
In pressure-type deaerating heaters and deaerators, the oxygen removal (deaeration) level
achieved is a function of the temperature, pressure, and degree of stripping. Deaeration is
based on the fact that oxygen has an inverse solubility curve in water. A pressure deaerator
uses steam to heat the water to the saturation temperature, where the oxygen solubility is very
low. Steam stripping is provided to reduce the oxygen partial pressure in the vapor phase.
Since the solubility of oxygen is a function of the partial pressure, these two steps remove the
maximum amount of oxygen. If the deaerator is working properly, the temperature of the
storage section of the deaerator will be within 2 to 3F of the steam saturation temperature at
the operating pressure of the deaerator. A positive steam plume is required at the vent on
pressure units to assure effective venting of the stripped gases. Typical steam pressures used
in pressure-type deaerators vary from 2 to 60 psig.
There are two basic types of deaerators, tray and spray. In the tray type, the water is
distributed over trays, and steam is injected to strip the dissolved gases from the water as it
cascades down from tray to tray. The spray type uses spray nozzles to atomize the water into
droplets. Some deaerators combine both trays and sprays.
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Boilers - Water Treating
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Boilers - Water Treating
high a water level in the boiler drum, which decreases the surface
by upsets in boiler water circulation because of sudden steam load
flow, or sudden increases in heat input. To prevent priming, the
the boiler water level in accordance with the manufacturer's
Foaming is caused by chemical conditions in the boiler water that result in excessive
dissolved and suspended solids. Some boiler waters will foam when a sudden change in their
chemical composition occurs. High amounts of dissolved and suspended solids, alkalinity,
oil, and organic contaminants that can act as surfactants in the boiler water promote foaming.
Commercial antifoams, blended into water treating formulations, have been successful and
can be verified for effectiveness by monitoring steam purity with a sodium analyzer.
Turbine and Superheater Fouling
The measure of steam carryover is the rate of turbine and superheater fouling. Superheater
fouling results in increased pressure drop and ultimately tube rupture because of high tube
wall temperatures. Turbine fouling can be measured by frequent monitoring of turbine steam
flow and corresponding steam chamber pressure and comparing the information to the clean
condition. The method can indicate a fouling condition over a period of three to four days. It
is not useful, however, for isolating a steam carryover problem where a number of boilers
supply a common steam header that then supplies a turbine.
Solids, Sludge, and Silica
Boiler blowdown is adjusted to maintain steam purity. Procedures for determining total
dissolved solids, sludge, and silica are as follows:
Total dissolved solids (conductivity): The amount of dissolved solids can be calculated
from the sodium salts naturally present in the feedwater, soluble silica, and any soluble
chemicals added for treatment. The amount of dissolved solids in the boiler drum is
measured with a conductivity meter, which indicates the amount of dissolved salts by
the electrical conductivity of the water. Excessive amounts of dissolved salts cause
foaming and carryover of impurities in the steam. A continuous conductivity
monitor/recorder on the boiler blowdown is recommended.
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Boilers - Water Treating
A
100
(100) =
B - A
C - 1
(Eqn. 1)
100
C
(Eqn. 2)
0.05
(100) = 0.502% = 0.5%
10 - 0.05
100
+ 1 = 200
X
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Boilers - Water Treating
Blowdown Facilities
Blowdown facilities limit solids buildup in the boiler water caused by evaporation. The
system must safely dispose of the flashing steam and hot liquid.
Blowdown from high-pressure boilers may be flashed at several levels. For example,
600-psig blowdown may be flashed at 125 psig, at 15 psig, and at atmospheric pressure.
Drums are used as the flash vessels. Flashed steam is recovered except for that steam flashed
at atmospheric pressure. The liquid is flashed at a lower pressure or sent to the sewer or waste
disposal. Flashing in the sewer should be avoided because of the personnel hazard. Heat
exchange between the blowdown waste liquid and cold makeup water is common when
energy costs are high.
Figure 4 shows a typical blowdown system arrangement. It includes a medium-pressure and
low-pressure flash drum for continuous blowdown from a boiler steam drum and atmospheric
flash drum for intermittent blowdown from a boiler mud drum. Condensate from the
continuous blowdown low-pressure flash drum is routed through a heat exchanger to site
drainage. Condensate from the intermittent blowdown drum is sent directly to the sewer after
an atmospheric flash. The intermittent blowdown drum is piped so that it can spare the
continuous blowdown system for maintenance.
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FIGURE 4
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Steam Drum
Water
Condensate
Return
Steam
<10
1000-1500
10
10
pH
8.2-9.5
10.0-11.5
8.2-9.2
8.2-9.2
Iron, mg/l
<0.025
Conductivity at
25 C, S/cm
<0.05
Copper, mg/1
Silica, mg/l
< 0.025
<0.05
0-15
Sodium, mg/l
<0.02
<0.05
Chloride, mg/l
<0.05*
<0.007
<50*
20-30
50-300
Hydroxyl Alkalinity
(B Alkalinity), mg/l
<40
<50
N-7200, mg/l
2.5 x Cycles
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Boilers - Water Treating
GLOSSARY
alkalinity
anion exchanger
anions
attemperating
biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
biocide
blowdown
calcium and
magnesium hardness
cations
caustic or caustic
soda
caustic embrittlement
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coagulation
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degasification/
decarbonation
demineralization
desuperheating
dissolved solids
dolomitic lime
filtration
hardness
ion
makeup water
nephelometric
turbidity unit (NTU)
organics
pH
potable water
Drinkable water.
raw water
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Boilers - Water Treating
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silica
suspended solids
total hardness
total solids
treated water
turbidity
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