What composite materials are and their classifications

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering
What are Composite Materials?

Composite is a shortened word for composition of material these are materials
that are made from two or more constituent materials with different physical and
chemical properties, this material is considered to be any multiphase material that
exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of both constituents phases. According
to the Principle of Combined Action, better property combinations are made by the
careful combination of two or more distinct materials.
Example:
This is a good illustration to describe what composite materials are, the picture
above shows a Composite Rotor blade, this blade is made up of ultrasonic profiling of
partially reinforced cured fiber, reinforced plastics or also termed as pre-preg. By using
different types of materials in this blade, desirable characteristics and properties are
achieved, for example in this material good strength-to-density ratios, which are four to
six times greater than those of the aluminum and steel is achieved, other than that this
composite rotor blade is 45% lighter than those blades that are made up by pure
metals. Another illustration is that of natural fiber which occurs in nature like wood, refer
to figure below.
COMPOSITES: GROUP IV
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Wood consists of flexible cellulose fibers surrounded and held together by a stiffer
material which is lignin. Lignin is a polymer that holds together the cellulose and
hemicelluloses components of woody biomass. Lignin constitutes about 15 to 25
percent of the weight of woody biomass. This reflects the chemical complexity of lignin.
Another example is the bone:
Human compact bone is a composite of the strong but consists of soft protein
collagen and the hard, brittle material apatite. Thus Composite in its context is a
multiphase material which is artificially made, as compared to those that occurs
naturally. Composites being a multiphase should take the consideration that these
phases should be chemically dissimilar and must be separated by different interface.
Examples of engineering use of composites date back to the use of straw in clay
as a construction material by the Egyptians. Modern Composites using fiber-reinforced
matrices of various types have created a revolution in high performance structures in
recent years. Now we have Advanced composite materials in which it offers important
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advantages in strength and stiffness coupled with light weight, relative to conventional
metallic materials. The cost competitiveness of composites depends on how important
the weight reduction or environmental resistance provided by the composites is to the
overall function of the particular application.
Composites are classified into three main divisions: Particle-reinforced, Fiberreinforced, and Structural composites and each classification have at least two
subdivisions.
Particle Reinforced Composites

First Particle Reinforced Composites, this type is the cheapest and the most
widely used, composites of this type have a large volume fraction of particle dispersed
in the matrix and the load is shared by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial
ceramics and many filled polymers are under this classification. Large Particle and
Dispersion-strengthened composites are the two sub classifications of this type; the
difference between the two is based on reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
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Large-Particle Composites
When we say Large, this term is used to indicate that the particle-matrix
cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level; most of these composites,
the particulate is harder and stiffer than the matrix that tends to restrain
movement of the matrix phase in the surrounding area of each particle, meaning
the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a
fraction of the load. The strong bonding at the matrix-particle interface
determines the degree or improvement of mechanical behavior. Polymeric
Materials at which fillers are added are considered to be under this type for the
fillers modify or improve the properties of the material and/ or replace some of
the polymer volume with a less expensive material.
Particles have a variety of geometries, but they have the same dimensions
in all directions or which is termed as equiaxed. Effective reinforcement is said to
be small and evenly distributed throughout the matrix. The increase in
particulate content enhanced the mechanical properties, also the volume fraction
of a certain particle influence the behavior of the two phases. Elastic Modulus is
dependent on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase
composite which introduce the mathematical expression or the rule of mixtures
equations which predicts that the elastic modulus should fall between an upper
bound represented by:
Where:
Ec: elastic modulus of
composite,
Ep:
modulus of particle, Em: elastic modulus of matrix, Vm: volume fraction of matrix,
volume fraction of particle
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elastic
Vp:

Figure 16.3 (Callister)
Modulus of elasticity VERSUS
volume percent tungsten for a
composite of tungsten particles
dispersed within a copper
matrix. Upper and lower bounds
are according to the the mixture
equation
In this graph Tungsten is the particulate phase; experimental; data points fall
between two curves, going back to the rule of mixture that states, that the elastic
modulus should fall between an upper bound and the lower bound, thus making
Tungsten within a copper matrix a good mixture.
Large-Particle composites are

used with all three material types (metals,
polymers, and ceramics). Cermets are
examples of ceramic-metal composites. The
most common of it is the Cemented Carbide,
which is usually made up of hard particles of
a refractory carbide ceramic such as
Tungsten carbide (WC) or Titanium Carbide
(TiC) embedded in a matrix of a metal like
Tungsten and Nickel. This material is used as a cutting tool. Large volume of the
particulate phase may be used like of 90% volume, making the abrasive action of the
composite is maximized.
Dispersion-Strengthened Composite
For the Dispersion strengthened composites, particles are much smaller
with diameters between 0.01 & 0.1 m (10 & 100nm).Particle-matrix interactions
that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. In this type of
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composite the matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, the small
dispersed particles slows down the motion of dislocations thus it restricts the
material to plastic deformation. Metals and Metal alloys may be strengthened and
hardened by the uniform dispersion of several volume percent of fine particles of
a very hard and inert material. This phase can be of metallic or nonmetallic
wherein oxide materials are often used. The strengthening mechanism of this
material involves the particles and dislocations within matrix.
FIBER- REINFORCED COMPOSITES
This type is the most important composites in which the dispersed phase is in the
form of Fiber, material of this classification is expected to have high strength and of
stiffness of a weight basis. These characteristics may be expressed in terms of Specific
Strength which is the ratio of Tensile strength to specific gravity, specific strength is also
termed as breaking length or self support length, this is the maximum length of a vertical
column of the material with fixed constant cross sectional area that could suspend its
own weight when supported only at the top. The materials with the highest specific
strengths are typically fibers such as carbon fiber, glass fiber and various polymers, and
these are frequently used to make composite materials (e.g. carbon fiber-epoxy). These
materials and others such as titanium, aluminum, magnesium and high strength steel
alloys are widely used in aerospace and other applications where weight savings are
worth the higher material cost.
Specific Strength of Some Materials
MATERIAL
TENSILE
(MPa)
Concrete
12
2.30
5.22
Rubber
15
0.92
16.3
Copper
220
8.92
24.7
Polypropylene
25-40
0.90
28-44
STRENGTH Specific
(g/cm3)
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Gravity Specific
Strength(kN*m/kg)

Brass
580
8.55
67.8
Nylon
78
1.13
69.0
Oak
90
0.78-0.69
115-130
Magnesium
275
1.74
158
Aluminum
600
2.80
214
Stainless Steel
2000
7.86
254
Titanium
1300
4.51
288
Carbon-Epoxy
Composite
1240
1.58
785
Glass Fiber
3400
2.60
1307
The next characteristic is in terms of Specific Modulus, which is the ratio of

modulus elasticity to specific gravity, which is also termed as stiffness to weight ratio or
specific stiffness. The use of this characteristic is to find materials that will produce
structures with minimum weight.
INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH
The performance of a fiber composite is judged by its length, shape,
orientation, composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.
The first one is that of the length in which this is the degree in applied load is
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transmitted to fibers by the matrix phase. Under an applied stress, this fiber
matrix bond stops at the fiber ends that yield a matrix deformation pattern.
Above is the picture of the deformation pattern in the matrix surrounding a

fiber which is in the case of an applied tensile load.
Meaning there is no load transmittance from the matrix at each fiber thus
the deformation occurs only at the matrix phase because the fiber can resists the
applied tensile load.
Another thing that is important for effective strengthening and stiffening of
the composite material is that of the Critical Fiber Length which is dependent on the
fiber diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength, and on the fiber-matrix bond
strength which is represented by a mathematical formula:
lc= critical length

f = tensile strength of the fiber
d
=
diameter
of
tc = shear strength of the bond between the matrix and the fiber
Stress Position Profile
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the
fiber

When a stress is equal to tensile strength applied to the fiber it will usually result
to a maximum fiber load which is achieved only at the axial center of the fiber. As shown
in figure (a) in which the fiber length is equal to the critical length in figure (b) the fiber
length is greater than the critical length and in figure (c) the fiber length is less than the
critical length for a fiber reinforced composite that is subjected to a tensile stress equal
to the fiber tensile strength. In conclusion to this as the fiber length increases the fiber
reinforcement becomes more effective.
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INFLUENCE OF FIBER ORIENTATION AND CONCENTRATION
Another factor that influence the strength and other properties of fiber
reinforced composites is that of its orientation and concentration. When it comes to
orientation, two extremes are possible: (1) A parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of
the fibers in a single direction and (2) Totally random alignment.
Continuous Fibers are normally aligned as shown in Figure (a) wherein

discontinuous fibers are partially aligned as shown in Figure (b) and in the last Figure
(c) it is discontinuous and randomly oriented. Composite is on its better properties when
the fiber distribution is uniform.
Continuous and Aligned Fiber Composites
Tensile stress-strain behavior-longitudinal loading
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Above is the graph of the stress-versus-strain behaviors for fiber and matrix
phases. In the first graph, figure (a) we interpret the fiber to be totally brittle and the
matrix phase to be ductile. On the second graph there is uniaxial stress-strain
behaviour. In the initial Stage I region, both fibers and matrix deform elastically, normally
the graph is linear. A composite of this type, the matrix yields and deforms plastically,
while the fibers continue to stretch elastically thus the tensile strength of the fibers is
significantly higher than the yield strength of the matrix. This is shown in the Stage II.
Also the failure of the composite begins as the fibers start to fracture. Composite failure
is not catastrophic or in which there is a sudden damage because not all fibers fracture
at the same time, because there will always be considerable variations in the fracture
strength of brittle fiber materials. Even after the fiber failure the matrix is still intact with
the particulates.
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR- LONGITUDINAL LOADING
Considering the elastic behavior of a continuous and oriented fibrous
composite that is loaded in the direction of fiber alignment. First, it is assumed that the
fiber-matrix interfacial bond is very good, in which it exhibits an isostrain situation, in this
situation the matrix and fibers is the same. Under these conditions, the total load
sustained by the composite Fc is equal to the sum of the loads carried by the matrix
phase Fm and the fiber phase Ff, or
From the definition of stress in which F= A ; and thus expression for F c, Fm and Ff in
terms of their respective stresses (
c,
and
) and their respective cross
sectional areas (Ac, Am and Af ) are possible. When we substitute this, it will be:
Then we can divide this equation to cross sectional area:
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where Am / Ac and Af /Ac are the area ratio of the matrix and fiber phase. If the composite,
matrix, and fiber phase lengths are all equal, Am / Ac is equivalent to the volume fraction
of the matrix Vm and also in the Fiber Vf= Af / Ac , then we can have a new equation
In conclusion the isostrain can be expressed as:
then lets divide it by their respective strain:
Furthermore, if composite, matrix and fiber deformations are all elastic, then
m
=E m
m
and
c
=Ec
c
f
=Ef , and the E being the modulus of Elasticticity for the
s
f
respective phases, Again substituting it, we have a new equation for the modulus of
elasticity of a continous and aligned fibrous composite in the direction of alignment (or
longitudinal direction)
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because the composite composed of only matrix and fiber phases: that is V m + Vf = 1.
Thus, the Ecl is equal to the volume-fraction weighted average of the moduli of
elasticity of the fiber and matrix phases. Other properties, including density, also have
this dependence on volume fractions. Thus for longitudinal loading, this is the formula:
Elastic Behavior-Transverse Loading

Continous and oriented fiber composite may be loaded in the transverse
direction: in which the load applied is perpendicular to the direction of fiber alignment. In
this situation the stress to which the composite as well as both phases
This is an isostress state. Thus the total strain derformation of the composite
but, because
= /E
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is

in which Ect is the modulus of elasticity in the transverse direction. Again by dividing
through the stress yields
which simplifies the equation to
LONGITUDINAL TENSILE STRENGTH

For the Longitudinal Tensile Strength we take in to the consideration of the
strength characteristics of continous and aligned fiber reinforced composites which are
loaded to longitudinal direction. In these situation the strength is normally taken as the
maximum stress on the stress-strain curve.
Typical Longitudinal and Transverse Tensile Strengths
for Three Unidirectional FiberReinforced Composites.
The Fiber Content for Each Is Approximately 50 Vol%
MATERIAL
LONGITUDINAL
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TENSILE Transverse
Tensile
Strenght

STRENGHT (MPa)
(MPa)
Glass-Polyester
700
20
Carbon(high modulus)-epoxy
1000
35
Kevlar- epoxy
1200
20
Source: D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd

edition, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1996, p. 179.
Failure of this type of strength of a composite material is a relatively complex process,
several failures are possible .The failure mode that operates for a specific composite will
depend on the fiber and matrix properties and the nature and strength of the fiber-matrix
interfacial bond.
The equation for the longitudinal strength of this type of composite is:
'm
is the stress matrix at fiber failure and
is the fiber tensile strength.
Transverse Tensile Strength

The strengths of continous and unidirectional fibrous composite materials are
highly anisotropic. With the condition of having a Transverse Tensile Load it may result
to a premature failure in which the transverse strength is very low usually that it lies
below the tensile strength of the matrix giving the reinforcing effect of the fiber to be
negative. The properties of the fiber and the matrix, the fiber matrix bond strength, and
the presence of the voids have a significant effect on the transverse strength; usually
modifying the properties of the matrix improves the transverse Length.
DISCONTINOUS AND ALIGNED FIBER
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Compared into continuous fiber the reinforcement efficiency of the
discontinuous and aligned fiber is lower but it is now becoming increasingly important
into the market. Usually this type of material can give a modulus of elasticity to a value
approaching to 90% and 50% tensile strength, of their continuous-fiber counterparts.
in situations in which l>lc the longitudinal strength is given by the formula:
in cases in which l<lc the longitudinal strength is given by the formula
where d is the fiber diameter and
c is the smaller of either the fibermatrix bond
strength or the matrix shear yield strength.

DISCONTINOUS AND RANDOMLY ORIENTED-FIBER COMPOSITES
Under this condition a rule of mixtures expression for elastic modulus can be
used:
With this equation, K is a fiber efficiency parameter that depends on V f and the Ef /Em
ratio. Usually it ranges from 0.1-0.6. Thus for this type of composite the modulus
increases in some proportion of fiber. Below is the table which gives some of the
mechanical properties of unreinforced and reinforced polycarbonates for discontinuous
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and randomly oriented glass fibers and also it will give an idea of the magnitude of the
reinforcement that is possible.
Property
Unreinforced
Fiber reinforcement (vol %)
20
30
40
Specific Gravity
1.19-1.22
1.35
1.43
1.52
Tensile Strength (MPa)
59-62
110
131
159
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)
2.24-2.345
5.93
8.62
11.6
Elongation (%)
90-115
4-6
3-5
3-5
3.5
3.5
4.4
Impact Strength,
Izod (N/cm)
notched 21-28
Source: Adapted from Materials Engineerings Material Selector

It is good to say that fibrous composites are inherently anisotropic in that the maximum
strength and reinforcement are achieved along the alignment (longitudinal) direction. In
the transverse direction, fiber reinforcement is virtually nonexistent: fracture occurs at
relatively low tensile stresses.
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
- this type of composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and
composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the constituents but
also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements. The two subdivisions
for this type are laminar composites and Sandwich Panels.
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LAMINAR COMPOSITES
Source: Figure 16.16 from Callister

This type of composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels they have a
preferred high-strength direction like in wood and continuous and aligned fiberreinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together.
SANDWICH PANEL
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Source: Figure 16.17 Callister

These types of composites are designed to lightweight beams or panels having
relatively high stiffness and strengths.
Sandwich Panels are composed of two outer sheets, or faces, which are
separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core. The outer sheets are usually
made up of aluminium alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel or plywood these
materials are relatively stiff and strong and also thick enough to withstand tensile and
compressive stresses result from loading. The core material is lightweight and has a
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low modulus of elasticity normally these have three categories: rigid polymeric foams
( phenolics, epoxy, polyurethanes), wood (balsa wood) and honey combs. These core
material functions as a continuous support for the faces so it should have enough shear
strength to resist transverse shear stresses and also be thick to offer high shear
stiffness. The figure above shows a honeycomb structure- these are thin foils that have
been formed form interlocking hexagonal cells, with axes oriented perpendicular to the
face planes. The honeycomb is usually made from an aluminium alloy or aramid
polymer. The strength and stiffness is dependent on cell size, cell wall thickness, and
the material from which the honeycomb is made.
PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES
Introduction
Since we all know what the composites are: Composite materials that are
materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components.
We are sure that you are very curious about how is it being processed. Now
composites are being process through different methods, just like in the processing of
metals, ceramics and polymers which we have discussed earlier.
A wide range of different processes have developed for moulding of composites
parts ranging from very simple manual processes such as hand lay to very
sophisticated highly industrialised processes such as SMC moulding. Each process has
its own particular benefits and limitations making it applicable for particular applications.
The choice of process is important in order to achieve the required technical
performance at an economic cost.
The main technical factors that govern the choice of process are the size and
shape of the part, the mechanical and environmental performance and aesthetics. The
main economic factor is the number of identical parts required or run length. This is
because composite parts do not generally come as standard components but are
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custom designed for a particular application. Pultrusion and continuous sheeting are
exceptions but most processes will have an initial investment or set up cost that must be
amortised over the length of the project. This is a major factor in the choice of process
and is one of the reasons for the proliferation in processing.
methods.
mechanical
and
environmental
performance
size
Process
Composites
Aesthetics
Shape
Open Moulding - Hand and Spray Lamination

Open moulding is by far the
most common process used to
fabricate
composites
parts
accounting for over 40% of
composites processed world-wide.
It is a relatively simple process
with low investment cost but a
high degree of manual handling.
Virtually
all
types
of
reinforcement can been used in
open moulding which together
with the use of core materials to create sandwich structures enables access to the
widest range of mechanical and structural performance of any composites
process. Unsaturated polyester resins dominate in this area but epoxy and vinyl ester
resins are also common. Open moulding can be used for a very wide range of
mouldiqngs from caravan parts and cladding panels to boat hulls and radomes. Typical
economic run lengths range from 2 or 3 individual parts up to several hundred.
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Hand Lamination
The process starts with the construction of a mould. The mould is most commonly
constructed from composites material using a model made from wood, plaster or any
other suitable modelling material. Only one, normally female, mould half is needed
which defines the exterior surface of the part. Most often the first stage of moulding is to
brush or spray a polymer coating or gel coat onto the mould surface. Gel coats are
available in a wide range of different colours and effects and are selected to protect the
part from environmental degradation or chemical attack and provide the desired
aesthetics.
After the gel coat has been allowed to cure fibre reinforcement in sheet form is laid in
place in the mould. Glass fibre is the most common reinforcement in the form of
chopped strand mat but other fibres such as carbon or aramid may be used. A very wide
range of reinforcement types are available and can be positioned and oriented in the
mould giving the ability to vary the mechanical performance across the part. The design
of the glass fibre pack is a key to the performance of the composite part and the ability
to change it at will gives great flexibility to the hand lay process.
The next stage of the process is to pour liquid catalysed resin over the reinforcement
and to work it into the reinforcement using rollers. This process is very labour intensive
but extremely important as it ensures even distribution of the resin, full impregnation
and wetting out of the reinforcement and removal of air. Unless the process is carried
out effectively the composite part will not perform correctly. Further layers of
reinforcement and resin are applied according to the requirements of the part and core
materials such as rigid foam, balsa wood or honeycomb may be included to create
sandwich structures.
When the lay up is complete the moulding is left to cure. This normally occurs at
ambient temperature and can take anything up to 10 hours. The moulding is then
released from the mould and trimmed to
remove excess material from the edges of
the moulding. Sometimes mouldings are
cured at slightly elevated temperatures to
improve speed and productivity and may
also be post cured at even higher
temperatures to achieve the maximum
performance.
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Spray Lamination
Spray lamination is very similar to hand lay-up apart from the method of placing the
reinforcement and the resin into the mould. Rather than using reinforcement in the form
of mat, resin and reinforcement are co-sprayed into the mould using a combined resin
spray and chopper gun. This process is much easier and faster than hand lay-up and
can be automated using robotised spray guns. This does eliminate much of the manual
labour involved in positioning the reinforcement in the mould and will result in higher
productivity although rolling is still necessary to ensure proper consolidation of the part.
Spray lamination can be used in combination with hand lay where different types of fibre
or constructions are required to achieve specific properties.
Vacuum Infusion
Vacuum infusion (VI) dates back to
the 1950's when patents for a broadly
similar process were published in the
USA. The process however has come to
prominence in recent years due to
increasing pressure on the control of
VOC emissions from the open mould
process. The basic principal of VI is that reinforcing fibres are placed in a mould, which
is sealed using a plastic film, or vacuum bag and resin is drawn into the mould under
vacuum. Moulds for VI are fitted with a peripheral channel to enable vacuum to be
applied and catalysed resin is fed in at the centre of the part and allowed to diffuse
through the reinforcement to the edge of the mould.
Design of the reinforcement and setting up of the plastic film or vacuum bag, which
normally incorporates tubes or channels to help even distribution of the resin, is
absolutely critical. However once optimised a major advantage of the VI process is that
it can be reproduced exactly each time without the need for the use of skilled
laminators. The mould is also fully enclosed during the moulding process virtually
eliminating VOC emissions. A further advantage of the use of vacuum is that parts are
extremely well consolidated, even at high fibre content, with very low air content giving
very good structural performance.
One disadvantage of VI is that the excellent consolidation favours thin high fibre content
parts, which may not have sufficient stiffness. To combat this effect core materials of
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various types can be used to bulk the moulding out and give the required thickness. A
further complication with VI is that whilst the lamination process itself is very quick the
setting up of the mould with the bag and resin distribution network is time consuming
and costly as these materials are thrown away.
Typically VI is used for parts where high performance and quality are the main criteria
and where the extra cost associated with the disposable elements can be supported.
The process has been used particularly in the marine industry for boat hulls and masts
but is still very much in its infancy.
Resin Injection
Resin
injection
moulding accounts
for some 5% of
composites
processing
worldwide and is
growing due again
to
increasing
regulation of VOC
emissions but also
the drive for more
automated higher
productivity
processes. There
are a number of
different versions of the Resin Injection Moulding of which the most widely known is
Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM); although all are based essentially on similar principals.
RTM uses two matched mould halves to create a cavity that defines the shape of the
part. The mould is opened and a gel coat applied to one or both mould halves if
required. Dry reinforcement is placed in the mould and resin is injected into the cavity
wetting out the fibre. The part is then allowed to
cure, the
mould opened and the finished moulding
removed.
Resin Transfer Moulding
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The basic set up for RTM moulding is a set of matched moulds and a resin
injection machine. Moulds can be constructed from composites materials but other more
durable materials such as aluminium, electroformed nickel and steel have also been
used. Mould accuracy and strength are important in RTM as the two mould halves need
to be well matched to ensure consistent part thickness and be sufficiently rigid to
withstand the pressure generated during the injection process.
Moulds can also become hot during processing and may be fitted
with heating elements to speed up moulding so mould materials need to
be heat resistant. A range of injection machines is available for the RTM
process ranging from simple pumps that inject pre-catalysed resin to
sophisticated mixing and metering systems which incorporate automatic
injection sealing and cleaning.
The RTM process is much faster with a far lower manual labour content than open
moulding and has the advantage that parts have two smooth sides and can be
produced under controlled conditions with very little VOC emission. Core materials can
easily be incorporated as part of the RTM process and the development of low profile
systems enable very smooth good quality finishes to be achieved.
The disadvantage of RTM is that compared to open moulding the initial
investment cost is much higher requiring a more expensive mould and a resin injection
machine. The higher investment cost of RTM means that the minimum economic run
length is probably of the order of 500 parts ranging up to about 3000 parts/annum.
Typical parts manufactured by RTM include lorry, bus and car parts where the
two finished sides, tighter tolerances and higher volume manufacture are important.
Some large mouldings have been produced in RTM but generally as the moulds
increase in size beyond about 6 square metres the costs of making the mould
sufficiently rigid and the size of injection machine needed make the costs prohibitive.
Simpler versions of RTM have been developed using lighter weight moulds and vacuum
either on its own or with some positive pumping in order to limit costs and enable larger
mouldings to be produced economically at lower volume. Some of these processes
have been given names such as RTM Lite, VARI and Vacflo but are all based on similar
concepts.
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Prepregs -Vacuum Bag And Press Moulding

Prepregs are very
often associated with high performance aerospace

or sporting applications although they have
more
recently
found
application in architectural mouldings and
infrastructure
repair. Several types of prepreg are
available but most commonly they are
based on epoxy resin and carbon fibres
although other resin fibre combinations are
not uncommon. A prepreg is basically a
reinforcement material that has been preimpregnated with
resin
using
a
specially
adapted
impregnation machine. The material is
supplied as a sheet by the prepreg
manufacturer ready for use by the moulder. There are two basic methods for moulding
prepregs namely Vacuum Bag or Press moulding.
Vacuum Bag Moulding
There are two main versions of the vacuum bag process for prepregs both of
which start in a similar way. Both use a single sided mould onto which sheets or strips of
the prepreg are laid according to a specified pattern. This pattern can be complex and is
designed to meet the mechanical requirements of the finished part. Precise positioning
of the prepreg is required and can either be achieved by manually or, as frequently
employed in the Aerospace industry, by using a tape laying machines. A bleeder fabric,
normally a felt of synthetic fibres, and a vacuum bag are fitted and sealed onto the
mould. Vacuum is then applied which fully consolidates the prepreg, squeezing excess
resin out into the bleeder fabric.
In one version of this process the sealed mould is placed in a heated,
pressurised chamber (Autoclave) where the part is fully consolidated and cured. In the
other version of this process an autoclave is not used and the part is cured by
employing a heated mould. The advantage of an autoclave is that relatively simple
tooling can be used to produce high performance parts reliably which, if the run length is
short, is an advantage. This does not of course take account of the autoclave itself
which is expensive but will normally be used for many different parts. The advantage of
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the other process is that it is faster and simpler and whilst moulds may be more
expensive and there is no need for an expensive autoclave.
Both processes are well adapted to producing high performance parts and
because tooling is relatively simple they can be used effectively for even very large
parts. The cost of materials, disposables and labour is however high so that parts based
on vacuum bagged prepregs can be expensive.
Press Moulding
Where larger numbers of high performance parts are required such as in the
sports market press moulding of prepregs has been developed. The basic prepreg
material remains broadly similar but in this version of the process heated matched metal
moulds and hydraulic presses are used to stamp out parts. The process consists of
cutting and preparing a prepreg pack and then placing this pack in a heated matched
metal mould fitted to a hydraulic press. Again the pack will be designed to meet the
requirements of the part and may include several different types of prepreg as well as
other materials. The press is then closed onto the prepreg forming into the shape of the
mould and pressurising it in the mould cavity.
The moulds are heated to a temperature of between 150 an 180C which is
sufficient to cure the part in from 10 to 30 minutes depending on the type of prepreg
used. The press moulded process is much quicker and less labour intensive than the
vacuum bag process but the need for metal moulds and hydraulic presses means that
only small to medium sized parts are viable and run lengths need to be of the order of at
least 3 - 4000. Typical applications for this type of process include skis and leaf springs
for cars and trucks.
Compression Moulding Of SMC
Compression moulding of Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC) and the closely
related Bulk Moulding Compound (BMC) represent the second most widely used type of
composites process used world-wide, accounting for more than 25% of all composites
use in Europe and the USA. These processes are highly automated and designed to
meet the requirements of industrial users where run lengths can exceed 50,000 parts.
SMC has some similarities to prepregs in that it comes as a sheet containing
both resin and fibre; however in this case the resin is predominantly unsaturated
Page 27

polyester and the fibre almost exclusively chopped glass fibre (Usually 25mm ). SMC
normally contains high levels of mineral filler and is available from the compound
supplier in a very wide range of different formulations including different fibre contents,
different surface qualities and different colours.
Similarly to prepregs SMC is moulded in heated matched metal moulds mounted
in a hydraulic press but the SMC pack is prepared at the correct weight to fill the mould
cavity and cut so that it covers only 50 - 70% of the mould surface. The pack is placed
in the mould which is heated to 140 - 160C and the press closed. The combination of
heat and pressure as the press closes causes the SMC to flow and completely fill the
mould cavity. Curing is very rapid and parts can be demoulded in as little as one-minute
although 3-4 minutes is more typical.
Moulds for SMC are designed with a small gap or shear edge at the periphery of
the mould that allows air to escape as the compound flows. However at 0.3 - 0.6 mm
this is so small that the compound cures as it enters the gap effectively sealing the
mould. This means that SMC parts require very little finishing and trimming after
demoulding making for a very rapid automated process. A further advantage of SMC is
that because it is a flow moulding process complex features such as ribs, bosses and
fixings can be moulded in rather than needing to be bonded on later.
The disadvantage of SMC is that the initial investment cost is very high which
means that normally a minimum of 10,000 mouldings is required to make the process
viable. Also as with press moulded prepregs there is a limit on the size of mouldings due
to the high cost and difficulty in manufacture of large metal moulds and hydraulic
presses. In recent years the development of SMC type compounds which mould at
lower pressures (Low Pressure Moulding Compound or LPMC) has allowed larger
smaller series parts to be produced economically but SMC is essentially a medium to
high volume process.
SMC is used in a wide variety of different applications including car and truck parts,
electrical cabinets and switchgear, sectional water storage panels and modular
buildings. SMC's offer increased stiffness, and higher dimensional stability compared to
many other composites materials but generally have more variable mechanical
properties.
BMC is similar to SMC except that it contains less glass fibre cut to a shorter fibre
length than SMC and is delivered in the form of a dough rather than a sheet. BMC is
Page 28

more
often
used
where
mechanical performance is less
critical and for smaller more
complex mouldings.
Pultrusion Pultrusion is a
process whereby continuous
fibres in the form of roving, tape
or fabric are impregnated with
resin, pulled through a shaped
die and cured to create a
continuous profile. The process is
the equivalent to extrusion of
thermoplastic polymers or metals.
Typical sections include I beams,
T sections circular and square
tubing as well as more complex
geometries.
Unlike most other composites processes pultrusions are available in standard
sections as well as custom made profiles and so it is relatively easy to specify a
particular standard profile from a maker's catalogue that will have a defined set of
properties.
Pultrusions have excellent mechanical properties and are often used in
aggressive or corrosive environments that would present problems for certain metals.
Typical applications include access ladders and walkways on oilrigs, concrete
reinforcement bars, roof trusses and space frames. Like all composites they have
excellent strength to weight ratios and can be designed to meet a variety of different
loading conditions by utilising a combination of on axis, off axis fibres and speciality
fabrics.
For many applications standard pultrusions are available but it is relatively easy
to create custom profiles for large projects as the pultrusion dies are not overly
expensive. Pultrusion is a highly automated process but it is still relatively slow
compared to extrusion and the raw material cost is quite high. Pultrusions find
application where their lightweight and corrosion resistance are key. Most recently
pultrusions have found use in bridge structures and infrastructure repair particularly in
Page 29

the USA. Pultrusion accounts for about 5% of the composites market worldwide but its
use is growing rapidly particularly in building applications.
Filament Winding
Filament winding consists of impregnating continuous roving tape or fabric with resin
and applying it to a rotating mandrel. In order to achieve the required mechanical
properties fibres are oriented at different angles resulting in complex winding patterns
that are normally computer controlled. The process is not entirely limited to cylindrical
shapes and both conical tanks and box beams can be produced. When finished the
resin is allowed to cure and the moulding removed from the mandrel. Filament winding
can produce very large tanks and as the process can be very precisely controlled the
fibre content and orientation is very uniform giving very reliable structural performance.
More recently in an adaptation of this technology bridge piers have been strengthened
by wrapping with composite material using a modified portable version of a filament
winder.
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is primarily used for pipes and tanks
and consists of co-spraying resin and chopped fibre
onto the inner face of a rapidly rotating circular mould.
The centrifugal force created by the rapid rotation of the
mould causes the resin to impregnate though the glass
fibre forming the moulding and also results in a
relatively smooth inner surface on the pipe or tank. The
process can also used to produce slightly tapered parts
such as masts or poles. There are some very large companies in the Middle East
producing large quantities of pipe by this method.
Continuous Sheeting
Continuous sheeting is produced in a factory on a dedicated machine in either flat or
corrugated profile and can be coloured or translucent. The process consists of
depositing a layer of resin onto a moving plastic film followed by chopped glass fibre.
The fibre is then impregnated with resin by rolling and the sheet passed through an
Page 30

oven where it is cured, usually by heating,
although in some cases UV curing is employed.
In the case of corrugated sheet the corrugations
are introduced using rolls or formers during
curing stage. The finished sheet is then either
rolled or cut into individual lengths for packaging
transportation Typical applications include
cladding, roofing and refrigerated truck bodies
the
and
Procurement
There are certain composite parts such as
pultrusions, pipes and continuous sheeting that are available in standard sizes so that
once manufacturers have been located specification and procurement is relatively
straightforward. The vast majority of composite parts are however custom designed and
moulded to meet the needs of a particular application. As described in this paper there
is a very wide range of different composites processes and very often companies will
specialise in one or two processes. It is however rare to find a company that proposes
every process and material combination and with more than 2000 composites moulders
in the UK alone procurement can be a challenge. A useful source of information and
advice can be the raw material suppliers particularly the resin and reinforcement
companies who will often be willing to advise on the choice of process and sometimes
recommend suitable moulders.
CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES
PARTICLE REINFORCED
I.
Large Particle Composites

A. Concrete
The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a
cement matrix that bonds particles of different size (gravel and sand.)
In its general from, cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica,
and water. Portland cement is a fine powder of chalk, clay and limebearing minerals fired to 1500o C (calcinated). It forms a paste when
dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes
4 months for full strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and
Page 31

the amount of water: too little - incomplete bonding, too much - excessive
porosity.
Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding
steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of Retrieved from:
a similar thermal expansion coefficient, so there is http://www.103fm.net/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/cement-concrete1.jpg
reduced danger of cracking due to thermal
stresses. Pre-stressed concrete is obtained by
applying tensile stress to the steel rods while the
cement is setting and hardening. When the tensile
stress is removed, the concrete is left under
compressive stress, enabling it to sustain tensile loads without fracturing.
Pre-stressed concrete shapes are usually prefabricated. A common use is
in railroad or highway bridges.
Advantages of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens
at room temperature and even under water, and it is very cheap.
Disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that water in the
pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather.
Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller using finer
powder, adding polymeric lubricants, and applying pressure during
hardening.
B. Fillers
Fillers are less expensive materials than polymer that modify or
improve the properties of material and/or replace some of the polymer
volume.
These are also called extender in which they are used to cheapen
end products. Among the 21 most important fillers, calcium
carbonate holds the largest market volume and is mainly used in the
plastics sector.While the plastic industry mostly consumes ground calcium
carbonate the paper industry primarily
uses precipitated calcium carbonate
that is derived from natural minerals.
Moreover, fillers also enhance
properties of the products. In such
cases,
a
beneficial
chemical
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interaction develops between the host material and the filler. As a result, a
number of optimized types of fillers, nano-fillers or surface treated goods
have been developed.
C. Cermets
Cermets are ceramic-metal composites. The most common is
cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles of a
refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium
carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of metal such as cobalt or nickel.
Why would you want to combine a metal and a ceramic? Metals,
though versatile, aren't capable of withstanding the incredibly high
temperatures you typically encounter in airplane jet engines or space
rockets. Ceramics are brilliant at high temperatures and able to resist
attack by chemicals and things.
Electrical components are one obvious application. Because they
can get extremely hot, they need to behave like ceramics but, since they
also need to conduct electricity, it helps if they work like metals. Cermets
offer a perfect solution in components such as resistors and vacuum tubes
(valves).
Page 33

Machine tools are
another increasingly common
use
for
cermets. Tungsten carbide,
from which many cutting
and drilling tools are made, is
effectively a cermet. Cermets
based on titanium are another
popular choice for tools used
Cutting tools made from cermets last longer and produce a
in milling, turning and boring,
better surface finish than traditional carbide tools. Photo
and for making threads and
by Eduardo Zaragoza courtesy of US Navy.
grooves. Generally, cermets
provide higher cutting-tool speeds, better surface finish, and last much
longer than traditional tool parts. Unlike tools coated in carbide, cermetcoated tools do not wear in the same way but effectively regenerate
themselves.
II. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
A. Thoria-Dispersed Nickel
The Thoria- dispersed nickel alloys (TD Nickel) contain thorium
oxide additions (~2 wt %) for increased elevated temperature strength up
to 1200 C. Dispersion strengthened nickel was one of the first
commercially available dispersion strengthened materials.
In
these
powder
metallurgy alloys, either or nickel
or a 78Ni-20Cr alloy is mixed
with a fine dispersoid of Thoria
(ThO2). Thoria contents range
from 1.80 to 2.60% ThO2, with
the normal content being 2.0%
ThO2.
Commonly referred to as
TD Nickel or TD NiCr, these
alloys were developed for use in
components
in
combustion
systems of advanced gas turbine engines, fixtures for high-temperature
Page 34

tensile testing, and specialized furnace components and heating
elements.
There are several disadvantages associated with TD Nickel that
have limited its commercial viability.
This material has poor oxidation resistance and should be coated
for long term high temperature surface stability.
It is difficult to process and cannot be hot worked, and
It is mildly radioactive (thorium is an actinide metal).
As a result of the problems, production of TD Nickel has ceased. Today
Yttria (Y2O3) dispersion strengthened nickel-base superalloys are being used for
elevated temperature applications.
B.
Sintered-Aluminum Powder (SAP)

Sintered aluminum powder alloys have
properties quite different from those of
material fabricated by conventional
techniques. The oxide that forms
immediately on the surface of aluminum is
not reduced back to metal during sintering
and the resulting powder product contains
a substantial amount of oxide. This oxide
prevents grain growth and movement of
dislocations at the boundaries or through
them and produces high strength, high
creep resistance and insensitivity to hightemperature exposure.
The material properties depend on the
amount of naturally formed oxide. Heating
powder to increase the thickness of the
oxide film or addition of Al2O3 powder,
however, does not increase strength and
only reduces ductility.
Retrieved from:
http://www.exxentis.co.uk/bildereng/PorAl/sintered-metal/sintered-filter.jpg
The oxide is present as finely dispersed particles, which interact

with vacancies and dislocations and prevent their easy movement. The
oxide effect persists even above the melting point of aluminum.
Page 35

Another important characteristic of sintered aluminum powders is
their insensitivity to high temperature: exposure for several years at
temperatures up to 800 K produces practically no change in structure
or properties, especially in the higher-oxide-content alloys thats why it
can be applied in gears.
C. Modern Rubbers
Carbon black has been used as a reinforcing agent in tires. Today,
the uses of carbon black have expanded to include acting as a
pigmenting, UV stabilizing and conductive agent in a variety of
common and specialty products, including tire innerliners, carcasses,
sidewalls and treads, as well as in industrial rubber products, like belts,
hoses and gaskets.
Retrieved from : http://www.carbonblackchina.com/uploads/image/Rubber-grade-carbon-black-index.jpg
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
I.
Fiber Phase
A. Whiskers
Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large
length-to-diameter ratios. As a consequence of their small size, they have
a high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually flaw-free, which
accounts for their exceptionally high strengths; they are among the
strongest known materials. In spite of these high strengths, whiskers are
not used extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are
extremely expensive. Moreover, it is difficult and often impractical to
incorporate whiskers into a matrix. Whisker materials include graphite,
silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide; some mechanical
characteristics of these materials are given in Table 16.4.
Page 36

B. Fibers
Fibres
constitute the main
bulk
of
reinforcements that
are used in making
structural
composites. A fibre
is defined as a
material that has the
minimum 1/d ratio
equal to 10:1, where
1 is the length of the
fibre and d is its
minimum
lateral
dimension.
The
lateral dimension d
(which
is
the
diameter in the case of a circular fibre) is assumed to be less than 254
m. The diameter of fibres used in structural composites normally varies
from 5 m to 140 m. A filament is a continuous fibre with the l/d ratio
equal to infinity.
From the micro-structure point of view, fibres can be amorphous
(glass), polycrystalline (carbon, boron, alumina, etc.) or single crystals
(silicon carbide, alumina, beryllium and other whiskers). The strength and
stiffness properties of a fibre are significantly higher compared to those of
the bulk material from which the fibre is formed. Most of the common
fibres are brittle in nature. The tensile strength of bulk brittle material is
considerably lower than the theoretical strength, as it is controlled by the
shape and size of a flaw that the bulk material may contain. As the
diameter of a fibre is very small, a flaw, it may contain, must be smaller
than the fibre diameter. The smaller flaw size, in turn, reduces the
criticality of the flaw and thereby the tensile strength is enhanced. For
example, the tensile strength of an ordinary glass (bulk) may be as low as
100-200 MPa, but that of a S-glass fibre may be as high as 5000 MPa.
However, the tensile strength of a perfect glass fibre, based on
Page 37

intermolecular forces, is 10350 MPa. Further, the orientation of crystallites
along the fibre direction also helps considerably in improving the strength
properties.
Both inorganic and organic fibres are used in making structural
composites. Inorganic fibres (including ceramic fibres) such as glass,
boron, carbon, silicon carbide, silica, alumina, etc. are most commonly
used. The structural grade organic fibres are comparatively very few in
number. Aramid fibres are the most popular organic fibres. Another recent
addition is a high strength polyethylene fibre (Spectra 900) which has a
very low density and excellent impact resistant properties. The carbon
fibres may also be grouped with organic fibres, although they are more
often considered as ceramic (inorganic) fibres. Inorganic fibres in general
are strong, stiff, thermally stable and insensitive to moisture. They exhibit
good fatigue resistant properties, but low energy absorption
characteristics. Organic fibres, on the other hand, are cheaper, lighter and
more flexible. They possess high strength and better impact resistant
properties.
Other Fiber Reinforcement Materials
Other fiber materials that are used to much lesser degrees are
boron, silicon carbide, and aluminum oxide; tensile moduli, tensile
strengths, specific strengths, and specific moduli of these materials in fiber
form are contained in Table 16.4. Boron fiberreinforced polymer
composites have been used in military aircraft components, helicopter
rotor blades, and some sporting goods. Silicon carbide and aluminum
oxide fibers are used in tennis rackets, circuit boards, military armor, and
rocket nose cones.
C. Wires
A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal.
Wires
are
used
to
bear
mechanical loads or electricity andtelecommunications signals. Wire is
commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw
plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes, as expressed in terms
of a gauge number. The term wire is also used more loosely to refer to a
Page 38

bundle of such strands, as in 'multistranded wire', which is more correctly
termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity.
Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials include
steel, molybdenum, and tungsten. Wires are used as a radial steel
reinforcement in automobile tires, in filament-wound rocket casings, and
in wire-wound high-pressure hoses.
The high pressure steel wire
braided hose is mainly used for hydraulic power transmission or for
delivery of water, gas, oil and other high pressure media at operating
temperature of -40- +100.
Wire comes in solid core,
stranded, or braided forms.
Although usually circular in
cross-section, wire can be made
in square, hexagonal, flattened
rectangular, or other crosssections, either for decorative
purposes, or for technical
purposes
such
as
highefficiency voice
coilsin loudspeakers.
Edge[1]
wound coil springs, such as
the Slinky toy, are made of
special flattened wire.
II.
Matrix Phase
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Retrieved from:
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A. Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMCs)

Polymer-matrix composites consist of a polymer resin as the matrix,
with fibers as the reinforcement medium.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics.
Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional
molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on
hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough
to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other
characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over
prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they
are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped
fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding
compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be
starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure
and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated
melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at
elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of
conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible,
cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored
at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere
addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They
are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is
usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters
withstand he variations of environment and stable against chemicals.
Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of
application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other
advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers
and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accountrey. Aromatic
Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of
Page 40

advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long
duration exposure for continuous service at around 200-250C .
-Classification of PMCs According to Reinforcement Type1. Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites
Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers,
as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength
and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced. As
a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it
produces a composite having a very high specific strength.
As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic
matrix, it produces a composite having a very high specific strength.
Newly drawn fibers are normally coated during drawing with a size, a thin
layer of a substance that protects the fiber surface from damage and
undesirable environmental interactions. This size is ordinarily removed
prior to composite fabrication and re- placed with a coupling agent or finish
that produces a chemical bond between the fiber and matrix. There are
several limitations to this group of materials. In spite of having high
strengths, they are not very stiff and do not display the rigidity that is
necessary for some applications (e.g., as structural members for airplanes
and bridges). Most fiberglass materials are limited to service temperatures
below 200C (400F); at higher temperatures, most polymers begin to flow
or to deteriorate. Service temperatures may be extended to approximately
300C (575F) by using high-purity fused silica for the fibers and hightemperature polymers such as the polyimide resins. Many fiberglass
applications are familiar: automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes,
storage containers, and industrial floorings. The transportation industries
are using increasing amounts of glass fiberreinforced plastics in an effort
to de- crease vehicle weight and boost fuel efficiencies. A host of new
applications are being used or currently investigated by the automotive
industry
2. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

Page 41

Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most
commonly used reinforcement in advanced (i.e., nonfiberglass) polymermatrix composites. This is because carbon fibers have the highest specific
modulus, high tensile modulus at elevated temperatures and specific
strength of all reinforcing fiber materials.
These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical
characteristics, allowing composites incorporating these fibers to have
specific engineered properties. Fiber and composite manufacturing
processes have been developed that are relatively inexpensive and cost
effective.
Use of the term carbon fiber may seem confusing because carbon
is an element, and its stable form at ambient condition is graphite.
One classification scheme for carbon fibers is by tensile modulus; on this
basis the four classes are standard, intermediate, high, and ultrahigh
moduli. Furthermore, fiber diameters normally range between 4 and 10
m; both continuous and chopped forms are available. Protective epoxy
size is normally coated to fibers that improve its adhesion with polymer
matrix.
Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently being used
extensively in sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs),
filament-wound rocket motor cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft
structural componentsboth military and commercial, fixed-wing and
helicopters (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer, and rudder components).
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3.Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials that were
introduced in the early 1970s which are especially desirable for their
outstanding strength-to-weight ratios, which are superior to those of
metals.
Chemically, this group of materials is known as poly(paraphenylene
terephthalamide). There are a number of aramid materials; trade names
for two of the most common are Kevlar and Nomex.
Kevlar has several grades (Kevlar 29, 49, and 149) that have
different mechanical behaviors. During synthesis, the rigid molecules are
aligned in the direction of the fiber axis, as liquid crystal domains
Mechanically, these fibers have longitudinal tensile strengths and tensile
moduli that are higher than other polymeric fiber materials; however, they
are relatively weak in compression. In addition, this material is known for
its toughness, impact resistance, and resistance to creep and fatigue
failure.
Even though the aramids are thermoplastics, they are,
nevertheless, resistant to combustion and stable to relatively high
temperatures; the temperature range over which they retain their high
mechanical properties is between
200 and 200C (-330 and 390F).
Chemically, they are susceptible to degradation by strong acids and
bases, but they are relatively inert in other solvents and chemicals.
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having
polymer matrices; common matrix materials are the epoxies and
polyesters. Because the fibers are relatively flexible and somewhat ductile,
they may be processed by most common textile operations. Typical
applications of these aramid composites are in ballistic products
Page 43

(bulletproof vests and armor), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile cases,
and pressure vessels and as a replacement for asbestos in automotive
brake and clutch linings and gaskets.
B. Metal-matrix Composites (MMCs)

As the name implies, for metal-matrix composites (MMCs) the matrix
is a ductile metal. These materials may be used at higher service
temperatures than their basemetal counterparts; furthermore, the
reinforcement may improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion
resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional
stability. Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymer
matrix composites include higher operating temperatures, nonflammability,
and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids. Metal-matrix
composites are much more expensive than PMCs, and, therefore, MMC
use is somewhat restricted.
The superalloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, and copper, are employed as matrix materials. The reinforcement
may be in the form of particulates, both continuous and discontinuous
fibers, and whiskers; concentrations normally range between 10 and 60
vol%. Continuous-fiber materials include carbon, silicon carbide, boron,
Page 44

aluminum oxide, and the refractory metals. On the other hand,
discontinuous reinforcements consist primarily of silicon carbide whiskers,
chopped fibers of aluminum oxide and carbon, and particulates of silicon
carbide and aluminum oxide. Table 16.9 presents the properties of several
common metal-matrix, continuous and aligned fiberreinforced
composites.
Some matrixreinforcement combinations are highly reactive at

elevated temperatures. Consequently, composite degradation may be
caused by high-temperature processing or by subjecting the MMC to
elevated temperatures during service. This problem is commonly resolved
either by applying a protective surface coating to the reinforcement or by
modifying the matrix alloy composition.
Automobile manufacturers have recently begun to use MMCs in
their products. For example, some engine components have been
introduced consisting of an aluminum-alloy matrix that is reinforced with
aluminum oxide and carbon fibers; this MMC is light in weight and resists
wear and thermal distortion. Metal-matrix composites are also employed in
driveshafts (that have higher rotational speeds and reduced vibrational
noise levels), extruded stabilizer bars, and forged suspension and
transmission components.
Page 45

The aerospace industry also
uses
MMCs.
Structural
applications include advanced
aluminum-alloy
metal-matrix
composites; boron fibers are
used as the reinforcement for
the space shuttle orbiter, and
continuous graphite fibers for
the Hubble Space Telescope.
C. Ceramic-matrix Composites
Retrieved from:
The
fracture http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/HST-SM4.jpeg
toughnesses of ceramics
have been improved significantly by the development of a new generation
of ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs)particulates, fibers, or whiskers
of one ceramic material that have been embedded into a matrix of another
ceramic. Ceramic-matrix composite materials have extended fracture
toughnesses to between about 6 and 20 MPa.
In essence, this improvement in the fracture properties results from
interactions between advancing cracks and dispersed phase particles.
Crack initiation normally occurs with the matrix phase, whereas crack
propagation is impeded or hindered by the particles, fibers, or whiskers.
One particularly interesting and promising toughening technique
employs a phase transformation to arrest the propagation of cracks and is
aptly termed transformation toughening. Small particles of partially
stabilized zirconia are dispersed within the matrix material, often Al2O3 or
ZrO2 itself.Typically, CaO, MgO, Y2O3, and CeO are used as stabilizers.
Partial stabilization allows retention of the metastable tetragonal phase at
ambient conditions rather than the stable monoclinic phase. The stress
field in front of a propagating crack causes these metastably retained
tetragonal particles to undergo transformation to the stable monoclinic
phase. Accompanying this transformation is a slight particle volume
increase, and the net result is that compressive stresses are established
on the crack surfaces near the crack tip that tend to pinch the crack shut,
thereby arresting its growth.
In general, increasing fiber content improves strength and fracture
toughness. Furthermore, there is a considerable reduction in the scatter of
fracture strengths for whisker-reinforced ceramics relative to their
unreinforced counterparts. In addition, these CMCs exhibit improved highCOMPOSITES: GROUP IV
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temperature creep behavior and resistance to thermal shock (i.e., failure
resulting from sudden changes in temperature).
Relative to applications, SiC whisker-reinforced aluminas are being
used as cutting-tool inserts for machining hard metal alloys; tool lives for
these materials are greater than for cemented carbides.
D. Carbon-carbon Composites
One of the most advanced and promising engineering materials is
the carbon fiberreinforced carbon-matrix composite, often termed a
carboncarbon composite; as the name implies, both reinforcement and
matrix are carbon. These materials are relatively new and expensive and,
therefore, are not currently being used extensively. Their desirable
properties include high-tensile moduli and tensile strengths that are
retained to temperatures in excess of 2000C (3630F), resistance to creep,
and relatively large fracture toughness values. Furthermore, carbon
carbon composites have low coefficients of thermal expansion and
relatively high thermal conductivities; these characteristics, coupled with
high strengths, give rise to a relatively low susceptibility to thermal shock.
Their major drawback is a strong natural tendency to high temperature
oxidation.
The carboncarbon composites are employed in rocket motors, as
friction materials in aircraft and high-performance automobiles, for hotpressing molds, in components for advanced turbine engines, and as
ablative shields for re-entry vehicles.
The primary reason that these composite materials are so
expensive is the relatively complex processing techniques that are
employed. Preliminary procedures are similar to those used for carbonfiber, polymer-matrix composites. That is, the continuous carbon fibers are
laid down having the desired two- or three-dimensional pattern; these
fibers are then impregnated with a liquid polymer resin, often a phenolic;
the workpiece is next formed into the final shape, and the resin is allowed
to cure.
E. Hybrid Composites
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A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which is

obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix;
hybrids have a better all-around combination of properties than
composites containing only a single fiber type. A variety of fiber
combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the most common
system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric
resin. The carbon fibers are strong and relatively stiff and provide a lowdensity reinforcement; however, they are expensive. Glass fibers are
inexpensive and lack the stiffness of carbon. The glasscarbon hybrid is
stronger and tougher, has a higher impact resistance, and may be
produced at a lower cost than either of the comparable all-carbon or allglass reinforced plastics.
The two different fibers may be combined in a number of ways,
which will ultimately affect the overall properties. For example, the fibers
may all be aligned and intimately mixed with one another, or laminations
may be constructed consisting of layers, each of which consists of a single
fiber type, alternating one with another. In virtually all hybrids the
properties are anisotropic.
When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure is usually
noncatastrophic (i.e., does not occur suddenly). The carbon fibers are the
first to fail, at which time the load is transferred to the glass fibers. Upon
failure of the glass fibers, the matrix phase must sustain the applied load.
Eventual composite failure concurs with that of the matrix phase.
Principal applications for hybrid composites are lightweight land,
water, and air transport structural components, sporting goods, and
lightweight orthopedic components.
ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF COMPOSITE

MATERIALS IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIES
Page 48

Composites are one of the most in demand materials used in major industries
because of their adaptability to different situations. Its relative combination with other
materials exhibits desirable properties and serves specific purposes.
An important consideration in the use of composites is lightweight. Research
studies of specific components have shown that using all composite structures saves 20
to 45% while selectively reinforced metal structures offer about 10 to 25% only. This
weight reduction is required to maintain the center of gravity of the system.
Application of Composites in Aircraft Industry
The first structural composite aircraft components, which were introduced during
1950-60, were made from glass fibre reinforced plastics. These components included
the fin and the rudder of Grumman E-2A, helicopter canopies, frames, radomes,
fairings, rotor blades, etc. Due to high strength and stiffness combined with low density,
composites like Boron Fibre Reinforced Plastics (BFRP) and Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Plastics (CFRP) were preferred instead of aluminum for high performance aircraft
structures. For lightly loaded structures, Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastics (AFRP) which
possess low density, have been used. The use of AFRP continues to be restricted to the
lightly loaded structures due to the fact that although these fibres possess high tensile
strength, they have very low compressive strength. For light aircraft and lightly loaded
structural components, Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) has become one of the
standard materials.
Composite used for different part of B- 737 aircraf
Page 49

Composite materials are
being used for different
helicopter components as
well. Use of advanced
composites in helicopter
application started way
back in 1959 with the
development of Optimum
Pitch Blade for the XCH47 twin rotor helicopter of
Vertol
Aircraft
Corporation. There-after,
use of composites in
helicopter application has
been
progressively
extended to various parts,
which include main & tail
rotor blades, stabilizers Composites used in Cockpit Helicopter
and fuselage portions. Experience has shown that GFRP main rotor blades have a
service life of around 10,000 hours as compared to blades with steel/titanium spars,
which have a life of around 1000- 2000 hours.
Application of Composites in Construction Industry
Composites have long been used in the construction industry. Their benefits of
corrosion resistance and low weight have proven attractive in many low stress
applications. An extension to the use of high performance FRP in primary structural
applications, however, has been slower to gain acceptance although there is much
development activity. Composites present immense opportunities to play increasing role
as an alternate material to replace timber, steel, aluminum and concrete in buildings.
Construction
Page 50

Construction holds priority for the adaptation of composites in place of conventional
materials being used like doors and windows, paneling, furniture, non-structural
gratings, long span roof structures, tanks, bridge components and complete bridge
systems and other interiors. Components made of composite materials find extensive
applications in shuttering supports, special architectural structures imparting aesthetic
appearance, large signages etc. with the advantages like corrosion resistance, longer
life, low maintenance, ease in workability, fire retardancy etc. Some of the composite
structural applications are listed in the Table M11.10
Road Bridges
Bridges account for a major sector of the construction industry and have
attracted strong interest for the utilization of high performance FRP(Fiber Reinforced
Plastics). FRP has been found quite suitable for repair, seismic retrofitting and
upgrading of concrete bridges as a way to extend the service life of existing structures.
FRP is also being considered as an economic solution for new bridge structures.
Polymer composites are seen to offer advantages that are lacking in the traditional
materials, particularly for their resistance to corrosive attack in those areas that rely on
the application of de-icing salts to maintain road access. Design approaches and
manufacturing efficiencies developed for road bridge applications will benefit their
introduction into a broader range of civil construction fields.
Decks for both pedestrian and vehicle bridges across waterways, railways and
roadways are now a commercial reality; with some pedestrian bridges being built
entirely from composites. The lightweight of composites is especially valuable for the
Page 51

construction of waterway
bridges incorporating a
lift-up section to permit
the passage of boats, and
for ease of transportation
and erection in remote
areas without access to
heavy lifting equipment.
The composite deck has
six to seven times the
load
capacity
of
a
reinforced concrete deck
with only 20 percent of
the weight.
Power Transmission
High
voltage
electrical
transmission
towers are now being
constructed
from
composite sections using a "snap and build" assembly
procedure, which eliminates the use of fasteners and
adhesives. Weighing less than one third of conventional
steel equivalent structures, the composites tower
components can be readily airlifted into remote areas and
assembled by small teams, thus eliminating the need to
construct access roads. In addition, the inherent insulating
characteristics of composite permits closer placement of
attached insulators, thus enabling overall tower size and
environmental obtrusiveness to be reduced.
FRP Doors and Door Frames
With the scarcity of wood for building products,
the alternative, which merits attention, is to promote the
manufacturing of low cost FRP building materials to meet
the demands of the housing and building sectors. The
doors made of FRP skins, sandwiched with core materials such as rigid polyurethane
foam, expanded polystyrene, paper honeycomb; jute/coir felt etc. can have potential
usage in residential buildings, offices, schools, hospitals, laboratories etc. As structural
sandwich construction has attained broad acceptance and usage for primary load
bearing structures, the FRP doors can be manufactured in various sizes and designs
using this technology.
Page 52

Plumbing Components
Lightweight fibre glass composite components for toilet are easy to install and
they are corrosion resistant. Due to poor thermal conductivity, the composite surface is
warm to the touch unlike porcelain and steel. Ease in moulding technique for composite
allows more aesthetic shapes and excellent surface finishes.
Piping System
Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) piping system
offers complete solution for offshore environment
against highly corrosive fluids at various pressures,
temperatures, adverse soil and weather conditions
(especially in oil exploration, desalination, chemical
plants, fire mains, dredging, portable water etc.) GRE
pipes are commonly used in oil transportation where
resistance to crude oil, paraffin build-up as well as
ability to withstand relatively high pressures is required.
GRE piping system is also being
used on offshore rigs for sea water cooling lines, air vent systems,
drilling fluids, fire fighting, ballasts and drinking water lines in offshore
application. The lightweight helps reduce heavy and expensive
construction cost. Established Oil fields use GRE pipes for high
pressure and steam injection lines for the recovery of oil preserves.
GRE piping system can withstand the detrimental effect of brackish
water when expelled under pressure from fire mains.
Application of Composites in Orthopedic Industry

Composite Artificial Limbs for Physically Handicapped
Figure M11.28: Composite

artificial limbs
Bio-medical prosthetic devices are artificial replacements

that are used in the human body to function as original parts.
Materials used for such prosthetic aids must non-toxic, biologically and chemically
stable, and have sufficient mechanical integrity and strength to withstand physiological
loads.
Composite material has been identified as the new class of synthetic biomaterials. An important development has been the usage of carbon-fibre reinforced
Page 53

polymer-matrix for composite limb. The matrix includes polysulfone or poly-etherketone. The uses of these materials are ongoing efforts to make artificial limbs and
braces lighter result in great benefit to those needing such appliances. Lighter weight
prosthesis also greatly reduces sores and abrasions that were more frequent with the
earlier heavier prostheses.
The artificial limbs made up of composites are shown in Figure M11.28. The
project was lunched in collaboration with M/s. Mohana Orthotics & Prosthetic Centre,
Chennai and technology support from Madras Institute of Technology (MIT), Chennai.
Below-knee endoskeleton type artificial limbs are lighter in weight and better
appearance than ever before with improved gait for the patients. The limb consists of
five parts: a FRP tubular structure, top & bottom connectors, PU foot with composite
keel embedded in it and a polypropylene socket to accommodate the amputee stump.
The socket made of polypropylene is patient specific and does not create any problems
like pressure sores even for diabetic patients. All the five parts and the socket are
adjustable to meet individual requirements and to take care of static & dynamic
alignment patterns.
Application of Composites Automobile/Transportation Sector

Automobiles
Despite
the
potential benefits of lighter
weight
and
durability
resulting
from
corrosion
resistance,
advanced
composites
are
not
recognized as a material of
choice in the near term for
automotive
applications.
Significant changes on a
broad spectrum would be
required to make advanced
composites attractive for
widespread commercial use
in cars and trucks. The
principal barrier is the high
cost of the raw & fabricated materials when compared to existing options
Automobiles segment of composites accounts for about 50% of the
thermoplastic and 24% of the thermoset composite market in the world. Glassreinforced thermoplastic polymer is a promising material for weight reduction because of
the relatively low cost of the fibre, its fast cycle time and its ability to facilitate parts
Page 54

integration. Carbon fibre reinforced polymer is another candidate but will require
breakthroughs in cost and manufacturing techniques to be cost effective for high volume
production.
Marine
With composites exhibiting excellent resistance to the marine environment,
their applications have made good inroads in the marine sector worldwide. Complex
configurations and the advantages of seamless hulls were the main driving factors in
the development of FRP boats. Racing power-boats employ advanced and hybrid
composites for a higher performance craft and driver safety. Major structural elements
viz. deckhouses, hatch covers, kings posts and bow modules appears to be very well
suited for FRP construction. The consumption of composites by this industry is mainly
glass fibre reinforced polyesters.
Bicycles
Composite bicycle frames have been a largely American
phenomenon, as a spin-off technology from the aircraft and
boating industries. Manufacturing of composites requires
greater technical expertise and investment for product
development. Carbon composite bike frame is a complex
structure with performance characteristics that include lightness,
rigidity, durability, shock absorption etc. As composites
fabrication offers variation over the length of the tube providing
different fiber angles; the different plies, different ply thickness,
and different combinations of materials. So the properties of the
Retrieved from:
end product made from composites can be tailored to http://arnabocean.com/images/po
specifications. Hybrid fibre (carbon and aramid), carbon/kevlar sts/FRPBike.jpg
epoxy materials are ideal composite materials for bicycle
components. The composites are finding application in bicycle components such as
forks, handle bars and connectif bar ends as well as seat posts.
Application of Composites Electrical and Electronics

Composites equipped with good electric insulation, antimagnetic & spark-free,
good adhesion to glue & paint, self-extinguishing qualities are used for the construction
of distribution pillars, link boxes, profiles for the separation of current-carrying phases to
prevent short circuits etc.
Many composite materials used as sliding contact brushes are metals with
graphite added on for lubricity. Graphite having lubricated property is used in many
metals which function as sliding contact brushes, while a few are electro-graphite to
give lubricity in absence of oxygen. Although various manufacturing methods exist,
Page 55

pressing and sintering are widely used for making metal graphite brushes if metal
content is over 85%.
Composite materials are used in the instrumentation applications where
rotational speeds are slow and hence, a steady resistance is needed for reducing
electrical noise.
Metal inert gas welding in which, the electrode is consumable, has a component
which directs the consumable electrode wire through a nozzle, apart from supplying
current to the wire. High conductivity copper is being used for contact tips, but
composites are found to be increasingly suited for this purpose.
Application of Composites in Chemical Industry

Supplemented by the advantages of composites of lightweight, mouldability,
fire resistance properties, resistance to chemicals has made the material popular in the
chemical industry. Composites are extensively used in industrial gratings, structural
supports, storage tanks, scrubbers, ducting, piping, exhaust stacks, pumps and
blowers, columns, reactors etc. for acidic & alkaline environments.
Internationally, a composites application in chemical industry is a relatively
small segment in relation to the total usage of composites. With the rapid growth of the
chemical industry, this segment is expected to further
strengthen with increasing acceptance by the users.
Application of Composites in Consumer and

Sports Goods
The optimum design of sports equipment requires
the application of a number of disciplines, not only for
from:
enhanced performance but also to make the equipment as Retrieved
http://illumin.usc.edu/assets/media/246
user-friendly as possible from the standpoint of injury /v_800pxTennis_Racket_and_Ballsavoidance. In designing sports equipment, the various 300x225.jpg
characteristics of materials must be considered. Among
these characteristics are strength, ductility, density, fatigue resistance, toughness,
modulus (damping), and cost. To meet the requirements of sports equipment, the
materials of choice often consist of a mixture of material types - metals, ceramics,
polymers and composite concepts.
Page 56

REFERENCES
Callister, W., & Rethwisch, D. (2011). Composites. In Materials science and
engineering(Revised/Expanded ed.). New York: Wiley.
Page 57

Woodford, Chris. (2009) Cermets. Retrieved from
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/cermets.html. [Accessed (Aug. 16, 2014)]
COMPOSITE MATERIALS. (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2014, from
http://www.ae.iitkgp.ernet.in/ebooks/chapter2.html
NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOYS. (n.d.). Retrieved August 16, 2014, from
http://materialrulz.weebly.com/uploads/7/9/5/1/795167/nickel_chromium_and_nickel_tho
ria_alloys.pdf
Pandey, P. (n.d.). COMPOSITE MATERIALS. Retrieved August 16, 2014, from
http://nptel.iitk.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IISc-BANG/Composite
Materials/Learning material - composite material.pdf
Module11: Engineering Applications of Composite Materials. (n.d.). Retrieved August
16, 2014, from http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IISc-BANG/Composite
Materials/pdf/Lecture_Notes/LNm11.pdf
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Engineering and Technology

What are Composite Materials?

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Particle Reinforced Composites

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Large-Particle composites are

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The next characteristic is in terms of Specific Modulus, which is the ratio of

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Above is the picture of the deformation pattern in the matrix surrounding a

lc= critical length

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Continuous Fibers are normally aligned as shown in Figure (a) wherein

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) and their respective cross

Then we can divide this equation to cross sectional area:

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In conclusion the isostrain can be expressed as:

then lets divide it by their respective strain:

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Elastic Behavior-Transverse Loading

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which simplifies the equation to

LONGITUDINAL TENSILE STRENGTH

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Source: D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd

is the stress matrix at fiber failure and

is the fiber tensile strength.

Transverse Tensile Strength

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in cases in which l<lc the longitudinal strength is given by the formula

where d is the fiber diameter and

c is the smaller of either the fibermatrix bond

strength or the matrix shear yield strength.

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Fiber reinforcement (vol %)

Tensile Strength (MPa)

Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Source: Adapted from Materials Engineerings Material Selector

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Source: Figure 16.16 from Callister

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Source: Figure 16.17 Callister

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Open Moulding - Hand and Spray Lamination

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Prepregs -Vacuum Bag And Press Moulding

often associated with high performance aerospace

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