Political science

Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government
and the analysis of political activity and political behavior.[1] It deals extensively with the
theory and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as the determining of the
distribution of power and resources. Political scientists "see themselves engaged in
revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from these
revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of
politics
works."[2] Political
science
draws
upon
the
fields
of economics, law, sociology, history, anthropology, public administration, public policy,
national politics, international relations, comparative politics, psychology, political
organization, and political theory. Although it was codified in the 19th century, when all
the social sciences were established, the study of political science has ancient roots
that can be traced back to the works of Plato and Aristotle which were written nearly
2,500 years ago.[3]
Political science is commonly divided into distinct sub-disciplines which together
constitute the field:

political theory

comparative politics

public administration

international relations

public law

political methodology

Political theory is more concerned with contributions of various classical thinkers such
as Aristotle, Niccol Machiavelli, Cicero, Plato and many others. Comparative politics is
the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political
actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate
perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as
well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations.
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods
originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational
choice theory,behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism,
and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and
techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical
documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal
articles, survey research, statistical, case studies, experimental research and model
building.
Overview

Political scientists study matters concerning the allocation and transfer of power
in decision
making,
the
roles
and
systems
of
governance
including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public
policies. They measure the success of governance and specific policies by examining
many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, peace and public health. Some
political scientists seek to advance positive (attempt to describe how things are, as
opposed to how they should be) theses by analyzing politics. Others
advance normative theses, by making specific policy recommendations.
Political scientists provide the frameworks from which journalists, special interest
groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. According to Chaturvedy,
"...Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office
as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in
political parties or as civil servants. They may be involved with non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people
educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations.
Private enterprises such as think tanks, research institutes, polling and public
relations firms often employ political scientists." [4] In the United States, political
scientists known as "Americanists" look at a variety of data including constitutional
development, elections, public opinion and public policy such as Social Security
reform, foreign policy, US Congressional committees, and the US Supreme Court to
name only a few issues.
"As a discipline" political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, "lives on
the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and
thehumanities."[5] Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separate School
or College of Arts and Sciences per se, political science may be a separate department
housed as part of a division or school of Humanities or Liberal Arts.[6] Whereas
classical political
philosophy is
primarily
defined
by
a
concern
for Hellenic and Enlightenmentthought, political scientists are also marked by a great
concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state, along with the study of
classical thought, and as such share a greater deal of terminology
with sociologists (e.g. structure and agency).
Most United States colleges and universities offer B.A. programs in political science.
M.A. or M.A.T. and Ph.D. or Ed.D. programs are common at larger universities. The
termpolitical science is more popular in North America than elsewhere; other
institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a
broader
discipline
of political
studies, politics, or government. While political
science implies use of the scientific method, political studies implies a broader
approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their
content.[7] Separate degree granting programs in international relations and public
policy are not uncommon at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Master's level
programs in political science are common when political scientists engage in public
administration.[8]
The national honor society for college and university students of government and
politics in the United States is Pi Sigma Alpha.

Modern political science

Because political science is essentially a study of human behavior, in all aspects
of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or
duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental
political science).[9] Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science
AssociationPresident Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of
experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science." [10] Because of
this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and
individual or group behavior in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build
theories of politics.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors
that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious
choices unlike other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate
objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has
progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to
understanding politics and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of
contemporary political science.
The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of
university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th
century. In fact, the designation "political scientist" is typically for those with a doctorate
in the field. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing,
and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of
both normative and positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing
some historical predecessors. The American Political Science Association was founded
in 1903 and the American Political Science Review was founded in 1906 in an effort to
distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena.
Behavioral revolution and new institutionalism
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing the systematic and
rigorously scientific study of individual and group behavior swept the discipline. A focus
on studying political behavior, rather than institutions or interpretation of legal texts,
characterized early behavioral political science, including work by Robert Dahl, Philip
Converse, and in the collaboration between sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and public
opinion scholar Bernard Berelson.
The late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed a take off in the use of deductive, game
theoretic formal modeling techniques aimed at generating a more analytical corpus of
knowledge in the discipline. This period saw a surge of research that borrowed theory
and methods from economics to study political institutions, such as the United States
Congress, as well as political behavior, such as voting. William H. Riker and his
colleagues and students at the University of Rochester were the main proponents of this
shift.

Despite considerable research progress in the discipline based on all the kinds of
scholarship discussed above, it has been observed that progress toward systematic
theory has been modest and uneven.[11]
Political science in the Soviet Union
In the Soviet Union, political studies were carried out under the guise of some other
disciplines like theory of state and law, area studies, international relations, studies of
labor movement, "critique of bourgeois theories", etc. Soviet scholars were represented
at the International Political Science Association (IPSA) since 1955 (since 1960 by the
Soviet Association of Political and State Studies).
In 1979, the 11th World Congress of IPSA took place in Moscow. Until the late years of
the Soviet Union, political science as a field was subjected to tight control of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was thus subjected to distrust. Anticommunists accused political scientists of being "false" scientists and of having served
the old regime.[12]
After the fall of the Soviet Union, two of the major institutions dealing with political
science, the Institute of Contemporary Social Theories and the Institute of International
Affairs, were disbanded, and most of their members were left without jobs. These
institutes were victims of the first wave of anticommunist opinion and ideological
attacks. Today, the Russian Political Science Association unites professionals-political
scientists from in Russia.
Recent developments
In 2000, the Perestroika Movement in political science was introduced as a reaction
against what supporters of the movement called the mathematicization of political
science. Those who identified with the movement argued for a plurality of
methodologies and approaches in political science and for more relevance of the
discipline to those outside of it.[13]
Evolutionary psychology theories argue that humans have evolved a highly developed
set of psychological mechanisms for dealing with politics. However, these mechanisms
evolved for dealing with the small group politics that characterized the ancestral
environment and not the much larger political structures in today's world. This is argued
to explain many important features and systematic cognitive biases of current politics.[14]
Cognate Fields
Most political scientists work broadly in one or more of the following five areas:

Comparative politics, including area studies

International relations

Political philosophy e.g. Political ethics

Public administration

Public law

Some political science departments also classify methodology as well as scholarship on

the domestic politics of a particular country as distinct fields. In the United
States,American politics is often treated as a separate subfield.
In contrast to this traditional classification, some academic departments organize
scholarship into thematic categories, including political philosophy, political
behavior (includingpublic opinion, collective action, and identity), and political institutions
(including legislatures and international organizations). Political science conferences
and journals often emphasize scholarship in more specific categories. The American
Political Science Association, for example, has 42 organized sections that address
various methods and topics of political inquiry.[15]

Overview and Definition of Political Science

Political science is that branch of the social sciences that studies the state, politics, and
government. Political Science deals extensively with the analysis of political
systems, the theoretical and practical applications to politics, and the
examination of political behavior. The Greek thinker, Aristotle, defined political
science as the study of the state. Many political scientists view themselves as being
engaged in fleshing out the connections between political events and conditions, and by
this understanding they hope to construct a system of general principles that posit the
way the world of politics works. Political science is not a standalone field and it
intersects many other branches like sociology, economics, history, anthropology, public
policy among others. Political scientists are much sought after these days because of
the changing landscape of politics across the world and since the society wants to
understand how the political world works, they need someone to explain the nuances of
the political economy. Any casual perusal of the newspapers and the television
channels reveals that political scientists are at the forefront of debates and discussions
for their knowledge and expertise.
Scope of Political Science
The scope of political science is vast and experts have divided the field of political
science into five sub-disciplines that are political theory, public administration,
comparative politics, international relations, and public law. It needs to be noted that
these sub-disciplines cover the entire gamut of the modern political economy and
provide the basis for the study and understanding of how the global political economy
works. The study of the matters concerning the allocation and distribution as well as the
transfer of power is one of the main preoccupations of political scientists. The success
or otherwise of the governance structures is gauged by political scientists who examine
the multifaceted and multilayered factors at work that contribute to good or bad
governance. The scope of the political scientists has now been broadened to include

the realm of the study of the democratic elections across the world. In other words, with
the explosion in the political systems all over the world, political scientists, and their
scope of study has been considerably enhanced.
The Importance of Political Science
The importance of political science lies in the fact that all of us live within political
systems and we are affected by the changes in the global political economy. With the
advent of globalization, there has been a concomitant rise in the interest taken by the
people of the world in understanding the political systems of other countries. Hence,
political scientists become valued and important as they provide the lens through which
we can understand the global political economy. There are many universities that
provide graduate and higher-level degrees in political science and in recent years,
because of the renewed interest in political science as a field of study, there are many
takers for these courses.

Political science is important by studying and making positive and normative analysis
of matters concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision making, the roles
and systems of governance including governments and international organizations,
political behavior and public policies. It measures these success of governance and
specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth,
and peace. Political scientists provide the frameworks from which journalists, special
interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. It creates a scientific
method for observing, understanding, and predicting the complex interactions that
fundamentally influence our lives through politics.

Ours is the age politics. The government has become the business of everybody.
Whether we like it or not, we are part of the state from the moment we are born to the
day we die. Our birth, marriage, and death must be registered with the state. Secondly,
it will broaden our knowledge about our duties and obligations as a citizen, what
government is, what state is and discuss political issues and concerns. We can even
criticize effectively cases of incompetence, dishonesty or unscrupulous in government.
Thirdly, we will know about our cultural backgrounds for "history is past of politics and
politics is present of history."
It is an acknowledge of understanding about state and government. It also gives
knowledge of right to choose.

It varies from person to person depending upon the importance he gives to

various aspects of political life. The study of Political Science began with the
Greeks.
DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. Various definitions
of Political Science given by the ancient, Medieval and modern political
scientists of this subject are as follows
1] Origin :- The term `politics, is derived from the Greek word `Polis, which
means the city state According to Greek Philosophers, Politics was a subject
which dealt with all the activities and affairs of the city state. Their City
States were known as `Polis. City state was an all-inclusive term, as the
ancient Greeks made no distinction between the state and the Government
on one hand, and State and Society on the other. They never differentiated
between personal life and social life. Hence according to them Politics was a
total study of man, society, state, morality and so on.
2] Politics as the study of the state: - Traditionally Political science is a
science of state. Political thinkers like R.G. Gettel, J.W. univ_fyba_pol_sc/1 2
Garner, Bluntschli and many others were of the view that political science
was the study of the state. R.G. Getlel defined Political Science as a study of
state in the past, present and future and of Political institutions and Political
theories. J.W.Garner States, Political Science begins and ends with the
state
3] Politics as the study of the Government: - Some Political Scientists
like Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan have accepted the view which
states that politics deals with the state and government. Paul Janet writes
Political Science is concerned with the foundations of the state and
principles of government. George Catlin states Politics means either the
activities of political life or the study of these activities. And these activities
are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.
Prof Hans Eulan considers in his definition of politics that the study of
formal government is a fundamental concern of politics. The Oxford
English Dictionary defines Political Science as the study of the state and
systems of government.
4] Politics as the study of national Institution: - Bridal expressed the
view that Political Science is, above all, descriptive study which brings
together the description of national political institutions, their history, their
ideological principles, their working, the forces that direct them, the
influence they undergo, the results they obtain and their effect on the life of
the country and its relations with neighboring states . Traditional Approach:

- The concept of Political Science as a study of State, Government and

national Institution is not considered adequate today. This aspect of above
definitions emphasizes the legal structure only. They do not pay attention to
what is happening withing the State. Political Science must include the study
of informal structures, facts and reality of Politics. Hence, modern Political
thinkers defined Political Science differently and taken modern approach.
5] Political Science as a Study of Power: - Modern Political thinkers like
Lasswell, Robert Dahl have defined politics in terms of power, influence, and
authority. According to these thinkers Power has acquired prominent position
in political thought. Harold Lasswell considers, Politics is the study of
shaping and sharing Political powers Robert A. Dahl defined that, A Political
system is any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves, to a
significant extent power, rule or authority. univ_fyba_pol_sc/1 3 According to
the view of these thinkers entire political activity directed towards capturing
and maintaining power/ Power is the central idea in Politics who get, what
when and How.
6] Political Science as a study of Conflict Resolution: - This view was
suggested by Miller in his `Nature of Politics. The purpose of a political
activity is either to bring about a change or resist a change. People compete
with each other to satisfy their needs. When resources are limited and the
people who want to utilize them are many conflicts arise. Politics is a means
to resolve this conflict. According to Peter B. Haris The Modern emphasis in
the study of Politics is laid on disagreements and reconciliation or resolution
of these disagreement.
7] Political Science as a Study of Co - relation of many Forces
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences States, Present day political science
revolves around the problem of the attainment, consolidation and
distribution of political power whether in an actually existing state or a
hypothetical state. Political Institution and politics cannot function in
vacuum. Social and economic forces affect the political process. Hence they
also must be taken into account.
Analysis and Conclusion: - The several definitions of the term Political
Science reflect the changing understanding of the discipline. From above
definitions we may say that there are mainly two approaches of looking at
Political-Science. 1) Teaditional approach 2) Morden approach. The Traditional
Approach suggests that Political-Science is the study of State, Government
and National Institutions. It studies the formal, legal structures and
theoretical part.

The Modern Approach emphasizes What is actually happening in the state.

It stressed on reality and actual facts of politics. Thus it studies various
forces, processes and informal structures making it dynamic.
However, it can be said that political - Science is a systematic study of the
State, Government, Political institutions, Power, influence and authority,
Political processes and Political forces.
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science is a social science. Its nature is different than physical
sciences like physics and chemistry. Whenever we study the origin, evolution
and development of Political Science; we find various aspects of the nature
of Political Science. The definitions and meaning of Political Science shows
that it is a systematic study of Political theory, Political Institutions, Political
forces and processes. When we call Politics as `Political Science, we have to
see how far this subject stands to the tests of science in the strict sense of
the term. In this unit we discuss the nature of Political Science as a social
science.
1] Is it a Science? Very often a question is raised whether the discipline of
Politics can be regarded as a science? There is no unanimity among Political
thinkers whether the subject is a Science. What is a Science? Science is a
systematic body of knowledge, the facts of which have been accurately and
impartially collected, arranged and classified through the use of various
scientific methods of observation, comparison and experimentation. Various
arguments are forwarded for and against the discipline being a science.

CHAPTER 1 POLITICAL SCIENCE

Society: - It may be defined as the complex of organized association and
institution within a community". It is an unorganized or organized, it is wider
or narrow groups of human beings living together in a particular area. The
social instinct of man compels him to live in society. According to Laski, by
society, I means a group of human beings living together for the satisfaction
of their mutual wants".
State: - societies are politically organized under a common law within a
prescribe boundaries. It stands for the protection to life, liberty and property
to individuals and it tries to promote human welfare and good life.
Government: - It is the institutionalized power of state or authority. It is the
agent through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and
realized. It consists of institutions responsible for making collective decisions
for society.

Politics: is the study of state and activity of person involved with the state
i.e. government. It refers to the current problems of state and government,
the actual process of co-operation, conflict and competition for power in
society.
Science: is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the
physical and natural world through observation, evidence and experiment.
Political Science: is the branch of knowledge that deals with systematic
study of the structure and behavior of the state and political institutions
through scientific analysis. It is an academic discipline concerned with man's
official institutions and activities, such as the state, government, citizenship,
public affairs etc. In other words, it is a social science concerned with the
theory, description, analysis and prediction of political behavior, political
activities, and political system as a whole.
MEANING
The term 'Political Science' consists of two words, viz, political and science.
The word 'politics' is derived from the Greek word 'Polis' which means the
city-state. In ancient Greece, the basic unit of political organization was the
city-state. It was the Greeks who first embarked upon the study of state as
distinct from the church. The foundations of political thinking were laid by the
great Greek philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Plato was the author
of the book The Republic. Aristotle the father of political science, firstly
used the term 'politics' and converted the subject into an academic
discipline. He published his book 'Politics' as a first systematic study of
politics.
Science: is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the
physical and natural world through observation, evidence and experiment.
So political science is the branch of knowledge that deals with systematic
study of the structure and behavior of the state and political institutions
through scientific analysis. Politics refers to the subject matter of our study,
science denotes the methodology or the way of studying the process of
politics. The first term seeks to answer the question what is studied" and
the second term refers to how is it studied". Therefore, the political
phenomenon which should be studied in accordance with a definite plan or
system is called political science.
Political Science (Part-I)
Definitions of Political Science It is difficult to give a precise definition to
political science, because of its varying scope in different situations. Let us
examine some of those definitions.

Paul Janet - Political science is that part of science which treats of the
foundations of state and the principles of government.
H.J Laski- The study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in
relation to organized states.
Lasswell- political science is the study of shaping and sharing of power.
David Easton-Political science is the study of the authoritative allocation
of values for a society.
Political Science begins and ends with the state" - Garner
Political Science deals with government only Leacock
Science of polis Aristotle
Science of state Gettle
Politics deals with government Lecock
General problem of state and government Glichrist
Politics is shaping and sharing of power - Dhal
Authoritative allocation of values Easton
Politics is the struggle for and use of power Morgenthau
From the above definitions we may conclude that the state is the central
theme of Political Science. It is the study about the state, its origin, its
nature, its structure, its functions and so on.
Modern political scientists have also emphasized the element of power in the
study of the subject. Abraham Kaplan, Harold. D. Lasswell defined politics as
the study of shaping and sharing of power. It suggests that struggle for
power is the subject matter of the study of politics. Since this struggle takes
place at all levels-domestic, local, regional, national and international
politics becomes a universal activity. Robert A Dahl uses the term political
system instead of politics and he defined it as any persistent pattern of
human relationships that involves to a significant extent, control, influence
power or authority.
So the study of political science or politics include not only state and
government but also an enquiry into the struggles for power that takes place
at all levels beginning from the household to the world at large. Hence a
comprehensive view of the subject of political science involves everything
connected with the life of man in the process of making himself.
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science is still growing and developing subject. So there is no

uniformity among political thinkers regarding the nature of political science,
whether it should be treated as a science or not. Aristotle, the father of
political science, considered it as the master science. Political philosophers
like Bodin, Hobbes, Bluntschli, Bryce also held the view that political science
is a science
But some other political scientists reject the scientific nature of political
science. It is said that in political science there is no uniform principles on
laws which are universally valid. Human behavior is unpredictable. It,
therefore, does not supply sufficient materials for scientific study. The
essence of the scientific method is that it will not accept generalizations
unless they are based on facts which can be verified. Political scientists like
Buckle and Comte deny the claim of political science as a science.
The reality is that, a social science is different from natural science or a
physical science. Science is the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world through observation, evidence
and experiment. It is the body of true knowledge acquired through scientific
process. But in social science we cannot expect so much accuracy and
precision as we see in science subjects. Hundred percentage prediction is not
possible in social science because it deals with the behavior of man and his
political institutions. . There is only remote chance for verification and
prediction in this subjects. While in the study of political phenomena, we can
apply scientific method and tools.
Scope of Political science
Now a days, it is very difficult to determine the precise and definite
boundaries of political science. It is wide and comprehensive subject and
there is no uniformity among political scientists about its scope. It is the
study of organizations and activities of the state, both at national and
international levels. It also deals with the distribution of governing power
among several agencies by which the actions of the state are determined,
expressed, and exercised and with the problems of international life. Yet
some of the important subjects in the scope of political science are given
below: 1. Political Science is the Study of State and Government. In the
political science we study about the theoretical, structural and behavioral
aspects of organization and forms of state and government. Bluntschli says
political science is a science which is concerned with the state, endeavors
to understand and comprehend the state in its essential nature, various
forms, manifestations and development." According to Robson ," the purpose
of political science is to throw light on political ideas and political actions so

that the government of man may be improved". The government is the

agency of the state through which the purpose of the state is realized. It is
the most lively and integral part of the state. According to Paul Janet
"political science is that part of social science which treats of the foundation
of state and the principles of the Government.
2. It is the study of Relationship between the man and the state. The
scope of Political science also includes a study of the nature of relationship
between the individual and the state. The process of men with the society is
an important aspects of political science. The state guarantees certain rights
and liberties to its citizens and at the same time impose certain reasonable
restrictions on them. In fact, state exists for the welfare of the people. As an
agent of the state, it is the function of the government to try to secure
welfare for all who live within the territorial boundary of the state. Again the
government of any state greatly influenced by the thoughts and ideas of that
state. Therefore, the study about the state and government is bounded to be
inconclusive without the study of the nature of the people who constitute the
state. It is in this connection Max Webber has stated that political science is a
descriptive and normative science and describes it as the study of human
behavior in the process of enquiry of justice

3. Study of Political Theory. The theories are the results of the

thoughts and research of many scholars and exponents of political
science. Political scientists formulate various political concepts and
establish theories. According to Gettle , political science is concerned
with the historical survey of origin, development of political theories
and ideals, the analysis of the fundamental nature of the state, its
organization, relation to the individuals that compose it and its relation
to other states ". It is the study of the fundamental questions of the
state, government, politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, the
enforcement of legal code by authority etc. It may be subdivided into
political philosophy, legal political theory, the concept of sovereignty
and legal controls for the exercise of political power, scientific political
theory, consisting of empirical observations of political events etc. So
a student of political science must start his study of the subject with
the theories.
4. Study of political institutions. Political Science is also concerned
with the study of political institutions and associations through with
the state acts. It covers the study of the constitutions, comparative
government, public administration and local government etc. It also
deals with the nature of different political institutions including
government, their structure such as legislature, executive and
judiciary, its working, its merits and demerits etc. Further it studies

about some informal groups like social, economic, educational

institutions in a society.
5. Study of political dynamics. Political dynamics examines the
current forces which exert influence on the government and politics.
Along with the change of habits also are bound to occur of men, social
system also change. This explains why the city states of ancient times
are replaced by the nation states in the present century. The search
for the cause of this kind of changes in the character of the state and
government is the study of political dynamics. It covers a wide range
and includes the study of political parties, public opinion pressure
groups, lobbies, etc. The study of these political dynamics helps to
explain the political behavior of individuals and different groups.
6.
A
study
of
International
relations,
international
organizations and international law. Political science deals with
the matters relating to the maintenance of international relations, the
international law and the organization concerned with the
maintenance of world peace and security. The human society is now
thinking in terms of forming a world government in the near future.
International law provides the framework within which the states
should enjoy their rights and duties. This has made it necessary to
include in the study of political science. It is related to the
maintenance of international relations and different organizations
connected with the maintenances of peace and security among the
states of the world. The subject matter includes international law,
international and regional organizations like UNO, European Union,
NAM, SAARC and League of Nations, diplomatic relations, treaties and
agreements, arms control, human rights, pollution control and global
warming, sustainable development etc.
7. Study of political parties and related organizations. In a
democratic state, political parties play an important role in formation
and functioning of government. They are regarded as an unavoidable
and central part for the successful working of democratic political
system. Its studies are important for understanding the nature and
working of political institutions of a country. The study of political
science is also concerned with the study of informal institutions
through which the state acts. i.e. pressure groups ,interests groups
and other related social, economic, educational institutions etc.
8. It studies of Past, Present and Future development of
State. The scope of Political Science includes the study of the past ,
present and future of states and its activities. According to Gettle, " In
the historical aspects, Political Science deals with the origin of the
state and the development of political theories in the past......... in
dealing with the present it attempts to describe and classify existing

political institutions and ideas. Political Science also look to the future,
to improving political organizations and activities in the light of
changing conditions and changing ethical standards". So its scope is
not restricted to the study of the past and the present alone, but it
directs future course of the development of the state. The study is also
helpful to improving the political institutions and modifying political
activities in order to meet the changing national and international
demands.
Importance of Political Science Why study politics?
To understand his position in relation to state.
To study political thought and ideas of the great political Thinkers.
To understand the current political problems and find solutions.
Make people conscious of their rights and obligations.
To understand the current trends
To provide information about international laws, international
legislation, organizations and maintenance of world peace and
international brotherhood.
Analyze political parties and pressure groups.
It makes people vigilant, develop a spirit of cooperation, adjustment
and tolerance.
It deals with great political events like French Revolution, American
war of Independence and freedom movements.
It helps to form public opinion.
Helps people to safeguard their liberty.
It prevents to misuse of power of government.
It improve the quality of government and administration.
It provides knowledge of the political terminology.
Liberalizes the human outlook.
Developing and strengthening a liberal democratic values and
awareness.
To understanding the political decision-making process.

International Relations
International Relations deals with the study of all aspects of the relations between
nation-states, including political, diplomatic, military, economic, and environmental
relations, among others. It also deals with the relations between non-state actors across
national boundaries, and with international organizations that facilitate relations between
countries. The International Relations faculty at Texas A&M have considerable expertise
in several major subfields of International Relations, including International Conflict,
International Political Economy, and Foreign Policy Decision-making. The predominant
orientation of the International Relations faculty is to contribute to the accumulation of
social scientific knowledge on international relations by using cutting-edge formal,

statistical, and/or experimental methods to produce rigorous theoretical and empirical

research on important substantive questions. As a consequence, students selecting
International Relations as a major field must develop methodological skills sufficient to
pursue rigorous mainstream theoretical and empirical research in the field.
The Program on International Conflict and Cooperation (PICC) organizes and sponsors
internal and external speakers, workshops, and theme conferences. It also provides
research support for faculty and graduate student members.
Political Theory
Political theory offers the opportunity to study from a broad variety of perspectives while
working closely with nationally and internationally recognized scholars. Faculty have
written prize-winning books, published articles in major U.S. and international journals,
won major research fellowships, and held important editorships and other positions in
the profession. Among faculty strengths is the visibility of our research abroad and to
regular appearances at major international scholarly gatherings. Faculty have research
strengths in global and comparative political theory, the history of political thought,
democratic theory, feminist theory, the philosophy of social science, contemporary
political philosophy, the history and theory of tolerance, and the enlightenment. The
program hosts an annual conference on the practice of political theory, a monthly
Convocation in Political Theory, and occasional meetings of the Texas (Lone Star)
chapter of the Conference for the Study of Political Thought.
Public Policy and Public Administration
Public Policy/Public Administration is the scientific study of the politics of institutions,
structures and organizations. The study of public policy focuses on the analysis and
explanation of government and non-government responses to public problems. It seeks
to explain how institutions, organizations, and the public interact within various
governance structures to develop the policies that they do. It is also concerned with the
evaluation and impact of these policies on citizens, governing institutions, and
organized interests. Public administration is concerned with the organization, activities,
and behavior of administrative agencies and officials in the conduct of government.
Public administration includes the study of how bureaucracies interact with other
political institutions, the political and legal context of administration, and how
organization structures and governance structures affect the actions of government.
Both Public Policy and Public Administration cut across the traditional fields of American
politics and comparative politics. PERG (The Project for Equity, Representation and
Governance) is the official research program for Public Policy and Public Administration.

Legislature
A legislature is the law-making body of a political unit, usually a national government,
that has power to enact, amend, and repeal public policy. Laws enacted by legislatures
are known as legislation. Legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually
have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The
most common names for national legislatures are "parliament" and "congress". The
members of a legislature are called legislators.
Terminology
Because members of legislatures usually sit together in a specific room to deliberate,
seats in that room may be assigned exclusively to members of the legislature. In
parliamentary language, the term "seat" is sometimes used to mean that someone is a
member of a legislature. For example, to say that a legislature has 100 "seats" means
that there are 100 members of the legislature; and saying that someone is "contesting a
seat" means they are trying to be elected as a member of the legislature. By extension,
the term "seat" is often used in less formal contexts to refer to an electoral district itself,
as, for example, in the phrases "safe seat" and "marginal seat".
In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature
which may remove it with a vote of no confidence. According to the separation of
powersdoctrine, the legislature in a presidential system is considered an independent
and coequal branch of government along with both the judiciary and the executive.[1]
Institutional framework
A legislature creates a complex interaction between individual members, political
parties, committees, rules of parliamentary procedure, and informal norms.

Chambers
A legislature is composed of one or more deliberative assemblies that
separately debate and vote upon bills. These assemblies are normally known
as chambers or houses. A legislature with only one house is a unicameral legislature,
while a bicameral legislature possesses two separate chambers, usually described as
an "upper house" and a "lower house". These usually differ in the duties and powers
they exercise the upper house being more revisionary or advisory in parliamentary
systems and the methods used for the selection of members. Tricameral legislatures
are rare; the Massachusetts Governor's Council still exists, but the most recent national
example existed in the waning years of caucasian-minority rule in South Africa.
In presidential systems, the powers of the two houses are often similar or equal, while in
federations, the upper house typically represents the federation's component states.
This is a case with the supranational legislature of the European Union. The upper
house may either contain the delegates of state governments as in the European
Union and inGermany and, before 1913, in the United States or be elected according

to a formula that grants equal representation to states with smaller populations, as is the
case inAustralia and the United States since 1913. In the United States the legislative
branch is split into the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Legislation
Legislation (or "statutory law") is law which has been promulgated (or "enacted") by
a legislature or other governing body or the process of making it.[1] (Another source of
law is judge-made law or case law.) Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be
known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as "legislation", while it remains under
consideration to distinguish it from other business. Legislation can have many purposes:
to regulate, to authorize, to proscribe, to provide (funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare
or to restrict. It may be contrasted with a non-legislative act which is adopted by
an executive or administrative body under the authority of a legislative act or for
implementing a legislative act.[2]
Under the Westminster system, an item of primary legislation is known as an Act of
Parliament after enactment.
Legislation is usually proposed by a member of the legislature (e.g. a member of
Congress or Parliament), or by the executive, whereupon it is debated by members of
the legislature and is often amended before passage. Most large legislatures enact only
a small fraction of the bills proposed in a given session.[3] Whether a given bill will be
proposed and is generally a matter of the legislative priorities of government.
Legislation is regarded as one of the three main functions of government, which are
often distinguished under the doctrine of the separation of powers. Those who have the
formal power to create legislation are known as legislators; a judicial branch of
government will have the formal power to interpret legislation (see statutory
interpretation); the executive of government can act only within the powers and limits
set by the law.
Latest revision
The function and procedures are primarily the responsibility of the legislature. However,
there are situations where legislation is made by other bodies or means, such as
whenconstitutional law or secondary legislation is enacted. Such other forms of lawmaking include referendums, orders in council or regulations. The term legislation is
sometimes used to include these situations, or the term primary legislation may be used
to exclude these other forms.
Dead letter
The phrase "dead letter" refers to legislation that has not been revoked, but that has
become inapplicable or obsolete or is no longer enforced.
A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to create
and change laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law.

Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and
congress, although these terms also have more specific meanings. The main job of the
legislature is to make and amend laws. In parliamentary systems of government, the
legislature is formally supreme and appoints the executive. In presidential systems of
government, the legislature is considered a power branch which is equal to and
independent of the executive. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have
exclusive authority to raise taxes and adopt the budget and other money bills. The
primary components of a legislature are one or more chambers or houses: assemblies
that debate and vote upon bills. A legislature with only one house is called unicameral. A
bicameral legislature possesses two separate chambers, usually described as an upper
house and a lower house, which often differ in duties, powers, and the methods used for
the selection of members. Much rarer have been tricameral legislatures; the most recent
existed in the waning years of white-minority rule in South Africa. In most parliamentary
systems, the lower house is the more powerful house while the upper house is merely a
chamber of advice or review. However, in presidential systems, the powers of the two
houses are often similar or equal. In federations, it is typical for the upper house to
represent the component states; the same applies to the supranational legislature of the
European Union. For this purpose, the upper house may either contain the delegates of
state governments, as is the case in the European Union and in Germany and was the
case in the United States before 1913, or be elected according to a formula that grants
equal representation to states with smaller populations, as is the case in Australia and
the modern United States. Because members of legislatures usually sit together in a
specific room to deliberate, seats in that room may be assigned exclusively to members
of the legislature. In parliamentary language, the term seat is sometimes used to mean
that someone is a member of a legislature. For example, saying that a legislature has
100 "seats" means that there are 100 members of the legislature, and saying that
someone is "contesting a seat" means they are trying to get elected as a member of the
legislature. By extension, the term seat is often used in less formal contexts to refer to
an electoral district itself, as for example in the phrases "safe seat" and "marginal seat".
Legislative laws are laws passed by the legislative branch of government (think
Senators and Representatives) and is usually in the form of a statute or regulation.
Legislative law is different than Common Law which is created by judges when they
decide the cases before the court. Judges can interpret what legislative law means if
there is a dispute about the meaning of a particular statute or Judges can declare a

statute unconstitutional if it conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or the constitution of the
state.

Political dynamics refers to all the factors that come to bear on political figures, their
activities and policy directions. Ranging from population demographics to stances on
core policy issues, the dynamics occurring in a region can dramatically influence the
outcome of a political race or the conduct of elected officials.

Government
A government is the system by which a state or community is governed.[1] In
the Commonwealth of Nations, the word government is also used more narrowly to refer
to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state.[2][3][4] This
usage is analogous to what is called an "administration" in American English.
Furthermore, especially in American English, the concepts of the state and the
government may be used synonymously to refer to the person or group of people
exercising authority over a politically organized territory. Finally, government is also
sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists
of legislators, administrators, and arbitrators. Government is the means by which state
policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A
form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political systems
and institutions that make up the organization of a specific government.
Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways.
For this reason, political scientists generally argue that government should not be
studied by itself; but should be studied along with anthropology, economics,
environmentalism, history, philosophy, science, and sociology.

Public law
Public law (lat. ius publicum) is that part of law which governs relationships between
individuals and the government, and those relationships between individuals which are
of direct concern to the society.[1] Public law comprises constitutional law, administrative
law, tax law and criminal law,[1] as well as all procedural law. In public law, mandatory
rulesprevail. Laws concerning relationships between individuals belong to private law.
The relationships public law governs are asymmetric and unequal government bodies
(central or local) can make decisions about the rights of individuals. However, as a
consequence of the rule of law doctrine, authorities may only act within the law

(secundum et intra legem). The government must obey the law. For example, a citizen
unhappy with a decision of an administrative authority can ask a court for judicial
review.
Rights, too, can be divided into private rights and public rights. A paragon of a public
right is the right to welfare benefits only a natural person can claim such payments,
and they are awarded through an administrative decision out of the government budget.
The distinction between public law and private law dates back to Roman law. It has
been picked up in the countries of civil law tradition at the beginning of the 19th century,
but since then spread to common law countries, too.
The borderline between public law and private law is not always clear in particular
cases, giving rise to attempts of theoretical understanding of its basis.

Public law in civil law and common law jurisdictions

The idea that the administration of the state should be controlled by a set of laws
originated in France, Germany and Austria in the 18th century. It is related to the strong
position of the central government in the era of enlightened absolutism, and was
inspired by the French Revolution and enlightenment. It developed hand in hand with
the creation of civil codes and criminal codes.

Areas of public law

Constitutional law
In modern states, constitutional law lays out the foundations of the state. Above all, it
postulates the supremacy of law in the functioning of the state the rule of law.
Secondly, it sets out the form of government how its different branches work, how they
are elected or appointed, and the division of powers and responsibilities between them.
Traditionally, the basic elements of government are the executive, the
legislature and the judiciary.
And thirdly, in describing what are the basic human rights, which must be protected for
every person, and what further civil and political rights citizens have, it sets the
fundamental borders to what any government must and must not do.
In most jurisdictions, constitutional law is enshrined in a written document,
the Constitution, sometimes together with amendments or other constitutional laws. In
some countries, however, such a supreme entrenched written document does not exist
for historical and political reasons the Constitution of the United Kingdom is an
unwritten one.
Administrative law

Administrative law refers to the body of law which regulates bureaucratic managerial
procedures and defines the powers of administrative agencies. These laws are enforced
by the executive branch of a government rather than the judicial or legislative branches
(if they are different in that particular jurisdiction). This body of law
regulates international trade, manufacturing, pollution, taxation, and the like. This is
sometimes seen as a subcategory of civil law and sometimes seen as public law as it
deals with regulation and public institutions.
Criminal law
Criminal law involves the state imposing sanctions for defined crimes committed by
individuals or businesses, so that society can achieve its brand of justice and a
peaceable social. This differs from civil law in that civil actions are disputes between two
parties that are not of significant public concern.

Sosyolohiya
Ang sosyolohiya o dalubulnungan ay ang pag-aaral ng mga alituntunin ng lipunan at
mga proseso na binibigkis at hinihiwalay ang mga tao hindi lamang bilang mga
indibiduwal kundi bilang kasapi ng mga asosasyon, grupo, at institusyon.
Tinatawag ito, sa isang kahulugan sa isang tipikal na aklat, bilang ang pag-aaral sa mga
buhay na panlipunan ng mga tao, grupo, at lipunan. Interesado ang sosyolohiya sa
ating pag-uugali bilang mga nilalang na marunong makisama; sa ganitong paraan
sinasakop ng nagustuhang larangan sa sosyolohiya mula sa pagsusuri ng maiikling
pakikitungo sa pagitan ng hindi magkakilalang indibiduwal sa daan hanggang sa pagaaral ng proseso ng pandaigdigang lipunan.

Antropolohiya
Ang antropolohiya (gikan sa Griyegong pulong , "tawo") gitibuok sa pagtuon
sa katawhan (tan-awa ang genus Homo). Kini matibuk-anon (holistic) sa duha ka
sentido: nanginlabot kini sa tanang tawo sa tanang panahon, ug sa tanang dimensiyon
sa pagkatawo. Ang usa ka nag-unang kinaiya nga nagpalahi sa antropolohiya gikan sa
ubang humanistikong disiplina mao ang pokus niini sa mga pagtuong labang sa kultura.
Kining maong kalainan, hinuon, padayong nahimong sabdyek sa kontrobersiya ug
debate, ug ang mga metodong antropolohikal karon giaplay na sa pagtuon sa usa
katilingban kun pundok.
Sa Tinipong Bansa, ang 'anthropology' tradisyonal nga nabahin sa upat ka mga subdisiplina:
antropolohiya pisikal, nga nagtuon sa batasan sa mga primata, ebolusyon sa
tawo, ug population genetics; kining maong natad usahay gitawag
nga antropolohiya bayolohikal.
antropolohiya kultural, (gitawag nga antropolohiya sosyal sa Nagkahiusang
Gingharian ug karon sagad nga gitawag nga antropolohiya sosyo-kultural).
Gitun-an sa mgacultural anthropologists ang mga network sosyal, dipusyon,
batasan
samtang
anaa
sa
katilingban,
mga
patern
sa
kinsyip, pamalaod, politika, ideyolohiya, relihiyon, mga pagtuo, mga patern sa
produksiyon ug paghurot (consumption), exchange, sosyalisyon, kiye (gender),
ug uban pang expresyon sa kultura, nga may pokus sa kamahinungdanon

sa fieldwork, kun pagpuyo uban sa katilingban nga gitun-an sulod sa hataas nga
kutay sa panahon;
antropolohiyang linggwistik, nga nagtuon sa baryasyon sa pinulongan, ang
katilingbanong gamit sa pinulongan, ug ang relasyon taliwala sa pinulongan
ug kultura; ug
arkeyolohiya, nga nagtuon sa mga nagpabiling materyal sa mga katilingban. Ang
arkeyolohiya mismo giila nga lahi (apan may kalabotan) nga natad sa ubang
bahin sa kalibotan, bisan kon duol og kalabotan sa antropolohikal nga natad
sa kultura materyal, nga nagtuon sa mga pisikal nga mga butang nga gimugna o
gigamit sa usa ka pundok isip mga medym sa pagsinabtanay sa ilang mga
kulturanhong pagbili.

Antropolohiyang panlipunan
Ang antropolohiyang panlipunan (social anthropology sa wikang Ingles) ay isa sa
apat na itinuturing na mga larangan ng antropolohiya o agham-tao. Ito ang bahagi ng
antropolohiya na itinuturing bilang mas kiling sa agham panlipunan kung ihahambing
sa antropolohiyang biyolohikal na sinasabi namang mas kiling sa agham pangkalikasan.
Sa larangang ito, tinitignan at pinag-aaralan ang mga tao bilang mga kasapi ng isang
partikular na lipunan. Sa ganitong paraan, masasabi natin na malaki ang kaugnayan ng
antropolohiyang panlipunan sa disiplina ng sosyolohiya. Sa katunayan, ang
antropolohiya at sosyolohiya ay dalawang magkaibang mga disiplina na mayroong
napakalaking pagkakatulad sa isa't isa kung ihahambing sa iba pang mga sangay ng
agham panlipunan. Ang sosyolohiya ay tradisyunal na itinuturing bilang ang pag-aaral
ng mga "moderno", urbano, industriyal at kanluraning mga lipunan. Sa kabilang banda,
ang antropolohiya ay itinuturing naman ng maraming tao bilang ang pag-aaral ng mga
"primitibo", rural, tradisyunal at hindi kanluraning mga lipunan. Gayumpaman, ang
ganitong uri ng paghahambing sa pagitan ng dalawang disiplinang ito ay hindi na
maituturing na balido sa kasalukuyan. Isang magandang katibayan nito ay ang pagusbong ng tinatawag na antropolohiyang panlungsod. Ang mas mahalagang
pagkakaiba sa pagitan ng antropolohiya at sosyolohiya ay matatagpuan sa mga
pamamaraan sa pagkalap ng mga datos. Sa antropolohiya, ang pangunahing
pamamaraan na ginagamit sa pagkalap ng mga datos ay ang tinatawag na kalahok na
pagmamasid kung saan ay nakikipamuhay ang isang antropologo kasama ng mga
taong kabilang sa lipunang kanyang pinag-aaralan. Para sa mga antropologo,
ang perspektibang ''emiko'' (emic) o pananaw ng taga-loob ay kasinghalaga o mas
mahalaga pa kaysa sa perspektibang ''etiko'' (etic) o pananaw ng taga-labas. Ang
pangunahing trabaho ng mga antropologo ay ang paggawa ng mga etnograpiya o mga
salaysay na naglalarawan tungkol sa isang partikular na lipunan o pangkat ng mga tao.
Sa kabilang banda, ang mga sosyologo naman ay mas pinagtutuunang-pansin ang
pagkalap ng mga estatistikal na mga datos tungkol sa mga lipunang kanilang pinagaaralan.

Ang antropolohiyang panlipunan ay kilala din sa tawag na antropolohiyang

pangkalinangan o antropolohiyang kultural. Ilan sa mga pinag-aaralan sa disiplinang ito
ay
ang
pagkakamag-anak,
pag-aasawa,pagsasapin-saping
panlipunan, kasarian, seksuwalidad, relihiyon, ekonomiya at politika.

Agham
Ang agham (mula sa Sanskrito: [gama]) o siyensiya (mula sa Kastila: Ciencia)
ay kapwa ang proseso sa pagtamo ng kaalaman at ang organisadong bahagi ng
kaalaman na natamo sa pamamagitan ng pamamaraan nito. Ang prosesong
makaagham
(scientific
process)
ay
ang
sistematikong
pagtamo
ng
bagong kaalaman tungkol
sa
isang sistema.
Karaniwan,
ang pamamaraang
makaagham (scientific method) ay ang sistematikong pagtamo, at ang kalikasan at iba't
ibang bahagi nito ang siyang sistema. Ang agham ay itinuturing din na ang makaagham
na kaalaman na sistemikong natamo ng makaagham na prosesong ito. Ito ay pag
aaral ng mga bagay bagay, kung saan nagsimula, kung para saan at pag
aaral ng mga hindi pa nalalaman o natutuklasan.
Ang Sosyolohiya ay may kaugnayan/kahalagahan sa kasaysayan dahil ang sosyolohiya
ay ang pag-aaaral o institusyon na sumusuri o nag-tatala ng mga datos o impormasyon
sa mga alituntunin ng lipunan ,mga proseso sa pagbibigkis at paghihiwalay sa mga tao
ayon sa grupo,asosasyon,institusyon,at maging indibiduwal.Ayon din ang sosyolohiya
sa pakikisama at pakikitungo ng mga tao sa bawat henerasyon.Ang sosyolohiya ay
mahalaga din sa pag-aaral sa proseso ng pandaigdigang lipunan.