Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Authors
F Michael Cutrer, MD
Zahid H Bajwa, MD
Ashraf Sabahat, MD
Section Editor
Jerry W Swanson, MD
Deputy Editor
John F Dashe, MD, PhD
The once popular vascular theory of migraine, which suggested that migraine
headache was caused by the dilatation of blood vessels, while the aura of
migraine resulted from vasoconstriction, is no longer considered viable [2-4].
Vasodilatation, if it occurs at all during spontaneous migraine attacks [4], is
probably an epiphenomenon resulting from instability in the central
neurovascular control mechanism [5].
There is convergence of the projections from the upper cervical nerve roots and
the trigeminal nerve at the trigeminal nucleus caudalis [15,16]. This
convergence can explain the distribution of migraine pain, which often includes
anterior and posterior regions of the head and the upper neck. Once
transmitted to the trigeminal nucleus caudalis by trigeminal axons, central
signals can be modulated by projections from the rostral trigeminal nuclei [17],
the periaqueductal gray, and the nucleus raphe magnus [18] as well as by
descending cortical inhibitory systems [18,19].
From the trigeminal nucleus caudalis, fibers that are involved in the localization
of pain ascend to the thalamus (mostly to the ventroposterior medial nucleus of
the thalamus) and to the sensory cortex [20]. Other second-order neurons from
the trigeminal nucleus caudalis project to numerous subcortical sites including
the more rostral segments of the trigeminal complex [21], the reticular
formation of the brain stem [22], the cerebellum [23,24], the midbrain and
pontine parabrachial nuclei [25,26], the ventrobasal thalamus [21,24,27,28],
the posterior thalamus [29,30], and the medial thalamus [31]. From more
rostral brain stem nuclei, nociceptive information is transmitted to other brain
areas (eg, limbic regions) involved in the emotional and vegetative responses
to pain [25].
Structural changes in the brain have also been found. Studies suggest that
patients with migraine have increased cortical thickness in motion-processing
visual areas, increased density of the periaqueductal gray and dorsolateral
pons, and decreased gray matter in the anterior cingulate cortex and insula
[40,41]. Increased iron levels have been identified in the periaqueductal gray of
episodic and chronic migraineurs [42].
The importance of inheritance in migraine has long been recognized [52]. One
early general population based study found that the risk of migraine in
relatives of migraineurs was three times greater than that of relatives of nonmigraine control subjects [53]. However segregation analysis does not identify
any single Mendelian pattern of inheritance in the common forms of migraine
[54]. Large national registry-based twin studies have confirmed a consistently
higher concordance of migraine in monozygotic twins versus dizygotic twins. In
one such study, using a polygenic multifactorial model, researchers estimated
that inheritance accounts for 40 to 50 percent of an individual's susceptibility
to migraine [55].
Genetics of the common forms of migraine The genetic basis of the common
forms of migraine (migraine with aura and migraine without aura) has not been
clarified, but some noteworthy clues have emerged:
The KCNK18 gene that encodes for TRESK, a two-pore domain potassium
channel (K2P), has been implicated as a probable cause of migraine with aura
in a candidate gene study [56]. The report identified KCNK18 variants by
sequencing the gene in cohorts of unrelated subjects with and without
migraine. One particular frameshift mutation (F139WfsX24) in the KCNK18
gene, first identified in migraineurs, was then found to segregate only with
individuals affected by migraine with aura in a large multigenerational kindred;
it was not found in unaffected individuals. Functional analysis revealed that the
mutant TRESK channels are nonfunctional and cause a dominant-negative
downregulation of wild-type TRESK activity. In addition, the investigators
demonstrated that TRESK is expressed in trigeminal ganglia. The results
suggest that the KCNK18 mutation causes suppression of TRESK channel
activity and thereby alters neuronal excitability, consistent with a possible
pathogenic role in migraine.
Migraine without aura is the most common type, accounting for approximately
75 percent of cases.
Right-to-left cardiac shunt Migraine with aura has been linked to right-to-left
cardiac shunts, usually in the setting of a patent foramen ovale (PFO) or, much
less often, an atrial septal defect (ASD) [64-66] or pulmonary arteriovenous
malformations in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu
syndrome) [67]. (See "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of atrial septal
defects in adults" and "Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-WeberRendu syndrome)".)
While definitive conclusions are not yet possible, the population-based NOMAS
study provides high-quality observational evidence that PFO is not associated
with migraine [70]. In contrast, the association of PFO with migraine in the
systematic review is supported by low or low to moderate quality evidence
[69].
Closure of the defect has been reported to prevent or reduce the frequency of
subsequent migraines. However, the data are conflicting, and it is premature to
recommend closure of a PFO or ASD solely as a treatment for migraine. (See
"Preventive treatment of migraine in adults", section on 'Closure of right-to-left
cardiac shunt'.)
A visual aura classically begins as a small area of visual loss often just lateral to
the point of visual fixation. It may either appear as a bright spot or as an area
of visual loss. Over the following five minutes to one hour, the visual
disturbance expands to involve a quadrant or hemifield of vision. Along the
expanding margin geometric shapes or zigzagging lines often appear. The
shapes account for one of the common names for aura, the fortification
spectrum, because of the resemblance of the aura to the walls of a medieval
fortress. The positive visual phenomena may assume a sickle or C-shape,
expanding over time toward the peripheral visual field, leaving a scotoma or
area of complete visual loss in their wake. As the aura moves off into the
peripheral visual field, it often assumes a shimmering or scintillating quality. As
the aura resolves, vision usually returns first to the areas of central vision
initially affected by the aura [77].
The sensory aura is also common and typically follows the visual aura within
minutes, although it may also occur without the visual aura. A sensory aura
usually begins as a tingling in one limb or on one side of the face. As the
tingling sensation migrates across one side of the face or down the limb,
numbness is left in its wake that may last up to an hour. The sensory aura may
also move inside the mouth, affecting the buccal mucosa and half the tongue.
The slow spread of positive symptoms (scintillations or tingling) followed by
negative symptoms (scotoma or numbness) is quite characteristic of migraine
aura and is not typical for an ischemic event [77].
Less common than the visual and sensory auras is the language or dysphasic
aura. Language auras cause transient problems that may run the gamut from
mild wording difficulties to frank dysphasia with paraphasic errors. In the rarest
of auras, motor aura, the limbs and possibly the face on one side of the body
become weak. Because of information related to the genetic basis of the motor
aura, it has been separated from the other forms of aura and classified as
hemiplegic migraine (see "Hemiplegic migraine") [76]. The aura symptoms
may occur either singly or in sequence but they do not generally occur
simultaneously.
The aura of migraine usually develops gradually over more than five minutes.
Less often, the aura develops more acutely (ie, in less than five minutes). The
acute onset of aura makes confusion with a TIA or stroke more likely. In one
case series, four patients (2 percent) had exclusively acute onset visual aura
[78].
In adults, an untreated headache can last as little as four hours and as long as
several days. Many attacks resolve in sleep.
Cutaneous allodynia occurs frequently with migraine, and it may occur even in
the absence of headache. In one study, allodynia was reported by 62 percent of
11,094 patients with migraine who completed a questionnaire [89]. In an
earlier survey of 157 patients with migraine and allodynia, the most common
locations of allodynia were pure cephalic and cephalic plus extracephalic,
occurring in 85 and 34 percent, respectively [90]. Pure extracephalic allodynia
occurred in 15 percent. Scalp allodynia was ipsilateral to the predominant
headache side in the majority of cases and occurred at the height of headache.
Trunk allodynia occurred in a few patients.
Migraine with brainstem aura Migraine with brainstem aura, reviewed here
briefly and discussed in detail elsewhere (see "Migraine with brainstem aura
(basilar-type migraine)"), is an uncommon form of migraine with aura wherein
the primary signs and symptoms are referable to the brainstem without
weakness. Migraine with brainstem aura was previously called basilar-type
migraine. It occurs more often in females than in males. Onset is usually
between ages 7 to 20. The auras consist of some combination of vertigo,
dysarthria, tinnitus, diplopia, ataxia, decreased level of consciousness, and
hypacusis. Attacks nearly always include two or more brainstem-related aura
symptoms (table 1). Attacks may evolve to more typical common forms of
migraine with age.
The authors speculated that permanent visual loss resulting from retinal
migraine may be a type of migrainous infarction, leading them to suggest the
use of prophylactic migraine therapy with antiepileptic or tricyclic medications
for patients with this condition [92]. (See "Headache, migraine, and stroke",
section on 'Migrainous infarction definition' and "Preventive treatment of
migraine in adults".)
The treatment of menstrual migraine is discussed separately. (See "Estrogenassociated migraine", section on 'Menstrual migraine' and "Estrogen-associated
migraine", section on 'Preventive therapies'.)
While the features of migraine and tension headache overlap, the clinical
features that appear to be most predictive of migraine include nausea,
photophobia, phonophobia, and exacerbation by physical activity [93]. Food
triggers are also more common with migraine than tension-type headache.
(See "Tension-type headache in adults: Pathophysiology, clinical features, and
diagnosis".)
The ICHD-3 criteria for migraine without aura are the following [76]:
Unilateral location
Pulsating quality
The ICHD-3 criteria for migraine with aura are as follows [76]:
Visual
Sensory
Motor
Brainstem
Retinal
At least one aura symptom spreads gradually over 5 minutes, and/or two or
more symptoms occur in succession
The ICHD-3 criteria for migraine with typical aura require the following [76]:
At least one aura symptom spreads gradually over 5 minutes, and/or two or
more symptoms occur in succession
Patients with atypical headache features or headaches that do not fulfill the
strict definition of migraine or other primary headache disorder (or have some
additional risk factor, such as immune deficiency)
Patients with sudden severe headache also need neuroimaging because of the
suspicion of subarachnoid hemorrhage. (See "Evaluation of headache in
adults", section on 'Indications for imaging studies'.)
A head CT scan (without and with contrast) is sufficient in many patients when
neuroimaging is deemed necessary [97]. An MRI is indicated when posterior
fossa lesions or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak are suspected. Magnetic
resonance angiography (MRA) and magnetic resonance venography (MRV) are
indicated when arterial or venous lesions, respectively, are considered in the
differential diagnosis.
The differential diagnosis for migraine aura includes transient ischemic attack
(TIA), seizure, syncope, and vestibular disorders. Useful features for
distinguishing these various types of transient neurologic attacks include the
nature of the symptoms, their progression, duration and timing, associated
symptoms during and after the attacks (table 5), and presence of focal or
nonfocal symptoms (table 6). The symptoms of TIA and migraine are fully
reversible, and neuroimaging is often unrevealing in both conditions. However,
both a TIA and an ischemic stroke typically have a sudden onset of symptoms
rather than a gradual progressive spread of one aura symptom after another.
Ischemic events are also less likely to have positive symptoms such as visual
scintillations or paresthesia, and are less likely to have migrainous symptoms
such as nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia. (See "Differential
diagnosis of transient ischemic attack and stroke".)
Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We
encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also
locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on
patient info and the keyword(s) of interest.)
Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient information: Headache causes and
diagnosis in adults (Beyond the Basics)")
The genetic basis of the common forms of migraine is likely complex and in
some individuals may be based on the additive effect of more than one genetic
source. The KCNK18 and CSNK1D genes have been implicated in the
pathogenesis of migraine with aura. Familial hemiplegic migraine is associated
with mutations in four genes, three of which encode for transmembrane ion
channels. (See 'Genetic basis' above.)
The headache of migraine is often but not always unilateral and tends to have
a throbbing or pulsatile quality. Accompanying features may include nausea,
vomiting, photophobia or phonophobia during attacks. (See 'Migraine
headache' above.)
Una mutacin sin sentido en el gen distinto CSNK1D, que codifica la casena
quinasa I isoforma delta, se demostr que cosegregate tanto con la presencia
de la migraa y el trastorno de la fase del sueo avanzada en dos familias no
relacionadas [57]. Adems, los ratones que llevan la mutacin CSNK1D-T44A
mostraron una disminucin del umbral para la depresin cortical propagacin y
el aumento de la dilatacin arterial durante la difusin de la depresin cortical.
Estos hallazgos sugieren que la disminucin de la casena quinasa I isoforma
actividad delta puede jugar un papel en el mecanismo de la migraa.
La migraa aura - Alrededor del 25 por ciento de las personas con migraas
experiencia de uno o ms sntomas neurolgicos focales en la segunda fase,
llamada el aura de la migraa. La enseanza tradicional es que el aura de la
migraa suele preceder el dolor de cabeza. Sin embargo, los datos
prospectivos sugieren que la mayora de los pacientes con migraa
experimentan dolor de cabeza durante la fase de aura [75].
Menos comn que las auras visuales y sensoriales es el idioma o aura disfsico.
Auras del lenguaje conllevan problemas transitorios que pueden van desde las
dificultades de redaccin leves a disfasia franco con errores parafsicos. En la
ms rara de las auras, aura de motor, las extremidades y, posiblemente, la
cara en un lado del cuerpo se debilitan. Debido a la informacin relacionada
con la base gentica del aura del motor, se ha separado de las otras formas de
aura y clasificado como migraa hemipljica (ver "migraa hemipljica") [76].
Los sntomas de aura pueden ocurrir ya sea individualmente o en secuencia,
pero por lo general no ocurrir simultneamente.
En los adultos, un dolor de cabeza no tratada puede durar tan poco como
cuatro horas, y hasta varios das. Muchos ataques se resuelven en el sueo.
La migraa con aura tronco cerebral - La migraa con aura tronco cerebral,
revisado aqu brevemente y se discute en detalle en otra parte (ver "La
migraa con aura tronco cerebral (de tipo basilar migraa)"), es una forma
poco frecuente de migraa con aura en la que los principales signos y sntomas
son atribuibles al tronco cerebral sin debilidad. La migraa con aura tronco
cerebral antes se llamaba de tipo basilar migraa. Es ms frecuente en mujeres
que en hombres. El inicio es generalmente entre las edades de 7 a 20 Las
auras consisten en una combinacin de vrtigo, disartria, tinnitus, diplopia,
ataxia, nivel de conciencia, y la hipoacusia disminuido. Los ataques casi
siempre incluyen dos o ms sntomas de aura relacionadas tronco cerebral
(tabla 1). Los ataques pueden evolucionar a formas comunes tpicos ms de
migraa con la edad.
La aparicin de la disminucin del nivel de conciencia, seguido de dolor de
cabeza a veces se traduce en dificultad diagnstica. Es importante recordar
que la migraa con aura tronco cerebral es poco frecuente y que debe ser otro
sntoma del tronco cerebral, adems de disminucin de la conciencia para
hacer el diagnstico. En ausencia de un segundo sntoma de localizacin tronco
cerebral, otras causas de prdida inexplicable de la conciencia tales como
convulsiones y sncope cardiognico deben ser considerados y debidamente
investigado. La migraa con aura tronco cerebral debe diagnosticarse slo
cuando la debilidad est ausente, ya que un nmero de pacientes con migraa
hemipljica familiar tiene sntomas del tronco cerebral. (Ver "La migraa con
aura tronco cerebral (de tipo basilar migraa)" y "la migraa hemipljica".)
Migraa hemipljica - La caracterstica principal que separa la migraa
hemipljica de otros tipos de migraa con aura es la presencia de debilidad
motora como una manifestacin de aura en al menos algunos ataques. Adems
de la debilidad motora durante la fase de aura, que suele ser unilateral, las
manifestaciones de los ataques de migraa hemipljica pueden incluir diversas
dolor de cabeza severo, escotoma centelleante, defecto del campo visual,
entumecimiento, parestesias, afasia, fiebre, letargo, coma y convulsiones.
Migraa hemipljica puede ocurrir ya sea en las familias o slo en un individuo
(espordico). (Ver "la migraa hemipljica".)
Migraa retiniana - migraa retiniana es una enfermedad poco frecuente que
se caracteriza por ataques repetidos de escotoma monocular o ceguera que
dura menos de una hora, asociado con o seguida de dolor de cabeza. La
Sociedad Internacional de Cefalea prefiere el trmino migraa retina [76], pero
migraa ocular ha sido sugerido como un trmino ms preciso, ya que las
circulaciones tanto de la retina y ciliares pueden estar involucrados [91]. En
ocasiones, el inicio puede ser abrupto y difcil de distinguir de la amaurosis
fugaz [79]. (Ver "La amaurosis fugaz (monocular transitoria o prdida de la
visin binocular)".)
transitorio se ha excluido
Los criterios ICHD-3 para la migraa con aura tpica requieren lo siguiente [76]:
A) Por lo menos dos ataques que cumplan los criterios de la B a la D
B) Aura consistente en visual, sensorial y / o del habla / lenguaje sntomas,
cada una, totalmente reversible, pero sin motor, tronco cerebral o sntomas de
la retina
c) al menos dos de las siguientes cuatro caractersticas:
Por lo menos uno de los sntomas del aura se extiende gradualmente a lo
largo 5 minutos, y / o dos o ms sntomas ocurren en sucesin
Cada sntoma aura individuo dura 5 a 60 minutos
Por lo menos uno de los sntomas del aura es unilateral
El aura es acompaado o seguido dentro de los 60 minutos, por el dolor de
cabeza
D) No se explica mejor por otro diagnstico ICHD-3, y accidente isqumico
transitorio se ha excluido
Cuando el aura incluye debilidad motora, el trastorno se diagnostica como la
migraa hemipljica [76]. Cuando los sntomas de aura surgen del tronco
cerebral, el trastorno se diagnostica como migraa con aura tronco cerebral.
Cuando el aura consiste en documentar fenmenos visual monocular
(documentada por examen de campo visual clnica o dibujo paciente de un
defecto del campo monocular), el trastorno se diagnostica como la migraa
retiniana.
Las pruebas de diagnstico - Neuroimagen no es necesario en la mayora de los
pacientes con migraa. Directrices basadas en pruebas emitidas por la
American Academy of Neurology sugiere considerar la neuroimagen en los
siguientes pacientes con dolor de cabeza no aguda [94]:
Los pacientes con un resultado anormal en el examen neurolgico
inexplicable
Los pacientes con dolor de cabeza o dolores de cabeza atpica caractersticas
que no cumplen la definicin estricta de la migraa u otra cefalea primaria (o
tienen algn factor de riesgo adicional, como la deficiencia inmunitaria)
Los pacientes con dolor de cabeza repentino e intenso tambin necesitan
neuroimagen debido a la sospecha de hemorragia subaracnoidea. (Consulte la
seccin "Evaluacin del dolor de cabeza en los adultos", seccin sobre 'Las
indicaciones para los estudios de imagen.)
lugar de una progresiva difusin gradual de un sntoma aura tras otro. Eventos
isqumicos son tambin menos propensos a tener sntomas positivos como
centelleos visuales o parestesia, y son menos propensos a tener sntomas
migraosos, tales como nuseas, vmitos, fotofobia, fonofobia y. (Ver "El
diagnstico diferencial de un ataque isqumico transitorio y accidente
cerebrovascular".)
Una excepcin podra ser la isquemia cerebral causado por diseccin de la
arteria cervical, que puede tener tanto una extensin progresiva de los
sntomas y algunas caractersticas migraosas. (Ver "diseccin de la arteria
cerebral y cervical espontnea: Caractersticas clnicas y diagnstico".)
INFORMACIN PARA PACIENTES - UpToDate ofrece dos tipos de materiales
educativos para pacientes, "Aspectos bsicos" y "Ms all de lo bsico." Los
Fundamentos Los pedazos de educacin para pacientes est escrita en un
lenguaje sencillo, en el 5 al 6 grado de lectura, y responden a los cuatro o cinco
preguntas clave que un paciente podra tener sobre una condicin dada. Estos
artculos son los mejores para los pacientes que quieren una visin general y
que prefieren, materiales fciles de leer cortos. Ms all de la paciente
Fundamentos pedazos de educacin son ms largos, ms sofisticado y ms
detallada. Estos artculos estn escritos en la 10 a nivel de lectura de 12 y
son los mejores para los pacientes que quieren informacin en profundidad y
se sienten cmodos con la jerga mdica.
Aqu estn los artculos de educacin del paciente que son relevantes para este
tema. Le animamos a imprimir o enviar por correo electrnico estos temas a
sus pacientes. (Tambin puede localizar artculos de educacin del paciente
sobre una variedad de temas mediante la bsqueda en "informacin del
paciente", y la palabra clave (s) de inters.)
Fundamentos temas (ver "Informacin para el paciente: Dolor de cabeza
(The Basics)")
Ms all de los temas Basics (ver "Informacin para el paciente: Dolor de
cabeza causa y el diagnstico en adultos (aparte de las bsicas)")
RESUMEN Y RECOMENDACIONES
depresin propagada cortical es la hiptesis de que el aura de la migraa,
activar los aferentes del nervio trigmino, y altera la barrera hematoenceflica
permeabilidad. La activacin del sistema trigeminovascular juega un papel
central en la fisiopatologa de la migraa, incluyendo la aparicin de la
inflamacin neurognica que est vinculado al dolor de la migraa.
Sensibilizacin, un proceso en el que las neuronas se vuelven cada vez ms
sensibles a la estimulacin nociceptiva y no nociceptivo, es probable
responsable de muchos de los sntomas clnicos de la migraa. (Ver
'Fisiopatologa' arriba.)
La base gentica de las formas comunes de la migraa es probable complejo
y en algunos individuos puede estar basado en el efecto aditivo de ms de una
migraa u otra cefalea primaria, o algn factor de riesgo adicional para cefalea
secundaria, tales como la deficiencia inmune. (Vase "Diagnstico" arriba.)