Many number systems are in use in digital technology.

The most common are

the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. The decimal system is
clearly the most familiar to us because it is a tool that we use every day.
The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10
symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Using these symbols as digits of a
number, we can express any quantity. The decimal system is also called the
base-10 system because it has 10 digits.
In the binary system, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0
and 1. This base-2 system can be used to represent any quantity that can be
represented in decimal or other base system.
Converting from one code form to another code form is called code
conversion, like converting from binary to decimal or converting from
hexadecimal to decimal.
Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent simply by
summing together the weights of the various positions in the binary number
which contain a 1.

Basic Gates and Functions

Electronic gates require a power supply.
Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values,
e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage
only, e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
In general, there is only one output to a logic gate except in some
special cases.
There is always a time delay between an input being applied and
the output responding.
Truth tables are used to show the function of a logic gate.
Logic gates

Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are
described below with the aid of truth tables.
AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only
if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e.
A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB
OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or
more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the
input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A,
the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a
bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways
that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also
be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an
AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
NOR gate

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The
outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

EXOR gate

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EOR
operation.
EXNOR gate

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a
low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR
gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the
AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated.
Table 1: Logic gate symbols

Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the NOT gate
together with all possible input/output combinations for the other gate functions.
Table 2: Logic gates representation using the Truth table

Combinational Logic Circuits

Unlike Sequential Logic Circuits whose outputs are dependant on both their present inputs and
their previous output state giving them some form of Memory, the outputs of Combinational Logic
Circuits are only determined by the logical function of their current input state, logic 0 or logic
1, at any given instant in time.

The result is that combinational logic circuits have no feedback, and any changes to the signals being
applied to their inputs will immediately have an effect at the output. In other words, in a Combinational
Logic Circuit, the output is dependant at all times on the combination of its inputs. So if one of its inputs
condition changes state, from 0-1 or 1-0, so too will the resulting output as by default combinational logic
circuits have no memory, timing or feedback loops within their design.

Combinational Logic

Combinational Logic Circuits are made up from basic logic NAND, NOR or NOT gates that are
combined or connected together to produce more complicated switching circuits. These logic gates are
the building blocks of Combinational Logic Circuits. An example of a combinational circuit is a decoder,
which converts the binary code data present at its input into a number of different output lines, one at a
time producing an equivalent decimal code at its output.
Combinational logic circuits can be very simple or very complicated and any combinational circuit can be
implemented with only NAND and NOR gates as these are classed as universal gates.
The three main ways of specifying the function of a combinational logic circuit are:

1. Boolean Algebra This forms the algebraic expression showing the operation of the logic
circuit for each input variable either True or False that results in a logic 1 output.

2. Truth Table A truth table defines the function of a logic gate by providing a concise list
that shows all the output states in tabular form for each possible combination of input variable that
the gate could encounter.

3. Logic Diagram This is a graphical representation of a logic circuit that shows the wiring
and connections of each individual logic gate, represented by a specific graphical symbol, that
implements the logic circuit.

and all three of these logic circuit representations are shown below.

As combinational logic circuits are made up from individual logic gates only, they can also be considered
as decision making circuits and combinational logic is about combining logic gates together to process
two or more signals in order to produce at least one output signal according to the logical function of each
logic gate. Common combinational circuits made up from individual logic gates that carry out a desired
application include Multiplexers, De-multiplexers, Encoders,Decoders, Full and Half Adders etc.

Classification of Combinational Logic

One of the most common uses of combinational logic is in Multiplexer and De-multiplexer type circuits.
Here, multiple inputs or outputs are connected to a common signal line and logic gates are used to
decode an address to select a single data input or output switch.
A multiplexer consist of two separate components, a logic decoder and some solid state switches, but
before we can discuss multiplexers, decoders and de-multiplexers in more detail we first need to
understand how these devices use these solid state switches in their design.

Solid State Switches

Standard TTL logic devices made up from Transistors can only pass signal currents in one direction only
making them uni-directional devices and poor imitations of conventional electro-mechanical switches or
relays. However, some CMOS switching devices made up from FETs act as near perfect bi-directional
switches making them ideal for use as solid state switches.
Solid state switches come in a variety of different types and ratings, and there are many different
applications for using solid state switches. They can basically be sub-divided into 3 different main groups
for switching applications and in this combinational logic section we will only look at the Analogue type of
switch but the principal is the same for all types including digital.

Solid State Switch Applications

Analogue Switches Used in Data Switching and Communications, Video and Audio Signal
Switching, Instrumentation and Process Control Circuits etc.

Digital Switches High Speed Data Transmission, Switching and Signal Routing, Ethernet,
LANs, USB and Serial Transmissions etc.

Power Switches Power Supplies and General Standby Power Switching Applications,
Switching of Larger Voltages and Currents etc.

Analogue Bilateral Switches

Analogue or Analog switches are those types that are used to switch data or signal currents when they
are in their ON state and block them when they are in their OFF state. The rapid switching between the
ON and the OFF state is usually controlled by a digital signal applied to the control gate of the switch.
An ideal analogue switch has zero resistance when ON (or closed), and infinite resistance when OFF
(or open) and switches with RON values of less than 1 are commonly available.

Solid State Analogue Switch

By connecting an N-channel MOSFET in parallel with a P-channel MOSFET allows signals to pass in
either direction making it a Bi-directional switch and as to whether the N-channel or the P-channel
device carries more signal current will depend upon the ratio between the input to the output voltage. The
two MOSFETs are switched ON or OFF by two internal non-inverting and inverting amplifiers.

Contact Types
Just like mechanical switches, analogue switches come in a variety of forms or contact types, depending
on the number of poles and throws they offer. Thus, terms such as SPST (single-pole single throw)
and SPDT (single-pole double-throw) also apply to solid state analogue switches with make-beforebreak and break-before-make configurations available.

Analogue Switch Types

Individual analogue switches can be grouped together into standard IC packages to form devices with
multiple switching configurations of SPST (single-pole single-throw) and SPDT (single-pole double-throw)
as well as multi channel multiplexers. The most common and simplest analogue switch in a single IC

package is the 74HC4066 which has 4 independent bi-directional ON/OFF Switches within a single
package but the most widely used variants of the CMOS analogue switch are those described as Multiway Bilateral Switches otherwise known as the Multiplexer and De-multiplexer ICs and these are
discussed in the next tutorial.

Combinational Logic Summary

Then to summarise, Combinational Logic Circuits consist of inputs, two or more basic logic gates and
outputs. The logic gates are combined in such a way that the output state depends entirely on the input
states. Combinational logic circuits have no memory, timing or feedback loops, there operation is
instantaneous. A combinational logic circuit performs an operation assigned logically by a Boolean
expression or truth table.
Examples of common Combinational Logic Circuits include: half adders, full adders, multiplexers,
demultiplexers, encoders and decoders all of which we will look at in the next few tutorials.

The Multiplexer
The Multiplexer (MUX)
Multiplexing is the generic term used to describe the operation of sending one or more analogue or digital
signals over a common transmission line at different times or speeds and as such, the device we use to do just
that is called a Multiplexer.

The multiplexer, shortened to MUX or MPX, is a combinational logic circuit designed to

switch one of several input lines through to a single common output line by the application of a
control signal. Multiplexers operate like very fast acting multiple position rotary switches
connecting or controlling multiple input lines called channels one at a time to the output.
Multiplexers, or MUXs, can be either digital circuits made from high speed logic gates used to
switch digital or binary data or they can be analogue types using transistors, MOSFETs or relays
to switch one of the voltage or current inputs through to a single output.
The most basic type of multiplexer device is that of a one-way rotary switch as shown.
Basic Multiplexing Switch

The rotary switch, also called a wafer switch as each layer of the switch is known as a wafer, is a
mechanical device whose input is selected by rotating a shaft. In other words, the rotary switch is
a manual switch that you can use to select individual data or signal lines simply by turning its
inputs ON or OFF. So how can we select each data input automatically using a digital
device.
In digital electronics, multiplexers are also known as data selectors because they can select
each input line, are constructed from individual Analogue Switches encased in a single IC
package as opposed to the mechanical type selectors such as normal conventional switches and
relays.
They are used as one method of reducing the number of logic gates required in a circuit design or
when a single data line or data bus is required to carry two or more different digital signals. For
example, a single 8-channel multiplexer.
Generally, the selection of each input line in a multiplexer is controlled by an additional set of
inputs called control lines and according to the binary condition of these control inputs, either
HIGH or LOW the appropriate data input is connected directly to the output. Normally, a
multiplexer has an even number of 2 data input lines and a number of control inputs that
correspond with the number of data inputs.
N

The Demultiplexer
The Demultiplexer
The data distributor, known more commonly as a Demultiplexer or Demux for short, is the exact opposite
of the Multiplexer we saw in the previous tutorial. The demultiplexer takes one single input data line and then
switches it to any one of a number of individual output lines one at a time. The demultiplexer converts a serial
data signal at the input to a parallel data at its output lines as shown below.

1-to-4 Channel De-multiplexer

Output Select

Data Output
Selected

The Boolean expression for this 1-to-4 Demultiplexer above with outputs A to D and data select
lines a, b is given as:
F = abA + abB + abC + abD

The function of the Demultiplexer is to switch one common data input line to any one of the 4
output data lines A to D in our example above. As with the multiplexer the individual solid state
switches are selected by the binary input address code on the output select pins a and b as
shown.
Combinational circuit is circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit for example encoder, decoder,
multiplexer and demultiplexer. Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following.

The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends only on the levels present at input
terminals.

The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state of input does not have any effect on
the present state of the circuit.

A combinational circuit can have a n number of inputs and m number of outputs.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.

Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two input and two output. The half adder circuit is designed to add two
single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building block for addition of twosingle bit numbers. This circuit has
two outputs carry and sum.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Full Adder
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and
carry c. The full adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

N-Bit Parallel Adder

The Full Adder is capable of adding only two single digit binary number along with a carry input. But in practical we
need to add binary numbers which are much longer than just one bit. To add two n-bit binary numbers we need to use
the n-bit parallel adder. It uses a number of full adders in cascade. The carry output of the previous full adder is
connected to carry input of the next full adder.

4 BIT PARALLEL ADDER

In the block diagram, A0 and B0 represent the LSB of the four bit words A and B. Hence Full Adder-0 is the lowest
stage. Hence its Cin has been permanently made 0. The rest of the connections are exactly same as those of n-bit
parallel adder is shown in fig. The four bit parallel adder is a very common logic circuit.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Half Subtractors
Half subtractor is a combination circuit with two inputs and two outputs (difference and borrow). It produces the
difference between the two binary bits at the input and also produces a output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has been
borrowed. In the subtraction (A-B), A is called as Minuend bit and B is called as Subtrahend bit.

TRUTH TABLE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Full Subtractors
The disadvantage of a half subtractor is overcome by full subtractor. The full subtractor is a combinational circuit with
three inputs A,B,C and two output D and C'. A is the minuend, B is subtrahend, C is the borrow produced by the
previous stage, D is the difference output and C' is the borrow output.

TRUTH TABLE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Multiplexers
Multiplexer is a special type of combinational circuit. There are n-data inputs, one output and m select inputs with 2m
= n. It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data inputs and routes it to the output. The selection of one of the n
inputs is done by the selected inputs. Depending on the digital code applied at the selected inputs, one out of n data
sources is selected and transmitted to the single output Y. E is called the strobe or enable input which is useful for the
cascading. It is generally an active low terminal, that means it will perform the required operation when it is low.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Multiplexers come in multiple variations

2 : 1 multiplexer

4 : 1 multiplexer

16 : 1 multiplexer

32 : 1 multiplexer

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

Demultiplexers
A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer i.e. it receives one input and distributes it over several
outputs. It has only one input, n outputs, m select input. At a time only one output line is selected by the select lines
and the input is transmitted to the selected output line. A de-multiplexer is equivalent to a single pole multiple way
switch as shown in fig.
Demultiplexers come in multiple variations

1 : 2 demultiplexer

1 : 4 demultiplexer

1 : 16 demultiplexer

1 : 32 demultiplexer

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

Decoder
A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum m = 2n outputs. Decoder is identical to a
demultiplexer without any data input. It performs operations which are exactly opposite to those of an encoder.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Examples of Decoders are following.

Code converters

BCD to seven segment decoders

Nixie tube decoders

Relay actuator

2 to 4 Line Decoder
The block diagram of 2 to 4 line decoder is shown in the fig. A and B are the two inputs where D through D are the
four outputs. Truth table explains the operations of a decoder. It shows that each output is 1 for only a specific
combination of inputs.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

LOGIC CIRCUIT

Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the inverse operation of the decoder. An encoder has
n number of input lines and m number of output lines. An encoder produces an m bit binary code corresponding to
the digital input number. The encoder accepts an n input digital word and converts it into an m bit another digital word.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Examples of Encoders are following.

Priority encoders

Decimal to BCD encoder

Octal to binary encoder

Hexadecimal to binary encoder

Priority Encoder
This is a special type of encoder. Priority is given to the input lines. If two or more input line are 1 at the same time,
then the input line with highest priority will be considered. There are four input D0, D1, D2, D3 and two output Y0, Y1.
Out of the four input D3 has the highest priority and D0 has the lowest priority. That means if D 3 = 1 then Y1 Y1 = 11
irrespective of the other inputs. Similarly if D3 = 0 and D2= 1 then Y1 Y0 = 10 irrespective of the other inputs.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRUTH TABLE

LOGIC CIRCUIT

Latches and flip-flops

In the same way that gates are the building blocks of combinatorial
circuits, latches and flip-flops are the building blocks of sequential
circuits.
While gates had to be built directly from transistors, latches can be built from gates,
and flip-flops can be built from latches. This fact will make it somewhat easier to
understand latches and flip-flops.
Both latches and flip-flops are circuit elements whose output depends not only on the
current inputs, but also on previous inputs and outputs. The difference between a latch
and a flip-flop is that a latch does not have a clock signal, whereas a flip-flop always
does.
Latches
How can we make a circuit out of gates that is not combinatorial?
The answer is feed-back, which means that we create loops in the
circuit diagrams so that output values depend, indirectly, on
themselves. If such feed-back is positive then the circuit tends to
have stable states, and if it is negative the circuit will tend to
oscillate.

A latch has positive feedback. Here is an example of a simple latch:

This latch is called SR-latch, which stands for set and reset.
It is not practical to use the methods that we have used to describe combinatorial
circuits to describe the behavior of the SR-latch. Later, we will show a method for
describing flip-flops and clocked sequential circuits. For now, we just rely on our
intuition to describe how latches work.
The SR-latch is meant to have at most one of its inputs equal to 1 at any time. When
both of its inputs are 0 it has two different stable states possible. Either x is 0, in
which case we have the following signal values:

or else x is 1, in which case we have the following signal values:

The actual value depends on the history of input values as we will show next.
Now suppose that s is 1 (and therefore r is 0 since we allow at most one input to
be 1 at any time). We get the following signal values:

The 1 on the s input makes sure the output of the upper nor-gate is 0, and the two 0s
on the input of the lower nor-gate make sure the x output is 1.
Now suppose the s input goes from 1 to 0, while the r input remains at 0. The
second input of the upper nor-gate is 1, so the transition from 1 to 0 of the s input,
does not make any difference. The x output remains at 1. In this case, if
the s and r inputs are both 0, there is only one possible stable state, the one that
gives x the value 1.
Conversely, suppose that r is 1 (and therefore s is 0 since we allow at most one input
to be 1 at any time). We get the following signal values:

The 1 on the r input makes sure the x output is 0, and the two 0s on the input of the
upper nor-gate make sure the output of the upper nor-gate is 0.
Now suppose the r input goes from 1 to 0, while the s input remains at 0. The
second input of the lower nor-gate is 1, so the transition from 1 to 0 of the r input,
does not make any difference. The output of the upper nor-gate remains at 1. In this
case, if the s and r inputs are both 0, there is only one possible stable state, the one
that gives x the value 0.

From the discussion above, we conclude that the SR-latch is able to remember the last
state of the inputs, in the sense that it remembers which of the two inputs, s or r, last
had the value of 1.
When we need to draw an SR-latch, we use the following symbol:

Flip-flops
Latches are asynchronous, which means that the output changes
very soon after the input changes. Most computers today, on the
other hand, are synchronous, which means that the outputs of all
the sequential circuits change simultaneously to the rhythm of a
global clock signal.

A flip-flop is a synchronous version of the latch. To complicate the situation even

more, there are several fundamental types of flip-flops. Here, we shall only consider a
type called master-slave flip-flop.
In addition to the fundamental types of flip-flops, there are minor variations
depending on the number of inputs and how they control the state of the flip-flop.
Here, we shall only consider a very simple type of flip-flop called a D-flip-flop. A
master-slave D-flip-flop is built from two SR-latches and some gates. Here is the
circuit diagram:

The leftmost SR-latch is called the master and the rightmost is called the slave.
Let us first consider what happens when the clock signal is 1. In this case, the
two and-gates in front of the input of the master are open, i.e., they let the value of
the D-input through to the s input of the master, and the inverse of the D input to
the r input of the master. Thus, the value of the D input will go straight trough the
master to the x output of the master. But the two and-gates of the slave re closed, i.e.,
their outputs are always 0, so the slave keeps its old value.
When instead the clock signal is 0, the reverse is true, i.e., the and-gates at the input
of the master are closed, whereas the ones at the input of the slave are open. In this
case, the flip-flop is completely insensitive to changes in input.
Now, let us consider what happens when the clock goes from 1 to 0. For this to work,
we have to assume that the input remains the same during a brief period from right
before to right after the clock signal changes. The first thing that happens is that
the and-gates at the input of the master turn off, i.e., they become insensitive to further
changes in input. The value of the x output of the master is now the value of
the D input right before the clock started changing. A brief moment later, the clock
signal transition has traversed the inverter and reaches the and-gates of the slave.
These gates open, allowing the x output of the master to be propagated to the x value
of the slave. The x value of the slave, and therefore that of the entire flip-flop now
contains the value of the D input right before the clock started changing. We can say
that the clock transition copied the input to the output of the flip-flop. But at no point
in time is there a direct path from input to output. The output changes only as a result
of clock transitions from 1 to 0.
Finally, let us see what happens when the clock goes from 0 to 1. First, the and-gates
of the master open, letting the value of the D input into the master. By the time
the D value reaches the master, the clock signal transition reaches the and-gates of the
slave, and turns them off before the possibly modified output of the master reaches the
slave. Thus, the slave keeps its old value. From the outside, nothing seems to happen,
since the output does not change. From now on, however, the master is open to
changes in the input.
Here is the symbol we use for D-flip-flops:

The little triangle for the clock input indicates that this input is sensitive only
to transitions as opposed to levels as described in the previous paragraph. Sometimes
we do not draw the clock input at all when it is understood that it is there. Clock
signals are boring since they are all just connected to each other. There is therefore
little use to draw them all, and thereby clutter the diagram unnecessarily.