Introduction to Networking

Lecture-7

Network
A group of connected computers that communicate, exchange
information and share resources.
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in
order to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs),
exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone
lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
It enables multiple users to access shared data and programs
instantly, and this capability frees the individual users from
keeping separate copies of data and programs on their own
computers.

Benefits of Networks
Simultaneous access to critical programs and data.
Sharing of peripheral devices, such as printers and scanners.
Streamlined (more efficient) personal communication.
Easier back up process.

Simultaneous Access
Without a network that enables files sharing, the users typically
have to keep separate copies of data on different disks, and
universally updating the data becomes difficult.
As soon as the data is updated on one machine, a discrepancy
arises and it can be hard to tell which set of data is incorrect.
Solution:
By determining which data is used by more than one person
and then storing that on a network server (or server).
Server:
A central computer that provides a storage device and other
system resources that all users can share.
If the server stores data files for the users to access, it is
commonly called a file server.

How to protect the integrity of data

By determining which users can update data, 2 types of access
can be granted:
Read-only
Read / Write
Read-Only:

Some users are entitled only to read data stored on a shared

device.
Called read-only because the users can read (retrieve) data but
cannot write changes to the master data files.
It prevents unwanted changes from being made to the data.
Read/Write:

Some users may be allowed to open a shared file from the server
and to make changes to those files and the updated data can be
viewed by all users.
To enable read/write, users are assigned different types of access
rights

Levels of Access Rights or Policies

There are various levels of access rights, each granting a unique
set of privileges to the users.
Write access
Supervisor access
Write Access:
With write access, user can open, change, and save those
files but may not be able to delete or move the files.
Supervisor Access :
The user can perform any task on files, including copying,
moving and deleting.
Specific rights are assigned to each user on the network on a
per drive, per-folder or per-file basis.

Ways to Share Software on a Network

In an environment where PCs are not networked, a separate copy of programs
must be installed on every computer.
This setup can be expensive from 2 points of view:
The cost of purchasing the software can be high
Multi-user
Multi user installation and configuration can be time-consuming
time consuming and require
human resources. And also maintaining many separate installations of a
program is an ongoing expense.

Solution:
There are 2 basic solutions to these problems:
Site Licenses
Network versions
These strategies are always less expensive then purchasing individual copies of
the software for each user. Depending on the type of software being used and the
number of people using it, licensing can cost about same, whether the application
is installed on each users computer or run through the network. The cost of the
network itself particularly that of providing adequate bandwidth for many users
can exceed the cost of purchasing many copies of the software.
In such cases the networks real advantage is that it allows the applications to be
managed centrally (at the server) instead of on many individual computers.

Ways to Share Software on a Network

Site Licenses
The first solution is to purchase a site license for an application.
Business user purchases a single copy (or a few copies) of the application,
then ppays
y the developer
p for a license to copy
py the application
pp
onto a specified
p
number of computer.
Each user has a complete, individual copy of the program, but the business
user generally pays less than it would had by purchasing a complete copy of
the software for each user.

Network Versions
Another solution is to connect users computers to a central network server,
and enable users to share a network version of a program.
Only one copy of the application is stored on the server,
server with a minimum
number of supporting files copied to each users computer.
When a user need to use a program, they simply load it from the server into
RAM of their own desktop computer.
In some networks, and with certain types of programs, the users computer
handles all of the processing tasks required by the application, even though
the applications core files are stored on the network.

Ways to Share Software on a Network

Application Server:
In some cases the network server also handles some or all of the processing
tasks, and in these cases the network server is also called the application
server.
It
I handles
h dl some application
li i processing
i as well
ll as storage.

Groupware:
Some software designed for the networks is classified as groupware.
It includes scheduling software, email, and document management software.
It allows multiple users on a network to cooperate on projects, users can
work on the same documents, share their insights, and keep each other
informed about their schedules so that meetings can be setup easily.
Examples include:

Lotus Notes
Microsoft Exchange
Novell GroupWise

Shared Peripherals
Because peripheral devices like printers can be expensive, it is
cost-effective to connect a device to a network so users can
share it.
Spooling:
Through a process called spooling, multiple users can send
multiple documents (called print jobs) to a networked printer at
the same time. The documents are temporarily stored on the
file server and printed in turn.
As the printer finishes printing current job the file server sends
the next jjob to the pprinter so that it can be pprinted.
A banner page i.e. is a special page that identifies the print jobs
owner is printed at the beginning of a new job to separate print
jobs so they can be identified easily.
It allows a user to continue working while the document is
printing rather than waiting for the computer to finish sending
the print job to the printer.

Personal Communications
One of the most common uses of networks is for electronic mail
(e-mail).
An e-mail system enables users to exchange written messages
(often with data files attached) across the local network or over
the Internet.

Personal Communications
Two other popular network-based communications systems are
teleconferencing and videoconferencing.
Teleconferencing:
Virtual meeting in which a group of people in different locations
conduct discussions by typing messages to each other.
Each message can be seen by all the other people in the
teleconference.

Videoconferencing:
It requires a PC camera, microphone and speaker. The users can see
and speak to each other as they meet online instead of merely sending
messages.
messages
The audio and video signals are transmitted across the networks (or
internet) connections between the participants computers.
Special software such as CU-SseeMe enable 2 users to conduct pointto-point videoconference, or allow 3 or more users to conduct a
multipoint videoconference.

Easier Backup
As data is extremely valuable, back up of data is critical.
Networks enable managers to easily back up (make backup
copies
p of)) important
p
data stored on shared storage
g device from
single, central location.
Administrators commonly back up shared data files stored on
the server, but may also use network back up software that
enable to back up files on users' PCs. With this, files do not
have to be copied to the central server before they can be
backed up.

Types of Networks
There are 2 main types of networks:
(
)
Local area network (LAN)
Wide area network (WAN)
Other structural classifications include:
Server-Based Networks
Client/Server Networks
Peer-to-Peer
Peer to Peer Networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network whose computers are located relatively
near one another and connected in a way that enables them to
communicate with one another byy a cable, infrared link, or
small radio transmitters.
It can consist of 2 or 3 PCs connected together or can include
hundreds of computers of different kinds. Any network that
exists within a single building or even a group of adjacent
buildings, is considered a LAN.
2 different departments in an organization may have its own
LAN, but if there is a need for data communication between
departments , then it may be necessary to create a link between
the 2 LANs.

How networks transmit and share different

type of data
A network transmits data among computers by breaking it into
small pieces,
pieces called packets.
packets
A packet is a data segment that includes a header, payload and
control elements.
Packet Parts:
Payload: part of packet that contains actual data to be sent.
Header: has identifying information like type of data in the
payload; data source and destination; and sequence number
so that data from multiple packets can be reassembled at the
receiving computer in proper order.

Protocol:
Every LAN uses a protocol a set of rules and formats that
governs how packets are configured and transmitted.
An individual LAN may utilize more than one protocol.
Some of the most common protocols in use are:
TCP/IP
IPX/SPX
NetBEUI

TCP/IP:
Originally associated with Unix hosts, it is the protocol of
the internet, and is required by every client machine for
direct communication across the internet to occur.
Default networking protocol for the Windows 2000 and
many other OS.

IPX/SPX:
Proprietary protocol of Novell, used in most versions of
Netware network OS for networking.
NetBEUI:
Relatively simple protocol that has no real configuration
parameters.
Excellent for networking small offices or homes, but does
not expand well into larger
It was the default networking protocol in Windows 3.11,
Windows 95, and other Microsoft client OS.

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Ways to Connect Similar LANs

If 2 LANs are built around same communication rules, they can
be connected with one of the following devices:
Hub:
A hub, or repeater, is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast
device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes
through them, and any packet entering any port is broadcast
out on every other port (every port other than the port of
entry).
entry)
Since every packet is being sent out through every other
port, packet collisions result--which greatly impedes the
smooth flow of traffic.

Ways to Connect Similar LANs

Switch:
A switch isolates pports, meaningg that everyy received ppacket
is sent out only to the port on which the target may be found
(assuming the proper port can be found; if it is not, then the
switch will broadcast the packet to all ports except the port
from which the request originated).
S
Since the switch intelligently
g
y sends ppackets where theyy need
to go, the performance of the network can be greatly
increased

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Ways to Connect Similar LANs

This leaves the question of when a switch is most
appropriate, versus a hub. If most of the network traffic
involves only a few ports,
ports then there will be little
performance gain achieved by upgrading from a hub to a
switch. But if the traffic involves more than a few ports,
using a switch can yield a significant improvement in
performance.
Because data is routed through the correct ports and not
broadcast indiscriminately as with hubs, switches are
somewhat more secure. In contrast, a hub would broadcast
all traffic to all users.

Ways to Connect Similar LANs

Bridge:
Looks at the information in each packet header and forwards
data that is traveling from one LAN to another.
another
Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, however a
bridge works by using bridging where traffic from one
network is managed rather than simply rebroadcast to
adjacent network segments.
Router:
More complicated
li
d device,
d i
stores routing
i
i f
information
i
f
for
networks.
Looks at each packets header to determine where the packet
should go and then determines a route for the packet to take
and thus reach its destination.

12

Gateway Connects Different LANs

A computer system that connects 2 networks and translates
information from one to the other.
Packets from different networks have different kinds of
information in their headers, and the information can be in
various formats.
A gateway reads a packet header from one type of network and
then adds (encapsulates the entire packet into a new one) a
second header understandable by the second network.

13

A gateway performs the translation

between two different types of networks.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such
as bridges, routers, or gateways, which enable them to share
data.
data
A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs
can be many miles apart.
To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased
high-speed
high
speed phone lines or wireless links such as satellites.
satellites

14

Wide Area Network (WAN)

For Example:
A company may have its head office and manufacturing
facilityy in one cityy and its marketingg office in another.
Each site needs resources, data and programs locally, but it
also needs to share data with other sites.
To accomplish this type of data communication, company
can attach routers connected over public utilities (such as
p
lines)) to create a WAN.
telephone
A WAN doesn't have to include any LAN system, for e.g., 2
distant mainframe computers can communicate through a
WAN, even though neither is part of a LAN.

Type A
header
Payload

Type A
header
Payload
ROUTER

ROUTER
SERVER

Significant
geographical
distance

SERVER
Type
yp A
header
Payload

LAN 2

LAN 1

WAN

15

Distinction b/w LAN & WAN

Apart from geographical distance, main distinction between a
LAN And WAN is the cost associated with transmitting data.
In a LAN, all components are typically owned by the
organization that uses them. For instance, if a company
connects its networked PCs with a cable, it owns the cabling
and therefore pays a fixed cost to transmit data across the
network.
T
To transmit
t
it data
d t across greatt distances,
di t
h
however,
WAN b d
WAN-based
organizations typically lease many of the components used for
data transmission such as high speed telephone lines or a
wireless technologies such as satellites.

Server-Based Network
Describing a network as LAN or WAN does not tell how
individual computers on a network called nodes, interact with
one another.
In addition to the individual users' PCs (nodes), many networks
use a central computer with a large hard disk for shared
storage, called a server (or file server, network server, or
application server).
File Server Network:
In a file server network, nodes can access files on the
server, but
b not necessarily
il on other
h nodes
d
When a node needs information from the server, it requests
the entire file containing the information.
Simply used to store files and to forward (or send) them to
nodes that request them.

16

Simple LAN with a file server

Client / Server Networks

In client/server computing, individual nodes share the processing
and storage workload with the central server.
Client/server networks require specialized software for both the
nodes and server that enables nodes and the server to collaborate on
processing and storage, but no special type of network hardware.
Can be used on a LAN or a WAN and a single client/server
program can be used on a LAN where all the other software is
based on a simple file server relationship.
Client / server software is valuable to large organizations because it
distributes processing and storage workloads among the resources
efficiently and users get the information they need faster.
Commonly used model on the internet, users typically have a client
software that provides easy interface for interacting with the WAN.
Other types of processing such as receiving, storage, and sending
email messages are carried out by remote computers running the
server part of the relevant software.

17

Client / Server Networks

Example:
Most common example involves a database that can be
accessed by many different computers on the network.
Database is stored on the network server, and the server
portion of the Database management system (DBMS) is also
stored on the server.
DBMS:
Program that allows users to add information to, or
extract it,
it from the database.
database
The user computer (node, workstation or client) stores and
runs the client portion of DBMS.
Suppose that a database contains a list of customer purchases.
Now, 2 users want information from database.

Client / Server Networks

The first user needs to know the names of customer in a certain
area who made purchases of more than $500 and the second user
wants a total of purchases made during the month of July.
Using their client software to describe the information they need,
each user sends a request to the server.
Server software searches the database, collects the relevant
customer names,
names sends them back to the first client.
client It then
searches the dbase for information requested by the second user.
For each user, the client software presents the information in a
way that makes sense.

18

Distribution of processing in a
client/server computing model

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network also called workgroup, all nodes have
an equal relation to one another and all have similar type of
software that support to support sharing of resources.
Each node usually has access to some resources on all the other
nodes, so the relationship is non-hierarchical.
Some high end peer-to-peer networks allows distributed
computing, which enables users to draw on the processing
power of other computers in the network. Users can transfer
tasks that take a lot of CPU power such as creating computer
software to available computers, leaving their own machines
free for other work.

19

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Nodes share files and data with each other where as in
client/server networks, nodes share files and data only with the
server.
Commonly set up in small organizations where the primary
benefit is shared storage and printers and enhanced
communications. Where large databases or many users are
involved, LANs are most likely to be set up in a client / server
relationship.
Some peer
peer-to-peer
to peer networks use a server,
server in this case it is similar
to a file server network. Only difference is that the peer-to-peer
network gives users more access to other nodes than a file server
network.

Peer-to-Peer Network

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Network Topologies for LANS

Topology:
Physical
y
or logical
g
layout
y
of cables and devices that connect
the network nodes
Types of Topology:
There are 4 basic topologies:
Bus topology
Star topology
Ring topology
Mesh topology

Bus Topology
A single conduit (medium) to which all the nodes and peripheral
devices are attached. Each node is connected in series to a single
cable.
A special device called terminator is attached to cables start and
end point to stop the network signals so they do not bounce back
down the cable.
Disadvantages:
Keeping data transmissions from colliding requires some extra circuitry
and software.
A broken connection can bring down (or crash) all parts of the network,
making it inoperatable so that users can cannot communicate until the
connection is repaired.

Advantage:
It uses the least amount of cabling of any topology.

21

A LAN with Bus Topology

SERVER

SCANNER

LASER
PRINTER

ROUTER

Star Topology
All nodes are connected to a central device called hub, and all
nodes communicate through it.
Groups of data are routed through hub and sent to all attached
nodes, thus eventually reaching their destinations.
Intelligent hubs:
Monitor traffic and help prevent collisions

Disadvantages:
If you loose the hub, all the nodes connected to that hub are unable
to communicate.

Advantage:
A broken connection (between a node and hub) does not affect the
rest of network.

22

A LAN with Star Topology

HUB

ROUTER

LASER
PRINTER

Ring Topology
Nodes are connected in a circular chain, with each node
connected to the next, the final node in the chain connects to the
first to complete the ring.
Each node examines data sent through the ring. If the data known
as the token is not addressed to the node examining it, that node
passes it along to next node in the ring.
It as substantial advantage over the bus topology, there is no
danger of collisions because only one packet of data may traverse
the
h ring
i at a time.
i
The only disadvantage is as with the bus topology is, if the ring is
broken, the entire network is unable to communicate until the
ring is restored.

23

A LAN with Ring Topology

ROUTER

LASER
PRINTER

Mesh Topology
Least used topology and most expensive to implement.
Each node has a separate connection to every other node i.e. a
cable runs from every computer to every other computer.
computer
If you have 4 computers, you must have six cables 3 coming
from each computer to other computers..
Advantage of this arrangement is that data can never fail to be
delivered; if one connection goes down, there are other ways to
route the data to its destination.
destination
Impractical for most workplace environments , but ideal for
connecting routers on internet to make sure the data always gets
through.

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Network Topologies for LANS

Several factors which are considered when determining which
type of topology or combination of topologies to use are:
The type of computer currently installed
Type of cabling (if any) currently in place
Cost of components and services required to implement the
network
Distance between each computer and
The speed with which data must travel around the network

Network Media
Media:
g
disks
refers to materials for storingg data, such as magnetic
and tapes but in network communications, this refers to
wires and cables that carry data from source to destination
Kinds of media:
Most common media for data communication are:
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber-optic cable
Wireless networks

25

Bandwidth
Sometimes the network media are compared by the amount of
data they can transmit each second. The difference between
highest and lowest frequencies of a transmission channel is
k
known
as bandwidth.
b d idth
OR
Amount of data media can carry is called bandwidth.
The higher the mediums bandwidth, the more data it can
transmit at any given time.
As more users transmit data over a network, the bandwidth
decreases, thereby slowing down all the transmissions.
It is expressed in cycles per second (hertz) or bits per second.

Twisted-pair cable
Normally consists of 2 wires individually insulated in plastic,
then twisted around each other and bound together in another
layer of plastic insulation.
insulation
Except for the plastic coating, nothing shields this wire from
outside interference, so it is also called unshielded twisted pair
(UTP).
Some of it is also encased in a metal sheath and therefore called
shielded twisted pair (STP).
Indoor
d
telephone
l h
wiring
ii
uses twisted
i d pair
i so also
l
called
ll d
telephone wire.
Once it was considered a low bandwidth medium but networks
based on twisted pair are now supporting transmission speeds of
up to 1 Giga bits per second (Gbps) and even faster.

26

Coaxial cable
Sometimes also called coax is similar to the cabling used in
cable television systems.
There are 2 conductors; one is a single wire in the center of
cable and other is a wire mesh shield that surrounds the first
wire, with an insulator between.
It supports transmission speeds of up to 10 Mbps, so they can
carry more data than older types of twisted pair wiring but they
are expensive.
Two types of coaxial cable is used:
Thick coax (older standard and is seldom installed in new
networks)
Thin coax

Fiber-Optic cable
Thin strand of glass that transmits pulsating beams of light rather
than electric frequencies.
When one end of strand is exposed to light, the strand carries the
light all the way to the other end, bending around the corners
along the way.
Because light travels at a much higher speed then electrical
signals,
g
, fiber optic
p cable can easilyy carryy data at more than a
billion bits per second.
It is also immune to the electromagnetic interference that is a
problem for copper wire.

27

Fiber-Optic cable
Also offers extraordinary bandwidth and is extremely fast and
carry an enormous number of messages simultaneously, but also
a very secure transmission medium.
Disadvantage is its cost relative to twisted pair and coax and the
difficulty associated with its installation.
Special equipment is required to cut the cable and install
connectors, and as a result the fiber optic line is difficult to
splice (join).
Great care must be taken when bending a fiber optic cable.

Wireless Links
Advantage of wireless links is the flexibility that it offers in
terms of network layout.
Wireless communication relies on radio signals or infrared
signals for transmitting data.
There are 4 common uses of wireless communication in
networks:
Office LANs can use radio signals to transmit data between
nodes.
Laptops can be equipped with cellular telephone equipment
and a modem so that business people can stay in touch with
the office network when they travel.

28

Wireless Links
Corporate WANs often use microwave transmission to
connect 2 LANs within the same metropolitan area.
area If a
company has building on opposite sides of town, it can set up
a microwave antenna on top of each to transmit data back and
forth quickly. It however requires an unobstructed line of
sight between the 2 antennas.
WANs that cover long distances often use satellites and
microwave
i
communication.
i i

Token Ring
IBMs networks technology.
Controlling hardware in a token ring network transmits an
electronic token; a small set of data, to each node on the network
manyy times each second,, if the token is not alreadyy in use byy the
specific node.
A computer can copy data into the token and set the address
where the data should be sent. It then continues around the ring
and each computer along the way looks at the address until the
token reaches the computer with the address that was recorded in
the token.
Receiving
R i i computer
t then
th copies
i the
th contents
t t off the
th token
t k andd
sends an acknowledgement to the sending computer.
When the sending computer receives the acknowledgement from
the receiving computer, it resets the tokens status to empty
and transmits it to the next computer in the ring.
Hardware for token ring is expensive.

29

Network Software
The group of programs that manages the network resources is
called the Network Operating System (NOS).
Some of the popular network operating system includes:
Novell Netware
Microsoft Windows NT Server
Microsoft Windows 2000
Microsoft XP
Microsoft .NET Server
Linux

Novell Netware is most popular in terms of no of installations.

Can be used to run networks with different topologies.
Microsoft Windows NT Server provides graphical, windows 9x
style interface and is ideal for administering small and medium
size
i networks.
k
Microsoft Windows 2000 is available in 4 variations
(Professional, Server, Advanced Server and data center). Ideal
for administering networks ranging from small to enterprise wide
Linux is an open operating system , cost effective alternative to
other operating systems for sharing files, applications, printers,
modems, and internet services.
Microsoft XP
Microsoft .NET Server

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