Closed Loop ‘Servo, Regulatory’ S-S Gain Set all G(s) = 0 Open-Loop Step Test Method Presentation of the

Open-Loop Step Test Method Presentation of the Stability Theorem on Bodé and Nyquist

In general for a first

The Proportional Controller In this method the ‘combined’ transfer functions of the valve, Diagrams
K K
Case 1: Closed Loop Response to Unit Step change in ys.p. process and the measuring element is obtained as, for EX, a first G ( s ) = AR = φ = − tan −1 τω ( )
order plus time delay model, and the Controller Tuning Relations, τ s +1 τ 2ω 2 + 1
such as those given in Table 12.1 and 12.3 of Seborg et al. are
used to find the controller settings.
Note that we can find Gc(s) because Gp(s) is known and we can
Note that with a P-contr the Advantages of the Closed-Loop Tuning Method
specify the desired closed loop servo transfer function. The
offset is ALWAYS nonzero. As simplest and yet realistic specification for the CL transfer function i. The process remains under control
Kc ↑, offset ↓ but will never be is that the closed-loop system should behave like a first order lag Disadvantages of the Closed-Loop Tuning Method
zero. Kc ↑, the closed loop i. Time consuming
with a small time constant (fast closed-loop response) and a
response becomes faster ii. The process must be brought to the verge of instability (may
steady-state gain equal to 1 (to ensure zero offset, that is the
Case 2: Regulatory Closed Loop Unit Step Response results in off spec product)
output reaches the set-point at steady-state). K K
Choose the correct Control Action → reverse or direct AR → =
τ 2ω 2 τ ω

,
As Kc ↑, offset ↓ The ‘controller action’ is chosen after the correct action of the
control valve has been selected. Why? Because of safety, the
valve action must be chosen first. The controller action is chosen

Bodé
such that the overall steady state gain of the FB control system is
The Closed-Loop Response of a First Order Process with the positive. KcKvKpKm>0 . Km is often positive; depending on the
PI Controller sign of the process gain and the chosen ‘control valve action’, the
Case 1: Servo Response Gc = 1/G(1/tc*s) controller action is ultimately selected to make the overall gain of K = K ωn =
1
The Internal Model Control (IMC) Method for Tuning PID the FB control system positive τω τ
EX. For the FB control of liquid level in a tank using the outlet flow
rate as the manipulated variable, the process gain is negative

Bodé Plots
The I-action adds one zero and one pole to the closed loop since as the flow out of the tank increases, the level decreases.
transfer function. The presence of the additional pole will make For safety consideration a ‘fail open’ (FO) or ‘air-to-close’ valve is
the system response sluggish (pole) and the additional zero may needed, since we want to avoid spilling over. Therefore, if the
cause an overshoot in the closed loop response. controller output which is the actuating pressure signal to the
valve increases the valve will close further since the valve is ‘air-

‘lfa’ → AR (ω → 0
toclose’, i.e. if P ↑ then x ↓. Therefore, the valve gain is negative,

K
Offset Kv<0. KcKvKpKm must be positive, since both the process and 1
ωn =
SUMMARY: The P-action speeds up the closed loop response (at valve gains are negative (note that the measuring element gain is τ
high Kc values) but always results in an offset. The I-action positive), therefore, the controller gain MUST be positive → Kc>0.
eliminates the offset but adds a pole and a zero to the closed loop This means the controller is ‘reverse acting’.
transfer function. Therefore, it slows down the response and may Recall that P(t) = P+Kc(ls.p. −l)
lead to instability at high Kc/τI. Similarly, it can be shown that the So, if l becomes larger that the set-point we need to increase the
D-action adds one zero to the closed loop transfer function; and

log A
flow out of the tank. Since the valve is ‘air-to-close’, we need to
therefore, it speeds up the response but the offset remains with reduce the pressure applied to the valve, and that requires a

φlog(ω → 0) =
the D action alone. Nyquist Plot: Note that as ω goes to zero, AR approaches K with
positive Kc. In analog controllers, there is a switch to make the
Stability of Closed Loop Control Systems controller gain Kc positive (reverse acting) or negative (direct Φ = 0. At high frequencies AR approaches the origin with an
acting). In digital controllers this is achieved simply by changing angle of approach (Φ ) equal to – 90 . Therefore the Nyquist
o
Routh Test
the ‘sign’ of Kc. diagram which is the location of the tip of the vector whose
Avoid Derivative and Proportional Kicks magnitude is the AR and its angle with the real axis is Φ Implementation of the Theorem [1] Obtain the expressions for
If any of the coefficients n−1 a to 0 a is negative when n a is
→ In the case of an analog controller (PID), avoid introducing step resembles a half circle and with its mirror image it forms a the AROL and φ OL. [2] Find the critical freq, ω c, by letting φ OL=
positive, the system is unstable. Therefore, this first test is a complete circle:
‘necessary’ BUT not ‘sufficient’ condition for stability. If this test is changes in the set-point. Instead, use a ramp change. −π . [3] For a given controller gain, Kc , substitute ω c in the AROL
expression and determine if AROL is <1 (closed-loop stable) or >1

AR
satisfied the second Routh test must also be satisfied to ensure → Never use the D-action if the measured signal is noisy.

‘hfa’ →AR (ω → ∞
If the D-action is required, then use a filter (digital and analog). (closed-loop unstable). [4] If you want to find the maximum
the ‘sufficient’ condition for system stability.
For a digital PID, use the measured signal instead of the error controller gain (Kc,max= Kult) find the value of Kc that gives AROL=1
For an ‘n-th’ order C.E. polynomial, there will be n+1 rows.
signal for the P and D actions (marginally stable).
For the system to be stable, all the
Avoid Anti-reset Windup Reset ≡ integral action EX 14.1. For the process conditions given below, find the
coefficients in the 1st column must Note that with this choice of the controller C(s), perfect control is
feasible because Y(s) = Ys.p.(s), under all conditions. This is true If the error signal persists for a long time, the controller output P(t) maximum or the ultimate controller gain, Kult, that results in a
be
even if the model of the process is not perfect. eventually hits the limit → saturates. This saturation is referred to closed-loop system which is marginally stable.
positive.
as reset windup and should be avoided. How to avoid reset 50 0.016 1
windup? If we have an analog PID, we have to order an anti-reset G p (s ) = G v (s ) = G m (s ) = G c (s ) = K c
The problem is that C(s) cannot always be chosen as the inverse 30s + 1 3s + 1 10s + 1

φ → ∞)
of the plant model, G� (s), due to the presence of non-inverting windup option. If it is a digital PID, this can be achieved by
Alternatively, use of a ‘pulse’ signal for process

(ω =
elements, such as a positive zero or time delay terms existing in inserting 2 ‘IF’ statements.
if (Pn.gt.Pmax) then Pn = Pmax identification:  50   0.016   1 
the process model, G� (s) . Therefore, C(s) is chosen as the G OL ( s ) =     Kc
inverse of the ‘invertible’ portion of the plant model. The ‘invertible’ if (Pn.lt.Pmin) then Pn = Pmin  30s + 1   3s + 1   10s + 1 
portion of the process model does NOT involve delay time or Chapters 13 and 14: Frequency Response of Linear Systems
8
positive zeros. The study of steady state response of linear systems to sinusoidal AROL = Kc

u
900ω 2 + 1 9ω 2 + 1 100ω2 + 1

AR=0, Φ = - 90
EX 12.3. Divide the following model to invertible and non-invertible input change. Theorem: If the input to a linear system is changed
φOL = − tan −1 ( 3ω ) − tan −1 ( 30ω ) − tan −1 (10ω ) = −π
parts by a sine wave the output is also a sine wave at steady state (as t ∞ ∞
Direct Substitution Method
We use the property that the closed-loop system is marginally
→ ∞) with the same frequency but different amplitude and with a
phase difference (a lag or a lead). Both the amplitude ratio and G (s ) =
Y (s )
= 0∞
y (t )e −st dt ∫ G ( j ω) =
∫ 0
y (t )e − j ωtdt
8

slope of the ‘hfa’, as

U (s )
∞ ω c = 0.218rad / s AROL = 1 = K ult
stable if the closed-loop C.E. has a pair of pure imaginary roots.
Therefore, if we replace s = jω in the closedloop C.E., the
the phase difference depend on the frequency of the input sine
wave. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is called 0
u (t )e −st dt ∫ ∫ 0
u (t )e − j ωt dt 9ωc 2 + 1 900ωc 2 + 1 100ωc 2 + 1
corresponding controller proportional gain will be the maximum or Amplitude Ratio (AR). AR=B/A. The AR and then phase ∴ K ult = K c ,max =23.8
Ty T
the ultimate gain (Kult = Kc,max).The advantage of this method difference are strong functions of ω . The application of y (t ) cos ( ωt ) dt − j ∫ ∫ y (t ) sin (ωt )dt
y
Definitions of Gain Margin (GM) and Phase Margin (PM)
is that it can be applied to a closed-loop C.E. which has a frequency response is for: [1] process identification (empirically G ( j ω ) = Tu
0 0
These two measures of stability, determine how far the closed-
To get rid of the offset, we retain the S-S part of G(0)+ T
‘time delay’. obtain AR and φ and compare to AR and φ of known low order u (t ) cos ( ωt ) dt − j ∫ ∫ u (t )sin (ωt )dt
u
loop system is from the ‘marginally-stable’ condition. The larger

φ
EX 11.6. Using the direct substitution method, find the maximum transfer functions, and therefore, approximate an unknown system 0 0
the GM and PM are, the more stable and slower the closed-loop
or ultimate controller gain for the system given below that has a with a low order model). [2] controller design. A (ω ) − jA2 (ω ) system will be.
time delay: G ( j ω) = 1
K Aω  K   Aω  B1 (ω ) − jB 2 (ω ) GM = 1/AROL at the critical frequency
G (s ) = U (s ) = Y (s ) =   2 2  PM = 180o + Φ OL where AR of Open Loop is 1
τ s +1 s 2 +ω2  τ s +1   s + ω  For any given ω , you can calculate A1, A2, B1, B2 from measured
L −1 {Y (s )} = y '(t )
in degrees
input and output pulses
 Im 
KA
t
KA G ( j ω ) = Re(ω ) ± j Im(ω ) AR = Re 2 + Im 2 φ = tan −1  
sin { ω t + tan −1 ( −τω )}
−
This transfer function has 2 lead terms. It is physically not y '(t ) = e τ+  Re 

…
realizable In order to improve the controller performance we add τ 2ω 2 + 1 (τ ω )
2
+1 Conclusion: With one single experiment, one can determine
an rth order filter to the controller
AR(ω ) and φ (ω ) of an unknown process, and construct the Bodé

Using the Euler equation, e− jθ = cosθ − j sinθ , we have:

r is chosen such that the product of f(s)C(s) becomes “proper” →
the order of the numerator polynomial should be at least the same
as the order of the denominator polynomial. τ c is the filter time
constant and works as the IMC ‘tuning parameter’. It is the only
tuning parameter of the IMC controller.
y '(t → ∞) =
KA
( τω )
2
+1
sin { ωt + tan −1 ( −τω ) }
diagrams. The Bode plots can then be compared with the Bodé
diagrams of known low order transfer functions to estimate the
approximate transfer function of the unkown system.
Ex 13.2. Using the Bodé Plots shown below, determine the TF of
the unknown process
Tu
- 45−
o jθ
Bode Diagram
B K
φ = tan −1 ( − τω )
20
AR = =

Remember: e = cos
A
ω = 0.532 rad/s ( τω ) 2 + 1 10
Magnitude (dB)

Kc,max = Kult = 0.92 Shortcut to Determine AR(ω ) and φ (ω ) of Linear Systems 0

φO
≅ log K − lo
log AR…..
Theorem: If we replace s = jω in the transfer function of a linear -10
system, we obtain a complex number G(jω ) whose magnitude |
The Root Locus Diagram G(jω )| is equal to the amplitude ratio (AR) and whose argument -20
This is a powerful method for designing controllers. The Root ∠ G(jω ) is the phase difference (φ ).
Locus Diagram is the locus of the closed-loop characteristic -30

AR = G ( j ω ) φ = ∠ G ( j ω)
0
equation roots (or the poles of the closed-loop system) as Kc
varies from 0→∞. -360

Graphical Method.. Review of Complex Numbers: G(jω ) has a real part and an
Phase (deg)

-720
imaginary part
G ( j ω ) = Re  G ( j ω)  + j Im G ( j ω) 
-1080

-90o
-1440

z = a + jb -1800
-3 -2 -1 0 1

b
10 10 10 10 10

Rules for the construction of the approximate Root-Locus Diag: .

z = a 2 + b2 ∠z = tan −1   Frequency (rad/sec)

a

hfa slope = -1 on a logloglo

A
• There will be p branches of the root locus diagram. EX 12.5. Tune a PID controller by designing an IMC controller for
• Branches start from the open loop poles and end at the open a process whose model can be approximated by a first order plus
a = z cos( ∠z ) b = z sin( ∠z )

Magnitudeintersection of ‘lfa’
loop zeros OR at ∞. time delay. Use a Pade approximation and a Taylor series

of z:
• The real axis is a part of the root locus diagram if the total approximation for the delay term. Then, rearrange the IMC z = a + jb
number of the OLTF poles and zeros to the right of that point (on controller equation as a PI or PID controller and obtain the K e −θ s
the real axis) is an odd number (1, 3, 5, ...). corresponding tuning of the PI or PID controller. = z cos( ∠z ) + j z sin( ∠z ) G (s ) =
τs +1
• The breakaway point of the braches from the real axis

lfa slope =with

0 a real a
= z { cos( ∠z ) + j sin( ∠z ) } K , τ , and θ

complex number
20 log AR ω →0 = 20 log K ≈ 18∴ K = anti log18 / 20≈ 7.9
= z exp{ j ( ∠z )}
( ∠z ) GUIDLINE. A heuristic approach to design a FB controller is to
z = zej
• The angle of asymptotes of branches approaching infinity can be have a GM between 1.7 to 4 and a PM between 30o and 45o.
found from the following equation Let z be a complex number which is the product of two other EX 14.2. Design a FB controller (obtain Kc) for the following
complex numbers, z1 and z2 ≈

Forfirst
a first order process,
system that ensures a GM of 2 and a PM of 30o, whichever is
z = z1 × z2 z = z1 × z2 ∠z = ∠z1 + ∠z 2 more conservative

As ∞ the →
t →Presentation term
50

approache
0.016 1

Polar of a Compl
EX 11.8. Using the above ‘rules’, construct the approximate root
Alternatively, let z be a complex number which is the ratio of two 7.9e −3s G p (s) = Gv (s ) = G m (s ) = G c (s ) = K c
other complex numbers, z1 and z2 G (s ) ≈ 30s + 1 3s + 1 10s + 1
locus diagram of the system described in EX 11.7.
z1 z1 8.3s + 1
z= z = ∠z = ∠z1 − ∠z2 Stability Analysis and Design of FB Control Systems using  50   0.016   1 
G OL ( s ) =   Kc

since the φ → −∞ as ω →
First Order Filter f(s) [r=1] z2 z2  
Frequency Response Technique  30s + 1   3s + 1   10s + 1 
The Closed-Loop TF of a SISO System, assuming Gm=1, is 8
Theorem: If we replace s = jω in the transfer function of a linear AR = K
G c (s )G v (s )G p (s ) G d (s ) OL c
The breakaway point of the branches of the root locus diagram system, we obtain a complex number G(jω ) whose magnitude | Y (s ) = Y s . p . (s ) + D (s ) 9 ω 2
+ 1 900 ω 2
+ 1 100 ω 2
+1

→
1 + G c (s )G v (s )G p (s ) 1 + G c (s )G v (s )G p (s ) φOL = − tan −1 ( 3ω ) − tan −1 ( 30ω ) − tan −1 (10ω ) = −π ω c = 0.218rad / s

φOL = - 1
from the real axis can be found from the following equation G(jω )| is equal to the amplitude ratio (AR) and whose argument
∠ G(jω ) is the phase difference (φ ). 1
The obtained AR and Phase difference are used for system C .L .C .E . = 1 +G c (s )G v (s )G p (s ) = 1 + G OL (s ) = 0 GM = 2 = ∴ AROL at critical frequency =1 / 2
identification and ‘controller design’ using graphical presentation ARO L at critical frequency

−1
And the angle of the asymptotes of the branches going to infinity of the AR and φ in the form of Bode, Nyquist and Nichols plots. Stability Tests for CL FB Control Systems

φ = −tan Solution.
= −ta
8
can be found by Routh Test (Chapter 11), Direct Substitution (Chapter 11), Root AROL at critical frequency = 1/ 2 = Kc

(τω)Theref
Graphical presentation of AR and φ in the form of graphs such as 9ωc 2 + 1 900ωc 2 + 1 100ωc 2 + 1
Locus Diagram (Chapter 11), Stability Test in the Frequency
Compare the above equation with the transfer function of an ideal BODÉ and NYQUIST diagrams, will help interpret the results. Domain → Bode and Nyquist stability 8
PID controller to get the tuning parameters of the PID controller NYQUIST Diagram: Polar representation of this information (AR Statement of the Stability Theorem in the Frequency Domain =K c
with k taking values of 0,1and 2 and φ ) on the G(jω ) plane. For any given value of ω , calculate 9(0.218)2 + 1 900(0.218)2 + 1 100(0.218) 2
+1
they are pi/3, pi, 5pi/3 A system is closed-loop stable if the amplitude ratio of its open-
the AR and φ . This will represent one point on the G(jω ) plane
Control of Unstable Processes and application of the Root- loop (AROL) system is less than one at the critical frequency 0.5 (1.19)(6.54)(2.39)
with a distance from the origin equal to the AR and an angle with ∴ Kc = =1.17
Locus Diagram: (frequency at which the OL phase difference, φ , is −180°). 8

Nyquist
OL
the real axis equal to φ .
An unstable process has at least one positive pole in its process Qualitative Proof Note that this value of Kc is much smaller than the maximum value
Methods to construct Bodé and Nyquist Diagrams
transfer function: of Kc, max=23.8 obtained for the system in EX 14.1.The design
[1] Graphical− approximate plots y s . p . = A sin(ωt )
EX 11.9. based on the given PM results in another Kc value and we choose
− useful for the fundamental understanding of the concepts and
the one which is more conservative or smaller.
process identification
PM = 30 o = 180o + Φ OL where AR of Open Loop is 1

The Closed-Loop Char

[2] Numerical − Obtain AR(ω ) and φ (ω ) from G(s), form a table
Φ OL where AR of Open Loop is 1=-180 o+30 o=-150 o=- (5/6) π =
of AR, φ , ω , and draw AR versus ω on a log-log plot and φ

. Fromε=Asinω
thefreA
- 2.616 rad
versus ω on a semi-log plot.− Alternatively, use MATLAB y m = B sin(ωt + φ ) G OL (s ) = G c (s ) G v (s ) G p (s ) G m ( s )
[1] Graphical Construction of Approximate Bodé and Nyquist φ = − tan −1 3ω − tan −1 30ω − tan −1 10ω ( ) ( ) ( )=
plots Steps involved: [A] Obtain expressions for the AR and φ
B OL where AR of Open Loop is 1
AR OL = = G OL ( j ω ) φOL = ∠ G OL ( j ω )
[B] Obtain expressions for the AR as ω→ 0 and for φ as ω→ 0 A
Fund ω by trial and error (remember that your calculator should

+
→ low frequency asymptote (lfa), steady-state We know that both AROL and φ OL are functions of frequency, ω .
be in radian mode and NOT in the degrees mode):
[1] Obtain expressions for the AR as ω→∞ and for φ asω→∞ If we vary ω such that the AROL=1 and φ OL= −180° = −π , the
ω ≈ 0.14 rad / s
→ high frequency asymptote (hfa) measured output ym will be:
[1] Using the ‘hfa’, determine log AR → log ω to get the slope of y m = A sin ωt − π = − A sin ωt ( )
AROL = 1 = K c
8

B
the ‘hfa’ [2] Obtain the intersection of ‘lfa’ with hfa to obtain ω n, 9(0.14) 2 + 1 900(0.14) 2 + 1 100(0.14) 2 + 1
At this point, we close the loop and set ys.p.= 0. Note that the error
the corner frequency 8
Closed-loop stability requires that signal is still the same as when the loop was open and ys.p. was (A =K c
EX 13.1. Draw the ‘approximate’ Bode plots and Nyquist plot for a
2 − Kc > 0 and Kc − 1 > 0, Therefore: Kc < 2 Kc > 1 sinω t). Under these conditions, the closed-loop system oscillates (1.08)(4.31)(1.72)

φO
First Order System and then compare them with the Matlab generated
1 < Kc < 2. Therefore, for the closed loop system to be stable the Compare the above equation to the transfer function of an ideal PI with constant amplitude (that is, the closed-loop system is at the
(1.08)(4.31)(1.72)

Notice that AR is a function of ω.

2 = = 1.005
controller gain must be larger than 1 and smaller than 2. That is, controller to get the tuning parameters of the PI controller G (s ) = verge of instability). If AR OL is increased slightly (for EX, by K c
there will be a minimum and a maximum controller gain, Kc,min plots for 5s + 1 increasing the controller gain) the CL system becomes unstable 8
and Kc,max, to ensure closed-loop system stability. (oscillates with an increasing amplitude). If AROL is decreased, Therefore the choice of the controller gain according to the design
CHAPTER 12 however, the system will be closed-loop stable (oscillates with specification given in this problem is dictated by the PM which
Direct Synthesis Method for Tuning the PID Controllers decreasing amplitude until it settles at a steady-state value).
asks for a smaller controller gain, Kc = 1.005, which is virtually 1. These processes have at least one positive pole in their OL Y 1 (s )  G 11 (s ) G 12 (s )  U 1 (s ) 
=
transfer function. If PID controllers are used, include the D-action. Y 2 (s ) G 21 (s ) G 22 (s )  U 2 (s )  4  20 10
This results in a more stable (slower) closed-loop response.
Control of Non-Linear Processes
λ11 = K11h11 = 5  = =
Chapter 15, FF and Ratio Control If the relationship between u and y is mildly non-linear, a linear  14  14 7
A FFC controller is used if large and frequent disturbances affect controller (PID) will work fine. However, in the presence of strong U1 & Y1 is the correct pairing.
the controlled variable, especially in a slow process. The FFC non-linearity (which is very common in chemical processes), a U2 & Y2 is dangerous because the two loops fight each other.
should not be used alone. The FB and FF controllers are used linear controller will fail to perform well. We have three EX 18.5. The Bristol RGA of a process is given below, suggest
together to correct for variations in the feed flowrate (F) and feed alternatives: the correct pairing of Us and Ys.
temperature (TF). 1. Use a linear controller (such as PID) with frequent retuning
The Feed Forward Control Equation (commonly practiced).
 0.8 0.1 0.1 ↔
Y ( s ) = G p ( s ) U ( s ) + G d ( s ) D( s ) Chapter 16, Enhanced Single Loop Control Strategies 2. Use an adaptive controller. Λ = 0.05 0.05 0.9 ↔
 

U1
Cascade Control: Ex 16.1. Temp control in a jacketed CSTR. 3. Use a non-linear controller (Research).
In general,
0.15 0.85 0  ↔
The function of a FF controller is to ensure that y’(t) tracks y’sp(t). Problem with FB only: There are usually fluctuations in the steam
Therefore, to derive the ‘ideal’ FF controller equation, we replace supply pressure. The fluctuations act as disturbances affecting the Adaptive Controllers Control of MIMO Processes in the Presence of Interaction
Y(s) by Ysp(s) in the above equation and rearrange the equation steam flow rate (manipulated variable). Adaptive controllers involve on-line system identification plus
to obtain: If fluctuations in steam pressure are large, a simple FB controller design.
Note that if G12(s) and G21(s) are zero, then loops are independent
control will not perform well. There are many types of adaptive controllers:
and there would be no interactions between the two loops.
The Block Diagram of a Cascade Control system a. Gain scheduling or Program Adaptive
Otherwise, Y1 will be influenced by both U1 and U2. The same is
Controller
true for Y2.

U2
What is the Bristol RGA (relative gain array matrix)?
Feed Forward Controller Block Diagram λ λ12 
Λ =  11 
λ21 λ22 

−
Definition of Individual Entries of Λ :

Definition of Individua
Y U3+
The steady state gain is (Kc Kv Kp Km = Koverall). The overall gain Use SISO controllers (i.e. PID) detune the less important loops
or use interaction compensators (decouplers).
Note that the output of the primary controller is the set-point of the should be maintained constant for good performance. Km and Kv

+
Note that the FF controller only receives measurements from Use MIMO controllers → v1 = Gc1 (ε 1, ε 2)
disturbance(s) and is unaware of the actual value of the controlled secondary controller may be constant for linear measuring element and valve

Ysp1
characteristics. We may only change the controller gain to offset ↔ Design of Decouplers: Decouplers are essentially FF controllers.

sp1
G
variable.
FF and FB Block Diagram changes in the process gain. Therefore, as the process gain Y 1 = G 11U 1 + G 12U 2
changes, the controller gain (Kc) must be changed to maintain the The numerical value of λ will determine if there is any
11 Y 2 = G 21U 1 + G 22U 2
overall gain constant. Requires parameter estimation block (Kp = interaction between the two loops.
∆ y/∆ u). U 1 = v 1 + G I 1v 2
b. Model Reference Adaptive Controllers
U 2 = v 2 + G I 2v 1

λ11 desired
= the1 effe→
In general, it can be shown that the elements of each column or Y 1 = (G 11 + G 12G I 2 )v 1 + (G 12 + G 11G I 1)v 2
each row of Λ matrix add up to 1 Y 2 = (G 21 + G 22G I 2 )v 1 + (G 22 + G 21G I 1)v 2
How to find the RGA Matrix?
The Closed Loop Transfer Function of the combined FF and Let us assume that we have a 2 X 2 system and we would like to
FB Control System. Let us assume that Km = 1. determine λ 11. There are two ways to determine λ 11:

→
1. Experimentally –One approach to obtain the elements of the Y 1  G 11 G 12  U1 

the 0.5
= reference effec
Note: The reference model is a model that represents the desired RGA matrix is to perform two experiments. In the first experiment,
Y  = G  
 2   21 G 22  U 2 

λ11
closed-loop system, for EX a first order system. both loops are left open (the controller is set to manual), U1 is
Ym = model output. em = error signal between Ym and Y changed by a step change ∆ U1 and the corresponding change in
The objective function of the optimization block is to minimize the Y at steady-state is measured. The measured ∆ Y /∆ U will
The Overall Closed-Loop Transfer Function for the Cascade 1 1 1
G
error and find Kc, τ I, τ D, if the controller is a PID-controller. render the numerator of λ 11. In the second experiment, we close G 12 + G 11G I 1 = 0 → GI 1 = − 12
Controller is:

controllers
model
G 11

The cascade controllers are very common in industry.
In a cascade controller always use a P-controller as the
secondary controller.
<0 →
the loop U2 to Y2 with a PI-controller and we introduce a step
change in U1 again, ∆ U1. We wait till the PI-controller exerts its G
Stability analysis is very difficult for this type of adaptive control. corrective action and eventually brings Y2 back to its original set- G 21 + G 22G I 2 = 0 → GI 2 = − 21
c. Self-Tuning Regulator (STR) Adaptive Controllers point. In this second experiment, U1 will have a 'direct' effect on G 22
This type of controller is commonly used for process control. Y1 and an 'indirect' effect on Y1. The latter is a result of the
There are commercial self-tuning regulators. For EX, Foxboro’s possible interaction that U1 may have on Y2 that will cause Y2 to

λ11 Implementa
EXACT controller is a popular one. deviate from its set-point with a consequent corrective action by
1. The ‘secondary controlled variable’ does NOT have to be
maintained at its setpoint, U2 to bring Y2 back to its original set-point. The latter change in U2

Assuming that Gm =1 and Gv =1, we will have the required FF
controller equations:
=
therefore there is no need for the I-action in the secondary loop. may have an effect on Y1, the 'indirect' effect of U1 on Y1 through
U2. Again we measure ∆ Y1/∆ U1, this is now the result of  5e −2s 2 
2. A proportional controller with a large Kc allows Gc2 to nullify the
disturbance effects, very quickly. For the master controller, use a combined 'direct' and 'indirect' effect of U1 and Y1, the Y 1 (s )   (s + 0.5) (s + 1)  U 1(s ) 
denominator of λ 11 Y (s )  =   
PI or a PID controller. TUNING of the slave controller is done first,  2  3 4  U 2 (s ) 

Usually, onl
then the master controller. direct effect of U1 on Y1  
 (2s + 1) (3s + 1) 

+ +
Override Control λ11 =
direct and indirect effect of U on Y − 2 (s + 1) −2(s + 0.5)e 2s
The main function of a FF controller is to correct for disturbances. Override control is used as a 'protective' strategy to ensure the
1 1
G I 1 ( s ) = −2s =

YY (∆Y
c Gc1/∆U
safety of the personnel and equipment and the quality of the Explicit STR: Identify the process in an on-line manner. Based 5e (s + 0.5) 5(s + 1)

G
That is why only Gf is usually implemented.
In order to implement a FF controller, both Gp and Gd must be product. It is not as drastic as the 'interlock' control which shuts on the prior information about the plant we have to select the  λ 1 − λ11  − 3 (2s + 1) −0.75(3s + 1)

sp sp
down the plant or a part of a plant in the case of emergency. The process model structure. For EX, a FOPTD. This process ID Λ =  11  G ( s ) = =
determined (known). 1 − λ λ

+
  I2
4 (3s + 1) (2s + 1)
Note: The system stability (closed-loop) only depends on the FB override control, switches the control of a manipulated variable
−θ s 11 11
block must calculate K, θ , and τ for the model G(s) = Ke /

Ex 18.6. De
from one controller to another in an abnormal operation. The (τ s+1). This block will use a recursive parameter estimation

Substitute (
controller since Gc alone (not Gf) appears in the closed-loop
Override controller uses the High and Low Selectors to implement method (such as the least squares) to estimate K, θ , and τ . The  1 0 1 3

Y
characteristic equation. GI 1 (0) = − GI 2 (0) = −
the logic of switching from the 'normal' control mode to the Λ= 

− −
Implementation of a FF Controller: controller block designs the new controller (PID, use ZN or IMC 5 4
0 1 

+
1. For the implementation of a dynamic FF controller, determine 'abnormal or emergency' control mode. It is important to have
Gp (s) and Gd (s) . For EX, for a FOPTD transfer function, we
have:
auto-reset windup controllers for both the 'selected' and the
'nonselected' controllers so that neither of the controllers winds up
tuning method). Implicit STR: The process model is not identified
explicitly
0.7 0.3
sp2 Chapter 19 Plant-Wide Control and Model Predictive Control
Often, the design of the control system for a plant is performed

Ysp2
Λ=

G
(their outputs exceeds 100%) while they are sitting idle. This is Implementation of controller laws on Distributed Control Systems  after the plant has been designed. Therefore, dynamic
shown as Reset FB (RFB) in the following EX. The variables in most DCS systems are expressed in engineering 0.3 0.7 ↔ ↔ interactions among the various units in the plant are not properly

−
Selective Control units. For EX, temperature, T, is read as an analog input (AIN) in accounted for. As a result, it is required to install large surge
Selective controllers also implement logics for 'safe' and 'optimal' the input channel with the low value (zero) of 50 oC and input span
If we also assume that Gt =1 . Then, calculate  0.1 0.9 ↔ ↔ tanks to provide smooth operation. This, however, creates
operation. of the transmitter equal to 100 C: o Λ=  unnecessary inventory of chemicals that is not favorable for the
Control of Processes with Difficult Dynamics T=AIN(input channel number, low value, span of transmitter) 0.9 0.1 economy and safety of the plant. It is always best for the
Self-regulatory processes include overdamped or underdamped T=AIN(3,50,100)
control/instrumentation engineers to work hand in hand with the

−
processes. The second way of handling signals which is less common is in 2. . Theoretically – If we have the individual steady-state gains process engineers to design the process and the control system
Using an analog system , the Gf can be implemented with a Processes with difficult dynamic elements require specific control the percentage range.T=AIN(3) of the system or the transfer function matrix of the system, the
simultaneously and eliminate the need for the surge tanks.
lead/lag unit that has adjustable parameters for the gain, the lead strategies. In this case, temperature is expressed in percentage, for EX 60% RGA matrix can easily be estimated. Consider the following EX.
time and the lag time constants: Control of Processes with Time Delay or 0.6 of the entire span of the transmitter. EX 18.3. Determine the correct pairing for the following system:
In the design of an entire plant, the qualitative incentives for the
Majority of chemical processes have time delays between the  2.5e −2s
Programming in the DCS Systems 2  implementation of a control system, namely:
manipulated variables and the controlled variables. Such delay Programming is either performed in block-oriented  (s + 0.5) (s + 1)  Safety, Environmental consideration, Production rate, Product
times are detrimental to the closed loop system stability. The PID programming as is shown in Table 16.1., or in language-  

Controller
controllers are poor choices as controllers and often cannot be
G = specifications, Operational constraints must be translated to a
oriented programming such as Fortran, Basic or C, as is  3 4  series of reasonable control loops connecting the manipulated
If b < a, we end up with a time advance term which is not used for processes with large time delays, unless they are shown in Table 16.2.  
(2 s + 1) (3 s + 1) variables and the controlled variables. Safety, environmental
physically realizable. Therefore, we only implement the lead/ lag detuned significantly. Chapter 18, Multi-loop Control of Multivariable Processes   Note: The RGA method provides variables, and product specifications are guaranteed by
part. Even the new DCS systems have numerical subroutines that The delay time/dead time/transportation lag is detrimental to the information on the steady-state interaction only. No information implementing concentration and pressure loops on hazardous
mimic the function of a lead/lag unit with adjustable parameters. closed-loop system stability. A controller that can handle a large The model of this MIMO process can be represented by a transfer given on the dynamic interactions that may exist in a system. emissions, product concentrations and process pressures and

designer
For the implementation of a FF controller using a personal dead time without causing closed-loop system stability, is referred function matrix, G(s).
computer, derive the ordinary differential equation (ODE) between to as a “dead time compensator”.
 2.5e −2 s
  2  temperatures. Production rate is implemented by a flow control
Y1 =   U1 +  U2 loop on the throughput manipulated variable (TPM). Operational
the FF controller output and the measured disturbance, and then  (s + 0.5)   (s + 1) 

It is desirab
Y 1 (s )  G 11(s ) G 12(s )  G n (s )  U 1(s )  constraints are met by “inventory control’ or level controllers.
convert the ODE to a finite difference equation in terms of the The Actual Transfer Function of a process with Time Delay
  =     Luyben et al. (Plantwide Process Control, New York, McGraw-Hill,
controller output at each sampling instant. For ex, let us assume       3   4  1998) discuss the principles involved in the control of an entire
that the controller equation is given by: Y1 =   U1 +   U2
Y n (s )  G n1 (s ) G n2 (s ) � G nn(s )  U n(s )   (2s + 1)  (3s + 1)  The SS Gain Matrix (set production rate, TPM:
plant. The following principles are recommended in the control of

s=0): [1] The TPM must be controlled in the ‘primary process path’ by
Y (s ) = G (s )U (s )
Note that the actual dynamics of a process is ‘unknown’. 5 2  controlling the feed to the most sensitive part of the plant, the
K =  Y = 5U + 2U bottleneck, for EX the feed to a reactor. The stream whose flow

Converting this to a differential equation, using:
Replacing the derivatives by a first order backward difference
equation results in:
The Approximate Model
with Time Delay
similarly Y
(Transfer Function) of the process
Y 1 (s ) = G 11(s )U 1(s ) + G 12( s )U 2(s ) + � + G n1 (s )U n (s ) 3 4 At SS 1 1 2 rate is controlled must be rich in the product.
[2] Whenever possible, the flow rate of an internal stream of the
For a non-interacting MIMO process, the off-diagonal terms of the Y = 3U + 4U
2 1 2
plant should be controlled. If this is not possible, the inlet feed
flow rate or the product flow rate can be controlled.
transfer function matrix, G(s), will all be zero. Only one input will The first equation gives the 'direct' effect of U1 on Y1, the
[3] The distillate flow rate or the bottoms flow rate in a distillation
affect each output in such a case. However, this is a highly numerator of λ 11, (∆ Y1/∆ U1) all loops open = 5
should never be controlled.
unlikely situation. Usually, there is interaction in MIMO systems If the second loop is on automatic with a PI-controller, at steady-
and, therefore, the SISO controllers do not perform well. state, there will be no change in Y2, no offset. Once the ‘production rate or TPM’ is controlled the ‘inventory
EX 18.1. Consider a binary distillation column.

→
Note that there are 5 controlled variables in this system:
0 = 3U 1 + 4 U 2
controls’ in the upstream and downstream of the TPM must be
designed. In most cases, P-control alone works well for averaging
Column pressure, Level in the condenser, Level in the bottom of U = −3 / 4 U
the column, Purity in the distillate, XD, and Purity in the bottoms, XB 2
( 1 ) level control. The upstream inventories are controlled by
manipulating the inlet flow rates and those downstream by exit
2. In the above EX, the (lead/lag) term is a dynamic term and
There are also five manipulated variables:
Cooling water flow rate, Steam flow rate, Reflux flow rate
Y 1 = 5U 1 + 2 −3 / 4 U 1 {( ) } flows.
It is also necessary to first design simple FB controllers and then
Y 1 = 5U 1 − 6 / 4 U 1 ( )

represents the implementation of the dynamic version of the FF Bottoms flow rate, and Distillate flow rate
controller (it involves the s-terms). It is a common practice to use The question is how to pair the manipulated and controlled
only a ‘steady-state’ FFC by replacing 0 for the Laplace operator, variables. Even if we use engineering judgment and common
s = 0. sense there are many more than one combination of manipulated
and controlled variables. In general, for an n × n system (n
The Equivalent Block Diagram manipulated and n controlled variable) there will be n! ways to pair
the manipulated variables to the controlled variables (pairing of
input-output variables). Which way is the best?
Advantages of a FFC Using the engineering judgment, we can identify the manipulated
if λ11 = 1,
improve the performance by adding cascade control, ratio control,
Y1 = 7 / 2 U1( ) FF controllers and decouples.
series of rule in the implementation of plant wide controls:
The combined 'direct' and 'indirect' effect of U1 on Y1 is given by [1] Control valves should be located downstream of centrifugal
pumps to meet the net positive suction head (NPSH).
(∆ Y1/∆ U1) the second loop U2 to Y2 is closed with a PI-controller = 7/2
[2] Only one flow control valve should be installed in a line to
5 10
λ
11 = = avoid to flow controllers fighting each other. Two control valves,
can be installed in the same line if one valve is actuated by a flow
72 7 controller and the other one by a pressure controller.

Smith contro
The FF controller compensates for the effect of large disturbances variables that have the largest, quickest, and direct effect on the
 10 7 − 3 7
−α s
G p* (s )e p [3] To control a compressor can be achieved by placing a control
affecting the controlled variable. Perfect control is ‘theoretically’ controlled variables. However, where the engineering judgment
possible. no longer helps, we need an analytical tool, called the Relative Λ= 
valve in the suction of the compressor that directly affects mass
Disadvantages of a FFC Gain Array of Bristol, to help us pair the manipulated variables  − 3 7 10 7  flow in. Installing a valve on the outlet of a compressor affects
only the work and the compression ratio of the compressor and
Requires extra instrumentation to measure the major −αˆ s
Gˆ p* (s )(1 −e p ) with the controlled variables. In what follows we discuss how to The obtained Λ tells us that U1  Y1 should be paired but it will lead to an unstable condition referred to as ‘compressor

This situati
disturbances. determine the level of interaction between the manipulated also tells us that U2 has a deregulating effect on Y1 (the two loops surge’. The best way to control a compressor with a steam
It only corrects for the measured disturbances, and it does not variables and controlled variables, and use this information to fight each other). turbine is to control its speed.
take any action for the other disturbances. properly pair them. Another way to obtain the RGA is to use matrix operation: Obtain
Since the controlled variable is not fed back to the FFC, it may 1) Decide whether there is any interaction in the system. One the inverse of the steady-state gain matrix, transpose it and then
(and usually does) suffer from drifts. It takes some actions without way to quantify this is to look at the off diagonal terms of G(s). If obtain the elements of the RGA by multiplying the corresponding

(S
knowing their consequence. Therefore, always use the FF they are non zero, then there is interaction. elements of the steady-state gain by the elements of the
controller with a FB controller. 2) Quantify the level of interaction. Develop the Bristol relative transpose of the inverse of the steady-state gain matrix.
The FF controller requires a lot of engineering effort to develop.

E U
gain array matrix (RGA). −1 −1 T
Control of Inverse Response Processes (with a Positive Zero)
Accurate transfer functions for Gp (s) and Gd (s) are required. 3) The Bristol RGA will tell us how to pair the manipulated K → K → (K )
The Ratio Controller variables and controlled variables.
The Ratio controller is a special steady-state FF controller used to There are two ways to control these processes. 4) After proper pairing of u → y, the next step is to control the EX 18.4. Obtain the RGA matrix using the matrix operation:
Y 1 = 5U 1 + 2U 2 Y 2 = 3U 1 + 4U 2

GThe Steady-S
control the ratio of flowrates of two streams. 1. PID with D-action (the D-action must be present) system. There are two general approaches:

if λ11 = 0.7,
EX 15.2. Control of the air to fuel flow ratio in a furnace 2. Inverse Response compensator. The structure of this controller [1]Use multi-loop SISO controllers. In this case in order to
A ratio controller can be implemented using two different is similar to the Smith Compensator minimize the interaction between the manipulated variables and Y 1   5 2  U 1 
=

Ysp + +
controlled variables, we can (a)either detune the controllers that   

c(s)
configurations. −1 T
control the less important variables, that is use a small Kc values Y 2   3 4  U 2 
,
H = (K ) ,
or, (b) use decouplers that are essentially FF controllers to
decouple the interacting control loops
ijλ =k h ij ij
[2]Use multi-variable controllers: DMC (Dynamic Matrix Control)
Or MPC (Model Predictive Control)  4 − 2
EX 18.2. Consider a 2 × 2 MIMO process  
 − 3 5  =  4 / 14 − 2 / 14

−
K −1 =
(5 × 4) − (2 × 3)  − 3 / 14 5 / 14 

The second configuration is: .

This controller has an additional parameter, λ , to be tuned.
− −1  4 / 14 − 3 / 14
( K )T =  =H
 − 2 / 14 5 / 14 
PID
Usually, λ = 2η .
Control of Unstable Processes