Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECTION 3
CRUSHER FINES (crushed stone) TRAILS combine some of the rustic feeling of natural surface trails
with a durable surface suitable for higher usage levels in more seasons. As a recreational resource, these
paths should provide a good trails experience to residents and visitors alike in all seasons. As a
transportation resource, these trails can serve a limited role as an alternative to motorized travel. For both
recreation and transportation, it’s essential that the trails be well designed, well constructed, and properly
maintained.
The Goals of the County for crusher fines trails are to:
• Provide not just multiple usages, but also multiple purposes. For example,
recreation as well as commuting.
• Blend with the landscape so that the path seems as though it belongs there.
• Be physically stable.
Usage Parameters
Crusher fines (crushed stone) surface trails are moderate-use trails that can accommodate all foot traffic
and limited wheeled traffic. Unlike hard surface trails, crusher fines cannot develop cracks or break up,
and the naturalistic gravel-like surface feels more like a trail than a hard surface path and thus easily
integrates with undeveloped sites. When properly constructed and drained, the trail surface is sufficiently
stable to be usable in all seasons at almost all times. Crusher fines trails can be designed and
constructed to be barrier free to the physically challenged but, due to the soft surface, cannot be
considered fully accessible.
The flexibility of crusher fines usage makes it possible for these trails to serve many different purposes.
Crusher fines can be used for bike paths, as an adjacent trail for a hard surface multiple use trail, and as
a weather-resistant surface for some hiking, walking, and nature trails. The width of the trail can vary as
needed.
These trails can be considered a part of an alternate transportation system, but the rougher surface
makes these paths more difficult than a hard surface for all bicyclists. Generally, crusher fines are less
suitable for road bikes than for mountain bikes.
Do not plow crusher fines trails in winter. Besides possibly disturbing the surface, the piled snow on each
side will trap runoff during spring snowmelt and possibly cause large-scale washouts.
User Types
Unconditional usage
• Hikers
• Walkers
• Joggers
• Runners
Conditional use
Usage by each of the following should be determined on a case-by-case basis. Some design and
construction restrictions apply where some of the following are permitted:
• Equestrians
• Mountain bikes
• Road bikes
• Cross-country skiers may be able to use the trail in winter depending on snow
conditions. Grooming is optional.
The standards for each trail type include grades, drainage features, curves, sightlines, hazard zones, and
clearances. For an introduction, see Overview of Crusher Fines Trail Types, p. 3-7. For details on a given
trail type, see Crusher Fines Type 1: Bike Paths, p. 3-9, Crusher Fines Type 2: Primarily Pedestrian With
Bicycle and/or Wheelchair Access, p. 3-14, and Crusher Fines Type 3: Pedestrian Only, p.3-19.
Drainage features
Drainage is critical to crusher fines. The trail surface must be protected from even small concentrated
flows of running water, and efforts must be taken to prevent the fines from being saturated with water. If
drainage is not handled correctly, the trail can wash out or form semi-permanent ruts from usage. See
Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28, for complete guidelines to drainage features for crusher fines trails.
Maintenance
If the trail is properly constructed, maintenance of the trail surface should be minimal but must be timely.
In general, maintenance will be needed more often but will be much less expensive than for hard surface
trails. Maintenance consists largely of continual inspection of the surface for washouts, immediate repair
of washouts and the source of those washouts, regrading of parts of the trail surface as needed, and
occasional addition of crusher fines material to the surface when and where needed. See Crusher Fines
Trail Maintenance, p.3-52.
Other features
Other features of crusher fines trails not specified in this Section are to be done as specified for hard
surface multiple use trails.
Gravel is made from crushed stone but is screened to eliminate the dust and smaller particles so that all
particles are within a narrow size range. Gravel is intended to have voids between particles that drain
freely and do not compact, but this is undesirable on a trail surface because the surface always remains
loose underfoot.
Road base is usually made from crushed pit run (river sediment of cobbles and silt) obtained from gravel
pits. Unlike crusher fines, which are purely crushed stone, road base contains all the silts from the river
sediments and becomes muddy when wet. Because of the silts, road base lacks the mechanical interlock
and natural cements that make crusher fines good for trails (see below). Intended only to be an
inexpensive foundation for a hard surface above and not to be exposed to weather, road base is generally
a poor choice for trail surfacing.
Trails for Collingwood should use crusher fines instead of gravel or road base unless crusher fines are
unavailable or the alternate choice can be made to function as well as crusher fines (see explanations
which follow).
1. The rock must be crushed into irregular and angular particles. These particles
can then interlock and form a tight matrix. The more angular the particles, the better -
rounded particles like pea gravel or decomposed granite never mechanically lock
together.
2. The matrix is much tighter when the angular particles range in size from dust
upward. The smaller particles evenly fill the spaces between the larger particles and
greatly strengthen the interlocking matrix. Everything from the largest chunks down in
size to the dust particles is mechanically interlocked.
3. The crushed rock must retain all of the original binders (natural cements) that
bound the particles in the original rock to each other. Inside the tight matrix of
interlocked and adjacent particles, the binders once again cement the particles
together after the crusher fines are moistened, compacted, and allowed to dry.
When all of the above happens, the resulting trail surface is hard. The top 1/8-inch to 3/8-inch of the
surface will often be loose from weathering and traffic, but below the immediate surface the crusher fines
mass should be so hard that it is difficult to break it even with a pickax. The fines, when laid to a depth of
4 to 5 inches, should bind to each other in a consolidated slab that is porous yet, because of the binders
and the nature of rock dust, resistant to water falling on its surface. Once it is thoroughly compacted, the
fines do not settle or compact further (although some subsoil will absorb particles and/ or the subgrade
could compact).
Conversely, crushed sandstone is just sand. The weak binders easily release individual particles, and
even larger particles will break apart into sand when handled and compacted.
The binding strength of any crusher fines can be greatly increased by adding lime to the mix (this is most
effectively done at the time the stone is crushed).
Fines will also have varying distributions of particle sizes. For example, in a 3/8 minus mix, some
percentage of the total will pass a 1/4” screen, another percentage a 3/16” screen, another a 1/8” screen,
etc., and some percentage will be dust. The ideal particle size distribution is one where there are enough
smaller particles to completely fill the voids between the larger ones. This distribution requires about half
of the fines by weight to be smaller particles. See Specification of Crusher Fines, p. 3-6.
Crusher Fines Surface Trails
Crusher Fines Surface Trails
Finer surfaces are smoother for wheeled users but the smaller particles that form those surfaces
sometimes lack the strong mechanical interlock critical to crusher fines consolidation. The lack of interlock
(which can be partially compensated by strong binders) can cause the top of the surface to be
excessively loose, even up to a depth of an inch or more. This looseness is a serious impediment to
bicycles and especially wheelchairs. Nonetheless, the coarseness of the surface (the maximum particle
size) is a choice that depends in part on the user and users of the trail.
Colour
Crusher fines will have exactly the same color as the rock from which they are ground. Individual particles
may have varying colors from color differences in the source rock, resulting in a richer appearance in the
trail. The color is constant with time and is constant throughout the mix.
If crusher fines surfaces need to be patched in the future, the fines added for the patch should be from the
same rock source or the color will likely not match.
Order 3/8” minus crushed granite or other suitable hard stone. Look for a hard original stone - the harder
the original stone, the stronger the binders will be in the crushed stone.
The crusher fines should have approximately the following composition by weight:
The color should either match or complement the native stone and surroundings of the site, but color is of
secondary importance to the structural characteristics of the fines.
Fines are ordered by the ton. Using a ton per cubic yard for uncompacted fines, calculate the amount
needed for the length, width, and depth of the surface and add approximately 20-30 percent to
compensate for compaction. Lime is inexpensive, so adding lime should not add much to the cost.
The basic design of crusher fines trails varies according to trail usage and drainage requirements. To best
optimize crusher fines trails for intended uses, standards exist for three types of trails:
1. Bike paths
2. Primarily pedestrian with bicycle and/or wheelchair access
3. Pedestrian only
These trail types vary widely in both design and construction methods as well as in the trail experience of
users. Pedestrian-only trails are the most naturalistic, while bike paths are the least.
The choice of which trail type to use should be driven by the intended use. If, however, topography and
alignment limit the technical feasibility of a trail type, trail usage and type can be based on what trail type
can feasibly be built.
Intended as both recreation and transportation for bicycles and pedestrians, these are highly engineered
paths with a minimum width of 8’, long sightlines, and minimum curve radii standards optimized for
bicycles. Since the trail surface must be as smooth and unobstructed as possible for primary bicycle
usage, trail surface drainage features must be unobtrusive and limited in frequency.
Only outslope, crowning, superelevation, side swales and culverts, and grade breaks can be used to drain
the trail surface. This limitation on drainage methods, however, reduces the ability to effectively drain the
surface and therefore limits trail grades and alignment. Overall trail grades should be 4% or less
whenever possible and the upper limit for short grades is 8%. Long grades over 6% are infeasible without
using a hard surface (concrete or asphalt) in at least parts of the trail. Grade breaks should be built into
the alignment as a fail-safe drainage method to prevent potential large-scale washouts.
Because of the extensive engineering involved in side swales, culverts, wide superelevated (banked)
curves, and long sightlines on a wide trail surface, this is the least naturalistic crusher fines trail type.
Nonetheless, the overall effect is much more naturalistic than a hard surface.
For details, see diagram Crusher Fines Type 1: Bike Paths, p. 3-9.
These are recreational trails of varying width designed for pedestrians and for either or both wheelchair
and limited bicycle access. Usage by bicycles is intended to be occasional, not primary, and travel speeds
are intended to be lower than for bike paths. For wheelchair users, the trail is designed to be barrier-free
with limited grades and some safety features. (Full wheelchair accessibility cannot be claimed due to the
soft surface.)
These paths can use outslope, crowning, side swales and culverts, drainage dips, and grade breaks to
drain the trail surface. The frequent use of drainage dips can eliminate the need for side swales and
culverts in many instances, therefore making this type of trail less expensive to construct and maintain
than a full bike path.
The use of frequent drainage dips to increase trail drainage combines with less restrictive limits on
sightlines and curve radii to create trails which can take advantage of site features and topography and be
more naturalistic than bike paths.
For details, see diagram Crusher Fines Type 2: Primarily Pedestrian With Bicycle and/or Wheelchair
Access, p.3-14.
Recreational crusher fines trails of varying width limited to pedestrians only can have the widest range of
alignments, grades, and site conditions. All drainage techniques - outslope, crowning, side swales and
culverts, drainage dips, grade breaks, and steps - can and should be used to create a very naturalistic,
fun to use, physically stable, and easy to maintain trail. The use of steps effectively removes upper limits
to trail grades and makes possible the widest variety of alignments.
Pedestrian-only trails are intended to create an intimate experience for trail users. The trail should dip and
roll with the landscape, come close to trees and small-scale site features, vary widely in alignments and
curve radii, and use steps as both a grade reduction method and as a trail design element. Small
drainage crossings can be features along the trail, rocks and other natural features can sometimes extend
into the trail where this makes sense, and a given trail can mold to its site by varying in width in logical
response to site constraints. Because the trail is designed to be enjoyed at slow pedestrian speeds, the
trail and its structures should be rich in detail and carefully designed and crafted to create a positive
added experience.
Soft surface trails, which parallel hard surface multiple use paths, are usually this type of crusher fines
trail, as well as interpretive trails through unique environments. This trail type is also potentially the most
stable and maintenance-free crusher fines trail because so many trail drainage features can be combined
with great flexibility to handle any grade and drainage situation.
For details, see diagram Crusher Fines Type 3: Pedestrian Only, p. 3-19.
In general, grades should be kept as minimal as possible. Grades of 3% or less are preferable with
grades up to 5% acceptable. Grades above 5% should be used only where absolutely necessary. The
maximum crusher fines grade is 8% - higher grades require a hard surface. See the table below for the
relationship between trail grades and drainage specifications.
Whenever possible, trails should traverse slopes. To minimize the possibility of site and trail runoff
following the trail, the trail grade should not exceed 30% of the cross slope at any given point. If the trail
grade does exceed 30% of the cross slope, both sides of the trail should have swales (to drain water off
the trail faster) and grade breaks should be located more frequently.
Grades long and steep enough to make it necessary for bicyclists to skid should either be hard surfaced,
realigned, or have long sightlines.
Grade breaks
In order to prevent possible washouts of long stretches of trail on grades, grade breaks should be
designed into the alignment as a fail-safe drainage feature. Grade breaks can be smoothly and elegantly
integrated into the trail alignment in several ways - see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28, and the
table on previous page.
The steeper the grade, the more often grade breaks are required - this further limits the overall running
Crusher Fines Surface Trails
grade of the trail. A hard surface should be considered for trails (or parts of trails) that consistently require
grades of 6% or higher.
Swale crossings
Swale crossings let surface water on the site flow across the trail surface. For minimal flows, the swale
crossing can be made of crusher fines. For concentrated flows, concrete should be used in the crossing
(see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28). Culverts or other drainage crossing methods should be used
to cross drainages that carry more than occasional storm runoff or which continue to flow after rainfall has
ceased.
Sightline distances
In general, use the 15-mph figures.
surface multiple use trails. Use the specifications in Hazard Zones and Side Clearance, p. 2-9.
Bike paths require 10’ vertical clearance, and more may be necessary or desirable to accommodate
construction or maintenance vehicles. Paths used for cross-country skiing may require additional
clearance (up to 16’ depending on expected snow depth).
In the table below, “High speed, uncongested zone” refers to sections of path which are not commonly
busy and where bicycle users are likely to be traveling fast.
"Moderate speed, mainline path” refers to trail sections that are in somewhat busy areas. This zone also
includes mainline path sections with a straightforward low-use intersection on a curve such as a low-use
spur trail which connects to a nearby open space access point - the mainline trail should be banked
through the intersection.
Busy path sections, marked slow zones, busy intersections, and sections with heavy pedestrian traffic
should not be superelevated.
The superelevations given in the table are to be the final pitch of the trail surface from side to side (as
opposed to crowning).
Superelevation
This trail type is not meant to be a higher-speed bike path but instead merely barrier-free to wheeled
users. Standards for this type of trail are not as restrictive as a bike path but are considerably more
restrictive than a pedestrian-only path. Wheeled users can be bicycles, wheelchairs, or both. The width of
the trail can vary as needed.
Crusher Fines Surface Trails
Whenever possible, trails should traverse slopes. To minimize the possibility of site and trail runoff
following the trail, the trail grade should not exceed 30% of the cross slope at any given point. If the trail
grade does exceed 30% of the cross slope and the trail is more than 4’ wide, both sides of the trail should
have swales (to drain water off the trail faster) and grade breaks and drainage dips should be located
more frequently.
Steep grades
Grades long and steep enough to make it necessary for bicyclists to skid should be avoided or else given
long sightlines. Provide a transition zone at the top and bottom of steep grades.
Crusher Fines Trails for the Physically Challenged, p. 3-49, supersede the following for the applicable trail
sections.
In order to safely accommodate wheeled (but slower-moving) traffic, the permissible drainage features for
these trails are:
Trail surface outslope
Crowning
Side swales and culverts
Grade breaks
Drainage dips
Swale crossings
Grade breaks
In order to prevent possible washouts of long stretches of trail on grades, grade breaks should be
designed into the alignment as a fail-safe drainage feature. Grade breaks can be smoothly and elegantly
integrated into the trail alignment in several ways - see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28, and the
table below.
Drainage dips
Drainage dips are small grade breaks - dips in the trail surface that catch water running down the trail and
divert it off. These are easy to form in crusher fines trails but must be broad and shallow enough to avoid
becoming trench-like obstacles for bicycles or wheelchairs. After outslope or crowning, drainage dips are
one of the primary methods of draining the surface of this type of trail. See the table above for drainage
dip usage.
Drainage dips every 350’ (every 150’ if More frequent grade breaks
30% 1200’ cross slope 7%) preferred over drainage dips,
Uphill swale if heavy drainage from above minimal maintenance required
Drainage dips every 200’ (every 100’ if
cross slope 8%) Maximum grade for natural
Uphill swale if moderate to heavy drainage erosion resistance of crusher
4% 800’
from above fines, more frequent grade
Swale both sides and crown if cross slope breaks preferred
6%
Drainage dips every 150’ (every 75’ if
Preferred maximum grade,
cross slope 8%)
grade breaks preferred over
Uphill swale if moderate drainage from
5% 500’ drainage dips, minimal
above
maintenance if correctly
Swale both sides and crown if cross slope
designed
8%
Drainage dips every 75’ (every 50’ if cross
slope 8%)
Difficult for wheelchair users
Uphill swale if moderate drainage from
6% 400’ without electric chairs or
above
assistance
Swale both sides and crown if cross slope
9%
Drainage dips every 50’ Approaching practical limit for
Uphill swale required crusher fines grades, avoid
7% 300’
Swale both sides and crown if cross slope turning drainage dips into
10% trenches
Drainage dips every 40’ Practical limit for crusher fines
Uphill swale required grades, wheelchair use almost
250’
Swale both sides and crown if cross slope infeasible, upper limit for bicycle
10% use
--- Use Type 3 (ped only)
9% —
standards
*If drainage dips are used correctly, grade breaks are technically unnecessary but still serve as a fail-safe drainage device. When
topography is used to create grade breaks, user comfort and enjoyment is increased, as long grades are broken.
Swale crossings
Swale crossings let surface water on the site flow across the trail surface. For minimal flows, the swale
crossing can be made of crusher fines. For concentrated flows, concrete should be used in the crossing
(see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28). Culverts or other drainage crossing methods should be used
to cross drainages that carry more than occasional storm runoff or which continue to flow after rainfall has
ceased.
Sightline distances
In general, use the 15mph figures.
* On trails with high or very high use, these situations may be considered extreme hazard zones (see below).
Other hazard zones may exist in addition to the above.
Hazard
z
Low Length of
o Extreme Low clearance
Path type clearance on width
n hazard zone† on both sides*
one side* change zone
e
†
Pedestrian with
+ 1-2’ + 2-4’ + 1’ + 2’ 3-15’
bike/wheelchair
†See definition of hazard zone, above.
* Applies only where clearance is restricted for 10 or more continuous feet.
Alignment on slopes
Whenever possible, trails should traverse slopes. To minimize the possibility of site and trail runoff
following the trail, the trail grade should not exceed 30% of the cross slope at any given point.
If the trail grade does exceed 30% of the cross slope, steps are recommended at lower grades to reduce
the possibility of washouts. Also, if the trail is more than 4’ wide at a grade exceeding 30% of the cross
slope, both sides of the trail should have swales (to drain water off the trail faster) and grade breaks and
drainage dips should be located more frequently.
Crusher Fines Surface Trails
*If drainage dips are used correctly, grade breaks are technically unnecessary but still serve as a fail-safe drainage device. When
topography is used to create grade breaks, user comfort and enjoyment is increased, as long grades are broken.
Grade breaks
In order to prevent possible washouts of long stretches of trail on grades, grade breaks should be
designed into the alignment as a fail-safe drainage feature. Grade breaks can be smoothly and elegantly
integrated into the trail alignment in several ways - see Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28, and the
table above. Frequent use of drainage dips, however, can replace grade breaks.
Drainage dips
Drainage dips are small grade breaks - dips in the trail surface that catch water running down the trail and
divert it off. These are easy to form in crusher fines trails but should be broad and shallow to avoid
becoming trench-like obstacles. After outslope or crowning, drainage dips are one of the primary methods
of draining the surface of this type of trail. See the table above for drainage dip usage.
Swale crossings
Swale crossings let surface water on the site flow across the trail surface. For minimal flows, the swale
crossing can be made of crusher fines. Minimal to occasionally moderate flows can be crossed with stone
paving or other methods. For concentrated flows, concrete should be used in the crossing (see Crusher
Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28). Culverts, bridges, causeways, or boardwalks should be used to cross
drainage that carry more than occasional storm runoff or which continue to flow after rainfall has ceased.
Steps
Stone (preferably) or timber steps should be used to reduce grades on crusher fines surfaces. Care must
be taken to ensure that water is periodically diverted off steps - this is done by adjusting the height and
location of steps above ground level and by optionally crowning the crusher fines between steps.
See the table above for guidelines on where to use steps and Crusher Fines Trail Drainage, p. 3-28, for
step construction.