The Archaeology of Irrigation Canals, with Special Reference to Peru

Author(s): I. S. Farrington
Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 11, No. 3, Water Management (Feb., 1980), pp. 287-305
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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The archaeologyof irrigationcanals,with special

referenceto Peru
I. S. Farrington

An irrigation canal is a delicate artefact, designed with engineering precision to transport

a required amount of water from source to field in order to maintain an adequate soil
moisture environment in the latter. Its construction must be exact, because lack of awareness of, or inattention to, the principles of open channel hydraulics by either builders or
operators may result in severe erosional or depositional problems. In order to achieve the
required irrigation amounts for any given system, the specific crop requirements, as well
as conveyance and field losses must be understood. Water losses from an irrigation
system generally occur during transport (conveyance) and during immediate application
(field). Conveyance losses comprise both surface evaporation and seepage through the
canal banks and bed. These may be as high as 40 per cent for earthen canals, although
they will vary according to the material of the bed and banks, and the local climate.
Field losses comprise surface run-off, evaporation and percolation through the soil
profile. Hence these, too, will vary according to local soil, slope and microclimatic
condition.
Each irrigation system therefore has its own specific hydrology or water balance. The
problem of defining the delicate balance between velocity and discharge must be solved
at the construction stage, or must be sufficiently understood to allow a canal to stabilize
its bed and banks within the broad limits of a constructional trough. Thus the construction, shape, form and gradient of an archaeological canal provide a valuable record of its
engineering qualities and of the hydrology of the irrigation-agricultural system. Such
qualities may be measured by using the formulae of open channel hydraulics, although
in prehistoric times this knowledge must have been gained by trial and error. It is the
object of this paper to suggest field techniques and methods of hydraulic analysis for an
evaluation of prehistoric irrigation systems, and to illustrate these with reference to my
own field researches in Peru.

Archaeology

and irrigation studies

Irrigation canals have intrigued archaeologists for many years because of two alleged
socio-political and economic implications of irrigation agriculture.
World Archaeology Volume ii
?

R.K.P.

I980

No. 3

Water management

0043-8243/1103-0287

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$1.50/1

288

I. S. Farrington

First, the existence of an irrigation system is believed to imply a certain amount of

labour organization, and hence a certain type of society. This is the Wittfogel hypothesis,
which has both evolutionary and functional implications for the organization of society
(Steward 1955; Wittfogel 1957). However, in recent years this hypothesis has come under
a great deal of scrutiny, both by anthropologists and field archaeologists, so that it can no
longer be considered valid for all cases (Adams i96o, 1966; Earle I978; Farrington I977;
Leach I959; Millon 1962).
The second implication is that irrigation must be linked with an intensive form of
agriculture, on the grounds of high technological and labour inputs, and because multicropping is often assumed to have been the general practice. This stems from the urbancentric view that regards irrigation as a major technical innovation to improve the
efficiency of local agricultural systems. The argument generally runs that, since systems
are often spatially extensive and since irrigation requires much effort in construction,
maintenance and operation, then inputs, and ultimately productivity, must be high
(Price 1971; Myers I974).
This is often supported by the belief that irrigation allows year-round cultivation. This
kind of logic is nonsense. Of course, there have been labour inputs which result in a
feature in the agrarian landscape which needs to be maintained periodically in order that
it may operate efficiently. Yet, at the local level, are these inputs any greater than those
expended in the preparation (and tillage) of swidden horticultural plots? My own field
work in the Cusichaca Valley, Peru, reveals extremely low inputs in the maintenance and
operation of an irrigation system. The labour expended in canal cleaning and maintenance
during the dry season in the Cusichaca area is approximately i man day per kilometre.
The construction of diversion weirs in the main canal, and the opening of secondary
canals for irrigation, is only a five-minute task. The most time-consuming task is the
construction of the field distribution network during the preparation of the field before
planting. These related tasks involve an ox-plough and at least two men for a maximum
of one day per hectare. The supervision of water distribution in the fields during irrigation has not been measured, but is of the same order of labour input. This seems to be
borne out by researches elsewhere. Furthermore, the occurrence of canals in a nonagricultural context in aboriginal California does not imply intensification, but merely
land management (Steward i930). Even on a larger scale, irrigation systems are really
only extensive in a spatial sense, and the level of labour input by a community is not
necessarily any greater than those in a small scale system.
With regard to multicropping, this too appears to have been practised only sparingly
in the prehistoric world. Crop varieties which enable a traditional farmer to produce
more than one crop per annum have only recently been developed. The exceptions to the
rule are probably sawah rice in some areas of South-east Asia and the production of wet
taro in South-east Asia and Oceania.
However, a great deal depends on the reliability of the water supply, and the traditional
technique of continual cropping during a single growing season was perhaps much more
prevalent, both in an edaphic and hydraulic systems context. Continual cropping is a
widespread traditional farming practice. Stated simply, it is the planting at different
times of a variety of specially adapted crops, so that the planting season may extend over
several months. As a consequence, harvesting will be at different times. The availability

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The archaeologyof irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

289

of irrigation water during the dry season in Highland Peru enables the cropping season
to begin earlier in the year (Farrington 1979).
Much of the archaeological literature on irrigation canals merely notes their presence
at a certain period(s) and records their association with sites. It may describe or even
classify the main features of an irrigation system (Kus 1972; Riley 1975; Woodbury 1960;
Woodbury and Neely 1972) but does not fully elucidate the technology, hydraulics or
hydrology of the canals. Even where excavations into canals have been carried out, the
researchers have not used their data to its full potential (Haury I945; Kus 1972; Myers
1974; Riley I975).

Canal excavation
On the basis of their construction, two types of canal can be distinguished: lined and
unlined. In many respects they present similar problems to the excavator. Stone and
cobble lined channels are perhaps the easiest with which to deal. Cobble lining is, in
general, applied only to canal banks, whereas stone slabs often form a complete bed/bank
lining. It is quite straightforward to take out and record carefully all the deposits which
have infilled the channel, but the critical area for hydraulic analysis is the actual lined
channel itself. It is unlikely that such a channel would have been allowed to silt up
greatly during operation, and hence the stone-lined channel itself should reveal the
hydraulic characters of that particular reach. It is also important to trench the banks
and excavate below the lining in case there are vestiges of former stone-lined or
earthen channels. Bank deposits may reveal silt lenses from the periodic cleaning of
the canal.
In the excavation of unlined or earthen canals, the whole area of cultural disturbance
must be trenched and recorded. The bed and banks of such canals are subject to normal
fluvial processes to a greater extent than for lined canals, and hence the profile of the
channel or channels needs to be carefully recorded. A reduction in discharge may result
in a composite canal form characterized by berms (Blench 1957; Farrington and Park
1978). Meandering may produce an asymmetrical cross-section which is deeper on the
outside of the bend, or a series of berm deposits on the other (Farrington and Park 1978,
fig. 2e). Silt deposited by a relatively efficiently flowing canal will be thin (o-I-Io cm.),
and periodic cleaning will often reduce this to a minimum. However, a period of disuse
may result in the filling of the canal trough by aeolian material. Subsequently, a new
canal may be cut into the aeolian deposit, and this composite history of operation and
re-use may be recorded in a series of thin channel perimeter silts separated by several
centimetres of sand (Farrington and Park I978, figs. 2d; 2e). In certain cases, deflation
and trampling may remove all surface vestige of a channel. In this instance it is necessary
to remove the topsoil and progressively excavate each channel from the truncated silt
lines, working outwards from the centre (Farrington 1972).
The excavation of a single trench across a canal is inadequate. Groups of trenches must
be dug no more than Ioo m. apart, in order that the relationship between the various
channels can be understood and the gradient of the channel floor measured.

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290

I. S. Farrington

Technology,

hydraulics

and hydrology

The constructional details of coastal Peruvian irrigation devices have been reviewed elsewhere (Farrington 1974) and need not be discussed within the context of this paper.
Suffice it to say that Peruvian irrigation systems were of the continuously flowing type,
and were regulated only at the field intake.
The transfer of water from river to field by means of a continuously flowing canal network involves an intricate balance of supply, demand and constructional ability. The
construction technology of canals and other irrigation devices is therefore critical to the
efficient operation of a system, for a canal must be built precisely to carry a set amount of
water at permissible velocities with little or no damage to itself. However, in some cases, a
canal may be required to carry less than it could theoretically accommodate at maximum
flow. Then, through normal fluvial processes of sedimentation, it would tend to form a
new stable bermed channel within the original, which would carry the required discharge
more efficiently. In some cases, erosion of a new channel appears to have taken place
within the overall trough as the canal seeks to stabilize at a new discharge capacity
(Farrington and Park 1978). Thus, very accurate surveying is essential in any hydraulic
analysis. Each silt layer of a cross-section must be surveyed at intervals of not more than
20 cm. across the channel, and at every break of slope, in order that its precise configuration can be determined. The gradient between corresponding levels in adjacent excavations can then be calculated. For stone-lined canals in the Andes it is possible, with very
little cleaning out, to survey cross-sections every 50 m. or so to achieve a complete profile
of the changing hydraulic parameters along the length. It is important that attention be
paid to detail, particularly with regard to minor breaks of slope which may represent a
depositional or erosional berm, because these may be critical in the analysis of the operational history of that particular section. The hydraulic variables, velocity and discharge,
can then be calculated for each cross-section and for each channel indicated within it.
The principles of open channel hydraulics, as outlined by Chow (i959), indicate that
the velocity and discharge of canals may be conveniently expressed by using the formulae
of uniform flow. Most prehistoric canals were relatively simple constructions and avoided
very steep slopes, weirs, etc. In an archaeological context canals have been analysed in
this way by Jones, Blakey and MacPherson (1960); Garbrecht and Fahlbusch (I975);
Busch, Raab and Busch (1976); and Farrington and Park (1978).
Velocity
In this case, velocity (v) is the mean speed of water (m. sec.-') flowing past a given point
in a canal. Within the concept of uniform flow it is believed to be constant along any
particular reach of constant slope. Velocity is a critical measurement because it indicates
whether the canal is prone to erosion or deposition at that point. It may be calculated by
using one of a number of formulae, of which two are most commonly employed.
The Chezy Formula was the first developed in uniform flow hydraulics in 1769 and
is expressed as follows:
V= ___*r.s
\/3 28

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

291

where V is the mean velocity (m. sec.-1); r is the hydraulic radius, which is calculated by
dividing the channel cross-sectional area (A) by its wetted perimeter (WP), i.e. the crosssectional perimeter of bed and banks in contact with the flow, so that r =Al WP; s is the
gradient, normally of the water surface along the canal, but for excavated canals the bed
slope is acceptable; and C is the Chezy factor of flow resistance. C has to be calculated by
using one of a number of formulae, of which the one by Bazin has been used archaeologically by Jones, MacPherson and Blakey in their examination of the flow chracteristics of
the Dolaucothi Roman aqueduct in Wales (1960). All of the formulae for the calculation
of C contain a coefficient of surface roughness which has been derived experimentally.
The two stage calculation of velocity using the Chezy formula is unwieldy and it is
perhaps more beneficial to utilize the single formula derived by Manning (I891) from
the Chezy equation, using a range of values for n determined from Bazin's experimental
data and his own verifications (Chow 1959: 99; Barnes 1967). For metric measurements
the Manning formula may be stated thus:

2 1

V= -rls-

where n is the coefficient of surface roughness, which serves to retard flow. In general
canals whose bed and banks are of fine grained sand or silt have a low value of n, in
contrast to those of coarser material such as gravel or cobbles. Values of n have been
experimentally established for a whole range of artificial and natural channels (table I;
TABLE

Selected values of the roughnesscoefficientn. (After Chow 1959,

pp. 111-13; Barnes 1967)

Type of channelbedand banks

Gravel bottom with sides of randomstone

Gravel bottom with sides of dry rubble
Cementedrubble

00o23
oo033
o0025

Dry rubble

0.032

Dressed ashlar
o.OI5
Earth/gravelcanal - straightand uniform
Earth/gravelcanal-straightand uniform with vegetation
Earth/gravel- winding
Earth/gravel- winding with rubble sides
Rock cuts - smooth

0'025
0-027
0'025
0-030
0-035

Chow 1959; Barnes 1967). Naturally, the value of n will be altered during deposition or
erosion, and also by the growth of vegetation. The angle of bends within a canal will also
affect the value. Perhaps the most important aspect of surface roughness is that, if the
channel flow is relatively shallow, then the roughness of the channel bed is emphasized
within the moving water and serves to retard it. The value of n in these instances is thus
greater. The Manning formula has been used quite successfully in the analysis of canals

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292

I. S. Farrington

in the Moche Valley (Farrington and Park I978). A sample calculation is given in the
Appendix.
The velocity calculated by applying Manning's formula may then be compared with
experimentally derived values of permissible velocity. The maximum permissible velocity of a canal is the highest speed of flow possible without large scale scour, and it is a
function of the nature of the bed and banks and the sediment load of the canal. Fortier
and Scobey (1926) have published tables of maximum permissible velocities for various
types of canal carrying different sediment loads and flowing less than O-9I m. deep (table
2). Above this velocity, canals will be subject to scour and erosion; however these authors
TABLE 2

Permissiblecanal velocities. (After Fortier and Scobey 1926, p. 955)

v (m. sec.-)

Original material excavated for canal

Fine sand (non-colloidal)

Sandy loam (non-colloidal)
Silt loam (non-colloidal)
Alluvial silts when non-colloidal
Ordinaryfirm loam
Volcanic ash
Fine gravel

-for water carrying

colloidal silts

o076
o076
o-91
i .o6

i'o6
I o6
1532

Stiff clay (very colloidal)

Graded, loam to cobbles, when non-colloidal
Alluvial silts when colloidal
Graded, silt to cobbles, when colloidal
Coarsegravel (non-colloidal)
Cobbles and shingles
Shales and hard pans
Hard rock

1-52
1-52
1'52
ir68
x-83

i.68
1.83
4.0o6

state that an old established canal can tolerate slightly greater velocities than a newly dug
one. Naturally, earthen canals will erode at lower velocities than those which are lined,
although cobbles are more prone to erosion than granite slabs. For modern earthen canals
on the north Peruvian coast, Perisutti has estimated that o-8 m. sec.-1 is the maximum
permissible velocity, although for canals dug in the coarse gravels of Quaternary outwash
plains a maximum in the order of 1-5 - 1.8 m. sec.-1 seems more appropriate (Farrington
and Park 1978).

The minimum permissible velocity is just as critical to the efficient operation of a

canal system. In general, it is difficult to calculate the velocity below which a canal will
start silting, encouraging the growth of vegetation. Chow (1959: I58) has estimated this
to be between o'6I-o.9I m. sec.-1, whereas Perisutti (pers. comm. 1977) has suggested
that 0-45 m. sec.-l would be more appropriate for the earthen canals of the north
Peruvian coast.

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

293

Thus, by careful measurement of the cross-sectional area of each significant berm

within the canal, and the canal bed slope, it is possible to estimate the velocity of that
channel and to make statements concerning the stability and efficiency of its hydraulic
section. The importance of this cannot be stressed too heavily, for it provides the
archaeologist with a measure of the awareness that ancient farmers and engineers had of
the principles of hydraulics.
Discharge
The velocity of the water within the canal is intimately related to the depth of water
transported, and hence to discharge, Q. Discharge is the amount of water passing through
a given cross-section at a given time and is measured in m.3 sec.-l. It can be calculated
from the relationship: Q= A. V.
The discharge of a canal can be thought of as equalling the product of the water
requirements of the crop or crops and the field area, plus conveyance and field losses
through seepage and evaporation. Thus it is a fairly sensitive measure of a farmer's
perception of the hydrology of his agriculture. The study of the Vichansao canal and of
irrigation requirements in the Moche valley has demonstrated quite clearly the sophistication with which the hydraulic and hydrological principles in the operation of that
system were understood (Farrington and Park 1978).
As discharge is increased to satisfy increased demand, the canal constructor is faced
with two engineering possibilities. Either he can construct a new larger canal which will
be capable of carrying the new discharge at permissible velocities, or he can try to
increase discharge within the same canal. In the latter case he will increase the depth, and
thus velocity will tend to be increased. This may take the canal velocity over the permissible limits and hence scouring may occur. This may result in either lateral erosion of the
banks or scouring of the bed, or both. The various berms noted in an excavated crosssection may assist in the elucidation of such a canal history. If the maximum permissible
velocity is not reached, then a new stable hydraulic section may be formed by deposition.
Similarly, when the amount of required discharge is reduced, or is smaller than that
capable of being transported by the channel, then sedimentation may occur and berms
may be deposited (Blench I957). Thus it is possible to elucidate through the analysis of a
series of cross-sections the operational history of a canal, and to obtain through calculations of the discharge a measure of the downstream requirement for irrigation. In the
absence of modern studies, this may be the only measure available.

The concept of critical flow

The formulae of uniform flow are only useful for the analysis of canals of fairly uniform
shape, gentle and regular slope, and which run straight or in wide, gentle curves. Not all
canals possess the criteria which render them totally amenable to this type of analysis.
Changes in canal shape, gradient and layout occur frequently, and have a profound
impact upon the hydraulic parameters thus far identified. Flow becomes unsteady and
gravity waves are produced, which may be propagated either upstream or downstream

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294

I. S. Farrington

according to the state of flow of the canal. Thus, it is important to introduce the concept
of critical flow, which describes the effect of gravity on the state of flow. It may be
represented by the ratio between inertial and gravity forces and is recognized by the
Froude number, which is usually given by the following formula:
F-g.
Vg.D
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and D is the hydraulic depth, i.e. the crosssectional area of a channel divided by its width at the free surface (W), so that D =A/ WV
For rectangular channels, the depth (y) of flow is normally used in place of hydraulic
depth.
When the Froude number is equal to I, the flow is said to be in a critical state. This
means that the specific energy within the channel is at a minimum for a given discharge,
and the discharge is at a maximum for a given specific energy; the velocity head* is
equal to half the hydraulic depth in a gently sloping channel (Chow I959: 63). Thus a
canal at the critical state will have a uniform depth at a given discharge (i.e. critical
depth), and the slope of the channel which maintains this state of flow is known as the
critical slope. At or near the critical state, flow is unstable, which means that any change
in specific energy, i.e. change in slope or direction of canal, will cause major depth
changes. Thus a canal flowing at or near the critical state must flow in a straight channel
at a constant (i.e. critical) slope, in order to carry discharges approaching bankfull.
When the Froude number is less than i, the flow is regarded as sub-critical. Velocity is
lower than in the critical state and the depth is greater. In this state gravity forces are
dominant. Gravity waves are always propagated upstream since their celerity is greater
than the velocity of flow.
Supercritical flow is indicated when the Froude number is greater than i and the
forces of inertia are dominant. This state has higher velocities and lower depths than the
critical. In this case any disturbance within the channel slope, shape or direction will
produce gravity waves which will increase the depth of water and be propagated downstream quicker than the velocity of flow. Such a disturbance will also produce a hydraulic
jump in the channel which serves to dissipate energy, reduce velocity and increase the
flow depth downstream (i.e. the sequent depth). Thus at a Froude number of 2, the
sequent depth is I.6 times greater than the initial depth. Thus a canal in a supercritical
state cannot flow at bankfull in the uniform flow sense of the term. Discharge will be
adjusted to ensure that there is no overbank spillage.
The level of agreement between the computed hydraulic variables and the hydrology
of irrigation agriculture within the Moche valley suggests that the state of flow in the
Moche canals excavated was subcritical (Farrington and Park I978). The importance of
the concept of critical flow to prehistoric irrigation canal research is best illustrated when
the question of moving water down steep slopes is considered.
*

Velocity head at a cross-section is equal to the square of the mean velocity divided by twice
the acceleration due to gravity. It is important in calculating energy loss and also in cases where
velocity is non-uniform and supercritical.

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

295

The problem of moving water down steep slopes: two case studies from Peru
The relationship between required discharge and permissible velocity is most graphically
seen when solutions to the problem of transporting water down slopes are considered.
Prehistoric canals in many parts of the world are constructed to flow down gradients
rarely greater than 2 per cent. The prehistoric engineer went to great lengths to
construct tall aqueducts against hillsides or across valleys in order to maintain a gentle
gradient. If the slope is steepened, the whole range of hydraulic properties at a given
discharge is altered to such an extent that local erosion and scouring may occur and/or
the flow becomes supercritical, and there is spillage as well. This must have been recognized by prehistoric engineers, albeit empirically, in order for them to adapt their
constructions to accommodate the problems introduced by the slope. Various solutions
to problems of slope can be illustrated by reference to the author's work in both the
Moche and Cusichaca valleys. These studies reveal an acute awareness by the prehistoric
engineer of the velocity/discharge relationship and of the overriding importance of the
nature of the material forming the bed and banks.
In the Moche valley, excavations in three types of location demonstrate quite clearly
the variety of solutions and the difficulties encountered with them. These locations are:
main supply canals within field areas; major conveyance canals; and terrace distribution
systems (fig. I).

FigureI Location of excavationsand principalcanals in the Moche Valley

The analysis of excavations within the main supply canals of two field systems,
Esperanza and Pampa de Huanchaco (fig. 2a), reveals an ingenious, yet reasonably well

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296

I. S. Farrington

understood, method of transporting discharges down relatively steep slopes (I-2 per
cent). In both cases the canal trough was dug into the pampa soils of sand and gravelsized material, slightly wider and deeper than necessary. The original channel could have
carried a discharge of between 1-3-I-6 m.3 sec.-1 but at a velocity capable of severe
erosion, 2 m. sec.-1. In each case the discharge required was about 045 m.3 sec.-l but
a. Huanchaco HVT8

E
b.IVC
0 _

b. IVC E

Figure2 Selected cross-sectionsof Moche Valley excavations

the velocity of the excavated canal still approached that capable of erosion (I'6-ix8
m. sec.-"). It appears that the canal was permitted to downcut a channel with a slightly
larger discharge before the required amount was sent down in, what was for it, a relatively
stable hydraulic section. However, the Froude number for these canals is in the range
o075-Iz*. Hence any obstruction within the channel would have produced surface waves
and overflow along the berm. For the most part these canals are straight, although the
effect of bridges (i.e. Inca road walls) on the Pampa de Huanchaco could have had severe
effects lower down the system. It is believed that channel widening or ponding immediately before the bridges reduced the flow to a subcritical state and hence an overspill
wave was not produced as the canal passed through the channel constriction.
It is understood that the now sand-filled, 2 m. wide, stone-rimmed trough carrying the
Vichansao down a 1-93 per cent slope to the Pampa de Huanchaco was constructed to
allow the canal to self-adjust its channel in order to carry the 0-5 m.3 sec.-l required
discharge efficiently.

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special reference to Peru

297

Exactly the same solution appears to have been attempted in the construction of the
Intervalley conveyance canal from Chicama to Moche. The location 5 excavations (Kus
1972) were trenched across a gently curving (and hence in hydraulic terms straight), and
steep (I'43 per cent) length. A canal trough 7 m. wide and 2-4 m. deep was initially
constructed for an estimated discharge of only 2'2 m.3 sec.-l (fig. 2b). However, a
channel of this size would have allowed a velocity of 2-68 m. sec.-l for this discharge, and
hence it would have been scoured. Farrington and Park (I978) have analysed this crosssection and suggest that the lower channel (FB) was the result of an initial attempt to
achieve the correct discharge. At bankfull it appears to have had a capacity of 2-05 m.3
sec.-1, but with a velocity still above the maximum permissible for a channel cut into the
outwash sands and gravels of the Rio Seco. Thus, a third bermed channel (B) appears to
have been scoured, which became hydraulically stable, having a velocity of I-5 m. sec.-l,
i.e. 39 per cent of the requirement.
Artificial terracing is a common feature of the prehistoric landscape of both Highland
and Coastal Peru. Narrow bench terraces with dry stone walls are characteristic not only
of the Inca period, but were almost certainly built to a small extent over 2,000 years
earlier. Many of these systems are irrigated from either a supply canal or spring. The
technology of transferring water to the first terrace, and from terrace to terrace, is
relatively straightforward, but again involves a delicate balance between field requirements and discharge.
In 1972 I excavated a number of trenches to establish the operational history of canals
and associated terraces on Cerro Orejas, a steep mountain about 25 km. from the Pacific
coast in the Moche valley. These excavations were mainly in the supply canal and surviving offtake structures which diverted water to the terraces. These revealed a very
sophisticated technology for the transference of very small discharges as free overfall onto
the terraced fields. The main canal flowed at a fairly gentle grade above the fields carrying
a discharge of c. o0 I-0o2

m.3 sec.-1, and at distances which varied from 30 to 40 m. along it

there were narrow, straight, stone-lined offtake channels which took a small amount of
the discharge through the canal bank and to the edge of the wall above the first terrace
(fig. 3). The offtakes are in general 20-30 cm. wide and would have diverted a discharge
in the order of oo003m.3 sec.-1 which was probably never more than 3-5 cm. deep. At the
edge of the terrace the water was allowed to spill over as a free nappe and was probably
collected in a trough or canal in front of the base of the wall. There it was distributed to
the field or sent down to the next terrace. There is, on Orejas, no surviving evidence of
such a structure because of the amount of destruction of the system. The height dropped
over each terrace was never more than 2 m. on Cerro Orejas, although in the Cusichaca
valley an Inca terraced system still in use has an offtake canal which drops water approximately 4 m. from one terrace to the one below. Although free falling water will accelerate
due to gravity and may cause scour at the collection point, the use of granite for the canal
and trough lining, plus the small discharge requirement, would reduce the amount of
erosion considerably.
Cook (I916) has described three Inca methods of taking water onto terraced systems in
the vicinity of Ollantaytambo: by narrow vertical channel down the face; over upright
stones and into basins; and between a double row of stones. The first would be suitable
for very small discharges indeed, perhaps in the order of o.i to 0.5 1. per second (i.e.

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298

I. S. Farrington

m.3 sec.-l); the second is that described for Orejas; and the third
ooooI to 00ooo005
to
be
the
description of drainage channels common on such terraces in the Andes.
appears
Highland systems of irrigation are on a much smaller scale than those of the coast for
two reasons. First, the rugged terrain offers little extensive, gently sloping land suitable
for irrigation agriculture. Secondly, there is a marked wet season which obviates the need

Figure3 Cerro Orejascanal and spillway to terraces:(a) cross-section;(b) plan

for much irrigation. Hence, irrigation offers a valuable supplement to rainfall during the
growing season and in places does serve to extend the cultivation year by enabling certain
crops to be planted earlier. Thus, the amounts of water needed are small. However, in
contrast with the major systems of the coast, the technology of moving water down slopes
is far more sophisticated. Suitable and reliable water sources are often located several
kilometres in distance and several hundred metres in altitude from the field area. Highland technology may be illustrated with reference to ongoing research undertaken as a
member of the Cusichaca Project in the Cusichaca valley, Provincia Cuzco.
The Quishuarpata canal is a small, granite-lined channel, never more than 80 cm. wide
and 30 cm. deep. Fairly flat, well cut, but irregularly shaped granite blocks have been
fitted together to form the canal floor and others placed upright as the channel sides, thus
forming a good rectangular to trapezoidal hydraulic section. The complete bank structure
comprises a double faced granite wall infilled with gravel and small stones. The canal
itself is derived from the Rio Hualancay at an altitude of c. 3,500 m. and its main task was
to supply a relatively small discharge to two small field systems at Quishuarpata (c.
2,900 m.) and Hawa Huillca Raccay (c. 2,700 m.) and to a number of Pre-Inca and Inca

archaeological sites including the fort at Huillca Raccay (fig. 4). The canal also received

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

299

Figure4 Location of excavationsand chutes on the Quishuarpatacanal, Cusichaca,and crosssection of Trench TQx
supplementary water from three small mountain streams through which it was constructed. The total length of the canal to the head of the Huillca Raccay fields is approximately 6 km. This is a net gradient of about 13 per cent. For the most part the canal
maintains a gradient of between 5-15 per cent, but there are, at the approach to both
field systems, two short, but very steep chutes with gradients in excess of 40 per cent.
The first chute falls vertically for 2'5 m. through a split rock and then descends a
further 51 m. for an average gradient of 43 per cent (fig. 5a). This chute was remodelled
at some stage in prehistoric times because it had initially been built within an active
springhead. The second drops a total of about 93 m. in two stages (2A, 2B), whose
average gradients are 64 per cent and 60 per cent respectively, and these are linked by a
short I-5 m. cross slope channel whose slope was only 15 per cent. A detailed survey of
this chute has revealed that in fact the gradient actually changes quite markedly within
very short distances.
On the lower part of the chute (2B), subtle changes can be noted in the canal bed slope
from 74 per cent to 31 per cent. This gives the impression that the canal was built as a
flight of very steep, narrow steps. This feature was also noted in part of chute I. Surface
evidence on the slope itself reveals that the lower slopes of both chute locations were
formerly terraced but that these had fallen into disrepair, probably as a result of active
slope processes before the canal chutes were constructed. In both chutes there is no
evidence of a stilling pond at the toe and there is no apparent fluvial erosion of the bed or
banks. At the toe, the gentler gradient would serve as a hydraulic jump as the canal was

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1. S. Farrington

300

'2A

2E
A

10
,I

20
m

30

cm

b. Cross-section

at A

0C20 30

Figure 5 Quishuarpata canal Chute 2

turned through a sharp angle (90-115?). The question is; how was this achieved with
such efficiency?
The first step in unravelling the mystery was to calculate the main hydraulic parameters
of the canal in the reach between its last intake and the head of chute i. A series of three
trenches were excavated and surveyed along the length. They show a granite-lined
trapezoidal channel about 70 cm. wide and zo cm. deep, perched on a man-made ledge on
a 50 per cent slope. Along this reach the average gradient was quite steep, 5 per cent. If it
is assumed that the canal flowed at bankfull, then the estimated velocity would be 2'53 m.
sec.-l which is within the permissible velocity limits for granite. Bankfull discharge has
then been estimated to be o0375 m.3 sec.-~. The Froude number for the length is 273 and
thus the flow is supercritical. Hence any obstruction or curve in the canal would create a
wave surge, and if the canal were flowing at bankfull, there would be substantial spillage
and discharge would be adjusted accordingly.
This particular channel reach is quite sinuous, and thus waves would have been
created in a situation of supercritical flow. It is possible to calculate the height these
waves would have attained above normal depth by using the following equation
(Woodward and Posey 194I: II9):
V2
0
D=sin2 (--)
2
g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, f is the wave angle and 0 is the deviation angle

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The archaeology of irrigation canals, with special referenceto Peru

301

of the curve and represents half the wavelength of the disturbance. These angles
can be readily derived from simple equations (Woodward and Posey 1941; Chow
1959: 45I-3; see Appendix). It is possible therefore to calculate D for each progressively
shallower depth, until the point is reached at which the increased height caused by the
wave is equal to or less than the height of the banks. Thus, irrespective of the Froude
number, the discharge will stabilize at that figure. For this particular reach of canal the
radius of curvature is rarely more than 30 m. and thus the stablized discharge is estimated to be O'I2175 m.3 sec.-1. The normal depth of the channel is 9 cm. and the wave
height 9-1 cm., giving a combined height equal to the height of the right hand bank. The
velocity of the canal is 2-5 m. sec.-l It must be stressed that this is the maximum possible
flow for this particular reach and it is more than likely that the canal was maintained at
this kind of discharge to the head of the chutes.
The means by which water was diverted through a small intake channel to the head of
chute I is poorly understood at present. It is believed that some form of hydraulic jump
was constructed just before the inlet to check velocity and increase depth and that part of
the flow would then be diverted quite easily into a basin on top of the split rock. The hole
in the rock could then act as a metering device to control the rate of flow down the chute.
Research is still progressing on the hydraulics of this feature.
In the hydraulic analysis of chutes the Manning Formula cannot be applied because it
was derived for uniform flow in relatively gently sloping channels. Water flowing down
steep slopes is always in a supercritical state and is best calculated by using a Bernoulliderived equation. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (I955: 41-3) recommend the use of
the following formula to calculate velocity on such slopes:

V==2g(Z

- o.5H)

where Z is the height of the total fall and H the depth of the approach channel. Such an
equation theoretically evaluates the acceleration due to gravity of a falling body. Water
as it enters a chute initially accelerates but ultimately will achieve a uniform high
velocity in which retarding forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the driving forces. Such an equation does not take account of two primary features
of channel hydraulics, surface roughness and slope, and these will act as retarding
forces.
The floors of the Quishuarpata chutes are fitted, granite slabs, whose edges are
bevelled to depths of between i and 3 cm. so as to produce a slightly roughened surface.
The irregularity in fitting produces a jigsaw-like series of bevelled indentations across the
canal bottom. This would inevitably cause turbulence within the canal flow and hence
serve to reduce velocity. Furthermore, given the predicted low discharges in the chutes,
the depths of indentation were probably as great, if not greater, than the flow depth.
This would have further reduced the overall acceleration of the water. Such energy
dissipation is further assisted by the step-like arrangement of the channel bed over
the former terrace walls. The slight changes in slope angle, from steep to slightly less
so, would produce a hydraulic jump effect in which water would back up into a wave
at approximately the change in angle. Thus the actual velocity would be substantially
less than that theoretically possible. The division of chute 2 into two sections, although

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302

I. S. Farrington

engineered for topographical reasons, would have the effect of further controlling the
velocity to within permissible limits, so much that this chute could be regarded as two
separate ones, A and B. The sharp curves at the toe of each chute would also act to
dissipate energy by temporarily ponding water before transferring it down-stream at a
lesser velocity.
If chute zB is considered, the estimated depth of the cross-slope approach is c. 5 cm.
As the water is turned to plunge down the chute it will accelerate under the forces of
gravity. At io m. loss in height, the theoretical velocity of the canal would be I4 m.
sec.-1, which is over three times greater than the permissible velocity for hard rock (U.S.
Water Resources Committee, 1938: io8). The theoretical depth of water in the 60 cm.
wide channel would have been 1-43 cm. The roughness caused by bevelling would
have been almost as deep as the theoretical flow depth, and thus would have caused
massive dissipation of energy. One metre above the toe of chute 2B, the theoretical
velocity is estimated to be 24 m. sec.-l and the depth 0o85 cm. Clearly, the means of construction of the canal served to dissipate sufficient energy to restrain the velocity to
within permissible limits. The critical constructional factors are the width of the channel
which served to spread the flow and the degree of bevelling in the channel floor. The
former terracing may have further assisted in reducing velocity. Thus the Cusichaca
engineers were able to irrigate successfully the 35 ha. Hawa Huillca Raccay and enable
the production of early miska maize, the local delicacy (Farrington 1979).

Conclusions
The archaeology of irrigation canals is in its infancy. The prehistoric canal is not simply
another component of the prehistoric landscape to describe, and about which to make
inferences. It is an artefact designed to do a specific job and serves as testimony to the
empirical understanding prehistoric farmers had of open channel hydraulics and the
hydrology of their farming system. The methodology to elucidate this information is
relatively straight-forward for gentle slopes and is rooted in careful excavation and
surveying, but becomes more complex when the question of moving water down steep
slopes is considered.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Directors of the two projects with which I have worked, Dr
M. E. Moseley (Moche-Chan Chan Project) and Dr A Kendall (Cusichaca Project) and
their respective funding bodies. My own research in the Moche valley was funded by a
grant from the Department of Education and Science, London. I would also like to thank
P. M. Fleming (CSIRO), C. C. Park (SDUC, Lampeter), P. Bellwood and G. Sheridan
(ANU) for their constructive comments on an earlier version of this paper.
6.vii.I979

Department of Prehistory and Anthropology

Australian National University

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The archaeologyof irrigationcanals,with specialreferenceto Peru

303

Appendix
The calculation of velocity, using the Manning equation, can be done simply by measuring the appropriate cross-sectional variables and gradient, and assuming a suitable value
of n and substituting these into the equation and solving it. Discharge, Froude number
and additional depth caused by supercritical wave surges can then be calculated. This
may be illustrated with reference to the Quishuarpata canal excavation, TQi (fig. 4).
TQi - a granite-lined, trapezoidal channel. From the table of the coefficient of surface
roughness (n), dressed ashlar seems the most appropriate. n 0I015.
At bankfull:
A
A

0o68

o0I9

o-io62

w
0o17

WP

rWP

o095

o-iiI8

0o15

0-053

V==353 m. sec-1
Q=0-375 m.3 sec.-1
F

--=273

Vg.D

Thus at bankfull the canal is flowing supercritically and is prone to spillage because of
the curving nature of the course. Maximum radius of curvature, R=30 m.
Assume canal flowing at 9 cm. deep:

o062

oog9

V=25

m. sec-l

0-0487

D
0-0785

WP

0o738

o-o66

0-015

0-053

Q=o'i2I75 m.3 sec.-l

F=2-85 (i.e. supercritical flow)
To calculate additional height (y) of the wave caused by obstruction one needs to know
angles / and 0.
I

sin/

=-=o035I

S=20?35'

tan 0=

- =o'o55
R. tan /3

0=30o0

yV

V2
g

sin2 (/+)

6
z

=oo09o695 m.
y=9'07

cm.

y+ d= I8-07 cm.
Therefore the depth of flow plus the additional height of the wave surge is I8o07 cm. and
the total depth of the channel is I9 cm. The flow is still supercritical but can be retained
within the existing channel.

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304

L S. Farrington

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Abstract
Farrington,I. S.
The archaeology

of irrigation canals, with special reference

to Peru

A research methodology for the study of prehistoric irrigation canals is suggested which uses
detailed excavation and survey techniques to generate data suitable for analysis by the principles of open channel hydraulics. The results indicate that these principles were empirically
understood, even when the question of transporting water down steep slopes is considered,
and that prehistoric canal discharge was a function of the farmer's perception of the hydrology
of the agricultural system.

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