Motivation:

Extrinsic: a) integrative motivation b) instrumental motivation

Intrinsic : reffers to what happens in the classroom and the important effect that classroom
language learning has on learners who are already extrinsically motivated
The Grammar-Translation Method: the classroom techniques used in this method are:
translation from and into L2, reading comprehension questions, the production of lists of
antonyms and synonyms, fill in the blanks exercises, the use of new words..
The direct method: stressed that the teacher should use L2 in the classroom, the meaning being
shown to the students through actions and pictures, paraphrases, synonyms, demonstration or
context; The language skills emphasised are mostly listening and speacking
-the classroom techniques include: classroom presentation of a text by the teacher, reading alowd
of short txt specially constructed for foreign lang learning, questions and answers based on the text
The audio-lingual method: the basis of this method is the theory and research of such sciences as
behaviourist psychology and structural linguistics. Appeared and was mainly used in the US
The setting up of language laboratories in schools is due to the emphasis that this method lays on
accepted standards of pronunciation. Classroom techniques involved in this method do not focus
much on meaning but reather on dialogue memorisation and pronunciation. Other techniques
include repetition drills, substitution drills, transformation drills, dialogue completion and
grammar games.
The cognitive method: appeared as a reaction to the audio-lingual method and it is based on
transformational grammar and cognitive psychology. Transformational-generative grammar,
whose representative is N. Chomski, founded its theory on the idea that a finite number of
grammar rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, so, the teacher views language as rule
acquisitionned habit formation and encourages students to become responsible for their own
learning as well as to become aware of the way L2 operates. Cognitive psychology, in its turn,
stresses the fact that lang development is characterised by rule-governed creativity. By accepting
the value of rules, cognitive lang learning de-emphatisers the role of rote learning along with
techniques of mimiory and memorisation. Classroom techniques include: deductive presentations
of the target lang items by which the teacher gives the students the rule and asks them to apply it
to several practice items or examples or inductive presentations of the target lang items by which
the students are given some examples. In ters of skill development, this method considers reading
and writing to be as important as listening and speaking and de-emphasiseds the importance of
standard pronunciation. Criticism: the cognitive method laid too much emphasis on the
conscious learning of the lang, based on applying a finite number of rules.
The total physical response method: This method was developed by Asher who places primary
importance on listening comprehension and then moving to speaking, readingand writing. He
dereves his theory from models of first lang acquisition. Asher provides three principles about the
nature of first lang acquisition, which he applies to sec lang acq. The main classroom technique
consists of giving commands which the students act out. The method focuses on activitiesthat are
designed to be fun and to allow st. to assume active learning roles and that include lang games.
The community language learning method: this method aims to creating a warm and supportive
community among the students in the classroom and gradually moving them from complete
dependence on the teacher to complete autonomy. The teachers role is to act as counsellor and to
set a aproblem to be solved by the students. The classroom techniques involve recording the

conversatios in which students whisper to the teacer in L1 and she whispers back the L2 version.
Suggestophaedia: it is a method by which the students mental powers are tapped in order to
accelerate the process of learning. An important characteristic of the method is the endeavour to
overcome the psychological. The classroom techniques used in theirs method involve relaxation,
rhythmic breathing and listening to reading by the teacher which are synchronised to music
The silent way method: emphasises the need to develop learners autonomy from both the teacher
and the learning situation. Thus the students are led to make use of what they know and actively
explore the lang and encouraged to use self correction which is seen as natural and indispensable
to lang learning. Teaching is subordinate to learning and so, teachers give students only what they
absolutely need to promote learning
The communicative method: adherents of the communicative method acknowledge that structure
and vocabulary are important. However, they feel that the preparation for communication will be
inadequate if only these are taught. Students may know the rules of language usage but they will
be unable to use the lang. When we communicate we use the lang to accomplish some functions,
such as: arguing, persuating, promising.. Moreover, we carry out these funtions within social
context. In terms of skill development, all the four skills are emphansed (reading, listening,
writing, speacking) and even more, the teacher aims at integrating them. Communication is a
prouss which implies that it is insufficient for students to simplyhave knowledge of lang forms,
meaning and functions. They must therefore be able to apply this knowledge in order to negotiate
meaning through interaction between speaker and listener/writer and reader, especially in real life
situations. Features of the communicative method: it is a learner-centred method helping the
students to survive in the real world. The teacher is a facilitator, a task-setter who monitors
activities, helps students and gets involved in the learning process. Emphasis on classroom
interaction. Classroom techniques used in the communicative method: pair-work, group-work,
role-play.
Teacher and learner roles:
Roles in lang learning/teaching: the part played by the participants in carrying out the learning
tasks. A defining aspect of this role is the social and interpers relationship between the
participants in the learning process. The change in roles: we have to go back to the traditional
model of lang teaching and contrast it with the more rep-to date one. The traditional model of
teach lang: a finite body of knowledge, a system of forms and structures. In the new model the
lang is infinite and creative and a way expressing meaning through form. Lang learning means, in
the trad model, learning a set of items by memory, while in the new model it means developing a
set of skills. Teaching involves not only the teacher and the learner but also the material used(the
textbooks). The traditional way of using the textbooks in the process of teaching views the txtb as
a set of lessons to be learned. In the new approach the txtb is a framework for the teachers qwn
lesson. The roles played by the teacher and the learners in the classroom is what distinguishes the
traditonal model of teaching from the modern.
Traditional Teaching Model: provider of knowledge, model of correct forms, controller of class,
dominant in the classroom, authority, confidence crusher, teaching the learners.
New Teaching Model: provider of resources, initiator of lang activities, motivator of learners,
informant to learners+participant in the lesson, classroom organiser, confidence builder, learning
about, learners investigator.
Traditonal Teaching Model( learner roles): passive recipient of outside stimuli, listener and

performer, has little control of the content of learning, tatally dependent on the teacher, learning by
memorising.
New Teaching Model: interactor and negotiator,, capable of giving as well as taking, involved in
the process of own lang development, involved in a social activity responsible for own learning,
developing autonomy and skills, learning to learn.
Conclusion: The traditional model is teacher-centred. The new one is learner-centrd= the learners
also assume responsibility for their learning, they are not passive receptacles into which the
teacher pours knowledge.
Roles of the teacher in the learner-centred classroom:
Organiser: involves management of the lesson in order to ensure the succes of the activities in the
classroom( the steps followed in the developm of the lesson). For example, any activity/ task
should start with a lead-in in wich the teacher tells the ss what they are going to talk about, read,
Resource: when doing the presentation of the new structures or vocabulary items and also when
offering help in a genuinely communicative activity which is taking place in the classroom
Investigator: the teacher reflects on what is going on in the classroom, observes what works well
and what does not or tries out new techniques or activities and then evaluates their appropriacy.
Confidence builder: the teacher should start by getting to know the students. This is no lasy task
for a teacher since this ranges from knowing the students names , to gathering inform about their
backgrounds, interests or previous exp of lang learn, learning needs etc
Participant in act like simulations or role-plays involves improving the atmsph in the classroom.
Classroom management: Ss seating / teacher position depends on what the teacher and ss are
doing. Handling materials and resources- the traditional resources are the blackboard, the clalk
and the textbooks. Writting on the blackboard, for the beginner-teachers may be a difficult task.
The information you pun on the blackboard must be well-organised, under headings in columns,
the hand writing should be clear, legible and resonably quick. If the teacher uses other visual
meterials such as charts, realia, and any kind of printed material(worksheets she need to make sure
that they are visible, legible). Classroom lang refers to the lang used both by the T and by the ss.
The T should: use appropriate classroom lang which may include the instructions given by the
teacher , the routine reguists. Grade the lang input accord to the level of the ss, check their underst.
Organising activities implies the teachers work and the students work in pair/ group activities
and also classroom interaction. (Ss-Ss; T-Ss, Ss-T).
Timing and pace of the lesson: rigurous timing of the activities included in the lesson helps the
teacher to plan what material and how much she can do during a lesson.
Rapport is the friendly and co-operative behaviour and attitude of both T and ss in the process of
teaching/learning.
A teacher should not: go to class unprepared, be inconsistent, raise her voice, give boring classes,
be unfair either to the class as a whole or to individuals
Teaching Vocabulary: We recognise and understand more words then we actually use our passive
(receptive) voc exceeds our active (productive voc). We normally hear or see a word many times
in differing contexts, before we begin to use it. It is essential to give low level Ss a limited active
voc quickly, and from this a Ss can build hes/her voc at a natural, unforced speed.. To build his/her
voc a Ss should be encouraged to read widely outside the classroom and to invest in a good
monolingual dictionary. In order to induce active prod of voc we need to make our decisions about
what to teach with reference to such criteria as: Frequency- how often the word is used; Range-no

of diff contexts in which a word is used; Familiarity- even if the word is not frequently used;
Usefulness- accord to the Ss needs. How do we teach voc for active use?: the age of the Ss, the
language level of the Ss, the social/cultural/educational level/ background.
Steps in the teaching of voc.: Presenting: the use of this technique makes learning easier because
the words are easier to remember if they belong to the same area, voc is easier to teach since the
lexical can be the voc practice can be contextualised.. Checking understanding: techniques of voc
presentation and concept questions. These are yes/no quest which reffer to the features of the new
lexical item. Practice: the practice stage involves a wide range of activity such as : gap filling,
matching words with their deff or synonyms, multiple choice, T/F, voc games, role-plays, story
telling, writing tasks. Recycling: it refers to the revision of previously taught voc by using any of
the practice techiques.
Teaching grammar: grammar means both from and meaning. A matter of debate among lang
teachers. The importance given to accuracy( this is the teaching of gram as a set of rules) versus
the discovery of the lang patterns neccesary in the conveyance of meaning which will lead to
fluency.
Presenting and explaining grammar: wheter to elicit rules from the learners on the basis of
examples(inductive method). Or give the rule first and then invite the Ss to produce examples
(deductive method). Whether to use gram terminology( various terms used in the explanation of
gram structures. Wheter use to mother tongue, target language or a a combinaation of both.
Tips of presenting and explaining gram struct: a good present should include both oral and written
forms, and both form and meaning; it is important for the teacher to use plenty of contextualised
examples of the structure; visual materials. The grammar explanation should attempt at covering
the great majority of instances ss are likely to encounter. Obvious exceptions should be noted
without going into too much detail which may confuse the Ss.
Teaching reading: when we read text in eighter L1 of L2 we usually focus on: recognition of
words and phrases, understanding grammar, predicting the type of text what follows in the text,
guessing the meaning of words from the context, the lexical ordering of paragraphs into larger
units of text. The teaching of reading should reproduce as closely as possible real-life reading
situations.
Reading skills: Skimming: we read texts just to get a general idea (the gist) of what is about
Scanning: we read texts to find out specific informatio that we are interested in (names, dates)
Detalied/intensive reading: we read texts in detail(for study) in order to comprehend the whole txt
The reader uses specific sub-skills whenever she deals with a text. Such sub-sk. may be:
Decoding the written text: dealing with handwriting typefaces, word recognition- relating the
spelling of a a word to its spoken form. Using layout: recognising text type from layout. Predicted
the content: from visual clues(layout, pictures) from source of ttext, from readers own prior
knowledge of subject. Understanding the text: identifying topic-extracting the main idea ,
recognising discourse functions, inferring the meaning implicit text; understanding convevtion
associated with different text types. Working from the text: note-taking, summarising, relating and
transferring written information to graphic formats (graphs, charts).
Stages involved in teaching reading: Facilitating the task- is stage in which the teacher pre-teaches
the voc items by focusing upon key words only; Getting the gist: can help Ss practise the subskills of skimming by the use of such techniques as T/F and multiple choice ex
Do not forget that the question should be given to the Ss before starting to read the text.

Intensive reading: understanding the message of the text techniques for the checking of txt
comprehension: T/F, yes/no, drawing of maps, filling in charts, ordering scrambled
Important point to consider: though reading is an individual activity, the teacher can encourage /ss
to co-operate in the exchange of information by: working in pairs or groups when checking,
exchanging information, comparing notes, problem solving
Teaching Listening: Listening subsk: In narative, as well as foreign language, the listeners make
us of a number of subsk: predictive skills, extracting specific information, getting the general
picture, extracted detailed information; recognising function and discourse patters; deducing
meaning from context.
Ways by which T can help their Ss to listen successfully in English: encouraging the students to
explait the redundancy of spoken English and to guess meaning from context, encouraging the Ss
to make use of their general knowledge while listening, introducing and talking about the topic
before listening and asking them to predict what they will hear, giving Ss a reason to listen
Real life listening: radio/TV, announcements and railway situations, lectures, casual conversations
Characteristics of real life listening situations: the speaker uses short drunks of lang, pronunciation
is often noticealily different from the phonological representation given in a dictionary; voc is
often colloquial; lang used in informal situatio is often unpragmatical , noise can prevent the
listener from understanding every word; redundancy, the hearer looks as well as listens, except
when listening to the radio or speacking on phone.
Real life listening in the classroom: Though classroom listening in not real life, the listening
activities should give learners practice in coping with at least, some of the features of real life
listening. Thus, the T then use the cassete/ CD.
Principles in the connstruction of listening tasks: Questions on the listening text should be short
and clear because Ss hear the text only once/twice and they cannot go over it as in reading. Ss
should have not be required to write too much as they do not have time while listening. Listening
tasks should have a variety of question types and move them answerable by one or two words or
by ticks in squares. Use of grids for the practice of note-taking. Intergration of listening activities
with speaking, reading and writing activities whitin one lesson.
Stages and examples of listening activities: 1. Pre-listening activities: looking at pictures and
talking about them, looking at a list of items, thoughts, making lists of possibilities , ideas
2. While-listening activities: marking/checking items in pictures, matching pictures with what is
heard, following story line picture sets, putting pictures in order, picture drawing, carrying out
actions, following a route of a map, complting grids, T/F, multiple-choice questions
Post-listening activities: form(chart) completing, extending lists, extending notes into written
responses, summarising, using information for problem solving activities, role-play simulation.
Teaching writing: The teaching of writing addresses all levels of language ability and ages,
starting with copying and dictations for young learners and ending with ss producing whole
texts.The role of the teacher is to help and encourage ss throughout this process by setting
meaningful and specific tasks to be done in the classroom as well as outside it.Not merely written
oral neans/is work not does it mean an automatic transfer of ability for speaking to writting.An
excellent follow-up to many classrom activities,such as listening,reading comprehension as oral
composition.Also a classroom activity ,not only home assigment.Used also to help to vary the
pace in-betw activities that involve intensive oral work.A process of comunication in wich the
writher has to ask him/herself the followring questions:Why am I writing this?(purpose)Who will

read it?(audience)How will I write it?(pre-writing)How can the teacher help ss become good
writers?a) by making ss aware of the differences betw speaking and writing:
Speaking:natural activity,instand feed-back (listener presed),bad grammar is
acceptable,paralingvistic feautures and expression,expressive features;stress,intonation
Writing:unnatural activity,racorder on paper,etc,bad grammer not always acceptable,
Beyond primary level:1Guided composition (the teacher provides key words pictures,question
prompts and the ss write)
2 Letter exchanges(ss write short letters to each other)
3 Other functional writing taks:farm-filling;telephone messages;formal letters;writing to the
problem page of a newspaper(a group of ss think of a personal problem and write to a newspaper
asking for help from the readers ;the other group of ss answer by giving advice)
4 Fru composition involves creative writing on a certain topic.
Marking writing;Fru writing can create problems to ss because they would probably make many
mistakes and find the task fristrating thus not leaving very much from it.For the teacher ,it is
difficult to corred mark free comp.because of theis variety and time consuming.
Solution:the teacher:might give a short text as a model;can do oral preparation for
writing;expresive features :punctuation and stylistic devices;by devising and using controlled
(guided) tasks whide practise a wide range of writing skills;by making ss aware of the stages of
the writing process and by practising them in the classroom.
Writing activities:Tasks for primary beginner
level and beyond:1copy(words and
sentences);2drawing and labelling (an image and writing the words for each part of the
picture);3gap-filling(short texts with words missing);4unscrambling sentences (ordering words in
a sentence);5sequencing and copying jumbled sentences (ordering and copying the sentences into
paragraphs as coherent text);6dictation;7parallel paragraphs (a paragraphs is given to ss as a
model and they re-write it using personal data);8poems (elicit voc items are a theme;ss organise
them into a poem);9dialogue writing (one studentwrites or addresses his/her partner is writing and
the partner answers);10class story (use of the new vocabulary in the production of a text written
on the Bb and copied by he);11copy and correct /teacher provides texts with mistakes and ss have
to correct them).
Teaching speaking and pronunciation: Communicating in real life situations involves two
people: a speaker and a listener. The speakers: want to say something, that is they have a reason
why the feel need to speak; select from thur lang store what is appropriate for the communicative
situation. The listeners: want to listen to something and have a desire to understand the message;
need to process a variety of language in order to understand exactly what is being said. The nature
of communication consists of a process of interaction betw two people, in which: one knows
someth and wants to communicate it, and the other is interested in listening and responding to it.
Non-comm vs communicative activities: The communicative activities that the T design for
classroom use are those which meet the folowing characteristics, compared to the non-comm ones:
Non-communicative activities: no communicative desire, a comm purpose; from, not content; one
lang intervention; materials control
Communicative act: a desire to communicative purpose; content, not form; variety of lang, no T
intervention.
Characteristics of a successful speaking activity: learners talk a lot; participation is even:
classroom group discussion are not dominated by a minority of talkative participants; motivation

is high: learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic and have smth new to
say about it; language is of an acceptable level: learners express themselves in utterances that are
relevant, easily comprehensible to each other of an acceptable level of language accuracy.
Speaking learners problems: Inhibition- learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in
a foreign lang in front of an audience because: they are worried about making mistakes, they are
fearful of criticism, or losing face, they are shy of the attention. Nothing to say: even if they are
not inhibited learners often ccomplain that they are not inhibited learners often complain that they
cannot think of anyth to say; have no reason to express themselves. Low or uneven participation.
Mother tongue use: learners may tend to use mother tongue because: it is easier to solve an FL
task while speaking ones mother tongue; it feels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign
lang; they feel less exposed, if they are speaking their mother lang.
Criteria for setting up a speaking: The teacher should:
Check or pre-teach useful Voc structures that the learners are likely to need.. Select interesting
topics in order to motivate learners, generate interest in the ctivity, and give the activity a purpose.
Set appropiate class layout for speacking activities (gropus work for solving problems, pair work
for inform. transfer, circle for discussion. Give clear instructions so that
ss know what they have to do. Give learners time to prepare for the speacking activity to work out
ideas, opinions etc. Leave time for feed-bak and start positively. Think about what, how, when to
correct (try out to interrupt unless the communication is broken down.
Examples of communicative speaking activities: Spot the differences: learners are given slightly
similar pictures and they have to find out the differences by asking questions, describing etc.
Matching cards. Information gap. Prioritising: rating according to certain criteria. Guessing
games. Problem solving. Role play. Discussion: T sets a topic and the ss express their opinions.
Teaching pronunciation: Pronunciation includes the production of L2 sounds that do not impair
the understanding of meaning. The communicative approach to the learning of english does not
insist on the correct (received/standard= RP) pronunciation, since the focus is upon meaning,
function, appropriacy in communication. Some of the possible pronunciation difficulties for
romanian learners might be : the vowel sounds in minimal pairs, for ex [e],[ae], [i], [i:]. The sound
[a] and [0] which do not exist in the rom lang. Word and sentence stress. Intonation.
Tips for improving learners pronunciation: imitation of teacher or recorded model of sounds,
words and sentences. Recording of learners speech contrasted with native speakers.